Trends, Networks, and Critical Thinking in the 21st Century

Group 1
Democratic Interventions
What is Democracy?
Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under free electoral system or a state of society
characterized by formal equality of rights and privileges. It originates from the Greek word demos, which
means “people”, and kratos, which means ‘strength or power.”

What is Democratic Practice?

Democratic Practice is a set of principles and practices that guide how people interact and work
together every day to improve their community and to create a more just society.

What are some democratic practices?

A. Suffrage or the right to vote. It gives the people the opportunity to exercise sovereignty by
choosing the candidates who will govern and serve them. Eligible voters have the right to
elect the government of his/her country by secret vote. It is only fair that they have a direct
hand in choosing the officials.
B. Public assembly and consultation. “The Public Assembly Act of 1985,” makes sure that the
people’s exercise their right to a peaceful assembly. Citizens have a set of rights and
responsibilities, including the right to participate in decisions that affect public welfare. This
act stipulates that rallies, demonstrations, marches, public meetings, processions, or
parades (collectively referred to as public assembly) can be held in public places to express
opinion, to protest against, or to air grievances on certain issues.
C. Majority rule and minority rights. It is the making of binding decisions by a vote of more
than one-half of all persons who participate in an election. Thomas Jefferson, third President
of the United States, expressed the concept of democracy in 1801 in his first Inaugural
Address. He said
All…will bear in mind this sacred principle. That though the will of the majority is in all
cases to prevail, that will to be rightful must be reasonable; that the minority possess their
equal rights, which equal law must protect and to violate would be oppression.
D. Conduct of plebiscite to amend a constitutional provision. The Constitution embodies the
fundamental laws of the land from which all other laws should be in accord with. The
change in a provision of the constitution, such as increasing the number of years of term of
office of the president, cannot be carried without the approval of the people or general
constituencies in a process called plebiscite. A plebiscite is an electoral process for
approving or rejecting a change or amendment in the Constitution. It is in the process of
direct vote-say yes or no; accept or reject.

Democratic participation is the involvement or engagement with something which is freely done,
without coercion, and without threat or fear.

Importance of Participation in Democracy

1. Democracy provides equality and admission to opportunities for all its citizen in the government;
2. checks and balances the government to prevent possible abuse of political power from the officials;
3. allows citizens to influence and suggest policies and laws through plebiscite in selecting delegates or
representatives.
4. allows the popular majority to oust a representative or a politician who hold too much power and
abuses it;
5. promotes freedom where citizen enjoy human rights, allows people to engage the business and
innovations;
6. becomes competent, firm, and stable when the state is ruled with leaders who have dedication and
transparency;
7. provides political education to the people telling them of the state affairs; and
8. upholds change since the citizens have the opportunity to participate in the involvement in the
government.

Representative and Participatory Democracies

Democracy has several forms. Two of the most popular types are representative democracy
and participatory democracy

Representative Democracy
In the modern period where large populations usually form societies, Representative Democracy (also
called indirect democracy) is observed to be more popularly exercised. It is a political system where the
qualified citizens exercise their political power through representatives. The sovereign power remains
on the citizens but its exercise is delegated to the representatives they elect. By extension, the citizens,
through their votes, allow these representatives to make choices and decisions on their behalf.

Participatory Democracy
Quite similar to representative democracy is participatory democracy which also encourages a more
active and wider involvement of citizens. While representative democracy motivates individual citizens
to contribute to policy making, participatory democracy offers more opportunities for members of the
population to contribute to decision-making through popular assemblies. It has variants. In a direct
democracy, all eligible citizens and qualified voters directly or personally involve themselves in making
political decisions. In the Philippines, one popular demonstration of participatory democracy was the
EDSA People Power of 1986. Through the people’s direct involvement in a series of protests, the
dictatorial rule of President Ferdinand Marcos was toppled down.
 Group 2
Assessing Political and Social Institutions

Democracy as a form of government comes in many forms. Even though supported by most citizens in
democratic states, what they cherish are widely different systems. This plurality is crucial when the
quality of democratic governance is to be evaluated. However, variations not only concern strict political
systems as such but also the relationship between political institutions and the social institutions that
are not directly part of political processes.

Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws. They often mediate
conflict, make (governmental) policies with regards to the economy and social systems, and otherwise
provide representation for the populous.

The quality as well as the stability of democratic governance is integrated in the large set of
social institutions indirectly related to politics. Political institutions in a narrow sense are complemented
by voluntary organizations and social movements. Moreover, other social fields which are permanently
present in the lives of the people, such as education, health care and others, may be equally important
to the quality of democracy. Even if shaped by democratic processes, they in turn give input to and
shape the functioning of democracy. Hence, the quality of democracy refers both to the functioning of
political institutions and to the extension of democratic ideals to other social institutions.

What is the difference between political structures and political institutions? Political
institutions are generic, while structures are specific. Structures pertain to the executive branch of
government, while institutions pertain to the legislative branch.

Democracy works well when its political institutions perform functions assigned to them. The
Constitution of any country lays down basic rules on the powers and functions of each institution. The
Prime Minister and the Cabinet are institutions that take all important policy decisions. A democracy in a
more traditional sense is a political system that allows for each individual to participate.

