SAL Foundation College-Talayan Campus

Mapayag, Talayan, Maguindanao

Course Code: TCSCOL

Descriptive Title: Assessment of Learning 1
Instructor: HARON B. LGUIAMUDA, LPT
Course Unit: 3 Units
Prelim Module (Week 1-4)
Lesson 1: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT TRENDS

Objectives: At the end of the lessons, the students can:

a. explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment;

b. discuss the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve teaching and
learning;
c. reflect on and discuss the applications and implications of assessment to teaching and
learning;
d. differentiate measurement, test, assessment, and evaluation;
e. explain the high quality assessment components; and
f. discuss recent trends and focus in assessment.

SETTING UP
A. Matching Type
Directions: Below are some words that you will encounter during the discussion of our
entire lessons. Let me know which among these words you are familiar with by matching
column A to column B. Be honest in giving your answers since this is merely to assess your
prior knowledge. Insert your answers in the box before the words in Column A.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
Assessment as A. Paper and Pencil Test
Objective Measurement B. Assignment of a number to object or things
Assessment of C. Formative Assessment
Traditional Method D. Making judgment on the worth or value of
something
Subjective Measurement E. Self-assessment
Assessment for F. Summative assessment
Diagnostic Test G. Given at the end of the course
Evaluation H. The results are used for instructional
decision making
High Stakes Testing I. Determines student’s strengths and
weaknesses
Achievement Test J. Measurement done through test or
examination
Measurement K. Based on personal opinion

B.True or False
Directions: Analyze the following sentences. Write True if the statement is correct, and False
if the statement is incorrect. Place your answers before the number.
___________ 1. Learning targets must be stated in behavioral terms.
___________ 2. Assessment method must be congruent to the instructional objectives given
by the teacher.
___________ 3. Learning targets are the lessons that the teacher would like the students to
learn in a subject.
___________4. The suitability of assessment tool for the topics discussed is least considered
when preparing a test.
___________ 5. Learning targets must be a clear description of what teachers should know
and able to do.
___________6. Traditional method of assessment involves the demonstration of student’s
actual performance of what he/she learns in class.
___________7. One purpose of assessment is to determine students who perform high in
class.
___________8. Outcome based education is student-centered.
___________9. Objective measurement is more stable than subjective measurement.
___________10. We use the results of assessments to judge the quality of pupils’performance
in class.
__________11. We administer placement test to assess if the students achieve the course
objectives.
__________12. The right assessment methods aligned with the learning objective is a
component of high quality assessment.
__________13. Paper and pencil test is a tool of assessment used in traditional method.
__________14. In implementing outcome based education, we need to identify the
educational objectives of the course.
__________15. Assessment helps determine the students’ strength and weakness.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS
I. ASSESSMENT
Assessment has always been a regular activity of your student life. Have you ever
thought why are you being assessed? The overview of assessment will clarify
fundamental ideas about assessment which will give you greater understanding about what
assessment is, its classification, and purpose. There are other sub-topics of assessment
that will not be mentioned in this module but will be included in your assignments and
further readings. So begin your journey and start reading!
Assessment is a method of gathering your school performance data that aims to
collect information to specify and verify problems concerning your learning achievement.
Thus, your teacher can make decisions regarding your learning performance. It is
essentially taking a sample of what you do, making inferences, and estimating the worth of
your actions. Some proof of your learning success can be manifested in your tests, written
works, journals, portfolios, and other learning tasks (Navarro, et al., 2017).

There are various approaches to assessment which you need to know

Assessment For Learning- This is being used by the teacher to find out the extent of
what you know and what you can do and thereby see the gaps in learning that you might
have. Teacher creates assessments that will determine if the intended learning targets are
achieved by you and to address the gaps that occur during the process of your learning
formation. This is also referred as formative assessment ; wherein its result serves as a
proof that you have achieved the desired learnings targeted by your teacher.
To illustrate this type of assessment is when your teachers use questioning, quizzes,
and other means which are useful and essential in curriculum design and instruction. It
may also include pre-test and post-test.
Assessment Of Learning- It is usually given towards the end of a course or a unit in
a semestral term. It is being done to determine if you have achieved the instructional goals
and for your teachers to give you an equivalent mark or grade. What is the best example for
this? Your mid-term or final examinations.
Assessment As Learning- Its main focus is on how you efficiently manage your own
learning. It gives important emphasis on metacognition (an awareness of one’s thoughts
and processes). It assumes that learning is not only about someone who is knowledgeable
in transferring ideas to someone who is not. It means that you, as students, should not
only be passive learners but should be actively engaged in your own learning. You must
also acquire the mastery to monitor what you are learning and use what you have
discovered from that monitoring.

Eight (8) Assessment types according to function, according to Bhasin (2018).

1) Summative Assessment
2) Formative Assessment
3) Evaluative assessment
4) Diagnostic Assessment
5) Performance-based assessments
6) Selective response assessment
7) Authentic assessment
8) Written and Oral Assessment
 The summative assessment is given at the end of the instruction to certify the
degree of attainment of the learning outcomes.
Formative assessment is given during instruction to trace out the learning
difficulties and progress of the learners. This was utilized by the instructor to remediate all
aspects found to be problematic to learning acquisition.
Diagnostic assessment simply traces out the causes of learning difficulties. It can be
given during or before the instruction.
Selective response assessment- a type of assessment wherein learners have to
select for the correct response to questions given by the teacher.
Authentic assessment is an assessment that assesses authentic tasks and
activities. Most of the performances done inside and outside the classroom can be
practically assessed using this form assessment.
Written assessments are performed to determine the quality of the knowledge
acquired by learners from a particular topic.

Classification of Assessment Methods

1. Traditional Method

–generally, it refers to the written test or the paper-and-pencil test. This type of test
usually relies on rote memorization of facts.

b. Authentic Method

–involves the demonstration of your actual performance of what you have learned from the
class. It is mostly preferred by many in evaluating the students’ achievement.

Purposes of Assessment
You can gain a better understanding of assessment by studying its purposes.
Let us read and learn. We need to conduct an assessment to the learners so we, the
teachers, can:
 inspire and motivate you to focus on your study
 predict success in your future employment
 provide feedbacks to improve your learning
 provide feedbacks for your lecturer/s diagnose your strengths and weaknesses
 help improve our methods of teaching
 help you develop your skills of self-assessment
 make the course appear creditworthy to other institutions and employees.
 provide a profile of what you have learned
 help you select future courses
 determine if you are capable of receiving a passing or failing mark.
 help you acquire license to practice

II. TESTING
It is an organized method of obtaining information from your progress in terms of
knowledge, skills, behavior, and aptitude by exposing you to a particular set of questions to
obtain a score. It is used to interpret whether you have or have not achieved the learning
targets and competencies set by your teacher.
TEST is one of the many types of assessment and the most commonly used method
of making measurements in Education.

Tests may be categorized into:

1. Standardized Testing
–The same test is uniformly administered to all students which means the questions, the
allotted time, and the mode of scoring are all the same.
What are the Examples of Standardized Test
a. College Admission Test
b. Aptitude Test
c. International Comparison Test d.
d. Psychological Test

2. High Stakes Testing

– a man-made test which utilized the test results for important judgment or decision
concerning the following matters:
a. Students getting promoted to the next grade level
b. Students receiving a high school diploma
c. Accreditation of schools
d. Financial incentives for schools based on students' test performance on high-stakes test.
e. Principal and teachers being reassigned to other school as promotion
f. Hiring employees/teachers in an organization

Common Types of Test

a. Diagnostic Test
– It is used to determine your individual difficulties by knowing your strengths and
weaknesses prior to instruction so proper intervention can be done by your teacher.
b. Placement Test
– It is a test intended to assess your particular knowledge or capability in different subjects
so as to assign you to fitting courses or classes.
c. Proficiency Test
– It is designed to gauge your insight and capacity in a language.
d. Achievement Test
– It is a test given at the end of a course to assess if you are able to achieve the course
objectives.
e. Aptitude Test
–– It is intended to evaluate your capacity, of what you can do, and what you can achieve in
your learning to determine how well you perform in the future.

III. MEASUREMENT
 Measurement- is the assignment of quantitative description of the pupils’/learners’
performance. The most common example in classroom is when your teacher administers a
quiz test or term examinations and gives a score. On the other hand, when we measure
objects, we use some standard instrument to find out the length, mass, temperature,
degree, behavior, and other things that we would like to find out. Such instruments may be
a ruler, scale, thermometer, pressure gauge, etc.

Types of Measurement
1. Objective (as in testing)
Objective measurements are those that reveal nearly the same results even if it is
done repeatedly. It involves impartial measurement and to determine the objectivity of a
measure, one needs to assess its reliability.
2. Subjective (as in perceptions)
Subjective measurement - indicates measures concerning the actual experience of an
individual, his feelings or emotions, and opinions that are commonly subject to
disagreement.

