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Media Literacy
Eighth Edition
2
3
Media Literacy
Eighth Edition
W. James Potter
University of California, Santa Barbara
4
FOR INFORMATION:
E-mail: order@sagepub.com
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
United Kingdom
India
3 Church Street
Singapore 049483
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 978-1-4833-7932-6
5
Production Editor: Laura Barrett
6
Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. About the Author
4. part I: Introduction
1. Chapter 1: Why Increase Media Literacy?
2. Chapter 2: Media Literacy Approach
5. part II: Audiences
1. Chapter 3: Audience: Individual Perspective
2. Chapter 4: Audience: Industry Perspective
3. Chapter 5: Children as a Special Audience
6. part III: Industry
1. Chapter 6: Development of the Mass Media Industries
2. Chapter 7: Economic Perspective
7. part IV: Content
1. Chapter 8: Media Content and Reality
2. Chapter 9: News
3. Chapter 10: Entertainment
4. Chapter 11: Advertising
5. Chapter 12: Interactive Media
8. part V: Effects
1. Chapter 13: Broadening Our Perspective on Media Effects
2. Chapter 14: How Does the Media Effects Process Work?
9. part VI: The Springboard
1. Chapter 15: Helping Yourself and Others to Increase Media Literacy
10. part VII: Confronting the Issues
1. Issue 1: Media Ownership
2. Issue 2: Media Piracy
3. Issue 3: Sports
4. Issue 4: Media Violence
5. Issue 5: Advertising
6. Issue 6: Privacy
11. Glossary
12. References
13. Index
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8
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Part I: Introduction
Chapter 1: Why Increase Media Literacy?
The Information Problem
Growth Is Accelerating
High Degree of Exposure
Keeping Up
Dealing With the Information Problem
Our Mental Hardware
Our Mental Software
Automatic Routines
Advantages and Disadvantages
The Big Question
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Chapter 2: Media Literacy Approach
What Is Media Literacy?
The Three Building Blocks of Media Literacy
Skills
Knowledge Structures
Personal Locus
The Definition of Media Literacy
The Development of Media Literacy
Advantages of Developing a Higher Degree of Media Literacy
Appetite for Wider Variety of Media Messages
More Self-Programming of Mental Codes
More Control Over Media
Summary
Further Reading
Exercise
Part II: AUDIENCES
Chapter 3: Audience: Individual Perspective
Information-Processing Tasks
Filtering
9
Meaning Matching
Meaning Construction
Analyzing the Idea of Exposure to Media Messages
Exposure and Attention
Physical Exposure
Perceptual Exposure
Psychological Exposure
Attention
Exposure States
Automatic
Attentional
Transported
Self-Reflexive
The Media Literacy Approach
Summary
Further Reading
Exercise
Chapter 4: Audience: Industry Perspective
Shift From Mass to Niche Perspective on Audience
What Is a Mass Audience?
Rejection of the Idea of Mass Audience
The Idea of Niche Audience
Identifying Niches
Geographic Segmentation
Demographic Segmentation
Social Class Segmentation
Geodemographic Segmentation
Psychographic Segmentation
Twelve American Lifestyles
VALS Typology
Attracting Audiences
Appeal to Existing Needs and Interests
Cross-Media and Cross-Vehicle Promotion
Conditioning Audiences
Summary
Further Reading
Exercises
Chapter 5: Children as a Special Audience
Why Treat Children as a Special Audience?
