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Fingertips Final Sample Book

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

2K views81 pages

Fingertips Final Sample Book

Uploaded by

Swathi G

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Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 81

Theory Book

Scoring in GPAT MADE EASY

GPAT AT YOUR
F NGERTIPS
Chapter-wise student friendly
synopsis for quick-and-easy
revision

Boost Your GPAT Score

Essential for GPAT Examination

GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER

Content

PHARMACEUTICS

1. Physical Pharmacy ...........................................................................1 - 31

2. Pharmaceutical Technology ..............................................................32 - 80
3. Bio Pharmaceutics ............................................................................81 - 100
4. Pharmaceutical Engineering .............................................................101 - 115
5. Cosmetic Technology ........................................................................116 - 123
6. Dispensing Pharmacy .......................................................................124 - 149
7. Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence ..........................................................150 - 182

PHARMACOLOGY
1. Pharmacology ...................................................................................185 - 269
2. Human anatomy and physiology .....................................................270 - 296
3. Pathophysiology ...............................................................................297 - 308

PHARMACOGNOSY
1. Pharmacognosy ................................................................................311 - 372

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY
1. Organic chemistry .............................................................................375 - 433
2. Physical chemistry .............................................................................
434 - 443
3. Inorganic chemistry ...........................................................................444 - 462
4. Medicinal chemistry ..........................................................................463 - 487
5. Pharmaceutical Analysis ...................................................................488 - 546

MINOR SUBJECTS
1. Biotechnology ...................................................................................549 - 565
2. Biochemistry .....................................................................................566 - 591
3. Microbiology ....................................................................................592 - 609
4. Hospital pharmacy ...........................................................................610 - 613
GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER : MAKESSTUDYEASY

True density 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐞𝐫

True density =
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐞𝐫

 Determined by – Gas displacement method (He, N is

used).

Granule density 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

Granule density =
𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

 It is the density of powder + intraparticle space.

 Determined by mercury displacement method.
Bulk density 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐞𝐫
Bulk density =
𝐛𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

 It is the density of powder itself + density of intraparticle

+ interparticle space.
 Determined by bulk density apparatus.

3. Packing Arrangements
 Powder beds of uniform-sized spheres can assume either of two ideal packing
arrangements:

Closest or rhombohedral packing Most open, loosest, or cubic packing

(26% porosity) (48% porosity)

4. Flow properties
A. Angle of repose-
 It is the maximum angle possible between surface of the pile of the powder and
horizontal plane.
 High repose angle of the granules indicated roughness of the granule surface.
 The term light as applied to pharmaceutical
powders means low granule density.
 Methods used for determination-
o Fixed cone method
𝒉
θ = tan-1 𝒓
Where, θ  angle of repose
r = radius of the base of pile
h = height of pile
o Rotating cylinder method
o Tilted box method

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 NON – NEWTONIAN FLOW

 TIME INDEPENDENT
S. No. PLASTIC FLOW PSEUDOPLASTIC FLOW DILATANT FLOW
1. Plastic flow curves do not Curve for a pseudoplastic It also originates from
pass through the origin material begins at the origin origin
2. Lines extrapolates to axis, No part of curve is linear so, No yield value
leads to formation of linear no yield value
curve called yield value.
3. Equation: Equation: Equation:
U=
𝑭−𝒇 FN = ƞ’ G FN = ƞ’ G
𝑮 N = 1 (Newtonian flow) N <1 (degree of
U = plastic viscosity N >1 (Non-Newtonian flow) dilatancy increases)
f = yield value (N/m2) N = 1 (Newtonian
G = rate of shear (S) flow)
F = shear stress (N/m2) N >1 (Non-Newtonian
flow)

4. Also known as BINGHAM Also called SHEAR Also called SHEAR

BODIES THINNING SYSTEM THICKENING
SYSTEM
5. Flocculated suspension ↑ses Mainly natural & synthetic Curve exhibit dilatant
yield value gum exhibit pseudoplastic flow
flow
6. Viscosity linearly ↑ses with Viscosity of pseudoplastic Viscosity of dilatant
↑se rate of shear substance ↓ses with ↑se rate substance ↑ses with
of shear ↑se in stress
7.