IV. EVALUATION

Evaluation- involves judging or deciding about the quality of your school

performance for your teacher to implement a possible course of action. When your
assessment information is collected, synthesized, and thought about, your teacher is in a
position to judge the quality of your performance and what classroom course of action
should be done or what action is most appropriate.

Further, Patton (1987) defined evaluation as a process which involves gathering of

information and uses the results to analyze and judge the value and worthiness of
something. It critically examines a program and make judgment to improve its effectiveness
for use in planning and programming decisions.

Evaluation includes both qualitative and quantitative description of your class

performance plus value judgment concerning the desirability of the performance.
Evaluation may result to acceptance, dismissal, or amendment of what has been evaluated.

Evaluation = Quantitative description of pupils (Measurement) + Value judgments

You should take note that assessment and evaluation must be continuous and
frequent. Teachers must always be prepared to reassess students, and using the
measurement of periodic formative assessment, they can adjust and improve their
instruction to meet your learning needs on a daily and weekly basis.

V- PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

a. Clear Purpose

– A good assessment should have a clear purpose and goal. A question like “why are we
assessing the students for” “What is it intended for” should come to mind and establish.
b. Clarity of Learning Targets
– It involves specifying clear learning objectives which involve showing what you know and
can do and how your performance will be judged.
c. Appropriateness of assessment methods
– Choosing the right assessment methods which should match the identified learning
targets will provide quality assessment.
d. Adequate Sampling
– Teachers obtain information regarding the success of their instruction by observing their
pupils' classroom performance. It is necessary that a teacher should consider varied
assessment strategies to determine sufficient information if the targeted learnings are
achieved by the students.
e. Objectivity
– The objectivity of a test can be determined if the same tests, used by examiners, yield the same
scores. After the key has been prepared, there should be no question as to whether an item
is right or wrong, partly right or partly wrong.
f. Accountability and Fairness
– Accountability in assessment requires the use of the information obtained from
assessment as a basis to validate or modify the behavior of the student and educator. A fair
assessment is not biased and non-discriminatory to the performance of students.

VI- RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS IN EDUCATION

Envision yourself as a newly hired teacher to teach a third-grade class. You are in
quandary as to what a third-grade needs to learn. How would you plan your lessons and
how would you assess them? How would you give feedback to their parents about their
achievements in learning? If you have a complete guide of the set of learning and
competencies they need to acquire in the whole duration of their learning experiences, not
only in grade 3 but for their entire k-12 experience, then you can adhere to the standards
the education institution prescribed. The standard will guide you to ensure the quality of
education you can provide to your pupils. So to give you more idea about standards and
some developments in education, read our lecture below.

1. Standard Based Education - is a system of teaching and learning that focuses all
elements of the educational experience, including teaching, assessment, grading, and
reporting on standards that span all throughout a student's schooling. But what is a
standard? A standard is a succinct, clearly written description of what a student should
know and be able to do after the lessons are taught
Another shift of educational focus is from content to learning outcomes. Traditionally,
the focus of instruction was content and subject matter, but it has evolved and changed to
what we call “Outcome Based Education.” But what is Outcome Based Education?
Outcome-Based Education (OBE)- is a learner-centered approach to education
which emphasizes what learners can demonstrate of “knowing and doing.” OBE reforms
sets well-defined guidelines for observable and quantifiable outcomes. Outcomes may
include parameters of competencies and capabilities, such as “Student can apply basics of
nutrition related to sports” or “Student can explain the basics in playing basketball sport.
According to Navarro, R.L., Santos, R.G & Corpuz, B.B., (2017), to implement
outcome-based education on the subject or course the following are recommended:
a. Implementing OBE Description
1.Identify educational objectives of the Educational Objectives are stated this way:
subject or course At the end of the lesson, student can
understand the concept and other
terminologies in Assessment of Learning
2. List learning outcomes for each subject or Learning outcome is stated this way: At the
course end of the unit, the student can explain the
differences among assessment,
measurement, and evaluation
3. Drafting outcomes assessment procedure You need to identify the data necessary in
the selection of assessment tools

Hansen (1989) stated that outcome-based education stresses curriculum alignment

and instructional method which would center on the goal and the result. Outcome-based
education to curriculum aligned puts emphasis on teaching the stated or written
curriculum. According to Hansen, the following are:
b. Principles of outcome-based education
1. Outcomes or objectives are publicly and clearly stated
2. Teaching is focused on the stated objectives
3. Frequently monitors student’s learning
4. Adjustment of the learning process to allow students obtain proficiency of learning the
objectives
5. Assessment is aligned to the objectives and the authentic student learning

William Spady (1994), on the other hand, also gave the following:
Four OBE Fundamental Principle
c.1 Clarity of focus
c.2 Designing down
c.3 High Expectations
c.4 Expanded Opportunities
Outcome-Based Education in the Philippines in an aftermath of the pervading clamor
of education change worldwide which led to the creation of the Enhanced Basic Education
Act of 2013, Philippine Qualification Framework and the CHED Order No. 46.
OBE is an approach to education that aims to produce students that satisfy the
demands of highest standard required in the specific field of work. The standards are
incorporated in the program outcomes which are translated into instructional goals and
objectives. These same components should lead to selecting topics, what topics to include,
how to teach, and assess them at the highest standards required by the actual workplace.

d. Institutional, Program, Course and Learning Outcome – An institution is expecting

you to demonstrate the following outcomes in three or more than three years after
graduation:
d.1 institutional outcome;
d.2 program outcome;
d.3 course; and
d.4 learning/instructional/lesson outcomes.

Midterm Module (Week 5-8)

Lesson 2: TARGET SETTINGS

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1. analyze the difference between standards-based and content-based

assessment; 2 . i l l u s t r a t e c l e a r l e a r n i n g t a r g e t s ;
3. give examples of constructive alignment;
4. compare the assessment of, assessment for and assessment as learning; and
5. apply correct procedures in writing clear learning targets concerning course
outcomes.
A. STANDARDS - BASED ASSESSMENT
Any assessment process in the field of Education must be based on a set of
standards. Assessment without standards will yield uncategorized certification of
accomplishments or competencies to be acquired by the learners. It is vital in every
teaching and learning aspect to identify a set of standards to anticipate and prepare the
flow of proceedings in teaching-learning situations.
Standards-Based Assessment- is an approach that compares students’ performance
to the standards, rather than comparing them with other students.
(Note: Standard: What we want students to be able to know and do at the end of any given
time; standards are provided by the state and derived from the National Standards.
Learning Targets: These are statements of intended learning based on the standards.)
Standards-based assessment must be rooted in the learning outcomes that have to
be given to learners. Learning outcomes are commonly derived from the policies made by
educational learners cascaded down to the learning institutions. The thrust of today's
learning is all about Outcomes-Based Education (OBE).
One of which is the Most Essential Learning Competencies or MELC from the
Department of Education (DepEd). According to DepEd, “MELC is defined as what the
students need, considered indispensable, in the teaching-learning process to build skills, to
equip learners for subsequent grade levels and, subsequently, lifelong learning. Moreover,
they added, "The MELCs will enable the Department to focus instruction on the most
essential and indispensable competencies that our learners must acquire, as we anticipate
challenges in learning delivery."
For higher learning institutions, the assessment standardization basis is aligned in
the policies in operation and establishments of courses. HEI Curriculum consists of
standards, policies, and procedures regarding the setup of curriculum offerings up to
evaluation, leading to the standardization of assessments.
Standards-based assessment requires technicalities in its development. The teacher
or the facilitators of learning a particular subject, facilitating one specific subject matter,
must be equipped with basic and advanced knowledge regarding the clustering of
competencies. The grouping of skills also requires setting up of clear learning targets. Both
teachers and learners must appropriately identify clear learning targets. Clearer learning
targets will supplement the setting up of the standards-based assessment.
 Clarity of Learning Targets
Standard learning targets are targets given by education authorities to maintain the
consistency of expected performances manifested by the learners. According to Bonnie
Houck, Ed. D. (https://www.houcked.com/blog/learning-targets/), “a learning target is a
statement of planned learning for students based on the standards. A learning target
stipulates and unpacks the outcomes and stipulates what students can do during and after
the lesson or lesson series. Learning targets are in student-friendly language and are
specific to the lesson for the day, and directly linked to assessment. A learning target also
contains performance criteria or a demonstration of learning.”
Clear learning targets based on standard learning targets enable the teacher to see
the students' future accomplishments. Figure at the right states the fundamental difference
between standard target and learning target, as explained. What is expected of them gives
the teacher possible options and interventions appropriate in the attainment of these
targets. Maximum achievement can also be possible if the teacher is knowledgeable of these
targets. It is on how he or she classifies the targets as higher-ordered or lower order targets.

