Chap 20 1 apurba sir

What is Poverty?
Poverty can be defined as a socio-economic phenomenon in which a section of the people of a country is
unable to fulfil the basic necessities of life, such as, food, shelter, cloth, health facilities and education. Thus,
poverty is the inability to fulfil the minimum requirements of life.
What is Absolute and Relative Poverty.
By poverty we mean two conceptual issues, namely, Relative Poverty and Absolute Poverty.
Relative Poverty is basically the comparative difference between two persons income. Thus it
actually represents the extent of inequality in the distribution of income.
On the other hand Absolute Poverty represents a situation in which a person or a family is deprived
of its minimum subsistence. Basically this is measured by a cut-off level of income, bellow which a person or
a family cannot fulfill its minimum requirements.
The main defect of the relative measurement of poverty is that it indicates the relative positions of
different segments of the population in the income strata. Even in highly developed economies, such pockets
of poverty may exist. This relative measure cannot give any idea about the mass or wide-spread poverty in an
economy.
What is Poverty Line?
Poverty line is a measure of absolute poverty. Poverty line refers to the money value o f the
minimum quantities of those goods and services which are needed for the subsistence of an individual. It
basically represents a cut-off level of income which is necessary for a family or a person to buy its minimum
subsistence. Person whose income is less than that cut off level of income is said to be living below the
poverty line. Poverty may be defined at two levels. One is at the basic minimum level and the other is at the
desirable level. In India, while defining poverty, the concept of basic minimum level has been used.
In India, it has been generally accepted from nutritional standpoint that a person should take at least 2,250
calories per day for subsistence. According to the Planning Commission of India, the cost of the minimum
quantities of goods required for subsistence is Rs 20 per capita per month at 1960-61 prices. Individuals
having consumption expenditure of less than Rs 20 per month at 1960-61 prices are considered to be poor
and are said to be below the poverty line.
In India the Planning Commission of India has estimated that in rural areas 2400 per capita
calorie intake and in urban areas 2100 per capita calorie intake is necessary for daily average work. Therefore
in India the poverty line is measured in terms of the income required to purchase food supplying that
minimum subsistence level of calorie intake. In 2004-05 the 61st round of NSS suvey fixed poverty line for
India as per capita consumption expenditure below Rs. 356.35 for rural areas and Rs. 538.60 for urban areas.
And lastly we may just mention the concept of international poverty line. In 1990, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) set a poverty line at one dollar (at 1985 prices) per day per person.
What is Head Count Ratio?
The most elementary, and also the most widely employed, means of assessing the extent of poverty in
any society is to obtain a simple headcount of the poor. The poor are those whose incomes fall short of a
stipulated poverty line. But this method may bring some problem for assessing the extent of poverty in the
country. For example, if in some initial time period 30 persons in a population of 100 are poor, while in a
later time period 40 persons in a population of 200 are poor, then the headcount ratio declines from 30 per
cent to 20 per cent, whereas the aggregate headcount rises from 30 persons to 40 persons. In order to avoid
such problem ‘Head Count Ratio’ is used.
In its simplest form the headcount ratio is simply the proportion of a population that exists, or lives,
below the 'poverty line’. This ratio is found by counting the number of people below the poverty line, and
then we divide it by the total population of the country or the region. Thus,
number of people below the poverty line
HCR = ,
total population of the country
But there is a severe problem with this method of measuring the extent of poverty. This method cannot
estimate the extent to which an individual’s income falls below the poverty line.
Chap 20 2 apurba sir

Describe the causes of poverty in India.

There are at least two main schools of thought regarding the causes of poverty in India.
1. The Developmental View
Jawaharlal Nehru noted, "A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which
have been longest under British rule are the poorest today." The Indian economy was purposely and severely
deindustrialized and Indian were forced to rely on expensive British manufactured goods. Thus,
deindustrialization, declining terms of trade, and the periodic mass misery of man-made famines are the
major ways in which colonial government destroyed development in India and held it back for centuries. As a
result Indian population became poor day by day
2. The Neoliberal View
a) Unemployment and underemployment: In India rate of growth of population is much higher than the rate
of creation of employment. As a result number of unemployed or under employed increases day by day.
b) Lack of property rights. The right to property is not a fundamental right in India. As a result concentration
of property in the hand of few becomes the root of poverty.
c) Low level of national income:- The national income of India compared to her natural resources is very
low. The volume of gross domestic product (GDP) compared to total population is low.
d) Low rate of growth Not only total national output is low, its rate of growth is also low. During the entire
plan period, national output has increased at ah average rate of 4 percent per annum. Due to population
growth at around 2 per cent, our per capita income has grown at an average rate little over 2 per cent per
annum during the entire plan period.
e) Over-reliance on agriculture. There is a surplus of labour in agriculture. Due to low development of
industry about 60% of population depends on agriculture. As a result MPP of agriculture falls and poverty
increases.
f) Existence of semi-feudal relations in agriculture: Most of the small and marginal farmers depend on large
land-owners-cum-money-lenders, not only for fulfilling their credit needs, but also for marketing
agricultural produce. In most cases, they are exploited by these landlords on both the fronts.
g) Low availability of essentials : Growing population pressures in India have led to low (or inadequate)
levels of social consumption. A low level of social consumption also means higher incidence of poverty.
h) High population growth rate: Although demographers generally agree that this is a symptom rather than
cause of poverty. But still huge population blocks the developmental effect to reach the target group.
i) Inflation: India is experiencing a long and continuing phase of inflation. Rising price level basically
reduce the real income of the people and thus increases poverty.
j) The caste system, under which hundreds of millions of Indians were kept away from educational,
ownership, and employment opportunities, and subjected to violence for "getting out of line."
k) Backward technology: The prevalence of primitive types of technology in both the agricultural and
industrial sectors are also responsible for the slow growth in output and income-earning capabilities.
Describe the poverty alleviation measures taken by the Govt of India
In the first four five year plans of India, nothing special was done for eradicating poverty in the hope
that it will reduce with the economic growth. But as it was found later that with economic growth instead of
reducing, poverty level is actually rising, then Govt adopted several measures to eradicate poverty. Let us
describe some of them.
1. Primarily Govt tried to remove poverty by accelerating growth rate.
2. To reduce the inequality in the land holding Govt undergoes the land reform measures like, abolition of
intermediaries, land ceiling, etc.
3. Govt takes several steps to encourage the development of small scale and cottage industries to increase
self-employment.
4. To reduce the population growth rate Govt adopted several family planning measures.
Govt had also adopted many special programmes, mostly from the sixth plan under the slogan of
‘Garibi Hatao’. Let us mention some of them.
1. Minimum Needs Programme (MNP)
This programme was adopted in the fifth plan. It included primary education, public health, home sites for
landless poor, medical facilities in the rural areas, development of slums, development of roads in rural areas,
etc.
2. Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)
Chap 20 3 apurba sir