Institutions are important in a democratic government because they ensure that the system
runs according to the rule of law and not according to whims and fancies of a ruler. It ensures justice
and fairness in the system as the powers and jurisdiction of every institutions is clearly defined by the
constitution. A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a common
purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and
expectations of individuals.

Social institutions are systems of behavioral and relationship patterns that are densely
interwoven and enduring, and function across an entire society. They order and structure the behavior
of individuals by means of their normative character. Family is very important in Germany both from
social and legal viewpoints. A family creates a stable and often unbreakable relationship.

From Political Philosophy to Sociological Analysis

 Institutions, as they are understood in the present context, constitute common frameworks
regulating social behavior of individuals and organizations, as well as basic social conflict. As such, they
reflect viable social compromises, in some cases even consensus. Yet, even if conflicts are mitigated,
they do not disappear. They take several forms, not only as conflicts over divergent interests but as
normative dilemmas, as goal conflicts, and as competing interpretations of how institutions are
supposed to work. Thus, institutions become arenas for the exertion of power given that institutions
emerge and change by processes of differentiation and innovation; they are widely divergent in their
modes of functioning. Thus, the relationship between them reflects complementarity and tensions at
the same time. The prevalence of dilemmas, tensions and conflicts within institutions points to the
salience of democratic deliberation and conflict resolution.

Democratizing the Economy

The economy is dominated by an overarching ambivalence between autonomy and hierarchy –
at the most general level, between the roles of producers and consumers and the roles of managers and
workers. In the role of consumers, citizens are basically in an autonomous position; in the role of
producers, they are placed into drastic hierarchical systems. The relationship between management and
employees is less clear-cut: employees are subordinate to management prerogatives while at the same
time enjoying political autonomy as citizens. When prospective democratic elements in the economy are
discussed, old notions of ‘economic democracy’ inevitably come up. This is not so much a concept as a
generic term to cover the expansion of political democracy into the economy.

Welfare State Institutions in Democracy

The basic task of the welfare state is the inclusion of citizens in regular participation in society.
The welfare state is composed of several basic institutions; here the discussion is mostly limited to
institutions for health care and social security. Welfare state measures in these fields aim at maintaining
or restoring – as far as practically possible – the ability of citizens to act as free and productive
individuals. This is obtained by public agencies distributing rights-based provisions. An underlying norm
of the welfare state is that of social solidarity, which takes two forms. In addition to meeting immediate
needs in the population, it serves as an insurance system for those who are not needy at present but
may be so in the future

Democracy in the Media Institution

Systems of information, shaped by ruling groups, have always been a precondition for keeping
together societies larger than local communities. In modern times, the media are institutionalized as a
main source of the communal imagination by their diffusion to the general public. Their institutional
character and practical separation from ruling groups are not sufficient conditions for the media being
democratic. In large parts of the world political censorship, directly or indirectly, plays a key role in the
production and diffusion of information. To be democratic, the media must have freedom of information
and of expression as their normative bases.
In democratic societies, the media are exposed to two basic dilemmas. First, they are supposed
to take an idealistic, liberal stance by bringing forth information for discussion among citizens about all
kinds of social prospects and problems. Inclusive social deliberation presupposes that media reach out
to a large number of readers or listeners. The other side of the coin is that most media are private
enterprises with a commercial component, and they are expected to bring profit to their shareholders
When reaching out to a large audience is not only a democratic but also a commercial requirement, it
also unduly invites selection from and trivialization of the news panorama based on public appeal.

Generalizing Institutional Norms and Conflicts

The main social institutions are heterogeneous; they comprise, and are even built around deep
social dilemmas or conflicts that cannot be solved once and for all but rather necessitate compromises.
Thus, if social struggles over compromises and reformulations of compromises are unavoidable, they are
by nature changeable. For this reason, democratic deliberation becomes crucial.
Democratic norms across institutional fields may equally be subsumed under a set of common
terms. In a general sense, the criterion of social membership concerns various forms of exclusion from
basic social institutions. In working life this refers to the citizens’ general access to decent positions in
the labour market. In the welfare state, social membership is expressed by the degree of access to
health care and social services. In the media sector, social membership is a function of access to socially
relevant information via the media or otherwise. All of these cases represent different types and
degrees of dualization. The degree to which dualization is a consequence of institutional preconditions
may serve as a measure of the quality of democracy.

Analyzing Democratic and Undemocratic Practices

The democratic practices in the country are meant to benefit the people. If only its resources,
work force and funds were never exploited by several individuals, finding solutions for the country’s
multitude of economic and political problems would never be impossible. Some democratic laws,
however, are on the border of being removed such as the Freedom of Information Act which is now
being abolished in some countries like the UK as its government already issued some restrictions on
information present in the web. Since the Philippines tend to follow most of the principles of the 1st
world countries, this country may also do the same in the near future.

On the other hand, undemocratic practices are practices that affect the society and government
in many different ways, usually denying the people’s rights for freedom of expression, property
ownership, religious practices, etc. These practices include corruption, martial law, and any other
ordinances that restrict freedom among its citizens. Although these were common trends in the country
in the past, they were eventually overshadowed by corruption and poverty, which are main problems of
most 3rd world countries today. Furthermore, undemocratic practices are still severe problems in the
country but there are already few ways in order to deal with such problems to prevent any further
troubles in the government and the society. And one of those effective ways in dealing with societal
problems is the education of the young people.