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PHYSICAL ADSORPTION CHEMICAL ADSORPTION OR

CHEMISORPTION
 The adsorbate is bound to the  Involves the stronger valence forces.
surface through the weak van der  Seldom revesible
Waals forces.  Monolayer
 Weak, reversible  Not free to move
 Multilayer
 Absorbate free to move

 ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
 Amount of gas absorbed is potted against equilibrium
pressure of gas at constant temperature.
 Equations which defines adsorption isotherms are –
Freundlich, Langmuir and Brunner, Emmett and
Taller (BET).

 TYPES OF ISOTHERMS
S. NO. TYPES EQUATION ABBREVIATION
1. Linear Isotherm
2. Freundlich adsorption 𝑥 1
Log 𝑚= Log k + 𝑛 Log p y  mass of gas adsorbed
isotherm per unit weight of
absorbent
k, n  constant
p  equilibrium gas
pressure

3. Langmuir adsorption p/y = 1/ymb + p/ ym ym  mass of gas & needed

isotherm to form a monolayer per
gram of adsorbent
b  constant

4. BET equation P  pressure of adsorbate

molecules
y  mass of vapour
adsorbed per gm of
adsorbent
po  saturation vapour
pressure

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 FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION

1. Solute – Increase in concentration of solute increases adsorption.
2. Surface area - Increase in surface area of adsorbent increases adsorption.
3. Temperature - Increase in temperature will decreases adsorption.
4. Removal of adsorbed impurities – Increase in impurities will decrease adsorption.
5. pH of the medium – Adsorption would increase or decrease with change in pH.

COLLOIDAL

 A dispersed system is defined as a system in

which one phase the dispersed phase is
distributed uniformly as particles throughout
another phase called the dispersion medium or
continuous phase.
 Sedimentation potential quality of dispersed
phase is responsible for the increased viscosity
of a hydrophilic colloidal dispersion.
 The critical value of zeta potential (in milli volts) for a stable colloid (except gold
solution) is Brownian movement.
 Electrodialysis method is employed in the colloidal chemistry for the purpose of
purification.
 The type of colloidal dispersion to which electrolytes are normally added in small
quantities to stabilize lyophobic.
 The semipermeable membrane used in haemodialysis is cellophane.
 The molecular weight of dispersed solids in a colloidal system can be determined using
an instrument ultracentrifuge.
 The movement of colloidal particles through a liquid under the influence of electric field
is called as electrophoresis.
 The potential difference develop when particles settle under the influence of gravity is
called as sedimentation potential.
 A beam of light is pass through a colloidal solution , the path of light gets illuminated , this
phenomenon is known as Tyndall effect.
 The continuous collision between the colloidal particles and molecules of dispersion
medium produce zigzag movement of colloidal particle which is known as Brownian
movement.
 The protective ability of colloids is measured as gold number.
 The comparatively fast sedimentation rate of the dispersed phase produced by means of
gravity or other forces this is characteristic of coarse dispersion.

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 TYPES OF COLLOIDAL DISPERSION

LYOPHILIC COLLOIDS LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS ASSOCIATION COLLOIDS
Lyo means solvent and Lyo means solvent and Also known as
philic means loving i.e. phobic means hating i.e. amphiphilic colloids
solvent loving colloids solvent hating colloids
Strong interaction Very little interaction Aggregates are solvated
between dispersed phase between dispersed phase
and dispersion medium and dispersion medium
Thermodynamically Thermodynamically Thermodynamically stable
stable; easy to prepare unstable; difficult to prepare
Less charged but solvated Highly charged Charged micelles but
solvated
Viscosity of dispersion Viscosity of dispersion Viscosity increases with
medium increases with medium doesn’t increase increases in concentration
addition of dispersed with addition of dispersed of amphiphilics
phase phase
Stable in the presence of Unstable in the presence of CMC is reduced by
electrolytes electrolytes addition of electrolyte
Dispersed phase can be Dispersed phase is stable at Dispersed phase can be
salted out by high conc. of high conc. salted out by high conc. of
very soluble electrolytes. very soluble electrolytes.
Highly solvated Low solvation Solvated by polar and
non-polar groups
Reversible Irreversible Reversible
Rubber and Polystyrene Gold, silver and Sulphur in Surfactants
water

 PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS

OPTICAL PROPERTIES KINETIC ELECTRICAL

PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
1. Tyndall effect 1. Brownian 1. Electrical
When a narrow beam of light is movement double layer
passed through a colloidal The colloidal particle 2. Electrophoresis
dispersion, the path of the light in dispersion are 3. Electro-osmosis
becomes illuminated and can be always in a state of 4. Streaming
observed at right angles under an continuous and potential
ultramicroscope.

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2. Ultramicroscopy random motion 5. Sedimentation

Colloidal dispersion is observed  within the medium. potential
under ultramicroscope  against Velocity of particles 6. Donna
a dark background at right angle increases with membrane
to an intense beam of incident decreasing particle effect
light. size.
The particles appear  bright spot Increase in viscosity
against dark background. of the medium
3. Electron microscopy decreases or stops
Helps in study the size, shape and the movement.
structure of colloidal particles. 2. Diffusion
4. Light scattering 3. Osmotic pressure
Scattering of light causes colloidal 4. Sedimentation
dispersion to appear turbid. 5. Viscosity
Useful in determining the particle
size, shape and interactions of the
dissolved macromolecules.

SUSPENSION
 Pharmaceutical suspension may be defined as a dispersion in
which insoluble solids (drugs) are suspended in a liquid
medium.
 Heterogeneous system consisting of two phases (internal phase
is dispersed uniformly throughout the external phase).
 Internal phase - particulate matter that is essentially insoluble
but dispersed uniformly throughout the continuous phase with
aid of single or combination of suspending agent.
 External phase (suspending medium) - aqueous, organic or oily
liquid for non-oral use.
 Particle size distribution lies between 1 and 50um.
 Deflocculated suspension is more stable for a short duration of time period.
 Lecithin is a zwitter ionic surfactant.
 Suspension follow apparent zero kinetic.
 Suspension is a heterogenous liquid dosage form.
 Cake formation is characteristic features of deflocculated suspension.
 The particle size in suspension is greater than 103.
 Stability of suspension is increased with increase in zeta potential.
 Suspension of hydrophobic drug formulated with wetting agents.
 Rheological evaluation test is used to compare different suspension.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SUSPENSION
1. Based on physical state:
a. Suspension
b. Aerosols
c. Foams
2. Based on Proportion of Solid Particles:
a. Dilute suspension (2 to10% w/v solid). For example: - cortisone acetate, prednisolone
acetate.
b. Concentrated suspension (50%w/v solid). For example: - zinc oxide suspension.
3. Based on electro kinetic nature of solid particle:
a. Flocculated Suspension (Dispersed phase maybe a network of particle)
b. Deflocculated Suspension (Dispersed phase may consist of discrete particles)
4. Based on Size of Dispersed Particles:
a. Molecular Dispersion (Particle size is less than 1 nm)
b. Colloidal Dispersion (Particle size between 0.1-0.2 µm)
c. Coarse Dispersion (Particle size is greater than 0.2 µm)
5. General classification of Suspension:
a. Oral suspension (Example is Paracetamol suspension)
b. Topical suspension (Dispersed phase is in high concentration often exceeds 20% w/v.
Example is Calamine Lotion)
c. Parenteral suspension (Solid Contents is between 0.5-5% w/v. Example includes
Procaine penicillin G suspension.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLOCCULATED AND DEFLOCCULATED SUSPENSION

FLOCCULATED SUSPENSION DEFLOCCULATED SUSPENSION
Slightly sediment and clear supernatant Pleasant appearance, because of uniform
layer. dispersion of particles.
Supernatant is clear. Supernatant remains cloudy
Particles experiences attractive forces. Particles experience repulsive force.
Particles forms loose aggregates. Particles exist as separate entities.
Rate of sedimentation is high, as flocs are Rate of sedimentation is slow as the size
the smaller particles (higher size). of the particles are small.
Sediment is loosely packed network and The sediment is closely packed and form
hard cake cannot form. hard cake.
Easy to redisperse Cannot be redispersed
In the potential energy curve, it represents In the potential energy curves, it
the secondary minimum. represents the primary minimum.
Bioavailability is comparatively less Bioavailability is relatively high