Lack of Experience
10
Lack of Maturation
Cognitive Development
Emotional Development
Moral Development
Special Treatment From Regulators
Protecting Children From Negative TV Content
Protecting Children From Unfair Advertising Practices
Special Treatment From Parents
Re-examining the Case for Special Treatment
Maturation
Experience
Young Adults as a Special Audience
Cognitive Abilities
Field Independency
Crystalline Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence
Conceptual Differentiation
Emotional Abilities
Emotional Intelligence
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Nonimpulsiveness
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercise
PART III: INDUSTRY
Chapter 6: Development of the Mass Media Industries
Patterns of Development
Innovation Stage
Penetration Stage
Peak Stage
Decline Stage
Adaptation Stage
Comparisons Across Mass Media
Life Cycle Pattern
Indicators of Peak
Decline and Adaptation
Current Picture
Convergence
Special Case of the Computer Industry
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Profile of Mass Media Workforce
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Chapter 7: Economic Perspective
The Media Game of Economics
The Players
The Goal
The Rules
Characteristics of the Game
Importance of Valuing Resources Well
Indirect as Well as Direct Support
Complex Interdependency Among Players
Digital Convergence
Nature of Competition
Advertising as the Engine
Media Industries’ Strategies
Maximizing Profits
Increasing Revenue Streams
Minimizing Expenses
Constructing Audiences
Attracting People to Niche Audiences
Conditioning Audiences
Reducing Risk
Consumers’ Strategies
Default Strategy
Media Literacy Strategy
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Part IV: CONTENT
Chapter 8: Media Content and Reality
Role of Reality in Media Content Formulas
Complex Judgment
Magic Window
Multiple Dimensions of Reality
Differences Across Individuals
Organizing Principle: Next-Step Reality
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Audience’s Perspective
Programmers’ Perspective
Reality Programming as a Genre
The Importance of Media Literacy
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercise
Chapter 9: News
Dynamic Nature of News
Different Perspectives on News
Political Philosophy Perspective
Traditional Journalistic Perspective
News-Working Perspective
Economic Perspective
Consumer Personal Perspective
Hyper-localism
Selective Exposure
Who Qualifies as Being a Journalist?
How Can We Make Judgments About the Quality of News?
Truthfulness
Neutrality
Lack of Bias
Balance
Accuracy
Full Set of Facts
Context
How Can We Become More Media Literate With News?
Exposure Matters
Quality Matters
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Chapter 10: Entertainment
Story Formulas
General Story Formula
Genres
Challenges
Challenge by Medium
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Changing Public Taste
Dealing With Risk
Findings From Research
Patterns
Character Patterns
Controversial Content Elements
Sex
Homosexuality
Violence
Language
Health
Deceptive Health Patterns
Responsible Health Patterns
Body Image
Values
Becoming Media Literate With Entertainment Messages
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Chapter 11: Advertising
Advertising Is Pervasive
Process of Constructing Advertising Messages
Campaign Strategy
Copy Platform
Becoming More Media Literate With Advertising
Analyze Your Personal Needs
Analyze Ads
Evaluate Ads
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Chapter 12: Interactive Media
Competitive Experiences
Designing Electronic Game Platforms
Marketing Electronic Games
Attraction to Electronic Games
Psychology of Playing Electronic Games
MMORPGs
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Cooperative Experiences
Friendship
Dating
Living
Opinion Sharing
Acquisition Experiences
Information
Music
Video
Shopping
Media Literacy With Interactive Messages
Personal Implications
Broader Concerns
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
PART V: EFFECTS
Chapter 13: Broadening Our Perspective on Media Effects
Timing of Effects
Valence of Effects
Intentionality of Effects
Type of Effects
Cognitive-Type Effect
Belief-Type Effect
Attitudinal-Type Effect
Emotional-Type Effect
Physiological-Type Effect
Behavioral-Type Effect
Macro-Type Effect
Becoming More Media Literate
Summary
Further Reading
Exercises
Chapter 14: How Does the Media Effects Process Work?
Media Effects Are Constantly Occurring
Manifested Effects and Process Effects
Baseline Effects and Fluctuation Effects
Factors Influencing Media Effects
Baseline Factors
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Developmental Maturities
Cognitive Abilities
Knowledge Structures
Sociological Factors
Lifestyle
Personal Locus
Media Exposure Habits
Fluctuation Factors
Content of the Messages
Context of Portrayals
Cognitive Complexity of Content
Motivations
States
Degree of Identification
Process of Influence
Thinking About Blame
Becoming More Media Literate
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
Part VI: THE SPRINGBOARD
Chapter 15: Helping Yourself and Others to Increase Media Literacy
Helping Yourself
Ten Guidelines
1. Strengthen Your Personal Locus
2. Develop an Accurate Awareness of Your Exposure Patterns
3. Acquire a Broad Base of Useful Knowledge
4. Examine Your Mental Codes
5. Examine Your Opinions
6. Change Behaviors
7. Think About the Reality-Fantasy Continuum
8. Become More Skilled at Designing Messages
9. Do Not Take Privacy for Granted
10. Take Personal Responsibility
Illustrations of Milestones
Cognitive Ladder
Emotional Ladder
Moral Ladder
Aesthetic Appreciation Ladder
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Examples of Levels of Literacy
Helping Others
Interpersonal Techniques
Interventions
Public Education
Current Situation
Barriers
What Can You Do?