Keep In Mind

An undemocratic practice is a doctrine that is against or in disagreement with democracy.

Democracy is a political system for choosing and replacing the government and its leaders. Electoral
fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this
type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions. Deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely
considered a violation of the principles of democracy (Wayback Machine, 2007)
Public funding is money that comes from the government, often through taxes, that is used to
help the public through goods and services. The funds are gathered and distributed in different levels
such as the federal level, state level, and even local level. While taxes are a primary resource, funding
can also come from fines and fees.
Public funding helps provide health programs, community services, restoration programs, public
service programs, and even environmental programs. These programs benefit the members of the
community in which the funds are used. So, Chase learns that when taxpayers pay taxes, the
government uses that money to help maintain and improve communities through programs and services
(Brianna Whiting).
In general, corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal activity undertaken by a person or
organization entrusted with a position of authority, often to acquire illicit benefit (Wikipedia).
An undemocratic practice is a doctrine that is against or in disagreement with democracy.
Democracy is a political system for choosing and replacing the government in which everybody should
participate. Democracy is a great way of choosing our leaders, but it proves to be hard to make rules
that every citizen will follow. Also, in democracy, the majority wins, but this isn’t always a good thing.
The other side will be upset, creating violence and corruption.
 Group 3
Enabling and Inhibiting Dimensions of Technology

Twenty-first century learning has been defined by application and advancement in information
technology or IT. Information technology has become an essential part of education. According to
Information Technology Association of America, information technology is defined as “the study, design,
development, application, implementation, support or management of computer-based information
systems” which serves as a big help both for the teachers and learners.

Integrating technology in education is imperative for it is one way to encourage the learners to
be more interested in the subject they are studying. It can encourage a more active participation in the
learning process which can be hard to achieve through a traditional lecture environment and hence,
provides different opportunities to make learning more fun, interactive and enriching.

Emerging technologies show many challenges to the traditional system. Nanotechnology,

biotechnology and robotics are not limited to an individual organization like many older technologies
such as motor vehicles, pharmaceuticals and others but rather, to a multiple of industries and
application companies. These controlled sectors and applications create a complication of regulatory
efforts in determining the risks and control costs of these technology – life cycles.

Emerging technologies further show an unprecedented vagueness parallel to the risks they
bring, advantages, and upcoming growth while traditional technologies possess toxicity which may not
be in the case of nanomaterials. Some genetically altered food products can be risky to the welfare of
public health and the environment. Information technology has served as a major catalyst of change and
innovation in different aspect of business and society. It has proven game changer in resolving economic
and social issues.

As the proliferation of technology in the classroom continues to accelerate, schools that haven’t
yet implemented some of the latest and greatest devices such as computers in the classroom are
starting to really feel the pressure to cope with the fast changing world. Mobile devices can make
perfect learning tools and open up unlimited possibilities for educators and students alike, but it’s not all
daisies and roses. Sometimes the initial infatuation with the shiny new technology turns into a love-hate
relationship as problems and issues arise.

POTENTIAL ISSUES TO LOOK OUT FOR WHEN BRINGING TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

Students Using Social Media

Of course, teachers are afraid that their students may just play around on social media instead
of using their devices for educational purposes. Today’s kids spend quite a bit of time on Facebook,
mobile games, other social networking sites, etc.

Security Breach
 Students are oftentimes more curious than they are malicious. They want to push the
boundaries just to see if they can. If you're network allows them access to the admin servers, you can
bet they're going to get on it.

Cheating
At one time a student had to pull a paper written “cheat sheet” out of their pocket to have the
ability to cheat. It certainly seems easier that they can now cleverly pull up a “cheat sheet” on their
device. The good news is, with the ever-evolving change in technology, software companies are
developing ways to alleviate the cheating problem by for example, allowing teachers and administrator’s
access to students’ screens while in the classroom.