It was also introduced during the fifth plan. The purpose of the scheme was to provide credit facilities to
small farmers so that they can take opportunity of new agricultural strategy (Green Revolution).
3. Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL)
This programme was also launched during the fifth plan. Its aim was to provide subsidised credit for
agriculture and subsidiary activities like poultry, fishery, dairy, etc.
4. Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
This programme was also adopted during the fifth plan. The aim of the programme was to provide job
opportunities in the drought areas.
5 Food for Work Programme (FFW)
It was launched in 1977. The programme was launched in order to create some social assets of permanent
nature in the rural areas. Workers were given foodgrains instead of money wage for their work.
6. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
The programme was started in October, 1980. Its main goal was to help seasonally unemployed people in the
agricultural sector. It aimed at creating community assets in order to develop rural infrastructure. This
programme was complementary to the Food For Work (FFW) programme.
7. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)
This programme was started in August 1983 under the sixth plan. It was launched in order to supplement the
NREP. This programme sought to generate gainful employment creating productive assets in the rural areas.
8. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
This programme was also adopted in the sixth plan. Different programmes providing rural employment were
integrated together and brought under this single programme. The main objective of IRDP was to promote
self-employment of the poor providing them productive assets.
9. Training for Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)
This scheme was adopted in 1979. As the very name of the scheme suggests, its aim was to give training to
the rural youths to enable them to become selfemployed.
10. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
NREP and RLEGP were merged in the new scheme of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) on April 1, 1989. The
main purpose of JRY was to generate gainful employment in rural areas. It also sought to create rural
infrastructure and community assets. The scheme was launched to help people below the poverty line,
particularly people from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
11. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
This scheme was launched in 1993 during the eighth plan. The objective of this scheme was to ensure job
opportunities of 100 days in a year to the poor unskilled workers.
12. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
This scheme was started in 1993-94 under the eighth plan. Its main objective was to increase urban
employment opportunities.
13 Self-Employment for the Educated Urban Youth (SEEUY)
This scheme was also launched in the year 1993-94. In 1994-95 it was integrated
with PMRY. The main objective of the scheme was to provide help to the educated
urban youth to enable them to become self-employed.
14. Public Distribution System (PDS)
To help the poor section, the Government introduced the Public Distribution System (PDS). Due to political
pressure, the government adopted a universal PDS, rather than a targeted PDS focused on the poor. This
system continued up to the initial years of 1990’s. It created heavy pressure on the government exchequer as
foodgrains under PDS were distributed at subsidised rates. Hence, the system was streamlined by issuing
special cards to families below poverty line (BPL). Foodgrains are sold to these BPL families at specially
subsidized prices with effect from June 1997. This is known as Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
Families above poverty line (APL) get less facilities than BPL families. Overtime, the amount of foodgrains
at heavily subsidised prices to the
BPL cardholders has been increased. In addition, 25 kg of foodgrains was to be provided to the poorest of the
poor families under Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) at a highly subidised price.
15 Mid-day Meal (MDM)
The government has introduced mid-day meals at schools for the students at primary and secondary levels.
This has also greatly helped the poor students.
Chap 20 4 apurba sir

16. MGNREGS : In 2005, the government introduced National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(NREGS). Its object is to provide employment of 100 days in a year to one able member of a rural family.
This is at present the most important scheme in rural India. Later, the scheme has been renamed as Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).
A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME
At least, after the fourth plan, the government of India has adopted so many schemes in order to
alleviate poverty. Most of them are target-oriented schemes, not long term schemes. The effect of these
schemes in poverty alleviation is more direct. Analysing National Sample Survey (NSS) data, it may be said
that during 1970s and 1980s, the incidence of poverty somewhat reduced.
Still, we must have to admit that on the whole, the anti-poverty programmes have not been successful to
eradicate poverty. There are some reasons behind this failure of poverty alleviating programmes :
(i) A major part of the benefits of various schemes did not reach the poor. In many cases, those benefits have
been appropriated by the influential persons.
(ii ) There is a lack of goodwill on the part of the political parties al so. Party interest gets priority while
distributing government assistance.
Different Measures of Poverty in India
Various studies have been made to estimate (or measure) the extent of poverty in India. Here we refer
to only official estimates, leaving aside all private estimates.
(a) The Sixth Plan. The Sixth Five-Year Plan defined minimum needs in terms of physical survival as
suggested by the Task Force on Minimum Needs, 1979. Using a minimum of calorie intake of 2,400 per
person in the rural areas and 2,100 for urban areas, respectively, the Plan reported that 51.49% of the
population lived below the poverty line in 1972-73. The Plan recorded a decline in the incidence of poverty
from 51.49% in 1972-73 to 48.13% in 1977-78.
(b) Recent Poverty Estimates. The absolute number of poor declined throughout the 1980s but it increased in
2001-02 for both rural and urban areas. So after more than fifty years of Independence almost 320 million
people, or around 36% of total population, lived below the poverty line. This indicates partial failure of
planning.
(c) The Ninth Plan and Poverty Estimates. The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) used the concept of
poverty gap developed by World Bank to measure the severity of poverty. The Ninth Plan draws a policy
conclusion: “Over time there has been a trend towards a greater degree of clustering of tbe poor around the
poverty line leading to a situation where economic growth is likely to have a considerably larger impact on
poverty reduction than before
What is Poverty Gap
A measure for capturing the depth of poverty is the poverty gap (PG) index, which adjusts the poverty
ratio with difference between the per capita consumption of the poor and the poverty line expressed as a
percentage of the poverty line.
It is measured in the following way,
𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
TPG = % of population below poverty line × [ ]
𝑃𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
Economists calculate a total poverty gap (TPG) which measures the total amount of income necessary to
raise everyone who is below the poverty line to that line. The TPG—the extent to which the incomes of the
poor He below the poverty line— is found by adding up the amounts by which each poor person's income
falls below the absolute poverty line.
POVERTY IN WEST BENGAL
Not much data on poverty in West Bengal are available. At present there is not much poverty in the
urban areas of West Bengal. The main reason is that there has occurred an expansion of the informal sector.
And this sector has given jobs and income-earning opportunities to the poor people. And many of them have
earned a minimum amount of income and have virtually managed to come above the poverty line.
In addition, there has occurred a steady fall in the incidence of rural poverty in West Bengal. In fact, one
of the causes of this is migration of people from rural to urban areas.
Since 1999-2000, the decline in poverty in the state has been faster than all-India. Still, there are (as in
2004-05) 173.2 lakh below-the-poverty (BPL) population in rural West Begnal, constituting 7.8% of the rural
BPL population in the country.
Chap 20 5 apurba sir

Describe different types of unemployment in India.