 Constructive Alignment
In assessment in learning, whether task output is process-based or product-oriented
based, constructive alignment is the most important thing to consider by the teacher in
executing the whole teaching and learning process. The parallelism of activities is a
requirement to preserve the alignment of learning outcomes. Teachers should consider all
of the effecting factors to the attainment of student learning outcomes like the selection of
strategies, activities and assessment techniques. In short, start with the outcomes you
intend students to learn, a variety of activities and materials, and align teaching and
assessment to those outcomes.

Principles in Constructive Alignment

Teachers make alignment between the planned learning activities and the learning
outcomes and to measure the attainment of those outcomes. These situations lead to the
concepts of constructive alignment. Constructive alignment is simply referred also to as an
aligned curriculum. The model shown below is attributed to Biggs (2003, 1999), which
explains constructive alignment:
Constructive alignment is vital because it ensures intended learning outcomes for a
lesson guaranteed to be effective, transparent, and purposeful. Learning activities and
assessment activities are created in alignment with these outcomes as well. Also,
assessment tasks need to be aligned directly to demonstrate the achievement of the
intended learning outcomes, and supported by the learning and teaching activities within
the subject.

TYPES OF STANDARDS

Teachers of any educational setting should ensure that the learning standards are in
place and adequately identified. To make up a more comprehensive and feasible learning
standard, then it should be composed of the content and performance standards.
1. CONTENT STANDARDS
Standards for content selection are actions related to educational processes and
practices for instruction and assessment. The effort aims to deliver contents or topics in
such a way that topics are generally the same across all parts of the locality but can be
modified into a local context without changing the curriculum's aim. The selection of
contents or lessons is very vital to the attainment of learning outcomes. Content standards
were constructed to increase students' success by recognizing the knowledge, ideas, and
skills that students should get at each grade level. Content standardization leads to
assessment standardization
The following are the observations from the concepts and discussions regarding content
standards:
1. Content standardization is based on the existing policies issued by educational
authorities.
2. The Philosophy of the school, vision and mission is also the basis of the selection of the
content.
3. Content standardization was also aligned with the approved curriculum of education
authorities.
4. Standardization also involves the participation of school stakeholders.
In the Philippines, the observations mentioned above are pretty much evident. Our
educational system is hooked up with the process of following the standards for selecting
the content. As to the criteria in the selection of the content, Alvior (2015) suggested the
following:
a) INTEREST. Content should also arouse and realize the importance of it to the learners.
The fundamental significance should be emphasized to sustain interest.
b) SELF-SUFFICIENCY. The term simply means the topics are well adequate to provide the
accomplishments of intended learning outcomes. It can attain the domains of the learning
objective, namely the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor.
c) SIGNIFICANCE. The application of the content to the real-life situation of the learner can
be well utilized.
d) VALIDITY. The lesson assigned is corresponding to the learning outcomes to be
attained.
e) UTILITY. Content should also provide the application to a real-life situation. It must
provide activities that will simulate the actual work that learners may end up in the future.
f) LEARNABILITY. The topic should also be catering to diverse types of learners. It should
be presented in a manner wherein fast, average, and the slow learner will learn the topic in
their pace.
g) FEASIBILITY. Content as much as possible should be accurate or applicable to the
context of the learning situation. It should be applied to the settings wherein the learner
will use it most.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

The standards are written to support and promote specific desirable learners'
behaviors in a particular task. In teaching and learning, the basis for standards is the
attainment of minimum competencies required by the course learning outcomes.
Performance standards are the teacher's definitive guide and the learner regarding
what has to be acted and carried out required by the competencies in the target learning
outcomes. Teachers should see to it that any assessment instrument's creation should
agree with the targeted standards of the performance.
The course's learning outcomes show the range of objectives for students; the criteria
describe the performance that will be assessed. These must align with, and provide
coverage of the learning outcomes. The standards then discuss the characteristics of
performance in terms of each of these criteria at each rating level.

Characteristics of Good Performance Standards

According to Hicks (2020), all excellent performance standards have many of the
following ten characteristics:
1. Clear performance standards are easy to understand.
2. Clear performance standards are related to the explicit values of the organization.
3. Clear performance standards relate directly to the mission.
4. Tools and technology must support clear performance standards.
5. Clear performance standards are measurable.
6. Precise performance standards measurements must inspire confidence.
7. Clear performance standards are attainable.
8. Clear performance standards are trainable.
9. Performance standards are consistent.
10. Clear performance standards should not be confused with one another.
In summary, the content standard adds to the teaching technique that students
should know and do. It provides the most meaningful and stable learning, topics,
principles, skills, and ways of thinking. Performance standards give the teacher a hint of
how well the students have to do their job. It also offers product or performance as proof of
learning or achievement of the standard of content.

Assessment Type Selection

As pointed out earlier in the introduction, assessment is vital in certifying the

learning competencies achieved during the teaching and learning process. Teachers should
have a strong sense of choice and conviction in selecting the most appropriate assessment
tool for accomplishing learning tasks and determining the teaching effectiveness. The right
decision-making actions will be based on sound assessment results. The fundamental
question regarding the choice of assessment type is how, to begin with, the selection. Here
are some of the principles in selecting appropriate assessment tool by Hicks (2018):

1. Principle of Constructive Alignment. By starting with what we want our students to

learn and do, we can create and choose assessments to showcase the appropriate
knowledge and skills we are aiming for them to learn. The basis will be the outcomes and
strategies of the delivery of the lesson.
2. Varying assessments. Students learn in different modes and at a different pace, in
which their strengths and challenges for assessment differ as well. Diverse assessments
can also be done by allowing their participation in the assessment process. By letting them
choose the comfort zone in the assessment process and considering the way we assess
student comprehension, we are more likely to offer opportunities for every student to
demonstrate their knowledge. Then this can be done by establishing lessons with three or
more forms of assessment, such as written tasks, class projects, and pen and paper exams.
3. Assessment Intervals. Since students tend to go over an assessment which they have to
take, the summative assessment, there must be a series of assessment given to track the
progress of their learning. Also, consider the frequency with which students should be
assessed based on the knowledge that assessment drives learning by focusing on student
attention, energy, and motivation to learn and to develop the knowledge and skills
gradually to learn.
4.Choose between direct and indirect assessments. Assessment is said to be
straightforward if the teacher measures actual student behavior. Indirect, including
activities involving research, group dynamics, and similar activities that gather opinions
about a lesson or its objectives. If student assessment is required in a course or its lessons,
meaning, it affects performance and course grades, it is a direct assessment and should be
taken into consideration by the teacher.
5. Information Collection on Student performance. The process is close monitoring of
the students' performance on a particular learning task. The information derived through
control on the assessment results will give teachers sound decision making on the
adjustments that have to be carried out relating to instruction and assessment methods to
be conducted.
Assessment Flow (An Overview)
As an educator, the choice of suitable instruction and assessment technique to reach
out to students learning is a significant ingredient to guaranteed students success. It is
deemed necessary that relating assessment to instruction is a cycle to address the
continuous learning development and dissemination.

Step 1: Write the plan and Student Learning Outcomes

Developing critical learning outcomes for students that reflect what students will do
in the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains should be achieved by teaching. They
depend on the quality teaching of the course.
Step 2: Establish results of the instruction and assess the student learning outcomes
There are numerous ways of choosing and using assessment tools to determine the
learning outcomes of students. It should also be distinguished that we must categorize the
origins of the assessment results. It can be the product of a lesson in ability or knowledge.
More focus should be placed on how the results of the assessment information are
routinely compiled and organized.
Step 3: Analyze products of the assessment of student learning outcomes
Evaluation and reporting of the assessment results are essential on time. The
findings can be used to develop the method of teaching-learning further. The technique will
impact the option of teaching methods, evaluation approaches, speed of learning and
acquisition. Policymakers should also use the assessment findings to suggest measures to
enhance service quality delivery of teaching.
Step 4: Remedy the strategies employed in reaching the learning outcomes
Dissemination is necessary when the results of the assessment are on hand. The
evaluation findings would be worthless unless used as a method to develop the teaching
- the learning process further. If there are questions about the assessment outcomes,
solutions and changes with current procedures and policies should be produced by the
authorities and stakeholders concerned.