Gaming
There are a ton of free gaming apps out there and people love them, especially the learners.
These addicting games can be quite the distraction and take away from productivity in learning.
Information technologies have contributed to the increase in the concentration of access to
information, decision – making and control. They have accelerated the crisis in employment through
labor substitution and have intensified the competitive processes in both economic and social spheres.
Their development has sustained the belief that the urban crisis can be resolved through new
information and communication infrastructures.
Technology has taken over the lives of many people who spend way too much time on social
media just trying to see how many likes and comments they have on their Facebook or Instagram posts.
People think of social media when someone is looking at their phone, or when someone mentions
technology. They forget all the amazing things other than social media that technology has brought to
us. Technology has allowed parents not to be in the dark when it comes to being aware as to where
their children are. It has allowed people away from their own countries to contact their loved ones and
even see them through video calls. But technology has enslaved us and has controlled our lives in some
other ways as well.
Technology has been lauded as a way to free up time for us, yet the reality of all of these –
consuming medium often does the reverse. New innovations bring with them a host of unintended
consequences, ranging from the troubling to the downright depressing. Social media makes us lonely.
Too much screen – time makes teenagers fall behind their peers. And at the more feeble end of the
spectrum, many of us have walked into an obstacle while texting. Tech innovators frequently profess
aspirations to improve the lot of mankind. Such aspirations are admirable, but we shouldn’t forget that
there’s one rather more concrete intention they share: to make money. They’re vendors, we’re
consumers: it’s simple as that.
But even if tech companies aren’t really trying to enslave us, or to make us feel inadequate, that
doesn’t mean that the current situation is a case of good intentions gone awry. There’s no more reason
to think that technology is intrinsically good, but occasionally getting it wrong, than there is to think that
it’s a remarkably successful villain.
Technology can be used in various ways to facilitate business organizations. For example,
technology can be used to organize information. It can be used to aid data transfer and information flow
within an organization. Technology can also be used to process, track and organize business records. IT
indeed has countless of advantages in the field of business and commerce. It helps businesses automate
most tasks and this process results in increased production and efficiency. Business can automate tasks
in the accounting department by using accounting software like QuickBooks.
Technology helps to speed up the learning process for students because it creates a more
efficient learning environment in many ways. Moreover, technology can also be an important part of
one’s life for many other reasons aside from education.
Technology has important effects on business operations. Regardless of the size of your
enterprise, technology has both tangible and intangible benefits that will help you make money and
produce the results that your customers demand. Technological infrastructures affect the culture,
efficiency and relationships within a business. Technology has the ability to enhance relationships
among teachers, students and even the community. When teachers effectively integrate technology into
varied subject areas, teachers grow into roles of adviser, content expert, and coach.
Technology helps make teaching and learning more meaningful and fun. Technology is in many
ways like its own form of entertainment. However, for people with disabilities, technology can be so
much more than just entertainment. It can change their lives. It can help them learn and enable them to
do things they wouldn't otherwise be able to do.
 Group 4
Neural and Social Networks
A network is a group of individuals who collaborates with each other to be able to achieve a
purpose and connection. It can be best described as work team, meeting of learners of the same course
and profession, or any group who works together for a common cause. Establishing a network is
important because through pooling resources, the organization can be aware of potential threats or
problems that may arise during a project or event. Networking is associated with participation since it
builds support and allows empowerment of its members. It also strengthens the work team to advocate
issues, provide credibility, attain outcomes, give accurate information, plan activities, support project,
and solve potential problems.
Networking allows people to be flexible as they adjust to the changing environment. These
individuals depend on different lifelong learning skills that they use in their interaction with their peers
and workmates. Networking further connects and gathers people from a heterogeneous group of
individuals from across professions and classes to achieve their plans and goals. It pivots innovations and
awareness as people exchange knowledge and information. Weak and strong networks provide learning
that will give organizations and 5 people an idea of how links and connections work. Thus, an individual
may devise methods and ties to his or her learning needs and use technology to enhance such skills.
Connection refers to something that joins two or more objects or individuals. It also shows a
situation wherein two or more objects or individuals have a similar cause, goal, or origin. The
participants of Occupy movements, for instance, were connected together by a common goal of
socioeconomic justice. Connection also exists between two individuals (or among many), events, and
objects. Global warming is connected to frequent forest fires, just as unemployment is connected to
poverty.
Similarly, a relationship refers to the state or condition of being connected; the way in which
two or more individuals or groups regard and behave toward one another; the manner by which two or
more people, associations, or countries deal with each. The annual Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) meeting of heads of state demonstrates a relationship between economies around the Pacific
belt. A relationship always involves dyadic or more levels of connection.

EXPLORE
Relationships have different meanings to different people. Such can be with friends, with a
special someone, with colleagues and co-workers, with comembers of an association, and with family
members, to name a few. Establishing relationships is an important component of your life. As you pass
through the different life stages, you will meet a variety of people with whom you’ll build relationships
with, whether good or bad, some of which will leave long-lasting impacts on your life.
Establishing good relationships with friends is essential. Doing things for each other without
expecting anything in return makes a good friendship. Building good relationships with colleagues and
coworkers can be an asset to your work success. A promotion, a raise, or an appreciation from your
company may come out due to your low-quality work backed up by good relationships with coworkers
and the management. Love and respect for others are basic in establishing good and inspiring
relationships in your workplace.
Familial relationships are believed to be the most important of all types of relationship. Good
relationship between parents and children results in a happy, wholesome home. Studies have shown
that children who grew up with good relationships with their parents acquired good attitudes, got better
grades, and became better decision makers. They also developed the tendency to listen to the advice of
their parents, thus, avoiding misdirection and costly mistakes in life.
Quality matters in any relationship. Sincerity, depth, and mutual understanding underlie a good
relationship of any kind. Being a social actor, you are always engaged in overlapping relationships.
Relationships, therefore, play a vital role in life.