Societal Techniques
Summary
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Exercises
PART VII: CONFRONTING THE ISSUES
Issue 1: Media Ownership
Delineating the Issue
Arguments Against Concentration of Ownership of Media Companies
Arguments for Concentration of Ownership of Media Companies
Evidence of Concentration
Trend Toward Concentration
Factors Driving the Trend
Efficiencies
Regulation and Deregulation
Evidence of Harm
Increased Barriers to Entry
Reduced Level of Competition
Reduced Number of Public Voices
Reduced Range of Content
Your Own Informed Opinion
Expanding Perspective
Reexamining Evidence
Thinking About Underlying Values
Localism
Efficiency
Informing Your Opinion
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Issue 2: Media Piracy
Delineating the Issue
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Commercial Products
Amorphous Infobits
Problems
Determining a Message Unit
Ownership Rights
Evidence of Piracy
Music
Film
Print
Addressing the Problem
Legislation
Law Enforcement
Legal Action
Anti-piracy Technology
New Marketing Model
Your Own Informed Opinion
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Issue 3: Sports
Delineating the Issue
The Money Cycle
Players
Owners and Leagues
Television Networks
Advertisers
Public
Olympics
Video Gaming
Your Own Informed Opinion
The Big Picture
Extend Your Knowledge
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Think About Implications
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Issue 4: Media Violence
Delineating the Issue
Public’s Faulty Perceptions
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Equating Violence With Graphicness
Ignoring Context
Having a Blind Spot on Harm
Producers’ Faulty Beliefs
Violence Is Necessary to Storytelling
Blame Others, Not Producers
Your Own Informed Opinion
Implications for Individuals
Implications for Producers
Moving Beyond Faulty Thinking
Further Reading
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Issue 5: Advertising
Delineating the Issue
Faulty Criticisms
Advertising Is Deceptive
Companies Manipulate Us Through Subliminal Advertising
Advertising Perpetuates Stereotypes
Criticisms Based on Personal Values
Advertising Is Excessive
Advertising Manipulates Us Into Buying Things We Don’t Need
Advertising Makes Us Too Materialistic
Criticisms About Responsibility
Advertising Potentially Harmful Products
Invading Protected Groups
Invading Privacy
Altering Needs
Your Own Informed Opinion
Further Reading
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Issue 6: Privacy
Delineating the Issue
Criminal Threats to Your Privacy
Stealing Private Information
Stealing One’s Identity
Hijacking
Breaching “Secure” Databases
Destroying Information
Hacktivism
Non-criminal Threats to Your Privacy
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Monitoring
Selling Information
Controlling
Spamming
Public Opinion and Regulations
Public Opinion
Regulations
Your Informed Opinion
Information Assessment
Take an Inventory of What Information About You Is Publically Available
Map Your Information by Privacy Levels
Threat Assessment
Privacy Strategy
Remove Private Information
Correct Inaccuracies
Continually Monitor Threats
Download Software to Protect Your Computer From Threats to Your Privacy
Set Up Your Internet Browsers to Disallow Cookies as the Default
Further Reading
Keeping Up to Date
Applying Media Literacy Skills
Glossary
References
Index
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21
Preface
Most of us think we are fairly media literate. We know how to access all kinds of media to find the music,
games, information, and entertainment we want. We recognize the faces of many celebrities and know many
facts about their lives. We recognize a range of musical styles and have developed strong preferences for what
we like. We can easily create messages through photos, videos, and text then upload them to various sites on
the Internet. Clearly, we know how to expose ourselves to the media, we know how to absorb information
from them, we know how to be entertained by them, and we know how to use them to create our own
messages and share them with others.
Are we media literate? Yes, of course. We have acquired a great deal of information and developed remarkable
skills. The abilities to speak a language, read, understand photographs, and follow narratives are significant
achievements, although we often take them for granted.