In India the unemployment problem is broadly classified into following two groups,
Rural Unemployment; and
Urban Unemployment. Let us describe them;
The major portion of unemployed people of India usually resides in the rural areas of India. This
rural unememployment can again be classified in the following two types.
A. Seasonal unemployment: in India agriculture is a seasonal activity. Now due to absence of irrigation
agriculture is basically performed during monsoon. Therefore large numbers of landless agricultural laborer
remain unemployed during the lean season. This type of unemployment is known as seasonal unemployment
It is also found in agro-based industries or in some industries which are seasonal in nature. For example, in
jute industry, sugar mills, rice mills, ice-cream factories, etc., there may be seasonal unemployment..
B. Disguised Unemployment: in India a major part of rural population depends largely on agriculture for
their living. Now with the increase in the population, the number of person engaged in the agriculture is also
rising and gradually it becomes greater than the optimum level. As a result there will be excess labourer
whose marginal productivity will be zero. Thus, if we withdraw some labourers from agricultural sector, then
also total product will remain same. This excess labour force is referred as disguised unemployment. This
type of unemployment is found in Indian agriculture. It may also be found in some petty retail trades and also
in some offices or industries following labour-intensive primitive methods of production. The contribution of
disguisedly unemployed workers to total product is zero.
In urban areas Unemployment are of following types,
A. Industrial Unemployment: this type of unemployed refers to the person who is willing to work in
industrial sector but is not getting job due to insufficient demand for labour. Workers who have lost their
jobs will also be included in the industrial unemployment. The main reasons behind this type of
unemployment are the migration of population from rural to urban areas and the slow growth of the
industrial sector. Moreover, This type of unemployment occurs because industries which are coming up
are not able to keep pace with the growth of India’s industrial labour force.
B. Educated unemployment: person being educated unable to find any job as per his qualification is known s
educated unemployed. During the 7th plan in India there were 4.7 million educated unemployed.
This type of urban unemployment exists for two reasons. Firstly there are too many graduates and other
educated people relative to the number of job opportunities that require these qualifications.
C. Frictional unemployment: Frictional unemployment is the unemployment which occurs due to immobility
of labour or imperfections in the labour market. When some sectors of the economy expand while some
other sectors contract, demand for labour in the expanding sector rises while demand for labour in the
contracting sector falls. But labour cannot instantaneously shift from the contracting sector to the
expanding sector for various reasons. In this case, unemployment arising in the contracting section is due
to the frictions among different sectors of the economy and hence this sort of unemployment is called
frictional unemployment.
D. Structural / Technological unemployment When the economic structure of an economy changes or when
new labour saving technologies are introduced, employment in the economy may fall and there may arise
unemployment. This type of unemployment is called structural/ technological unemployment. After the
policy of liberalisation, in India, both private and public sectors are adopting modem labour-saving or
capital-intensive techniques. As a result, unemployment has increased. This may be called structural /
technological unemployment.
E. Unemployment of trade cycle/ Cyclical unemployment: during the period of recession or slump of trade
cycleall the productive activities of the economy fall. As a result many people become unemployed due to
industrial sickness. Such type of unemployment is referred as unemployment of trade cycle.
Some other concepts
Open unemployment
Open unemployment refers to those surplus workers who are willing to work at the ruling wage rate and who
are able to work but are not getting any job. They are unemployed for full time and are totally dependent on
the earning of others.
Underemployment
Underemployment refers to a situation in which a worker gets work for less time than the time she or he can
work. Thus, the person remains unemployed for some months in a year or for some days in a week or for
some hours everyday.
Chap 20 6 apurba sir

Voluntary and involuntary unemployment

Lord J. M. Keynes has made a distiction between voluntary unemployment and involuntary unemployment.
Voluntary unemployment refers to those workers who are not willing to work at the existing wage rate. They
remain unemployed willingly or voluntarily. Hence, it is a case of voluntary unemployment. On the other
hand, involuntary unemployment refers to those surplus workers who are willing to work at the existing wage
rate and are able to work but are not getting any work.
Describe the causes of unemployment in India.
The relevant causes of unemployment in India are as follows:
(1) High population pressure: Continuous growth in population at a fast pace implies a growing supply of
the labour force. This excess supply of the labour force was the principal reason for the growing
unemployment problem.
(2) Slow growth rate of different sectors : The Indian economy was unable to grow (in terms of national
output) at a pace to absorb the excess labour force. Hence, sufficient employment opportunities could not be
created in these sectors.
(3) Inadequate irrigational facilities: Lack of proper irrigational facilities in rural areas also leads to
seasonal unemployment.
(4) Rural-urban migration: Inadequate employment opportunities in rural areas and relatively higher
wage rates in urban areas have led to a large-scale migration of rural workers to urban areas. This is an
important cause of urban unemployment in India.
(5) Decline of traditional industrial activities: With changing preference patterns and the emergence of
modern production technology, some traditional village and cottage industries in India (like the handloom
industry) have gradually lost their competitive strength. This has also been an important reason causing rural
unemployment in India.
(6) Emergence of capital-intensive and labour-saving technology: Various industries, particularly the
large and medium-scale industries, have adopted labour-saving or capital-intensive types of technology in the
production process.In a labour-surplus economy like India, this type of technology also leads to growing
unemployment problems.
(7) Industrial recession : Industrial recession reduces the employment opportunities.
(8) Faulty educational system : the education system in India does not give proper emphasis to the
expansion of vocational and technical education. This is responsible for the growing problem of urban
unemployment.
(9) Neo-liberal economic policy of the government: Since 1991, the government of India has been
following a neo-liberal economic policy with greater emphasis on the expansion of private sector. Such a
policy has led to increased unemployment.
(10) Impact of Global Financial Crisis: During 2007-09, a crisis in the financial market that originated in
USA and some other developed European countries also affected I Indian financial market to some extent.
Indian exports to those countries declined due to a fall in their import demand. This led to growing
unemployment in many sectors of our economy.
Describe the measures for the remedy of unemployment problem.
Different long-term and short-term remedial measures have been undertaken by the Government of
India to fight the problem of growing unemployment. Let us describe them.
A. Long-term measures:
(1) Rapid industrialisation : Since the Second Five Year Plan, the Government of India has emphasised
the need for rapid industrialisation programmes for strengthening the industrial base of the Indian economy
as well as for increasing employment opportunities in the long-run.
(2) Emphasis on sustained self-employment: the Government decided to concentrate more on policy
measures that could help in self-employment. It was expected that these self-employment ventures would
lead to sustained growth in income potential.
(3) Decentralized planning: The Government has also emphasized on decentralised planning to solve
the unemployment problem better.
(4) Organisational support: During the plan periods, the Government also arranged for different types
of organisational support such as, District Employment Exchange, District Industries Centre, District
Agricultural Office, commercial banks and lead banks, etc., for the removal of unemployment problems in
the long-run.
Chap 20 7 apurba sir

(5) Growth in infrastructural investment: Infrastructural investment includes investment for the
expansion of the transport and communications systems, electricity generation and distribution, etc. Such
infrastructural investment also creates employment opportunities and sustained income growth in the long
run.
(6) Greater emphasis on skill-formation: Instead of giving more emphasis on the quantity of
employment, the Government has recently put more importance on the quality of employment through
increasing labour productivity.
(7) Population control measures: The Government of India also put greater stress on population control
measures to solve the problem of unemployment in the long-run.
B. Short-term measures:
Different long-term measures to fight the problem of unemployment were also combined with other short-
term measures, which provided some relief, at least on a temporary basis. These short-term measures were
supposed to supplement the long-term measures for a sustained development in employment opportunities.
Some of these short-term measures were as follows:
(1) Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA),
(2) Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP),
(3) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
(4) National Rural Employment Programme (NREP),
(5) Training of Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM),
(6) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP),
(7) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY),
1. Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). This scheme, restructured as the National Rural
Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) was launched from April 19, 1999 after restructuring the IRDP and allied
schemes. It is the only self-employment programme for the rural poor. It seeks to bring the self-employed
above the poverty line by providing them incomegenerating assets through institutional finance (i.e., bank
loan) and government subsidy. NRLM aims at creating gainful self-employment as also wage employment
for skilled persons with a view to reducing the incidence of unemployment and poverty.
2. The Swarnajayanti Gram Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SGSRY). The programme was launched from Dec. 1,
1997 and was revamped from April 1, 2009. It seeks to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed
and underemployed poor, by encouraging them to set up self-employment ventures as also by providing wage
employment and utilizing their labour for construction of socially and economically useful community assets.
3. The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY). The scheme was designed to provide selfemployment to
more than 1 million educated unemployed youth by setting up of 7 lakh micro-enterprises during the Eighth
Plan. The scheme was continued during the Ninth Plan.
UNEMPLOYMENT SITUATION IN WEST BENGAL
The fluctuation in employment or unemployment in West Bengal has to come to terms with the periodic
instability of the growth process. The trend in employment, in fact, is the ‘outcome’ of the changing
combinations of capital, technology and the labour market institutions. The estimated aggregate employment
in West Bengal increased gradually from 17.8 million in 1983 to 27.6 million in 2004-05. The compound
annual rate of growth (CAGR) of employment which was 3.01% during 1983 to 1993-94 declined
significantly to 0.67% during the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000. Thereafter, employment tended again to
grow at a higher rate, i.e., 1.77%, during 1999-2000 to 2004-05.
Despite urbanisation in the State, urban employment (male plus female) declined from 76 to 73 lakh
between 1999-2000 and 2004-05. More affected was the male employment, while female labour force found
increased job opportunities; In truth the growth in female employment in the urban sector is largely explained
by the opening up of opportunities for them in the manufacturing sector, in the era of globalization, while
male manufacturing workers increasingly constituting the ‘reserve army’. One could gauge the phenomenon
from the Tiljala-Topsia area in the eastern part of Kolkata.
IMPACT OF ECONOMIC REFORMS
Let us examine the performance of economic reforms.
Growth rate :
During 1980-81 to 1990-91, the growth rate of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) was 5.6 per cent per annum.
During the post-reform decade 1990-91—2000-01, GDP growth rate per annum was the same. But during the
next decade (2000-2010), average annual GDP growth rate was 6.5 per cent. It indicates that the growth
potential of India has improved as a result of reforms initiated in 1991.
Chap 20 8 apurba sir