NEURAL NETWORK

The human brain is the command center for the human nervous system. It receives signals from
the body's sensory organs and outputs information to the muscles. The human brain has the same basic
structure as other mammal brains but is larger in relation to body size than any other brains.
The brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all functions of the body, interprets
information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and soul. Intelligence,
creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many things governed by the brain. Protected within
the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing—
often many at one time. It assembles the messages in a way that has meaning for us, and can store that
information in our memory. The brain controls our thoughts, memory and speech, movement of the
arms and legs, and the function of many organs within our body.
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves
that branch from the brain.
The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

 Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It
performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech,
reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.
 Cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements,
maintain posture, and balance.
 Brainstem acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It
performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and
sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

Right Brain–Left Brain

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left
hemispheres (Fig. 2) They are joined by a bundle of fibers called the
corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other.
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke
occurs on the right side of the brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or
paralyzed.

Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the

left hemisphere controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and
writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic,
 and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and
language in about 92% of people.

Lobes of the Brain

The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures, which divide
the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes: frontal, temporal,
parietal, and occipital (Fig. 3). Each lobe may be divided, once again,
into areas that serve very specific functions. It is important to
understand that each lobe of the brain does not function alone. There
are very complex relationships between the lobes of the brain and
between the right and left hemispheres.
Frontal lobe • Personality, behavior, emotions • Judgment, planning,
problem solving • Speech: speaking and writing (Broca’s area) • Body
movement (motor strip) • Intelligence, concentration, selfawareness

Parietal lobe • Interprets language, words • Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip) •
Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory • Spatial and visual perception

Occipital lobe • Interprets vision (color, light, movement)

Temporal lobe • Understanding language (Wernicke’s area) • Memory • Hearing • Sequencing and
organization

Language
In general, the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language and speech and is called
the "dominant" hemisphere. The right hemisphere plays a large part in interpreting visual information
and spatial processing. In about one third of people who are left-handed, speech function may be
located on the right side of the brain. Left-handed people may need special testing to determine if their
speech center is on the left or right side prior to any surgery in that area.
Aphasia is a disturbance of language affecting speech production, comprehension, reading or
writing, due to brain injury—most commonly from stroke or trauma. The type of aphasia depends on
the brain area damaged.
Broca’s area lies in the left frontal lobe (Fig. 3). If this area is damaged, one may have difficulty
moving the tongue or facial muscles to produce the sounds of speech. The person can still read and
understand spoken language but has difficulty in speaking and writing (i.e., forming letters and words,
doesn't write within lines)—called Broca's aphasia.
Wernicke's area lies in the left temporal lobe (Fig. 3). Damage to this area causes Wernicke's
aphasia. The individual may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and
even create new words. They can make speech sounds, however they have difficulty understanding
speech and are therefore unaware of their mistakes.

Cortex
The surface of the cerebrum is called the cortex. It has a folded appearance with
hills and valleys. The cortex contains 16 billion neurons (the cerebellum has 70
billion = 86 billion total) that are arranged in specific layers. The nerve cell
 bodies color the cortex greybrown giving it its name—gray matter (Fig. 4).
Beneath the cortex are long nerve fibers (axons) that connect brain areas to
each other—called white matter.
The folding of the cortex increases the brain’s surface area allowing more neurons to fit inside the skull
and enabling higher functions. Each fold is called a gyrus, and each groove between folds is called a
sulcus. There are names for the folds and grooves that help define specific brain regions.

Deep Structures

Pathways called white matter tracts connect areas of the cortex

to each other. Messages can travel from one gyrus to another, from one
lobe to another, from one side of the brain to the other, and to
structures deep in the brain (Fig. 5). Hypothalamus is located in the floor
of the third ventricle and is the master control of the autonomic system.
It plays a role in controlling behaviors such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and
sexual response. It also regulates body temperature, blood pressure,
emotions, and secretion of hormones.
Pituitary gland lies in a small pocket of bone at the skull base
called the sella turcica. The pituitary gland is connected to the
hypothalamus of the brain by the pituitary stalk. Known as the “master
gland,” it controls other endocrine glands in the body. It secretes
hormones that control sexual development, promote bone and muscle
growth, and respond to stress.
Pineal gland is located behind the third ventricle. It helps regulate the body’s internal clock and
circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin. It has some role in sexual development.

Thalamus serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes and goes to the cortex. It plays
a role in pain sensation, attention, alertness and memory. Basal ganglia includes the caudate, putamen
and globus pallidus. These nuclei work with the cerebellum to coordinate fine motions, such as fingertip
movements.

Limbic system is the center of our emotions, learning, and memory. Included in this system are the
cingulate gyri, hypothalamus, amygdala (emotional reactions) and hippocampus (memory).

Memory
Memory is a complex process that includes three phases: encoding (deciding what information
is important), storing, and recalling. Different areas of the brain are involved in different types of
memory. Your brain has to pay attention and rehearse in order for an event to move from shortterm to
long-term memory—called encoding.
• Short-term memory, also called working memory, occurs in the prefrontal cortex. It stores
information for about one minute and its capacity is limited to about 7 items. For example, it enables
you to dial a phone number someone just told you. It also intervenes during reading, to memorize the
sentence you have just read, so that the next one makes sense.
 • Long-term memory is processed in the hippocampus of the temporal lobe and is activated
when you want to memorize something for a longer time. This memory has unlimited content and
duration capacity. It contains personal memories as well as facts and figures.
• Skill memory is processed in the cerebellum, which relays information to the basal ganglia. It
stores automatic learned memories like tying a shoe, playing an instrument, or riding a bike.

Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid

The brain has hollow fluid-filled cavities called ventricles. Inside the ventricles is a ribbon-like
structure called the choroid plexus that makes clear colorless cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF flows within
and around the brain and spinal cord to help cushion it from injury. This circulating fluid is constantly
being absorbed and replenished.
There are two ventricles deep within the cerebral hemispheres called the lateral ventricles. They
both connect with the third ventricle through a separate opening called the foramen of Monro. The
third ventricle connects with the fourth ventricle through a long narrow tube called the aqueduct of
Sylvius. From the fourth ventricle, CSF flows into the subarachnoid space where it bathes and cushions
the brain. CSF is recycled (or absorbed) by special structures in the superior sagittal sinus called
arachnoid villi.
A balance is maintained between the amount of CSF that is absorbed and the amount that is
produced. A disruption or blockage in the system can cause a build up of CSF, which can cause
enlargement of the ventricles (hydrocephalus) or cause a collection of fluid in the spinal cord
(syringomyelia).

Skull
The purpose of the bony skull is to protect the brain from injury. The skull is formed from eight
bones that fuse together along suture lines. These bones include the frontal, parietal (2), temporal (2),
sphenoid, occipital, and ethmoid. The face is formed from 14 paired bones including the maxilla,
zygoma, nasal, palatine, lacrimal, inferior nasal conchae, mandible, and vomer.
Inside the skull are three distinct areas: anterior fossa, middle fossa, and posterior fossa.
Doctors sometimes refer to a tumor’s location by these terms, e.g., middle fossa meningioma.
Similar to cables coming out the back of a computer, all the arteries, veins and nerves exit the
base of the skull through holes, called foramina. The big hole in the middle (foramen magnum) is where
the spinal cord exits.

Cranial nerves
The brain communicates with the body through the spinal cord and twelve pairs of cranial
nerves. Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves that control hearing, eye movement, facial sensations,
taste, swallowing and movement of the face, neck, shoulder and tongue muscles originate in the
brainstem. The cranial nerves for smell and vision originate in the cerebrum.The Roman numeral, name,
and main function of the twelve cranial nerves:
 Meni
nges
The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by three layers of tissue called meninges.
From the outermost layer inward they are: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
Dura mater is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside of the skull; its two layers,
the periosteal and meningeal dura, are fused and separate only to form venous sinuses. The dura
creates little folds or compartments. There are two special dural folds, the falx and the tentorium. The
falx separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain and the tentorium separates the cerebrum
from the cerebellum.
Arachnoid mater is a thin, web-like
membrane that covers the entire brain. The
arachnoid is made of elastic tissue. The space
between the dura and arachnoid membranes is
called the subdural space.
Pia mater hugs the surface of the brain
following its folds and grooves. The pia mater has
many blood vessels that reach deep into the brain.
The space between the arachnoid and pia is called
the subarachnoid space. It is here where the
cerebrospinal fluid bathes and cushions the brain.
Blood supply
Blood is carried to the brain by two paired
arteries, the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries (Fig. 10). The internal carotid arteries
supply most of the cerebrum.
The vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum, brainstem, and the underside of the cerebrum.
After passing through the skull, the right and left vertebral arteries join together to form the basilar
artery. The basilar artery and the internal carotid arteries “communicate” with each other at the base of
the brain called the Circle of Willis (Fig. 11). The communication between the internal carotid and
vertebral-basilar systems is an important safety feature of the brain. If one of the major vessels becomes
blocked, it is possible for collateral blood flow to come across the Circle of Willis and prevent brain
damage.
The venous circulation of the brain is very different from that of the rest of the body. Usually
arteries and veins run together as they supply and drain specific areas of the body. So one would think
there would be a pair of vertebral veins and internal carotid veins. However, this is not the case in the
brain. The major vein collectors are integrated into the dura to form venous sinuses — not to be
confused with the air sinuses in the face and nasal region. The venous sinuses collect the blood from the
brain and pass it to the internal jugular veins. The superior and inferior sagittal sinuses drain the
cerebrum, the cavernous sinuses drains the anterior skull base. All sinuses eventually drain to the
sigmoid sinuses, which exit the skull and form the jugular veins.
These two jugular veins are essentially the only drainage of the
brain.
Cells of the brain
The brain is made up of two types of cells: nerve cells
(neurons) and glia cells.
Nerve cells
There are many sizes and shapes of neurons, but all
consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon. The neuron
conveys information through electrical and chemical signals. Try
to picture electrical wiring in your home. An electrical circuit is
made up of numerous wires connected in such a way that when
a light switch is turned on, a light bulb will beam. A neuron that is
excited will transmit its energy to neurons within its vicinity.
Neurons transmit their energy, or “talk”, to each other across a tiny gap called a synapse (Fig.
12). A neuron has many arms called dendrites, which act like antennae picking up messages from other
nerve cells. These messages are passed to the cell body, which determines if the message should be
passed along. Important messages are passed to the end of the axon where sacs containing
neurotransmitters open into the synapse. The neurotransmitter molecules cross the synapse and fit into
special receptors on the receiving nerve cell, which stimulates that cell to pass on the message.
Glia Cells
Glia (Greek word meaning glue) are the cells of the brain that provide neurons with
nourishment, protection, and structural support. There are about 10 to 50 times more glia than nerve
cells and are the most common type of cells involved in brain tumors.