While we should not overlook what we have accomplished, it is also important to acknowledge that we all can
be much more media literate. In many ways, your overall level of media literacy now is probably about the same
as it was when you became a teenager. Since that time, your information base has grown enormously about
some types of media messages, such as popular songs, Internet sites, movies, and TV shows. However, your
information base may not have grown much in other areas—about the economics of the mass media industry,
who controls that industry, how decisions are made about the production of content, and how that constant
flow of content affects you and society in all sorts of subtle ways. Thus, your current level of media literacy
allows you to do many things with the media, but you could be exercising much more control and getting
more out of your media exposures—if you grew your knowledge in additional areas.
The more you are aware of how the mass media operate and how they affect you, the more you gain control
over those effects and the more you will separate yourself from typical media users who have turned over a
great deal of their lives to the mass media without realizing it. By “turning over a great deal of their lives to
the mass media,” I mean more than time and money, although both of those are considerable. I also mean
that most people have allowed the mass media to program them in ways they are unaware of. And because they
are unaware of these ways, they cannot shape or control that programming.
The purpose of this book is to show you how the media have been shaping your beliefs and behavioral
patterns. Until you become aware of how much your beliefs have been formed by media influence and how the
media have accomplished all that shaping, you will continue to float along in a flood of media messages
oblivious to their constant, subtle influence. However, once you begin to see things from a media literacy
perspective, you can see how this process of influence works, and this understanding will help you to gain
control over this shaping process.
22
23
Organization of the Book
This book is composed of 15 core instructional chapters followed by six issues chapters. The purpose of the 15
core chapters is to provide you with the framework of ideas to help you organize your knowledge structures in
four areas: media audiences, media industries, media content, and media effects. These chapters also present
you with some facts and figures to hang on those frameworks. To help you acquire more information to
elaborate these frameworks on your own, the chapters include a list of books, articles, and websites for further
reading; I have selected these as particularly interesting extensions of what I have presented in each chapter.
Also, because things change so fast these days with the media, I have also provided several sources of
information—typically websites—where you can access the most current information available on each topic.
Part I of this book, Chapters 1 and 2, provides an introduction to the problems of living in a media message–
saturated culture and how the media literacy perspective can help you.
Part II focuses on the audience. Chapter 3 examines the audience from the individual’s perspective, while
Chapter 4 focuses on the audience from the mass media industries’ perspective. Chapter 5 poses the question:
Should children be treated as a special audience? This chapter shows you that, yes, children are a special
audience in some ways, but so too are adolescents, young adults, and the elderly.
Part III focuses on the media industries. Chapter 6 helps you see the media industries from a historical
perspective so that you can appreciate the challenges they have overcome to arrive at their current status.
Using a life cycle structure, it shows what is behind the innovation and development of the media industries.
An economic perspective is used in Chapter 7 to show the business foundations of the industries.
Part IV focuses on media content. Chapter 8 introduces the idea of content and
presents the major characteristic of all media content—what I call “one-step remove” reality. Then, Chapter 9
focuses on news content, Chapter 10 on entertainment content, Chapter 11 on advertising content, and
Chapter 12 on interactive content, such as games and social networking media.
Part V focuses on media effects. When we take a broader perspective on effects, we can more accurately assess
the influence of the media in our lives. This also puts us in a much better position to manage the effects of the
media. Chapter 13 will help you expand your vision about what constitutes a media effect. Effects are both
long term and immediate. Although they can influence our behavior, they also have profound influences on us
cognitively, affectively, emotionally, and physiologically. And they have positive as well as negative effects.
The question of how the effects processes work on us is explored in Chapter 14. Those processes are hardly
ever simple or direct. More often, the media work in concert with many other factors that each serve to
increase the probability that an effect may occur.
Part VI, Chapter 15, is a springboard chapter to help you use what you have learned to build your own media
literacy strategy.
The first time you read through these 15 core chapters, stay focused on the most important ideas as you build
24
your own knowledge structures. Then once you have these structures, go back and re-read the chapters to add
the detail you need to elaborate your understanding.