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 FORMULATION OF PHARMACEUTICAL SUSPENSION

 Wetting Phenomenon
 Wetting is an adsorption process in which an intimate contact of the solids with liquid
phase is achieved.
CONTACT ANGLE COMMENT EXAMPLES
90 Float Sulfur, charcoal
0 Complete wetting Zinc oxide
180 Insignificant wetting -
 Contact angle - Contact angle can be defined as an angle between the liquid droplet and
surface over which it spreads.
 Examples-
DRUGS CONTACT ANGLE
Indomethacin 90
Tolbutamide 72
Nitrofurantoin 69
Phenylbutazone 109
Chloramphenicol palmitate 122
Ampicillin 21
Lactose 30

 EVALUATION PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS APPARATUS USED
Sedimentation Volume Graduated measuring cylinder
Degree of flocculation Graduated measuring cylinder
Re- dispersibility Graduated measuring cylinder
Flow rate Pipette
pH pH meter / pH paper ( Sorensen scale )
Viscosity Brookefield viscometer
Particle size Optical microscopy

 TERMINOLOGY RELATED WITH SUSPENSION

TERMS DEFINITION
Swamping Increase in concentration of ions in the solution decrease the
thickness of double layer and therefore aggregation occur.
Subsidence Describe the settling of an aggregated system.
Ostwald ripening Cyclization change in temperature in suspension to form
crystal bridging called Ostwald ripening.
Freeze thaw Technique is particularly applicable to stressing suspension
cycling for stability testing purpose.
Levigation Particle size reduction by grinding
Pulverisation Process of powdering

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EMULSION

 Emulsion is coarse dispersion having globule size 0.1-100mm.

 It may be defined as biphasic liquid dosage form in
which two liquids are immiscible with each other.
 Water soluble bases are also known as Greaseless
ointment bases.
 Microemulsions contain globules of the size 0.1
micrometer.
 In an emulsion, the liquid which converted into
minute globule are called the dispersed phase.
 Emulsions having large globules are called as coarse emulsion.
 A transparent emulsion is produced when the 2 phases have the same refractive index.
 Radio opaque emulsions are used as diagnostic agents in x-rays examination.
 Sodium lauryl sulphate is commonly used as emulsifying agent among the sulphated
alcohols.

 CLASSIFICATION OF EMULSION
Based on dispersed Based on globule
phase Special type
size
• Oil in water (O/W) • Microemulsion • O/W/O emulsion
• Ex - Vanishing cream • Size - 0.01µm • W/O/W emulsion
• Water in oil (W/O) • Fine emulsion
• Ex - Cold cream • Size - 0.25 to 25 µm

 EMULSIFYING AGENTS
• According to Bancroft’s rule, “If the surfactant is more soluble in water, then the
aqueous phase becomes continuous phase, i.e., o/w emulsion will be obtained.”
• Example- Tweens, acacia, bentonite is useful to form o/w emulsions
Span are useful to form w/o emulsions

 CLASSIFICATION OF EMULSIFYING AGENTS

CLASS EXAMPLES
1. Surface active agents
Cationic  Quaternary ammonium compounds – Benzalkonium chloride,
Cetrimide.
Nonionic  Polyoxy ethylene fatty alcohol ethers C12H25 (OCH2CH2)nOH
 Sorbitan fatty acid esters
 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters
 Polyoxyethylene polyoxypopylene block copolymers
 Lanolin alcohols and ethoxylated lanolin alcohols

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Anionic  Sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS), Triaton-X200,

Sodium acetyl sulphate
2. Hydrophilic colloids
Semisynthetic  Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
 Hydroxyl propyl cellulose
 Methyl cellulose
Natural  Plant origin – Acacia, Tragacanth, Agar, Pectin, lecithin
 Animal origin – Gelatin, Lecithin, Cholesterol, Wool fat, Egg
yolk
3. Finely divided solids
Colloidal  Bentonite (Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O)
clays  Veegum (Magnesium Aluminium silicate)
 Magnesium trisilicate
Metallic  Magnesium hydroxide
hydroxides  Aluminium hydroxide