• stroglia or astrocytes are the caretakers— they regulate the

blood brain barrier, allowing nutrients and molecules to interact with
neurons. They control homeostasis, neuronal defense and repair, scar
formation, and also affect electrical impulses.
• Oligodendroglia cells create a fatty substance called myelin
that insulates axons – allowing electrical messages to travel faster.
• Ependymal cells line the ventricles and secrete
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Microglia are the brain’s immune cells, protecting it from
invaders and cleaning up debris. They also prune synapses.
Facts about the human brain
• The human brain is the largest brain of all vertebrates
relative to body size • It weighs about 3.3 lbs. (1.5 kilograms)
• The average male has a brain volume of 1,275 cubic centimeters
• The average female has a brain volume of 1,131 cubic centimeters
• The brain makes up about 2% of a human’s body weight
• The cerebrum makes up 85% of the brain’s weight
• It contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons)—the “gray matter”
• It contains billions of nerve fibers (axons and dendrites)—the “white matter”
• These neurons are connected by trillions of connections or synapses.

Comparison between neural network and social network

 GROUP 5
Parallelism between Neural and Social Networks
NEURAL NETWORK
Neural networks referred to as connectionist systems (Garson, 2018) are a computational
approach, which is based on a large collection of neural units (AKA artificial neurons), loosely modeling
how the brain of a human solves problems with a large cluster of biological neurons connected by axons
(Garson, 2018).
Each neural unit is linked with many others, and links can be enforcing or inhibitory in their
effect on the activation state of connected neural units. Each individual neural unit may have a
summation function which combines the values of all its inputs together. There may be a threshold
function or limiting function on each connection and on the unit itself; such that the signal must surpass
the limit before propagating to other neurons. These systems are self-learning and trained, rather than
explicitly programmed, and excel in areas where the solution or feature detection is difficult to express
in a traditional computer program.
Neural networks typically consist of multiple layers or a cube design, and the signal path
traverses from front to back. Back propagation is where the forward stimulation is used to reset weights
on the "front" neural units and this is sometimes done in combination with training where the correct
result is known. More modern networks are a bit freer flowing in terms of stimulation and inhibition
with connections interacting in a much more chaotic and complex fashion. Dynamic neural networks are
the most advanced in that they dynamically can, based on rules, form new connections and even new
neural units while disabling others.
The goal of the neural network is to solve problems in the same way that the human brain
would, although several neural networks are more abstract. Modern neural network projects typically
work with a few thousand to a few million neural units and millions of connections, which is still several
orders of magnitude less complex than the human brain and closer to the computing power of a worm.

SOCIAL NETWORK
A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or
organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network
perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a
variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures. The study of these structures
uses social network analysis to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine
network dynamics.
Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field which
emerged from social psychology, sociology, statistics, and graph theory. Georg Simmel authored early
structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations". Jacob
Moreno is credited with developing the first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal
relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods
of social networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social network
analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a
number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other complex networks, it forms part of the
nascent field of network science.