After you have finished with the core chapters and building your initial set of knowledge structures, you are
ready to dig deep into some controversies within media studies. The six issues chapters in Part VII give you a
chance to use your knowledge structures and increase the strength of your skills as you take apart these
controversies, appreciate the beauty of their complexity, and put together your own informed opinion. Issue 1
unpacks the controversy about whether the ownership of the mass media has become too concentrated; some
critics argue that there are now too few owners of too many media businesses. This issue chapter could be
paired with Chapter 7, on the economics of the mass media industries. Issue 2 examines the complex problem
of piracy of media messages by individuals and companies. Issue 3 covers the issue of sports by examining
possible answers to the question: Is there too much money being spent on sports? This issue chapter also
could be paired with Chapter 7. Issue 4 tackles the persistent controversy over whether there is too much
violence in the media and whether this type of content is harming individuals and society. This issue chapter
could be covered along with Chapters 13 and 14, on the effects of media. Issue 5 analyzes how we criticize
advertising and whether those criticisms are valid. This issue chapter could be paired with Chapter 4, which
deals with the media industry’s perspective on the audience. This section concludes with Issue 6, which
examines the growing concern about privacy and how the new media environment is making it much more
difficult for you to protect your privacy.
If you engage these issues on a superficial level, then you will likely be frustrated by what seems like unsolvable
problems. But if you dig deeper and apply your developing skills of media literacy, you will likely appreciate
the complexities of these problems and find ways to begin reducing the influence of these problems in your
own life. Thus you will be taking more control over issues that you previously thought were too big, too
complicated, and the fault of other people.
25
How to Get the Most Out of This Book
As you read through this book, think frameworks and be strategic. If you keep these two ideas in the front of
your mind, you will be able to read faster and at the same time get more out of your reading.
Frameworks are maps. When you have a map to guide your reading journey, you know where you are and
where you have to go next. To help you perceive the most important frameworks, each chapter begins with a
key idea followed by an outline of topics covered. Also, throughout the text I have included a Compare and
Contrast feature to help you understand the key similarities and differences between pairs of key terms.
Strategies keep you focused on what is most important. When you read through each chapter, be guided by
several important questions, then be strategic in your reading; that is, actively look for the answers to those
questions. By actively, I mean don’t just scan the words and sentences; instead, start with an agenda of
questions, then as you read through each section, look specifically for answers to your questions. After you
have finished a chapter, close the book and see how much you can recall. Can you remember only a random
mass of facts, or can you envision an organized set of knowledge structured by your questions?
You will get more out of each of the chapters if you try to incorporate the information you are learning into
your own experience. The exercises at the end of each chapter help with this. This book has a self-help tone as
it presents guidance and practical exercises to help you achieve higher levels of media literacy. Do not get
caught in the trap of thinking that it is sufficient to memorize the facts in each chapter and then stop thinking
about the material. Simply memorizing facts will not help you increase your media literacy much. Instead, you
need to internalize the information by drawing it into your own experiences. Continually ask yourself: How
does this new information fit in with what I already know? Can I find an example of this in my own life? How
can I apply this when I deal with the media? The exercises at the end of each chapter will help you get started
with this. The more you think through the exercises and the more you develop new exercises for yourself, the
more you will be internalizing the information and thus making it more a natural part of the way you think.
26
To Conclude
It is my hope that this book will stimulate you to think more deeply about your media habits and become
motivated to increase your control over the process of influence from the media. The information presented in
these chapters will get you started in this direction. Will the book provide you with all the information you
need to complete this task fully? No. That would require too much information to fit into one book; you will
need to continue reading. At the end of most chapters, I suggest several books for further reading on the topic
of that chapter. Although some of those books are fairly technical, most of them are easy to read and very
interesting.
This book is an introduction. It is designed to show you the big picture so you can get started efficiently on
increasing your own media literacy. It is important to get started now. The world is rapidly changing because
of newer information technologies that allow you to create and share your own messages in addition to
accessing all kinds of information on just about any conceivable topic.
I hope you will have fun reading this book. And I hope it will expose you to new perspectives from which you
can perceive much more about the media. If it does, you will be gaining new insights about your old habits
and interpretations. If this happens, I hope you will share your new insights and “war stories” with me. Much
of this book has been written to reflect some of the problems and insights my students have had in the media
literacy courses I have taught. I have learned much from them. I’d like to learn even more from you. So let me
know what you think and send me a message at wjpotter@comm.ucsb.edu.