B. APPROPRIATE LEARNING TARGETS

Training targets should make it a lot easier for the teacher to become more
disciplined and successful in instruction concepts and implementation. This method will
encourage teachers to reflect on improving learning across lessons and units and students.
At first, the technique can seem rigid, but the experience will soon yield smoothness as
with any sort of procedural expertise.
In some of the difficulties, the instructor or learning facilitator may encounter
creating suitable learning goals. Learning goals are significant in a way that they can direct
the teaching-learning process in the curriculum implementation, activity success, and
outcome assessment. While there are plenty of rich target sources, providing a mechanism
is a very difficult one. The problem is how to relate it to the learners in a learning condition
background.
Considering the challenges raised by selecting suitable learning goals, teachers
should always resort to the list of skills provided by institutions for more natural judgment
in selecting appropriate learning goals.
Three Types of Learning Targets
1. Learning Goal Targets.
Learning target goals are descriptions of the awareness that students will show an
understanding of a concept. These are explicitly taken from educational authorities that
describe what students will learn and be trained to do by completing a degree or course.
Specific expectations should include the details required to establish objectives for regular
or weekly learning that cover the subject emphasis, cognitive level of thought, and explicit
language used to define learning goals.
2. Foundational Targets. Foundational targets consist of knowledge and underlying
procedures that build to the cognitive level of the academic standard. They constitute the
prerequisites that students need to master to achieve the learning goal targets ultimately.
There are two types of foundational objectives:
a)those that identify declarative knowledge and
b)those that identify procedural knowledge.

Foundational Targets for Declarative Knowledge. Those goals define the academic
vocabulary necessary for regular learning. Ask the following questions to identify the
critical academic vocabulary to be targeted: Do students need to know the word or phrase
to demonstrate an understanding of the standard? Having students learned this word or
the concept in a prior degree or class?
Foundational Targets for Procedural Knowledge. Foundational goals may include any
specific skills or procedures that students must implement to accomplish the learning
objective. Those are the processes or abilities that provide the foundation for future goals
and must be achieved before the current learning target can succeed.
3. Cognitively Complex Targets. These targets are formed to help students cover and
deepen the knowledge and skills of the standard. The expectations in these targets are
more rigorous than the learning goal targets in a measure. This learning target category
requires deeper logical thinking than the standard necessitates and expects students to
think about the same content in complex ways. Cognitively complex targets ask students to
use the knowledge and skills of the rule to extend their creative thinking and make
applications beyond what is outlined in the standard.

COMPETENCIES, OBJECTIVES and OUTCOMES

These three words are very critical to the successful implementation of teaching-
learning and evaluation. The lack of a solid understanding of the terms distinctions in the
teacher's aspect will be tough to establish clear learning goals, and hence ambiguous on
what to accomplish in the end.
There has to be some confusion about what determines successful learning
performance and how it is distinguished from learning objectives or abilities. Even in
education research, the use of these terms sometimes appears incoherent.
Finding meanings in the dictionary can sometimes be informative. Conferring to the
American Heritage Dictionary, the learning terms are defined as follows:
Competency: Competence. The state or quality of being competent. Suitably or well
qualified, can do.
Objective: Worked toward or striven for, a goal.
Outcome: A natural result, consequence.
The sets of expectations that we needed our learners, who would be able to achieve,
are referred to as learning outcomes. It is their natural and mastered ability to gain all the
required training in knowledge and skills enhancement in the future. Competencies are the
collection of technical skills we needed to learn from our educational authorities based on
the chosen field. On the other hand, either the student and the instructor must concentrate
on the aims to achieve the skills. Competencies will be the foundation of goals, and then
objectives will be the tool for executing to produce desired results.

Below is an illustration of an application of the competencies, objectives, and

outcomes
Competency
Students learn the functioning of digital inputs to establish adequate through the input-
output ports.
Objective
Measure the effect in a digital input with the use of a pull-up resistor
 Learning Outcomes
 Verify the existence of electromagnetic interference.
 Measure data in an input port connected to different points.
 Understand the importance of the pull-up resistor to avoid erroneous data readings.

Usually, the example given can be tested by competency-dependent assessment.

Competence-based evaluation is the selection and assessment of evidence to decide if a
person has achieved a degree of competency. The first and most straightforward way will be
to analyze the learners' work. Typical working conditions make students very relaxed, and
they demonstrate their job-related skills at convenience, even without usual stress that
follows assessment. This helps observers to at the same time, as they can see, get precise
and acceptable examples of behavior to be evaluated.

Characteristics of Objectives (SMARTER)

Objective setting is the structure for the practical application and achievement of
competencies and results as a fundamental concept of Education. Consideration is deemed
essential in alignment and implementation.
SMART Objectives are defined as established goals and objectives within by
parameters that combine structure and flexibility. The SMART setting of targets provides a
demonstrable setup toward a specific target with dependable objectives and an estimated
timetable to attain the goals. SMART is an acronym for the
S –Specific
M – Measurable
A – Achievable
R – Relevant
T- Time-based

S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Objective Setting

Setting goals for curriculum and lesson is a vital instrument that enables the
teaching-learning process to stay on a clear long-term direction by defining concrete
objectives for achieving and monitoring progress towards specific goals. It also helps the
learners' learn more and efficiently accomplish their tasks by providing them with some
very satisfying challenges that will facilitate their skills attainment.

The Three Domains of Learning

The identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom et al. 1956):
Cognitive : intellectual skills (knowledge)
Affective : development in feelings or expressive areas (attitude or self)
Psychomotor : manual or physical skills (competencies)

A. Cognitive Domain
A classification system of learning habits can be understood as "the aims of the
learning process." The learner should have gained novel abilities, expertise, and attitudes
during the teaching and learning period.
The cognitive domain includes the development of consciousness and intellectual capacity
(Bloom, 1956). This involves remembering or recognizing necessary information,
organizational patterns, and principles that help in the event of mental skills. There are six
main groups of processes cognitive, beginning from the easiest to the most complex.
One can think of the groups as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first ones usually
have to be learned before the next can happen.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a student of Bloom and Krathwohl, reviewed the cognitive domain
and made some deviations. Renaming the six categories from noun to verb forms
rearranging them as shown in the chart below The chart shown at the right compares the
original taxonomy with the revised one: This new taxonomy shows a more active form of
thinking and is perhaps more accurate.
Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012)
The information below is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don
Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
CATEGORY Examples, keywords (verbs), and Strategies for
learning (activities)
Remembering: Recall or retrieve Examples: Recite a poem—quote prices from memory
previously learned information. to a lecture. Enumerate the safety rules.
Keywords: describes, defines, identifies, knows,
labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects, states
Strategies: bookmarking, flashcards, rote learning
based on repetition, reading

Understanding: Comprehending Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing.

the meaning, interpolation, Elaborate in one's own words the steps for performing
translation, and interpretation of a complicated task. Translate an equation into a
teachings and problems. State a computer spreadsheet.
problem in one's words Keywords: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,
generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates
Strategies: Develop an analogy, participating in
cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling,
Internet search

Applying: utilize a concept in a Examples: Use a pattern to calculate an employee's

situation or unprompted utilization vacation time. Apply the laws of statistics to evaluate
of an abstraction. Applies what was the reliability of a written test.
learned in the school into original Keywords: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
situations in real-life demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies,
operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates,
shows, solves, uses
Strategies: cooperative learning, generate a
procedure, blog, practice

Analyzing: Splits material or Examples: Troubleshoot a part of equipment by using

concepts into parts so that its logical deduction. Identify logical misconceptions in
structure may be understood. reasoning. Get information from a department and
Differentiates facts and inferences selects the required tasks for training.
Keywords: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Strategies: Fishbowls, debating, questioning what
happened, run a test

Evaluating: Style judgments about Examples: Choice the most effective solution. Hire the
the value of ideas or materials most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget. Keywords: appraises, compares, concludes,
contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets,
justifies, relates, summarizes, supports
Technologies: survey, blogging

Creating: Builds a structure or Examples: Write company processes reference.

design from varied elements. Set Design a machine to perform a definite task.
parts together to form a whole, with Integrates training from several bases to solve a
emphasis on creating a new problem. Reviews the process to improve the
meaning or structure outcome. Keywords: categorizes, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises, designs, explains,
generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges,
reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.
Strategies: Create a new model, write an essay,
network with others

B. The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain includes coordination, physical movement, and use of

motor skills. Enhancing these skills requires practice and is measured in speed, precision
and distance.
The seven major categories are enumerated from the most straightforward behavior
to the most complex:

Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012).

The information below is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don
Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies
The Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Dave (1975). The information below
is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog
Little Dog."

Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Harrow (1972). The information below is

based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog
Little Dog."

C. The Affective Domain

In Bloom's taxonomy, the affective domain is one of three domains. Others are the
psychomotor and cognitive (Bloom et al., 1956). The affective domain contains how we deal
with things expressively, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations,
and attitudes. The five major classes are listed from the most straightforward behavior to the
most complex:

Example of Affective Domain by Clark (2012). The information below is based on

explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark’s well-known “Big Dog Little Dog."
Alternative to Bloom: Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy
Although Bloom's Taxonomy has been very useful in expanding learning from just
recalling to more nuanced cognitive systems, such as assessing and evaluating, new
models have arisen. Nevertheless, with the revised taxonomy, it becomes more useful.
One model which may prove more useful is the taxonomy of the
System of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO). This model defines degrees of increasing
complexity in the comprehension of subjects inside a learner (Biggs, Collis, 1982). This
makes both teachers and students understand the learning process.