Shaping the Mind through Social Relationships

Lesson 1 Shaping the mind through Social Relationships
Your mind, which is part of the person’s self, is shaped and influenced by the relationships that
the person has with other people. Your thinking is affected by the ideas, beliefs, pieces of advice, and
actions of your parents, teachers, friends, and relatives. In other words, the mind passes through a
variety of social networks as it matures.
Social relationships do affect or influence every individual thinking process. As we interact with
every individual around us, we use our thinking skills on how we are going to be able to socialize and fit
with their different characteristics and deal with their different attitudes (Shinize,2018). We individually
undergo a process of thinking first as we socialize and interact with other people around us.
In sociology, the process of shaping and influencing the mind and behavior of a person by way of
orientation to the norms and values of society is called socialization. Socialization, which starts from
early childhood, is an unending process wherein an individual creates a personal identity as he or she
learns the norms, behavior, values, and social skills based on his or her social position. The parents are
the first social actors to socialize with in the family. The child is oriented on family values, customs,
appropriate behavior, dos and don’ts, and kinship relations. As a person grows older, he or she learns
about responsibilities, how to behave in certain situations, and has to follow norms through interactions
in the community and society. (Urgel,2017)
Socialization implies social relationship. Therefore, relationship does what socialization impacts
on the mind and the person. According to Urgel (2017), a person is a social actor. He possesses physical,
spiritual, and mental faculties which are utilized in dealing with the self, other people, and the
surroundings. Below are some recognized personalities having physical disabilities thus, could relate well
with society:
Stephen Hawking – A theoretical physicist who has a degenerative neuromuscular disease which
has paralyzed him personally. However, he has been celebrated on his theory on black holes based on
general relativity and quantum mechanics. He has been using a computer-based communication system
which allows him to use a screen keyboard through movements in his cheek. He can “speak” sentences
through a speech synthesizer. With this assisting computer, he can write lectures and even deliver them.
Hawking has been an influence and an inspiration to many by expanding the horizon of knowledge
despite his physical disabilities
 Apolinario Mabini – A political leader who used his brilliance and wisdom to guide the
government by giving advice to President Emilio Aguinaldo and writing the constitutional program of the
early republic. His great personal achievements transcended his physical disability.
In School
They perform the functions of learners: studying lessons and coming to school prepared;
reviewing for examinations, participating in class discussions; joining school organizations to hone their
talents and interests; running as an officer of school councils, organizations, clubs, and guilds; getting
involved in intra school and interschool competitions; and engaging in extracurricular activities. The
school is a venue for training the students physically, mentally, attitudinally, emotionally and in some
cases, spiritually. The students are being prepared to facing life’s challenges, to make decisions, and to
choose the better options.
In the Family
The home or family is the first social agency with which the child comes into contact.
Interactions with other members of the family, parents, siblings and others, have a lasting influence on
the personality of the child and his social behavior.
In the family, the student plays the roles of an elder brother or sister, a house helper, a
babysitter, or an animal keeper. Usually, the student helps in looking after the younger siblings, prepare
food, clean the house and accompany the younger siblings. The role of the family, particularly the
parents, in shaping the social behavioral pattern of the child was highlighted for the first time by Freud.
Outside of the Home
Apart from one’s own parents, adults in the neighborhood also exert an influence in the shaping
of the social behavior of the growing children. Students can also perform many roles and functions as
they relate and interact with other people, units and organizations. They can serve as volunteers in
feeding program, reforestation project, or anti-child labor movement. Another role that students can
perform is being a member of Sangguniang Kabataan (SK). The SK intends to train the youth for public
service, particularly in governance.
Simultaneous membership in various groups or communities
• Member of the learning community
• Cyberspace community
• Spiritual community
• Recreational community
• Health community
• Work community
• Disability community
• Volunteer community
Hierarchy of Roles in the Community
A role is a window to a person’s personality and behavior, and it indicates what people can
expect from him or her. How a person performs the functions corresponding to his or her will show if
the person is responsible, trustworthy, efficient, negligent, or unreliable. Roles also indicate how others
should relate with one another.
Adam Kmiec (2013) identifies five types of roles that a community should have in order to attain
success in its existence.
1. The host is someone who entertains the guests, organizes an event, maintains peace and
order, sets some rules and enforces them, pulling some people out when called for. Examples:
Community leaders or those occupying such as statuses as mayor, barangay chairman, school principal,
company head and administrator and police chief, to name a few.
2. The facilitator is focused on carrying out enjoyable and pleasant conversation with guests,
encouraging people to meet and mingle with one another and introducing guests to each other.
Examples: media practitioners who work in newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. They occupy
such positions as editor, writer, broadcaster and newscaster.
3. The popular one is rather self-centered but has the ability to make people gravitate toward
him or her and to attract people’s attention. Examples: top community leaders, political kingmakers
(also called political godfathers, big business people, top entertainers and show business talents, and
leading society personalities belong to this category).
4. The instigator makes community life more interesting by airing criticisms, writing negative
comments, and starting controversies. The instigator serves as the devil’s advocate mostly for
entertainment. Examples: Opinion writers, critics, and columnists
5. The voyeur lends support to the host through his or her mere physical presence. Examples:
community folks, the followers, supporters, and the public who attend every event organized by the
host belong to this category
Ranking the Roles
The various roles are ranked in the order of prestige, value, and importance accorded by the
community. Prestige is the respect and admiration that an occupation or role holds in a community. The
social role valorization (SRV) accords valued roles for all members of the community. A community gives
its members a sense of purpose and a feeling of belongingness. They tend to stay inactive and
eventually fall out. This is where SRV plays a crucial role. Giving valued roles to all members motivates
them to get involved actively in community activities, realize the importance of their participation, and
relate with each other more frequently. It appears that SRV is more important in a community of
interests for its maintenance and survival than in a geographic community, which can exist almost
forever until a political decision declares otherwise.
In both geographic community and community of interests, the social roles of persons are
ranked in the order of importance accorded by the community.

In the Philippines, the ranking of occupations is made according to popularity. The popularity is
based on two views – the view of the worker and the view of the employer. There may be no claim that
these jobs were seen as prestigious, but their popularity can be considered as a stamp of prestige or of
being the most desired occupations.
Below are the top 10 job vacancies in Metro Manila as identified by the Department of Labor
and Employment in the year 2011.
1.call center agents
 2.sales representatives
3.computer professionals
4.clerks (accounting, bookkeeping, etc.)
5.shop salespersons
6.protective services workers
7.engineers
8.cashiers and ticket clerks
9.accountants and auditors
10.debt collectors
What about the students? The rank given to their role depends on the aspect being looked at.
They are perceived as the hope of the community for a better and brighter future, thereby encouraging
the parents, an adult community, and the government to provide them all the support they could.
Below are the ranking compiled by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) in terms of the number
of graduates in academic year 2014 -2015, and the number of enrolment in academic year 2015-2016
both in universities and colleges:

These degree courses may indicate the kind of jobs that are popular to students once they join
the country’s labor force. There is no guarantee, however, that these equate to available jobs by the
time the students graduate. Demands in the job market change from time to time.