27
Ancillaries
The password-protected Instructor Resources site at http://study.sagepub.com/potter8e includes:
Test banks provide a diverse range of prewritten options as well as the opportunity to edit any question
and/or insert your own personalized questions to effectively assess students’ progress and understanding.
Lecture notes summarize key concepts on a chapter-by-chapter basis to help with preparation for
lectures and class discussions.
Chapter-specific PowerPoint slides offer assistance with lecture and review preparation by highlighting
essential content, features, and artwork from the book.
Tables and figures are available in an easily downloadable format for use in papers, handouts, and
presentations.
Sample course syllabi for semester and quarter courses provide suggested models for structuring your
courses.
Discussion questions help launch classroom interaction by prompting students to engage with the
material and by reinforcing important content.
Chapter activities for individual or group projects provide lively and stimulating ideas for use in and out
of class that reinforce active learning.
Mobile-friendly practice quizzes allow for independent assessment by students of their mastery of course
material.
Mobile-friendly eFlashcards strengthen understanding of key terms and concepts.
Carefully selected chapter-by-chapter video and multimedia content enhances classroom-based
explorations of key topics.
28
Acknowledgments
This book project has traveled a very long distance from its initial conceptualization in the mid-1990s. Since
then I have had the privilege of using various versions of the book with more than a thousand students at
Florida State University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the University of California at Santa Barbara.
These students helped me form the idea into a useful book for a broad range of undergraduates and refine the
material through seven subsequent editions. I thank them for every question, every puzzled look, and every
smile of satisfaction from an insight gained. Over the years, Media Literacy has been translated from English
into four other languages, which makes it accessible to readers in many parts of the world. Some of those
readers have provided me with their reactions, and I thank them.
I thank the many reviewers whom SAGE called on to critique the text in each edition. Some contacted me
directly; others chose to remain anonymous. In all cases their comments were valuable. The reviewers include:
Rachael Hanel,
Minnesota State University, Mankato
Mary Jo Nead,
Thomas More College
Frank Nevius,
Western Oregon State University
Dr. Tim Chandler,
Hardin-Simmons University
Debra Finkel,
Webster University
Kathleen Osbeck Sindorf,
Cornerstone University
Julie Smith,
Webster University, Saint Louis Missouri
I am grateful for the support of SAGE, with its many highly skilled staff members, over the years. First, I
need to thank Margaret Seawell, who initially signed this project then shepherded it through three editions,
then Todd Armstrong who took over for Margaret on the fourth and fifth editions, then Matt Byrnie who
took over for Todd and gave me considerable help with the sixth, seventh, and now the eighth edition. I also
must thank Matt’s editorial assistant, Georgia McLaughlin, as well as Natalie Konopinski, who joined this
project as the development editor on this eighth edition. In the Production Department, Astrid Virding
skillfully took the first edition from manuscript to bound book, as did Claudia Hoffman on the second
edition, Tracy Alpern on the third, Astrid Virding again on the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, Olivia
Weber-Stenis on the seventh edition, and Laura Barrett on this edition. They made it look easy, though there
must have been days when it was anything but. I also want to thank Ashlee Blunk in marketing and SAGE
salespeople for their enthusiastic support of the new edition. Finally, I must thank the many fine copy editors
29
Another random document with
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up outside the Forbidden City on a large empty space adjoining the
Coal Hill. It was crowded with figures of attendant eunuchs and
handmaidens, and contained furniture and viands for the use of the
illustrious dead in the lower regions. A throne was placed in the
bows, and around it were kneeling effigies of attendant officials all
wearing their Robes of State as if the shade of Tzŭ Hsi were holding
an audience.
On the morning of the All Souls’ festival the Regent, in the name of
the Emperor, performed sacrifice before the barge, which was then
set alight and burnt, in order that the Old Buddha might enjoy the
use of it at the “yellow springs.” A day or two before her funeral,
hundreds of paper effigies of attendants, cavalry, camels and other
pack animals, were similarly burnt so that her spirit might enjoy all
the pomp to which she had been accustomed in life.
The following account of her funeral is reproduced from The Times
of 27th November, 1909:—
Marble Bridge over the Lake in the Western Park which surrounds the
Lake Palace.
Painted from life by Miss Catharine A. Carl for the St. Louis
Exposition, and now the property of the American Nation.