Reduction of poverty :
Dr. Gaurab Datt has compared poverty in the pre-reform and the post-reform periods. The main conclusions
of his study are as follows :
(i) There was a marked decline in both rural and urban poverty rates during 1973-74 to 1986-87. But during
post-reforms period, there is no such comparable period.
(ii) The rate of decline in all major measures of poverty was very insignificant during the post-reform period.
(iii) For the urban sector, there was decline in poverty during 1973-74 to 1990-91. The same trend continued
in the post reform period.
(iv) Rural poverty reduction was choked off by lack of rural growth.
Employment :
During 1983-84 and 1990-91, the rate of growth of employment was 2.39 per cent. It was just equal to the
rate of growth of labour force. But during 1990-91 to 1997-98, the growth rate of employment was only l per
cent. The growth rate of employment of the organised and large corporate sector also came down from
1.73 per cent to only 0.60 per cent during these two periods. Thus, we may say that during the post-reform
period, there has been jobless growth.
Agriculture :
A major criticism of the process of economic reforms is the neglect of agriculture. During 1980-81 to 1990-
91, foodgrains production increased from 129.6 million tonnes to 176.4 million tonnes. The annual
compound growth rate was 3.1 per cent. But during 1990-91 to 2003-04, foodgrains production increased
from 176.4 million tonnes to 212.0 million tonnes. It indicates an annual average growth rate of 1.4 per cent.
This is less than the rate of growth of population. It may cost the nation very dearly in the coming decades.
The main reasons behind this poor performance of agriculture are : neglect of agriculture, fall in public
investment, ii) fall in the growth rate of irrigated area, etc.
Industrial growth :
Economic reforms were mainly intended to remove the bottlenecks which were considered as obstacles to
industrial production. To pursue this goal, industrial licensing was abolished in all but 18 industries. At
present, there are only four industries exclusively reserved for the public sector. Despite all this, during 1981-
82 to 1990-91, annual growth rate of industrial production was 7.8 per cent. During 1993-94 to 2003-04, it
came down to 6.6 per cent. In the case of consumer durables, annual growth rate of 13.9 per cent in the
eighties came down to 10.2 per cent during 1993-94 to 2003-04. Thus, industrial production during the period
of wide-ranging reforms was not up to the mark. It failed even to equal the performance of the eighties, not to
speak of improving the performance.
Give a brief description of income inequality in India.
Indian economy is marked with glaring inequality in the distribution of national income. We can
get a detail picture of such inequality from the various estimates made by different economists since 1950’s.
let us mention some of them.
According to Lydall, in India the top 10% household accounted for 34% of the countries national
income while 25% of the total population got only 34% of the NI. Ayenger and Mukherjee estimated that in
1955-56 top 10% of the population cornered 24% of NI while bottom 20% only get 7.5% of NI. In the period
1953 – 57 the estimates of RBI also reveal the same picture. Moreover RBI found that inequality is much
more severe in urban areas, than village areas.
This picture of inequality is widened more now. World Development report in 1987-88 has shown
that the top 10% posses nearly 40% of NI, while the lowest 20% of the had the 7% of the NI.
Thus form various studies mentioned above it is clear that in India equality in distribution of
income is becoming worsen day by day in spite of several measure of poverty alleviation programs.
Describe the factors responsible for increasing income inequality.
The inequality in the distribution of income has increased due to several reasons. Some of them are:-
A. Inequality in land ownership: due feudalistic pattern of land holding, there is extreme inequality in land
ownership.
B. Unemployment: According to Mahalanobis Committee unemployment and under employment is the
main factor behind growing inequality;
C. Tax Evasion: Due to heavy rate of taxation, rich people more or less practice tax evasion which in turn
leads to concentration of money in few hands.
D. Capitalism: Indian economy is a mixed economy which posses capitalistic features. Inequality in the
distribution of income is a consequence of development of such capitalistic features.
Chap 20 9 apurba sir

E. Inflation: Regular inflation reduces purchasing power of the people which makes poor poorer and rich
richer.
F. Exploitation of moneylenders: exorbitant rate of interest and other malpractices of money lenders
increases inequality in India.
G. Lack of property rights. The right to property is not a fundamental right in India. As a result
concentration of property in the hand of few becomes the root of poverty.
H. Social Practices: according to A.K.Sen cast system prevailing in India also contributes in its inequality.
I. Inequality in Opportunity: lack of equal opportunity also contributes to the growth of income
inequality.
J. Regressive Tax System: Dominance of regressive Tax structure also contributes to the Income
Inequality.
Mention some of the measures adopted by the Govt. to eradicate inequality in income.
GOI has adopted several measures to reduce inequality in the distribution of income.let5 us discuss them.
Land Reform: Land reform measures had been taken in order to reduce the inequality in the
distribution of cultivatable land. Basically inequality in the land holding is the root of inequality in
income.
Growth of Cottage Industries: In order to reduce unemployment and under employment GOI has
taken the development of small industries, cottage industries on priority basis.
Allowances: Different types of transfer payments are made to the weaker section of the population.
Tax Reforms: Govt. has modified tax structure in order to stop tax evasion.
Restriction on Monopoly: in order to inhibit the growth of monopoly GOI had adopted several
measures like MRTP Act, FERA Act, etc.
Wage Act: GOI had enacted minimum wage act to stop exploitation on labourers.
Unemployment reduction: GOI had taken several measures to reduce unemployment in India.
Expansion of Public Sector: GOI had expanded Public sector to reduce inequality in capital.
Social Security: expansion of Social Security measures, such as, insurance, provident fund, indirectly
helps to reduce inequality.
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP): by providing minimum needs through this programme GOI
indirectly reduce the inequality in opportunity.
Write a note on the inequality of the land ownership.
When the ownership of large amount of land concentrates in the hand of few landlords then it
is known as the inequality in the distribution of land holding. In India it is found that most of the inhabitants
of the rural areas are either landless or small land owner owing up to 2.5 acre of land and very few families
hold large amount of land. Thus in India the distribution of operational holding is very unequal. As it is found
from West Bengal that in the year 1971-72, the 78% of rural household are either land less or small land
owner and the rest 22% is big land owner.
Now inequality in the distribution of land is closely related with the inequality in the distribution
of NI. Thus in order to remove inequality in the income it is urgent to remve inequality in the ownership
holding.
Several land reform measures are adopted to remove the inequality in the ownership holding. Let
us describe some of them.
Abolition of Intermediaries: Before independence in India three types of land system were operative,
namely, Jamindary, Mahalwari and Rayatwary. In all the three land system there were lot of intermediaries
and thus the contact between the actual tiller of the land and the Govt. was lost. Thus it became very urgent
to remove those faulty systems of British Era. Therefore, after independence, since 1954 a number of acts
were passed to reform that faulty infrastructure of agriculture. Intermediaries were paid compensation of
which a portion is in cash and the rest is in Govt. securities.
Tenancy reforms: This measure has three forms, namely, regulation of rent i.e. fixing a range of rent.
So, that no landowner can charge a rent more than this. The Planning Commission recommended that rent
should not exceed 1/4th of the gross produce and should not be less than 1/5th of the gross produce. Next is
security of tenure. So that, barring some exceptional cases the tenants cannot be evicted. The last one is
conferment of ownership rights to tenants.
Ceiling on land holdings: according to this measure beyond a certain limit, all lands of the land lords
would be taken over by the state and allotted to small farmers and landless labourers. In West Bengal this
ceiling had been fixed at 31 bighas for irrigated land and 57 bighas for unirrigated land.
Chap 20 10 apurba sir