The model consists of five levels in the order of understanding, according to Clark
(2012):
Pre-structural. The learner does not understand the lesson and uses a way of going about
it that is too simple — the learner is uncertain about the lesson or subject.
Uni-structural. The learner 's answer focuses only on one specific aspect — the learner
only has a basic understanding of the subject matter.
Multi-structural. The learner 's answer focuses on many important factors but is handled
independently — the learner has several ideas about the subject but is detached from them. This
standard of assessment is mainly quantitative.
Relational. The different aspects have been incorporated into a consistent whole — the
learner has mastered the subject's nature by bringing all of the pieces together. That level
is what an adequate understanding of a topic usually implies.
Extended abstract. The previous integrated whole can be conceptualized to a higher
degree of abstraction and expanded into a new subject or area —the learner can now
generate new ideas based on her mastery of the subject.
When learning continues, that becomes more complicated. SOLO is a way to define
learning results in terms of their complexity, allowing us to assess the students ' work in
terms of their content and not how many bits of that they have gotten right. At first, we
select only one or a few aspects of the function (unistructural), then many aspects because
they of the subject. When learning continues, that becomes more complicated. SOLO is a
way to define learning results in terms of their complexity, allowing us to assess the
students ' work in terms of their content and not how many bits of that they have gotten
right.
At first, we select only one or a few aspects of the function (unistructural), then many
aspects because they are unrelated (multistructural). We learn how to combine them into a
whole (relational), and eventually, we can generalize the whole to applications that have not
yet been taught (extended abstract). The diagram lists verbs characteristic of each of those
stages. SOLO can be applied not only in assessment but in designing the curriculum in
terms of the level of learning outcomes intended, which helps implement the constructive
alignment.

C. UNPACKING LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Unpacking is the approach used to analyze student learning outcomes into

components/competencies to identify the essential life-long transferable learning
knowledge and skills. The forms of learning activities, experiences, activities, and
assessments fitted these outcomes. The benefit of unpackaging learning skills is to have a
better view of the critical learning outcomes and to focus on learning from the students.
The instructor will be informed on the academic proficiencies to unpacked at the beginning
of the learning course.

I. Unpacking competencies using 5Ps

II- 4 Parts of an ABCD Objective

Another procedure to consider is ABCD writing objectives. This plays an important
part in the creation of SMARTER objectives. They are as follows:
1. Audience
2. Behavior
3. Condition
4. Degree
The target should not always be written in the ABCD, but it should compose all these
foundations.

Audience
The audience describes the student or end-user of the teaching-learning process.
Regularly, the audience is introduced only in the lower level of an objective. For example,
the Course refresher participants, the TLE students, etc.,
Behavior
Behavior describes learner competence. It must be measurable and observable. It
should agree with the application of a real-life situation. The action must deal with the
performance of knowledge or skills in
any of the domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. For instance, “…can
write an essay…’
Condition
Condition pertains to available materials and resources that may or may not be used
to complete and master the behavior. An environmental setup may also be included. For
example: “…given a gas stove, regulator and gas tank…”

Degree
This method states the standard for acceptable performance (period, correctness,
proportion, quality, etc.) For example: “… without error”,” … 9 out of 10 times.”, …within
50 seconds”, etc.

III- 3. Writing objectives from competencies

Semi-Final Module (Week 8-12)

LESSON 3: DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS

OVERVIEW
Quality assessment takes center stage on the learning process. In fact, it is a vital
component of the instructional process. The evaluation and judgment of a teacher on
student performance are based on information obtained in using assessment instruments
whose quality is of paramount importance. Every teacher should have the necessary skill to
develop quality test
items. It is a teacher’s mandate to procure for the learners the optimum evaluation
strategy.
Teachers who create effective tests, develop remedial instruction and allow students several
attempts to elicit success can improve their teaching method and facilitate student
learning. When instructional process incorporates effective classroom assessments so as to
make them the central feature in student learning, both students and teachers derive
unlimited benefits
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students can:
1.describe the features of a properly accomplished test;
2.match learning outcomes with appropriate assessment method;
3.set appropriate instructional objectives for written tests;
4.construct one-way and two-way Table of Specifications for a written test;
5.construct self –made test items based on the Table of Specifications and the guidelines
in writing test items;
6.determine methods of securing validity and authenticity of tests; and
7.make informed decisions whether to retain, revise, or delete test items

SETTING UP
Let’s find out how much you already know about the topics in this unit.
I. True or False
Directions : Encircle T if the statement is right and F if the statement is.
T F 1. Double negative statements must be provided in constructing alternative
response test.
T F 2. Essay examination is easy to score.
T F 3. The options and distractors must be probable with others in the
construction of multiple choice tests.
T F 4. Dates and terms should be harmonized in constructing matching tests.
T F 5. The items in a matching test is 15 as a maximum.
T F 6. Essay test is advantageous to students with good penmanship.
T F 7. A balanced matching type is preferable.
T F 8. The items of a matching test must appear in one page.
T F 9. It is psychological to give a test before and after a holiday.
T F 1 10. A periodic succession in the response samples should be observed for
facility in scoring.
T F 11. The objective test encourages cheating and guessing.
T F 12. Essay tests train the core of systematizing, asserting and analyzing.
T F 13. Over-mutilated statements should be included in constructing completion
tests.
T F 14. Options of a matching test must be alphabetically placed if the sequence is
according to dates.
T F 15. Statement form is preferable to direct question in simple recall.

II. Multiple Choice

Directions: Select the best answer from the four options given in every item. WRITE ONLY
THE LETTER of the correct option on the space provided.
_____1. This test is mostly appropriate when you need to measure the learners’ ability to
identify the relationship between similar items.
a. matching c. analogy b. multiple choice d. rearrangement
_____2. Which one DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. matching c. completion b. multiple choice d. true-false
_____3. The other name for a completion test
a. simple recall c. true-false b. same-different d. filling the blank
_____4. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. multiple choice c. alternative response b. matching d simple recall
_____5. A type of test where 3 or more plausible options are provided in each item. a.
alternative response c. multiple choice b. completion d. analogy
_____6. When is a test valid?
a. If it yields scores which are consistent. b. If the students get high scores in the test.
c. If the test results in few or minimal errors. d. If the test turn in scores which help one to
accomplish his purpose.
_____7. One of the characteristics of a properly completed examination is content validity.
What is the initial act before test construction?
a. Find out if the items are well constructed. b. Judge the scope or content coverage.
c. Find out if the total of items are sufficient. d. Examine the objectives set for the test to
determine if they are consistent with the subject matter.
_____8. We use a Table of Specification or test blue print in ________________________.
a. taking test scores b. formulating an exam plan
c. outlining the test content d. listing instructional objectives
_____9. A student scored 80 in a mental ability test one Monday morning. After15 days, the
same was retested and she got the same score. What characteristic of a good test was
manifested?
a. administrability c. reliability b. scorability d. validity
_____10. If your Licensure Examination Test (LET) items sufficiently sample the
competencies listed in the syllabi, it can be said that the LET possesses __________ validity.
a. concurrent c. content b. construct d. predictive

Features of a Properly Accomplished Test:

Teachers usually receive complaints or comments from students regarding
assessments, for example, test coverage. Some tests may not be covered as to content.
Students may not have wholly studied the subject matter. As a result, the assessment tools
are complicated and unaligned with action verbs in the learning outcomes.
In order to ensure high quality assessment, validity should be in tandem with
reliability. Doubts are cast on reliability if inconsistencies result as the tests are being
administered over varying time periods, sample questions or sample groups.
The tandem is highlighted when collating information or evidence about student
achievement. Santos (2007), De Guzman (2015) and Balagtas (2020) expound the main
characteristics of a good test.

1. VALIDITY

The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. In view of
assessment, it is deemed valid if it measures what it is supposed to. Validity claims as
factual to measure. Your assessment is valid if it measures your learner’s actual
knowledge and performance. For instance, a test of reading comprehension does not
require mathematical ability.
Factors which affect the validity of test scores (Ramadan, 2018):
A. Factors in the test:
1. Vague test directions
2. Difficulty of the reading vocabulary and flaw in sentence structure
3. Too easy or too difficult test items
4. Ambiguous statements
5. Inappropriate test items for measuring a particular outcome.
6. Insufficient time provided to take the test
7. The test is so concise
8.Test items are not scaled in the level of difficulty from “easy” to “difficult”
B. Factors in test administration and scoring:
1. Unfair response to students, who individually ask for clarification
2. Cheating during testing
3. Unreliable subjective scoring of essay type answers
4. Insufficient time to finish the examination
5. Learner(s) experience malaise before and/or during the test
C. Factors related to students:
1. Test anxiety of the students
2. Physical and psychological state of the student

2. RELIABILITY

The reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. It is also a term

synonymous with dependability or stability. It is the extent to which an assessment tool
produces a stable and consistent result.