Consolidation of Land holdings: in order to reap the economies of large scale production the scattered
and fragmented holdings in India consolidation of land holding is important. Thus some states have enacted
legislation in this regard.
Organization of Cooperative farms: in order to consolidate scattered and fragmented holdings cooperative
farming was proposed to be introduced and legislations were passed in favour of that.
Describe the inequality in the distribution of capital in the private corporate sectors of India.
If the means of production is concentrated in the hands of few big industrialists, then that situation
is referred as inequality in the distribution of capital in the private corporate sector. This is also known as
monopoly concentration.
In India two types of monopoly concentration can be seen namely concentration by monopoly
firms and concentration by monopoly houses. Let us describe them.
If one or two big industrialist firm controls lion share of the market of a particular commodity.
Then such firms are known as monopoly firms and such concentration is known as concentration by
monopoly firms. As for example in India car manufacturing is fully controlled by few big firms like TATA,
Birla, Maruti, etc. basically in 1964 Monopoly Enquiry Commission had revealed that among 100 important
consumer goods there exists monopoly concentration in 65 goods.
If a large business group dominates the production of a number of important commodities, so that, in effect
they control a major portion of the production sector, then it is known as concentration by monopoly houses and such
business groups are known as monopoly house. As for example in India monopoly houses like TATA, Goenka, Birla,
Reliance, etc control the market of a large number of commodities.
Chap 20 11 apurba sir

দারিদ্র, বেকািত্ব ও বেষম্য

দারিদ্র কাকক েকে?
দারিদ্র তত্ত্বগতভাকে দুপ্রকাি, যথা, আকেরিক দারিদ্র ও চিম্ দারিদ্র। আকেরিক দারিদ্র হে দুজন েযরিি ম্কযয আকেি তুেনাম্ূেক
োথথকয। তাই আেবেষম্য হে আকেরিক দারিকদ্রি রনযথািক।
অনযরদকক, চিম্ দারিদ্র হে এম্ন একরি েরিরিরত বযখাকন একজন েযারি ো একরি েরিোি তাকদি বেেঁকচ থাকাি নুনযতম্
প্রকোজনিুকু বম্িাকত অোিগ।চিম্ দারিদ্র েরিম্াে কিা হে একরি নুনযতম্ আকেি রভরিকত। বকান েরিোি ো েযরিি স্বাভারেক
জীেনযাত্রাি জনয প্রকোজনীে নুনযতম্ আে হে একিকত্র দারিকদ্রি রনযথািক ো দারিদ্রসীম্া।
দারিদ্রযসীম্া কাকক েকে?
দারিদ্রসীম্া হে চিম্ দারিকদ্রি েরিম্াে। এরি একরি নুনযতম্ আে। বকান েরিোি ো েযরিি স্বাভারেক জীেনযাত্রাি জনয বয বম্ৌরেক
প্রকোজনগুরে েূিণ হওো প্রকোজন, বসই প্রকোজনগুরে ক্রকেি জনয বয নুনযতম্ আে দিকাি, বসই নুনযতম্ আে হে দারিদ্রসীম্া। বয
েরিোি ো েযরিি আে এই নুনযতম্ আকেি কম্ বস ো তািা হে দরিদ্রসীম্াি রনকচ েসোসকাএিী ো চিম্ দরিদ্র।
ভািকত েরিকল্পনা করম্শকনি রহসাে অনুযােী, স্বাভারেক জীেন যাত্রা েজাে িাখাি জনয একজন েূনথেেস্ক েযরিি গ্রাম্াঞ্চকে বদরনক
2400 কযাকোরি ও 2100 সহিাঞ্চকে বদরনক কযাকোরি প্রকোজন। এই নুনযতম্ কযাকোরি োওোি জনয বয েরিম্ান খাদযদ্রেয
প্রকোজন, তা সংগ্রহ কিাি জনয বয নুনযতম্ আে প্রকোজন, তা হে দরিদ্রসীম্া। ২০০৪ - ০৫ সাকেি রনরিকখ NSS তাি ৬১তম্
সম্ীিাি রভরিকত একজন েযরিি রহসাকে দারিদ্রসীম্া গ্রাম্াঞ্চকে 356.35 িাকা এেং সহিাঞ্চকে 538.60 িাকা রিি ককিকে।
দারিদ্রয েরিম্াকেি ম্াথা- গণনাি অনুোকতি সূত্ররি েযাখযা কি।উদাহিণস্বরূে
দারিকদ্রি েরিম্াকেিকিকত্র বয রনযথািকরি েহুে েযেহৃত তা হে ম্াথা গণনাি অনুোত। দারিদ্র সীম্াি ম্াযযকম্ কতজন বোক দরিদ্র তা
জানা বগকেও, সম্গ্র সম্াকজি রভরিকত দারিকদ্রযি তীব্রতা কতিা তা েরিম্াে কিাি বিকত্র ম্াথা গণনাি অনুোত ভীষন গুরুত্বেূণথ।
ম্াথাগণনাি অনুোতরি হে, বকান বদকশি বম্াি জনসংখযাি কত অংশ দরিদ্রসীম্াি নীকচ েসোস কিকে।
দরিদ্রয সীম্াি নীকচ েসোসকািী জনসংখযা
অথথাৎ, ম্াথাগণনাি অনুোত = ,
বম্াি জনসংখযা
উদাহিণস্বরূে, যিা যাক বকান েেি বকান বদকশি ১০০ জকনি ৩০ জন দরিদ্র সীম্াি নীকচ েসোস কিকে, এখন েকিি েেি যরদ
জনসংখযা বেকে হে ২০০ জন এেং দরিকদ্রি সংখযা হে চরিশ জন, তাহকে বকেে দারিদ্রসীম্াি রনরিকখ দরিকদ্রযি েরিম্ান েৃরি
বেকেকে। রকন্তু ম্াথাগণনাি অনুোত প্রকোগ কিকে বদখা যাকে োস্তকে দারিকদ্রযি েরিম্ান ৩০% বথকক ২০% হ্রাস বেকেকে।
ভািকত দারিকদ্রযি কািনগুরে রক রক?
ভািকত দারিকদ্রযি তীব্রতা বকন এত বেরশ তা সম্বকে দু যিকণি ম্ত প্রচরেত, যথা,
উন্নেনোদীকদি ম্তঃ-
ভািকতি প্রথম্ প্রযানম্ন্ত্রী জহিোে বনকহরুি অরভম্ত অনুসাকি ভািত বযকহতু দীর্থসম্ে ইংকিজ ঔেরনকেরশকতাি রশকাি হকেরেে,
তাই ভািকত দারিকদ্রযি েরিম্াকণা বেরশ। েস্তুতঃ এই ম্তােেম্বীকদি ম্তানুযােী, ইংকিজ শাসনকাকে ভািতকক একাযাকি বযম্ন রশল্পহীন
কিা হকেরেে বদশীে রশকল্পি যংকস্বি ম্াযযকম্, অনযরদকক,কতম্রন ভািতকক ভেঙ্কিভাকে ইংেকে উৎেন্ন দ্রকেযি উেি রনভথিশীে ককি
বতাো হে। এই দীর্থকােীন বশাষকনি ফকে স্বাভারেক ভাকেই ভািত অথথবনরতকভাকে চিম্ দুেথে হকে েকি। ফকে ভািকত দারিকদ্রযি
েরিম্ান রদন রদন েৃরি বেকেকে।
রনওরেোকিেকদি ম্তঃ
রনওরেোকিেিা ঔেরনকেরশকতাি কািকণি োইকিও আকিা একারযক রেষেকক ভািকতি তীব্র দারিকদ্রযি কািণ রহসাে রচন্হীত ককিকেন।
বসই কািণগুরে রনম্নরূে,
১) বেকািত্ব ও প্রচ্ছন্ন বেকািত্বঃ- ভািকত জনসংখযা েৃরিি হাি কম্থসংিান সৃরিি হাকিি তুেনাে অকনক বেরশ হওোে ভািকত দৃশয
বেকাকিি ও প্রচ্ছন্ন বেকাকিি সংখযা অকনক বেশী।
২) সম্পরিি অরযকািঃ- ভািকত সম্পরিি অরযকাি বম্ৌরেক অরযকাি রহসাকে স্বীকৃত না হওোে, এখাকন সম্পরিি েন্টকন তীব্র বেষম্য
সৃরি হকেকে।
৩) প্রাথরম্ক বিকত্রি প্রাযানযঃ- রশল্পরেকাকশি হাি কম্ হওোে জনসংখযাি বেরশিভাগিাই প্রাথরম্ককিকত্রি উেি রনভথিরশে হকে
েকেকে। ফকে প্রাথরম্ক বিকত্র উৎোদন হ্রাস বেকেকে এেং প্রচ্ছন্ন বেকািত্ব েৃরি োকচ্ছ।
৪) জনসংখযা েৃরিি হািঃ- ভািকতি জনসংখযাি েরিম্ান ধুযু বেরশ নে জনসংখযা েৃরিি হািও অতযত ব বেশী। যরদও জনসংখযাোদীিা
ম্কন ককিন এরি দারিকদ্রযি কািকণি বচকে বেশী দারিকদ্রযি উেসগথ।
৫) ম্ূদ্রাস্ফীরতঃ- োগাম্হীন ম্ূদ্রাস্ফীরত দরিদ্রয জনসাযািকণি ক্রেিম্তা ক্রম্াগত হ্রাস ককি বগকে, ফকে দরিদ্রয আিও দরিদ্রতি
হকেকে।
৬) জারতকভদঃ- জাতোকতি বেষকম্যি কািকণ হাজাি হাজাি ভািতীে রশিা, কাকজি সুকযাগ ইতযারদ বথকক েরঞ্চত হওোে িােীভাকে
দরিদ্রয িকে বগকে।
Chap 20 12 apurba sir

দারিদ্রযদূরিকিকণ ভািত সিকাি কতৃক গৃহীত েদকিেগুরে আকোচনা কি।

অথথবনরতক উন্নেকনি সাকথ সাকথ দারিদ্রয স্বাভারেকভাকেই হ্রাস োকে এই আশাে প্রথম্ চািরি েরিকল্পনাকাকে অথথাৎ প্রাে দীর্থ
কুরে েেি দারিদ্রযদূিীকিকণি বিকত্র ভািত সিকাি রেকশষ বকান েদকিেই গ্রহণ ককিরন। রকন্তু েিেতথীকাকে যখন বদখা বগে
অথথবনরতক উন্নেকনি ফকে দারিদ্র হ্রাস োওোি েরিেকতথ দারিদ্র আকিা েৃরি বেকেকে, তখন সিকাি দারিদ্রযদূিীকিকণি উকেকশয
একারযক েদকিে গ্রহণ ককি। তাকদি ম্কযয উকিখকযাগযগুরে হে,
Chap 20 13 apurba sir
Chap 20 14 apurba sir

ভািকত আে বেষকম্যি একরি সংরিপ্ত রেেিণ দাও।

ভািকত অথথনীরতকত চিম্ আেবেষম্য েিয কিা যাে। ১৯৫০ সাে বথকক একারযক অথথনীরতরেদ গকণি সম্ীিা বথকক এ সম্বকে
একরি রেস্তৃত যািণা োওো যাে। রনকম্ন এরূে ককেকরি সরম্িাি উকিখ কিা হে।
অযযােক োইডকেি সম্ীিা অনুযােী, ভািকতি উচ্চআকেি ১০% বোক বম্াি জাতীে আকেি ৩৪% বভাগ ককি, বযখাকন রনম্ন
আকেি ২৫% বোক বম্াি আকেি ম্াত্র ৩৪% বভাগ ককি। ১৯৫৫- ৫৬ সাকে কিা আকেঙ্গাি ও ম্ুখারজথি সম্ীিা বথকক বদখা যাে উচ্চ
আকেি ১০% বোক জাতীে আকেি ২৪% বভাগ ককি বযখাকন রনম্নআকেি ২০% বোক বকেে ম্াত্র ৭.৫% জাতীে আে বভাগ ককি।
১৯৫৩ বথকক ১৯৫৭ সাকেি ম্কযয কিা রিজাভথ েযাঙ্ক অে ইরেোি সম্ীিাকতও বম্ািাম্ুরি একই যিকণি রচত্র োওো যাে। উেিন্তু এই
সম্ীিাে আিও বযিা বদখকত োওো যাে তা হে গ্রাম্াঞ্চকেি তুেনাে সহিাঞ্চকে এই বেষম্য অরযক প্রকি।
আে বেষকম্যি এই রচত্র েতথম্ানকাকে আকিা প্রকি হকেকে। ১৯৮৭- ৮৮ সাকে প্রকারশত এ বদখা বগকে উচ্চ আকেি ১০% বোক
বম্াি জাতীে আকেি ৪০% বভাগ কিকে, বযখাকন, রনম্ন আকেি ২০% বোক বকেে ম্াত্র ৭% জাতীে আে বভাগ কিকে।
সুতিাং উেকিাি সম্ীিাগুরে এিা স্পি বয সিকাি কতৃক গৃহীত একারযক দারিদ্র দূিীকিণ েদকিে সকত্বও ভািকত আে বেষম্য
প্ররতরদন আকিা প্রকিতি হকচ্ছ।
ভািকত আে বেষম্য েৃরিি কািণগুরে আকোচনা কি।
ভািকত আে বেষম্য প্ররতরদন আকিা প্রকিতি হওোি রেেকন একারযক কািণ িকেকে। তাি ম্কযয উকিখযগুরে রনম্নরূে:
১) ম্হোনেীশ করম্রিি ম্কত বেকািত্ব ও প্রেন্ন বেকািকত্বি তীব্রতা ভািকত আে বেষকম্যি অনযতম্ প্রযান কািণ।
২) আেককিি হাি উচ্চ আকেি বিকত্র অতযত ব চো হওোে, কি ফােঁরক বদওোি প্রেণতা যনী বোককদি ম্কযয বেরশ, ফকে আেককিি
ম্াযযকম্ আকেি বয েুনেথন্টন হওোি কথা তা অকনক বিকত্রই েূনথতা োে না। ফকে সম্পকদি বকন্দ্রােন যনী বোককদি হাকত হকে থাকক।
৩) ভািতীে অথথনীরত একরি রম্শ্র অথথনীরত, তাই এি ম্কযয যনতারন্ত্রক অথথনীরতি অকনক বেরশি প্রেন্ন িকেকে। আে েন্টকন বেষম্য
যনতারন্ত্রক অথথনীরতি একরি প্রযান বেরশি, যা রম্শ্র অথথনীরতি বদশ ভািকতও প্রকি হকেকে।
৪) োগাতাি ম্ূদ্রাস্ফীরত সাযািন ম্ানুকষি ক্রেিম্তা হ্রাস ককিকে, ফকে দরিদ্র আিও দরিদ্র হকেকে।
ভািকত আে বেষম্য দূিীকিকণ সিকাি কতৃক গৃহীত েদকিেগুরে আকোচনা কি।
ভািকতি তীব্র আেবেষম্য কম্াোি জনয ভািত সিকাি েরিকল্পনাকাকে একারযক েদকিে গ্রহণ ককিকেন। তাি ম্কযয উকিখযগুরে
রনম্নরূে
১) জরম্ি েন্টকন বেষম্য দূিীকিকণি জনয সিকাি ভূরম্সংস্কাকিি েদকিে গ্রহণ ককিকেন। েস্তুত কৃরষজরম্ি েন্টকন বেষম্যই ভািকতি
আে বেষকম্যি প্রযান কািণ।
২) বেকািত্ব ও প্রচ্ছন্ন বেকািত্ব কম্াোি উকেকশয সিকাি িুদ্ররশল্প ও কুরিি রশকল্পি রেকাকশি জনয একারযক েদকিে গ্রহণ ককিকেন।
৩) সম্াকজি আরথথকভাকে দূেথে বশ্রণীি জনয সিকাি নানারূে ভাতাি েকদােস্ত ককিকে।
Chap 20 15 apurba sir