Ways to improve reliability of assessment results

a. Utilize enough number of test items, longer tests are more credible

b. Create tests with the correct level of difficulty

c. Employ impartial raters or observers who can give reasonably the same or almost
similar scores on performance

d. Be sure that there ample time to finish the assessment task

e. Focus on the the careful formulation of test questions

f. Conduct regular item analysis to improve ambiguous or poorly answered questions.

3. PRACTICALITY AND EFFICIENCY -

Practical test is a test that is developed and administered within the available time
and with available resources. In other Moreover, a test should be easy to design, to
administer, to mark and to interpret as to results. Efficiency, in this context, refers to the
development, administration and grading of assessment with the least effort and resources.

4. FAIRNESS

The fairness of a test refers to freedom from any biases. Your students must know
exactly what the learning targets are and what method of assessment will be used. They
have to be informed how their progress will be evaluated in order to make strategies and
perform optimally.

Other aspects of fairness include:

1. Opportunity to learn further;

2. Pre-requisite knowledge and skills;

3. Avoidance of student stereotyping

4. Avoidance of bias in assessment procedures; and

5. Accommodating special needs and requirements

Other Support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available from your course professor.
These include the following:

1. A PowerPoint presentation on the topic Characteristics of a Good Test

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gzv8Cm1jC4M

Learning Target and Assessment Method Match

De Guzman, et al., (2015) defined learning target as a description of performance that

includes what learners should know and be able to do. This definition is similar to that of a
learning outcome. In other words, learning targets provide students with a roadmap along
which points to their destination and what to expect upon reaching it.

Learning targets should comply with the standards prescribed by a program or level
and should align with the instructional or learning objectives of a subject or course.
Balagtas, et al (2020). Simply put, teachers must be cognizant of the learning targets of the
lesson prior to classroom instruction. Without the alignment between learning targets and
learning activities/assessments, students will spend time on activities, assignments and
assessments that stray from intended goals. If the objective is to “defend" an idea, but the
assessment used is a multiple-choice quiz, students cannot defend the idea with proper
skills.

What is taught in the classroom instruction and subsequently assessed should be

aligned with the learning targets of a lesson. When assessment is aligned with instruction,
both students and teachers benefit. There is a better chance for learners to learn more
because instruction is focused assessed appropriately. Teachers are also able to focus,
making the best use of their time. Because assessment involves real learning, they can
integrate it into their daily classroom activities.

Types of Learning Targets

Chappuis, Stiggins, Chappuis, & Arter (2012) classify learning targets into five
categories: knowledge, reasoning, skill, product and disposition.
Appropriate Methods of Assessment
Once learning targets are clearly set, you can easily determine the appropriate
assessment method. McMillan (2007) as cited by De Guzman et al (2015) prepared a
scorecard as a guide on how well a particular assessment method measures each level of
learning. The table below shows the relative strength of each assessment method in
measuring different learning targets.
Table 1. Learning Targets and Assessment Methods (McMillan 2007)

Preparing a Table of Specifications

A Table of Specifications or (TOS) is a test map that guides the teacher in
constructing a test. It is a table that maps out the test objectives, contents, or topics
covered by the test, the levels of cognitive behavior to be measured; the distribution of test
items, number placement and weights of test items and the test format. It helps ensure
that the course’s intended outcomes, assessments and instructions are aligned.

Importance of TOS:
1. Ensures that the instructional objectives and what the test captures match
2. Ensures that the test developer will not overlook details that are considered essential
to a good test
3. Makes developing a test easier and more efficient
4. Ensures that the test will sample all important content areas and processes
5. Is useful in planning and organizing
6. Offers an opportunity for teachers and students to clarify achievement expectations

Steps in Developing a Table of Specifications

1. Determine the objectives of the test. There are 3 types of objectives: cognitive, affective
and psychomotor. When planning for assessment, choose only the objectives that can be
best captured by a written test. There are objectives that are not meant for a written test.
For example, if you test the psychomotor domain, it is better to do a performance-based
assessment. Those that require demonstration or creation of something tangible like
projects would also be more appropriately measured by performance-based assessment.
For a written test, you can consider cognitive objectives that could be measured using
common formats for testing.
2. Determine the coverage of the test. Only topics or contents that have been discussed in
class should be included in the test.
3. Calculate the weight for each topic. The weight assigned per topic in the test is based on
the time spent to cover each topic during instruction. The percentage of time for a topic in a
test is determined by dividing the time spent for that topic during instruction by the total
amount of time spent for all topics covered in the test.
4. Determine the number of items for the whole test. As a general rule, students are given
30-60 seconds for each item in test formats with choices. For a one- hour class, this means
that the test should not exceed 60 items. However, you need also to give time for test paper
distribution and giving instructions, the number of items should be less, maybe just 50
items.
5. Determine the number of items per topic. To determine the number of items to be
included in the test, the weights per topic are considered.

Simply remember this equation:

Number of items = no. of hrs spent in teaching the topic x total number of items of the test
total amount of time spent for all topics
Formats of TOS
1. One-way TOS. A one-way TOS maps out the content or topic test objectives, number of
hours spent, format number and placement of items. A one-way TOS cannot ensure that all
levels of cognitive behaviors that should have been developed by the course are covered in
the test.

2. Two-Way TOS. A two-way TOS reflects not only the content, time spent, and the number
of items but also the levels of cognitive behavior targeted per test content. One advantage of
this format is that it allows one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimensions of
knowledge that are emphasized by the test.

Sample 2. Two-Way Table of Specifications

Assessment Tools Development

The previous lesson has familiarized you with the initial process in developing
classroom tests, let us now discuss the different methods by which such assessment can
be gauged. Years of experience in school have introduced you to various types of formal and
informal tests. To enhance your skills in drafting effective test items for a particular test
format, you must be familiar with such common tests formats. Let us see how much you
remember them.

Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests

As cited by Balagtas, M. (2015), traditional tests fall into two general classifications:
1. Selected-response type- require learners to choose the correct answer from several
choices. Selected-Response Tests include:
a. Multiple Choice Test - it is the most commonly used format in formal testing and
typically consists of a stem (problem), one correct or best alternative (correct
answer), and three or more incorrect alternatives (distractors)
b. True-False or Alternate Response Test - it generally consists of a statement and
deciding if the statement is true (accurate/correct) or false (inaccurate/incorrect)
c. Matching-Type Test - it consists of two sets of items to be matched with each other
based on a specified attribute.
2. Constructed-response type - it requires learners to supply answers to a given question
or problem.
a. Short Answer Test - it consists off open-ended questions or incomplete sentences
that require learners to write the correct answer which may consist of a single word or a
short phrase. This includes the following sub-types:
a.1 Completion - it consists of incomplete statements that require the learners to fill
in the blanks with the correct word or phrase.
a.2 Identification - it consists of statements that summon the learners to identify or
recall the terms/concepts, people, places or events being described.
a.3 Enumeration - It directs the learners to list down all possible answers to the
question.
b. Essay Test - it consists of problems/questions that require learners to compose or
construct written responses, usually long ones with several paragraphs.
c. Problem-Solving Test - It consists of problems/questions that require learners to
solve problems in quantitative or qualitative settings using knowledge and skills in
mathematical concepts and procedures, and/or other higher-order cognitive skills.

General Guidelines in Choosing Appropriate Test Format

How can you design fair, yet challenging tests that accurately gauge student
learning? To guide you on choosing the appropriate test format, you should ask the
following questions:
1. What are the objectives or desired learning outcomes lesson/unit?
2. What level of thinking is to be assessed (i.e., remembering, understanding,
applying, analyzing, evaluating or creating)?
3. Is the test matched or aligned with the course’s desired learning outcomes and the
course contents or learning activities?
4. Are the tests realistic to the students?

Test Item Formulation

True-False Test
True or false items are used to measure learners’ ability to identify whether a
statement or proposition is correct/true or incorrect/false. A learner who knows nothing of
the content of the test would have 50% chance of getting the correct answer by sheer guess
work. A modified true-false test can offset the effect of guessing by requiring learners to
explain their answer and to disregard a correct answer if the explanation is incorrect.
Here are some rules of thumb in constructing true-false items as cited by Balagtas, et
al (2020), Santos, et al (2007) and de Guzman et al (2015):
1. Include items that are completely true or completely false.
Faulty: The presidential system of government, where the president is only the head of state
or government, is adopted by the United States, Chile, Panama and South Korea.
Good: The presidential system, where the president is only the head of state or government,
is Chile.
2. Avoid lifting statements from the textbook and other learning materials.
3. Use single idea in each test item.
Faulty: The true-false item, which is favored by learners, is often referred to as an
alternative-response item.
Improved: The true-false item is also called an alternative-response item.
4. Refrain from using negatives, especially double negatives.
Faulty: There is nothing illegal about buying goods through the internet.
Good: It is legal to buy things or goods through the internet.
5. Avoid using absolutes such as “always” and “never.”
Faulty: The news and information posted on the CNN website is always accurate.
Good: The news and information posted on the CNN website is usually accurate.
5. Avoid the use of unfamiliar words or vocabulary.

Multiple Choice Items

The most versatile type of test since it can take several forms such as completion,
questions and direct form. Writing multiple choice items requires content mastery, writing
skills, and time. Only good and effective items should be included in the test. Poorly-written
test-items could be confusing and frustrating to learners. Each item in a multiple choice
test consists of 2 parts: a) the stem, and b) the options. In the set of options or alternatives,
there is a “correct” or “best” option while the others are considered “distracters”.

The following are the general guidelines in writing good multiple choice items.
1. Do not lift and use statements from the textbooks or other learning materials.
2. Keep the vocabulary simple and understandable based on the level of
learners/examinees.
3. A direct question is preferred over an incomplete sentence.
Faulty : Cement is ordinarily produced by _____________.
Good : How is cement ordinarily produced?
4. Word the stem positively and avoid double negatives, such as NOT and EXCEPT in a
stem. If a negative word is necessary, underline or capitalize the words for emphasis
Faulty: Which of the following is not a measure of variability?
Good: Which of the following is NOT a measure of variability?
5. Write the stem as clearly described question or task.
Faulty: Validity refers to
a. the consistency of test scores
b. the inference made on the basis of the test scores
c. measurement error as determined by standard deviation
d. the stability of test scores
Good: The inference made on the basis of the test scores refers to
a. Reliability b. Validity c. Stability d. Measurement error
6. Avoid the use of unnecessary words or phrases which are not relevant to the problem at
hand.
Faulty: While ironing his formal polo shirt Darwin burned his hand accidentally on the hot
iron. This was due to a transfer of heat because….
Good: Which of the following ways of heat transfer explains why Darwin’s hand was burned
after he touched a hot iron?
7. Write the distracters to be plausible yet clearly wrong.
Faulty : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Michigan b. London c. New York d. Berlin
Good : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Los Angeles b. Chicago c. New York d. Miami
8. Write options that are parallel or similar in form and length to avoid giving clues about
the correct answer.
9. Place options in logical order (e.g. alphabetical, shortest to longest)
10. Place correct response randomly to avoid a discernible pattern of correct answers.
11. Use none of the above carefully and only when there one absolutely correct answer.
12. Avoid all of the above option, especially if it is intended to be the correct answer.

Short Answer Test Items

A short answer test item requires the learner to answer a question or to finish an
incomplete statement by filling in the blank with the correct word or phrase.
The following are some guidelines in writing good fill in the blank or completion test
items.
1. Omit just the appropriate word from the sentence
Faulty: Every atom has a central _____________called a nucleus.
Good: Every atom has a central core called a(n)______________.
2. Avoid having too many blanks in a statement.
Faulty: The __________ is the answer in _____.
Better: The product is the answer in _________.
3. Be sure that there is only one correct response.
Faulty: A four-sided polygon is called _______________.
Good: A quadrilateral with four equal sided is called ______________.
4. Avoid grammatical clues to the response.
Faulty: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called an _______________
Good: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called a(n) _______________
5. Put the blank at the end of a statement rather than at the beginning.
Faulty: __________________is support system that helps a learner accomplish tasks
Good: A support system that helps a learner accomplish tasks is called __________.

Matching Type Items

The matching test item format requires learners to match a word, sentence or phrase
in one column to a corresponding word, sentence or phrase in second. Column. It is most
appropriate when you need to measure the learner’s ability to identify the relationship or
association between similar items. However, it is not suited for gauging the learners’ higher
understanding (analysis and synthesis levels). It can only be used to assess homogeneous
knowledge.
The following are some guidelines in writing good and effective matching type tests:
1. Include homogenous premises and responses in a single matching exercise
2. Clearly indicate in the directions the basis for matching where answers should be
written, and if responses or answer choices can be used more than once.
3. Keep the list relatively short. The ideal number of items is 5 to 10, and a maximum of
15.
4. Arrange premises and responses with maximum clarity. It is desirable to use longer
statements as premises and numbered at the left of the page. The shorter responses are
placed at the right and each identified with letters.
5. Have more responses or answer choices than premises. This will reduce guessing and
using the process of elimination in choosing the correct answer.
6. Place all the premises and responses on a single page
Faulty:
Directions: Match the following.
Food A. Primary reinforcer
Psychoanalysis B. Sigmund Freud
B.F. Skinner C. Operant conditioning
Standard deviation D. Measure of variability
Schizophrenia E. Hallucinations
Good:
Directions: Match the theories in Column I with their advocates in Column II. Write
the letter of the correct answer.
Column I Column II
___ 1. Psychodynamic Theory A. Albert Bandura
___ 2. Trait Theory B. B.F. Skinner
___ 3. Behaviorism C. Carl Rogers
 ___ 4. Humanism D. Gordon Allport
___ 5. Social Learning Theory E. Karn Horney
F. Sigmund Freud
Essay Test
Essay test is the preferred method of evaluation when teachers want to measure
learners’ higher order thinking skills particularly their ability to reason, interpret, analyze,
synthesize, and evaluate.
Types of Essay Items
Extended response type -requires much longer and complex responses
Restricted response type- the learners are free to organize and expound on their ideas.

Santos, et al (2007) and Balagtas et al 92019) present the following rules of thumb in
constructing good essay questions:
1. Clearly define the intended learning outcomes to be assessed by the essay test.
2. Refrain from using essay test for intended learning outcomes that are better
assessed by other kind of assessment.
3. Phrase the direction in such a way that students are guided on the key concepts
to be included.
Example: Write an essay on the topic: “Plant Photosynthesis” using the following key words
and phrases: chlorophyll, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, by-product, stomata.
4. Note that the learners are properly guided in terms of the keywords that the
teacher is looking for in this essay test.
5. Inform the students on the rubrics to be used for grading their essays. This rule
allows the learners to focus on relevant and substantive materials rather than on
peripheral and unnecessary facts and bits of information.
6. Present tasks that are fair, reasonable and realistic to students
7. Be specific in the prompts about the time allotment.
Other support Materials Available:

Item Analysis

After drafting objective test items and administering it, how do you determine if the
test items are properly constructed as to degree of difficulty? How do you set apart students
who excel well on the overall test, and those who do not? An item analysis, as a valuable
procedure, can easily provide the teachers with answers to both questions.

Here are the basic concepts of item analysis:

Item analysis is a technique which evaluates the effectiveness of items in tests. It

helps to improve the test by revising or discarding ineffective items.

An item analysis provides three kinds of important information about the quality of
test items.

Item difficulty: A measure of whether an item was too easy or too hard.

Item discrimination: A measure of whether an item discriminated between students who

knew the material well and students who did not.

Effectiveness of alternatives: Determination of whether distractors (incorrect but

plausible answers) appear to be identified by the less able students and not by the more
able students.

How to Determine if an Item Is Easy or Difficult

An item is difficult if majority of learners are unable to provide the correct answer.
The item is easy if majority of the learners are able to answer correctly. An item can
discriminate if the examinees who score high in the test can answer more items correctly
than examinees who got low scores (Balagtas, et al., 2015).

Below is a data set of five items on the addition and subtraction of integers. Follow
the procedure to determine the difficulty and discrimination index of each item.

1. Get the scores of each learner and arrange scores from highest to lowest.
 Obtain the upper and lower 27% of the group. Multiply 0.27 by the total number of
students, a value of 2.7. the rounded whole number value is 3.0. Get the top 3 students
and the bottom 3 students based on their total scores. The top 3 students are students 2,
5,9 while the bottom 3 are students 7, 8 and 4. the rest of the students are not included in
the item analysis.
Assessing Learning
Name: _________________________________________________________________
Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________
Activity 7
(On learning targets and methods of assessment) For each of the following situations or
questions, indicate which assessment method provides the best match. Then provide a brief
explanation why you choose that method of assessment. Choices are selected response,
essay, performance-based, oral question, observation and self report.
1. 1. Sir Marlon wants to check his students if they are able to construct different types of
graphic organizers correctly like the examples just demonstrated in class.
Method: ________________________ Why?
______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.
1. 2. Mr. Cabual wants to see if his students are comprehending the characteristics of
teacher-made tests before moving to the next set of instructional activities.
Method: ________________________ Why?
______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.
1.3. Ms. Esguerra wants to find out how many spelling words her students know.

Method: ________________________ Why?