৪) কি ফােঁরক কম্াোি উকেকশয সিকাি আেককিি হাি সিে ককিকে।

ভািকত জরম্ি ম্ারেকানােন্টকন বয অসাম্য িকেকে তাি সংরিপ্ত রেেিণ দাও।
যখন রেেুে েরিম্ান কৃরষজরম্ি ম্ারেকানা করতেে ভূস্বারম্ি হাকত বকন্দ্রীভূত হে তখন তাকক জরম্ি ম্ারেকানা েন্টকন অসাম্য ো বেষম্য
েকে। ভািকতি গ্রম্াঞ্চকে অরযকাংশ অরযোরস হে ভূরম্হীন নতুো অরত িুদ্র বজাকতি ম্ারেক। অনযরদকক করতেে েরিোকিি হাকত
অরযকাংশ কৃরষকজাকতি ম্ারেকানা িকেকে। সুতিাং ভািকত কৃরষ জরম্ি েন্টন অসম্। বযম্ন ১৯৭১- ৭২ সাকে কিা এক সম্ীিাে বদখা
গীকেরেে েরিম্েকঙ্গি গ্রাম্াঞ্চকে েসোসকািীকদি ৭৮% হে ভূরম্হীন নতুো অরত িুদ্র বজাকতি ম্ারেক। অনযরদকক ২২% অরযোসী েৃহৎ
বজাতগুরেি ম্ারেক।
এখন বযকহতু কৃরষজরম্ি ম্ারেকানা েন্টকনি এই বেষম্যি সকঙ্গ ভািকতি আে েন্টকনি বেষম্য ওতঃকপ্রাতভাকে জরেত, তাই আে
বেষম্য দূিীকিকণি জনয সেথাকগ্র প্রকোজন জরম্ি ম্ারেকানা েন্টকন বয অসাম্য তা দূি কিা। এই েকিয ভািত সিকাি একারযক
েদকিে গ্রহণ ককিকেন। বসগুরে বম্ািাম্ুরি রনম্নরূে<
১) ম্যযস্বত্বযািী প্রথাি রেকোেঃ স্বারযনতাি েূকেথ ভািকত রতন যিকণি ভূরম্ েযেিা প্রচরেত রেে, যথা, জরম্দারি, ম্হেোিী এেং
িােতাোিী। এই রতন প্রকাি েযেিাকতই সিকাি ও সাযািণ প্রজাি ম্কযয একারযক ম্যযস্বত্বকভাগীি সৃরি হকেরেে। েিেতথীকাকে এই
সকে ম্যযস্বত্বকভাগীিা রেেুে কৃরষ জরম্ি ম্ারেকক েরিণত হে। ফকে জরম্ি েন্টকন অসাম্য সৃরি হে। তাই ১৯৫৪ সাে বথকক ভািত
সিকািএকারযক আইন প্রকণােন েূেথক এই সকে ভূরম্ েযেিাি রেকোে ককিন।
২) প্রজাস্বকত্বি সংস্কাি সাযন: প্রজাস্বকত্বি সংস্কাকিি উকেকসয সিকাি ম্ূেতঃ রতনরি েদকিে গ্রহণ ককিকে, যথা, খাজনাি সীম্া
রনযথািণ; প্রজাস্বকত্বি রনিােিা এেং জরম্ি ম্ারেকানাস্বত্ব প্রদান।
৩) জরম্ি উযথসীম্া রনযথািণ: সিকাি জরম্ি একরি উযথসীম্া রনযথািন ককি বদন এেং এই সীম্াি উেি যতিা জরম্ একক ম্ারেকানাে
রেে, তা সিকাি কতৃক অরযগৃহীত হে, এই অরযগৃহীত জরম্ সিকাি ভূরম্হীনকদি ম্কযয েূনেথন্টন ককি বদন।
৪) বজাকতি একত্রীকিণ: আেতনজরনত েযেসংকিকেি সুরেযা গ্রহণ কিাি উকেকশয সিকাি খরেত বজাত সংর্েি কিকত রেরভন্ন িাকজয
একারযক আইন প্রণেন ককিকে।
৫) বযৌথখাম্াি: রেরিপ্ত ও খরেত বজাতগুরেকক সংর্েি ককি বযৌথ খাম্াি গকে বতাোি প্রোস কিা হকেকে।
ভািকত বেসিকারি রশল্পকিকত্র ম্ূেযকনি েন্টকন বয অসাম্য িকেকে তাি সংরিপ্ত রেেিণ দাও।
যরদ করতেে েৃহৎ রশল্পেরতি রনেন্ত্রকণ উৎোদকনি অরযকাংশ উোদান বকন্দ্রীভূত হে, তকে বেসিকারি রশল্পকিকত্র ম্ূেযকনি েন্টকন
অসাম্ভ িকেকে েো হে। এই েরিরিরতকক এককচরিো বকন্দ্রীভেনও েো হে।
ভািকত দু যিকণি এককচরিো বকন্দ্রীভেন েিয কিা যাে, যথা, এককচরিো প্ররতষ্ঠান এেং এককচরিো রশল্প সম্রি।
যরদ একরি রেকশষ রশকল্প ককেকরি ম্াত্র েৃহৎ রশল্প প্ররতষ্ঠাকনি আরযেতয বদখা যাে, অথথাৎ বকান রশকল্প যরদ ম্ুরিকম্ে ককেকরি
প্ররতষ্ঠান সম্গ্র রশল্পরিকক রনেন্ত্রন ককি, তকে তাকক আম্িা সাযািণভাকে এককচরিো প্ররতষ্ঠান েরে। বযম্ন ভািকত গারে রশকল্প িািা,
ম্ারুরত এম্ন ককেকরি রশল্প প্ররতষ্ঠাকনি আরযেতয বদখা যাে। ১৯৬৪ সাকে এককচরিো কািাোি অনুসোনকািী করম্শকনি রিকোিথ
অনুযােী ভািকত গুরুত্বেূনথ ১০০রি বভাগযেকনযি ম্কযয ৬৪রিকতই এককচরিো প্ররতষ্ঠাকনি অরস্তত্ব িকেকে।