______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.
.4. Ms. Castro wants to see how well her students can compare and contrast the traditional
face to face learning from flexible learning

Method: ________________________ Why?

______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.
1.5. Mr. Rufino’s objective is to enhance his students’ self -efficacy and attitude toward school.

Method: ________________________ Why?

______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.
1.6. Teacher Mai wants to know if her class can identify the different parts of a computer.

Method: ________________________ Why?

______________________________________________________________________________________ __
_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________
____ ____________________________________________________________________________________
_______ _________________________________________________________________________________
__________.

Final Module (Week 13-18)

LESSON 4: DESIGNING ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF ASSESSMENT RESULTS

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students can:

1.determine the different ways in prese nting assessment results;
2.present assessment results using textual, tabular and/or graphica l;
3.identify the level of measurements; and
4.utilize the various measu res in interpreting assessment results.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Statistics is the process of collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing,
and interpreting data to create a valid conclusion and rational decisions.
Stages of Statistical Enquiry
a. Collection of Data – the process of data gathering, such as interview, questionnaires,
tests, observations, registrations, and experiments.
b. Presentation of Data – organizing of data through tabular, graphical, or textual
presentation.
c. Analysis of Data – the process of extracting from the given data relevant and noteworthy
information using statistical techniques and methods
d. Interpretation of Data – drawing of conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.

There are two divisions in statistics, which are descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.

Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the

characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things that based on
confirmable facts. It organizes the description, presentation and interpretation of data
gathered.
Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences from the
population by obtaining information from the sample by using techniques of descriptive
statistics.

Classification of Variables

1. Qualitative variable – contains categorical or qualitative responses. It refers to the

characteristics or attributes of the sample such as civil status, religious affiliations, gender
2. Quantitative variable – contains numerical responses representing an amount or
quantity such as height, weight, number of children

a. Discrete – values obtained by counting, e.g., births, students in the class

b. Continuous – values obtained by measurement, e.g., age, height

Dependent – a variable which is affected by another variable, e.g., test scores

Independent – a variable which affects the other variable e.g., number of hours spent for
studying
Levels of Measurements of Variables
Normally, when you hear the term measurement, you may think terms like in
measuring length (ie. the length of a book) or measuring a quantity (ie. a cup of sugar). In
statistics, the term measurement deals with the scales of measurement. Scales of
measurement refer to the variables/numbers are being defined and categorized. Each scale
of measurement has properties that determine the suitability for use of a particular
statistical analyses. The data can be categorized into nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
Nominal: data are categorical and the numbers are used as identifiers or a
representation. The numbers on the back of a jersey (COED Blazer 1 = Juan dela Cruz) and
the social security number are some examples of a nominal data. If you conduct a survey
and you will include gender as a variable, code the Female as 1 and Male as 2 or vice versa
when you enter your data into the computer. Thus, using numbers 1 and 2 can be used to
represent the categories of data.
Ordinal: it denotes an ordered series of associations or rank order. In a contest,
individuals are competing to achieve first, second, or third place. The first, second, and
third place represents ordinal data. If Rose takes first and Willy takes second, we do not
know if the competition was close; we only know that Rose outperformed Willy. Likert-type
scales also represent ordinal data. Basically, these scales do not represent a measurable
quantity. An individual may respond 8 to a question and he actually feel less than someone
who responded 5. Another person may not be in half as much pain if he responded 4 than
if he responded 8. This data may only indicate that an individual responded 6 is in less
pain than a person responded 8 and in more pain than a person responded 4. Therefore,
Likert-type scales represent a ranking.
Interval: it represents a quantity and has equal units in which zero indicates an
additional point of measurement is an interval scale. For Example 10 degree Fahrenheit or
-10 degrees Fahrenheit are an interval data. Each of these scales are a direct measures of a
quantity with equality of units. Thus, zero does not represent the absolute lowest value.
Rather, it is the point on a scale with numbers both above and below it.
Ratio: it is a scale of measurement which is similar to the interval scale that
represents quantity and has equality of units. However, ratio has an absolute zero (no
numbers exist below zero). It is commonly used in physical measures like height and
weight. If one is measuring a height of a person in centimeters, there is quantity, equal
units, and that measure cannot go below zero centimeters. A negative height is not
possible.
The table below shows a summary of fundamental differences between the four scales of
measurement

DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is gathering information from some person or some other ways to get
data. Data collection is done to keep on record for further use, to make essential decisions
about different problems, and to disseminate information on to others.
Primary Data - the collection of data from the first-hand source. This type of data is mostly
pure and original.
Secondary Data –the collection of data from the second-hand source. Information could be
from another researcher or agency.

DATA-GATHERING TECHNIQUES
DATA PRESENTATION

The collected data can be presented in 3 different ways which include:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION

Data presented in a paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This

includes an enumeration of essential characteristics, emphasizing the most significant
features, and highlighting the most striking attributes of the set of data.
Example:
According to a rapid survey conducted by the government, 77 percent of micro and
small firms and 62 percent of medium-sized firms had to close due to the enhanced
community quarantines. Those that remained open suffered a 66.5 percent drop in sales.
The growth forecast for 2020 assumes that the containment measures will gradually
ease in the second half of the year, and economic activities return in some sectors of the
economy. Given income losses and heightened uncertainty, household consumption and
private investment are expected to remain weak.
However, economic growth prospects and poverty figures are expected to improve in
succeeding years driven by a rebound in consumption, a stronger push in public
investment, supportive fiscal and monetary policies, and the recovery of global growth.
Economic growth is projected to return to above 6 percent in 2021 and 7 percent in 2022.
Increased economic activity surrounding national elections will also boost growth in 2022.
(Philippines: Social Assistance to Poor Households, Support for Small Enterprises Key to
Broad-Based Recovery; http://worldbank.org; June 9, 2020)

TABULAR PRESENTATION
The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a
systematic and orderly manner, which catches one's attention and may facilitate the
comprehension and analysis of the data presented.

Frequency Distribution Table

The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table that shows frequency of
observations for each of the defined classes or categories.
Parts of Statistical Table
1. Table Heading – contains table number and title of the table

2. Body – it is the main part of the table that covers the information or figures

3. Stubs or classes – it is the classification or categories describing the data and usually
found at the left most side of the table.
Boxhead – located in the top of the body which includes the stubhead, the master caption
and the column caption.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table
can be made exciting and easier to understand when depicted in GRAPHICAL FORM. A
graph is a pictorial representation of a given data.
Solution: STEP 1: Determine the median class by dividing the total number of observations
by 2. (n/2)=(50/2) = 25
The median score of 50 students in the first quiz is 38.59.

Properties of Median
- It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score fall and above which
another 50% lie.
- It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.
- It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
- It is used in an ordinal data.
- It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.

MODE
- Mode is the most observed value in a set.
- It is commonly located where the observation values occur with the highest frequency.
- It could not always exist, and if it does, it may not be unique.
- When a data set has one mode, it is called unimodal, two modes are called bimodal, three
modes are called trimodal, and so on.
- It is not affected by extreme values.
- It can be applied to both qualitative and quantitative data.
Example: Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets. Data Set 1, 2, 5, 2, 3, 5, 2, 1,
Solution Mode = 2 because it has the most number of occurrence.
Data Set 2 Red Blue Blue White Yellow Red Green Blue Orange White Yellow Black
Mode = Blue because it has the highest number of occurrences in the data set.
 The scores of 8 students in a quiz are as follows: 75 88 94 76 82 90 87 94 Find the
39th percentile.
Solution:
STEP 1: First arrange the data from lowest to highest.
75 76 82 87 88 90 94 94
STEP 2: Identify the values of the variables and substitute to the formula
MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION
The measures of absolute dispersion are stated in the units of the original
observations. It cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average of
these data set differs a lot in value or when the observations differ in a unit of
measurement.

Range
The range of a set of measurement is the difference between the largest and smallest
values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value

Example: The IQ scores of 6 members of the Gonzalvo's family are 112,114,109,120, 119
and 116. Find the range.
Solution: R = 120 –109 = 11

There is a problem in using range as a measure of dispersion, it makes no distinction

between a diverged distribution of data in which the observed values could be close to
either the minimum or maximum values.
 The standard score can be used to compare values from the series of data mainly
when the means and the standard deviations are different.
Examples:
Dante obtained a grade of 70 in English and 93 in PE. The mean grade in English is
65, and the standard deviation is 4, whereas, in PE, the mean grade is 80 having a
standard deviation of 15, in which subject did Dante perform better?
Solution:
Assuming that the distribution is in bell-shaped. So, we can use the empirical rule.
Given that the mean is ₱15,000, x-s = ₱13,000 is equivalent to one standard deviation
which has 34% and x-s= ₱13,000 is equivalent to one standard deviation which also has
34%. Therefore, there are 64% of employees in Cabanatuan that takes a salary between
₱13,000 and ₱17,000.