অনযরদকক যরদ বদখা যাে বয বকান একরি রশল্প েরিোি রেরভন্ন রশকল্প ো রেরভন্ন সাম্গ্রীি উৎোদকন এতিা আরযেতয রেস্তাি ককিকে
বয সাযািণভাকে এিাই বদকশি রশল্পকিকত্র প্রথান রনেন্ত্রককি ভূরম্কা োেন কিকে। এই যিকণি রশল্প প্ররতষ্ঠানকক আম্িা এককচরিো
রশল্পসম্রি েকে থারক। ভািকত এরূে রশল্প েরিোিগুরেি ম্কযয উকিখকযাগয হে, িািা, রেেো, থাোি, োজাজ প্রভৃরত।
উদাহিণস্বরূে, িািা েরিোকিি অত বগথত বকাম্পারনি সংখযা ৩৮ রি।
রেরভন্ন যিকণি বেকািত্ব ও তাকদি বেরশিগুরে আকোচনা কি।
ভািকত বয যিকণি বেকািত্ব বদখা যাে, তাকদি ম্ুেতঃ দুরি ভাকগ ভাগ কিা যাে, যথা,
ক) গ্রাম্ীন বেকািত্ব; এেং
খ) সহিাঞ্চকেি বেকািত্ব।
ভািকতি অরযকাংশ বেকািত্ব সাযািণতঃ গ্রাম্াঞ্চকে বদখকত োওো যাে, গ্রাম্াঞ্চকেি বেকািত্ব সাযািণতঃ দু প্রকাকিি, যথা,
১) ম্িধুম্ী বেকািত্ব: ভািকতি কৃরষ প্রযানতঃ েৃরিোকতি উেি রনভথিশীে, তাই সািা েেি রনিরেরচ্ছন্ন ভাকে কৃরষকাযথ হে না।ককেে
ম্াত্র রনরদথি ম্িসুকম্ই কৃরষ কাজ হকে থাকক। এিফকে কৃষককদি ো কৃরষ শ্ররম্ককদি বেশ ককেক ম্াস বেকাি থাককত হে। এই যিকণি
বেকািত্বকক ম্িধুরম্ বেকািত্ব েকে। উেযুি জেকসচ েযেিা এই বেকািত্ব দূি কিকত োকি।
২) প্রচ্ছন্ন ো েদ্ম বেকািত্ব: যখন বকান কাকজ প্রকোজকনি তুেনাে বেরশ শ্ররম্ক রনকোগ কিা হে, তখন বসই কাকজ রনযুি অরতরিি
শ্ররম্ককদি প্রারত বক উৎোদন ধুনয হে, অথথাৎ তাকদিকক উৎোদকনি কাজ বথকক সরিকে রনকেও উৎোদন হ্রাস োে না। এইরূে অরতিি
শ্ররম্ককদি প্রচ্ছন্ন বেকাি ো েদ্ম বেকাি েকে।
ভািকত গ্রাম্ীন জনসাযািকণি একিা েে অংশকক তাকদি জীরেকাি জনয কৃরষি উেি রনভথি কিকত হে। এখন জনসংখযা েৃরিি সাকথ
সাকথ কৃরষকত রনযুি বোককি সংখযাও েৃরি োকচ্ছ, ফকে প্রকোজকনি তুেনাে অকনক বেরশ বোক কৃরষকত রনযুি িকেকে। এই অরতরিি
েরিম্ান কৃরষ শ্ররম্ক হে প্রচ্ছন্ন ো েদ্ম বেকাি।
ভািকতি সহিাঞ্চকে বয যিকণি বেকািত্ব বদখা যাে তা রনম্নরূে,
Chap 20 16 apurba sir

১) রশল্পাঞ্চকেি বেকািত্বঃ এই যিকনি বেকাি হে তািাই যািা কাজ কিকত ইচ্ছুক, রকন্তু কম্থসংিাকনি অভাে বহতু কম্থ হীন। সাযািণতঃ
সহিাঞ্চকেি অরযকাংশ বেকািত্ব এই জাতীে। বকান কািখানা েে হকে বগকে বয বেকািকত্বি সৃরি হে তা এই জাতীে বেকািকত্বি
উদাহিণ।
২) রশরিত বেকািত্বঃ একজন েযরি রশরিত হওো সকত্বও যরদ কম্থহীন থাককন ো তাি বযাগযতাি অনুরূে কাজ না োন তাহকে তাকক
রশরিত বেকাি েো হে। ভািকত সপ্তম্ েরিকল্পনাকাকে এই রশরিত বেকাকিি সংখযা রেে প্রাে ৪৭ েিয। েস্তুতঃ উন্নেকনি সাকথ সাকথ
বদকশ রশিা রেস্তাকিি হাি েৃরি বেকে নতুন কম্থসংিান সৃরিি হাি রেকশষ না োোে রশরিত বেকাকিি সংখযা রদন রদন োেকে।
৩) কাঠাকম্াগত ো প্রযুরিগত বেকািত্বঃ বদকশি অথথবনরতক কাঠাকম্াগত েরিেতথন ো উৎোদন েিরতি েরিেতথন ো নতুন দ্রকেযি
প্রচেন ইতযারদ কািণেশতঃ বয বেকািত্ব বদখা যাে, তাকক কাঠাকম্াগত ো প্রযুরিগত বেকািত্ব। বযম্ন ভািকত নাইেন েযাকগি প্রচেন
োোে োি রশকল্প ম্দা বদখা রদকেকে, ফকে োিকেগুরে এককি েি এক েে হকে যাওোে, বয বেকািকত্বি সৃরি হকেকে, তা হে এই
জাতীে বেকািত্ব।
৪) োরণজযচক্রজরনত বেকািত্বঃ োরণজযচকক্র ম্দাি সম্ে অথথবনরতক কাজকম্থ হ্রাস োে, ফকে অথথবনরতক ম্দাি কািকণ েহু বোক
বেকাি হকে েকে। এইজাতীে বেকািত্বকক োরণজযচক্রজরনত বেকািত্ব েকে।
Chap 20 17 apurba sir
Chap 20 18 apurba sir

অথথবনরতক সংস্কাকিি বেকাি সম্সযাি উেি প্রভাে আকোচনা কি।