 HLB RANGE OF SURFACTANTS

HLB RANGE CATEGORY
1-3 Antifoaming agent
3-8 W/O emulsifying agent
7-9 Wetting agent
8-16 0/W emulsifying agent
13-16 Detergents
16-18 Solubilizing agent

 IMPORTANT NON-IONIC SURFACTANTS

NON- IONIC SURFACTANT CHEMICAL NAME
Span 20 Sorbitan monolaurate
Span 40 Sorbitan monopalmitate
Span 60 Sorbitan monostearate
Span 80 Sorbitan monooleate
Tween 20 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate
Tween 40 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monopalmitate
Tween 60 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate
Tween 80 Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate
MYRJ 45 Polyoxylethylene monostearate
BRIJ 30 Polyethylene lauryl ether
BRIJ 35 Polyoxylethylene lauryl ether
PLURONICS Combination of polyoxyethylene &
polypropylene
Promulgens D Ceteryl alcohol and ceteareth 20
Promulgens G Stearyl alcohol and ceteareth 20

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COMPLEXATION
 Complexation is the process of complex formation that is the process of characterization
the covalent or non-covalent interactions between two or more compounds.
 A coordination complex is the product of a Lewis acid-base reaction in which neutral
molecules or anions (called ligands) bond to a central metal atom (or ion) by coordinate
covalent bonds.
 Simple ligands include water, ammonia and chloride ions.
 The chelates are a group of metal ion complexes in which a substance (Ligands) provides
two or more donor groups to combine with a metal ion.

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLEXATIONS
COMPLEXATION TYPES
 Inorganic type
 Chelates
 Olefin type
1. Metal complexes or
coordination complexes  Aromatic type
o Pi complex
o Sigma complex
o Sandwich compounds
 Quinhydrone type
 Caffeine complex
2. Organic molecular complexes
 Picric acid type
 Polymeric complex
 Clathrate complex
 Channel lattice
3. Inclusion or occlusion
 Layer type
complexes
 Monomolecular
 Macromolecular

 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COMPLEXATION

JOB’S METHOD OF pH TITRATION DISTRIBUTION SOLUBILITY
CONTINUOUS METHOD METHOD METHOD
VARIATION
 When there is no  This method  The method of  When the component
complexation is applicable distributing a solute in a mixture produce
between the for that between two a complex, the
species, the value of complex that immiscible solvents solubility of one of
property is additive. produces the can be used to the components may

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 On complexation changes in pH determine the be increased or

these properties on stability constant for decreased.
change but additive interaction. certain complexes.  The change in
rule does not hold  The  When a solute solubility is a sign of
good. significant complex with an complexation.
 The change in the change in pH added substance, the
characteristics will solute distribution
proves that the determine pattern changes
complexation has that depending on the
been taken place. complexation nature of the complex.
has been
taken place.

 PROTEIN BINDING
The phenomenon of complex formation of drug with protein is called as protein binding of
drug.
 Protein binding may be divided into –
Intracellular binding, Extracellular binding
 MECHANISMS OF PROTEIN DRUG BINDING
 Binding of drugs to proteins is generally of reversible and irreversible.
 Reversible generally involves weak chemical bond such as:
1. Hydrogen bonds
2. Hydrophobic bonds
3. Ionic bonds
4. Van der Waal’s forces.
 A common process by which proteins transmit the effect of binding at one site to
another site than the active site, this phenomenon is referred as allostery.
 A chelate changes both physical and chemical characteristics of metal ion and ligand.

KINETICS AND DRUG STABILITY

 Chemical kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical changes taking place during
chemical reactions.
 Hydrolysis is most frequently responsible for chemical degradation.
 Arrhenius equation is used for predicting the shelf life of a drug product.
 As the temperature increases, the degradation of drug increases.
 The rate of a zero order reaction is independent of reactant.
 For any chemical reaction, the molecularity is always higher than the others.
 The rate constant of a first order reaction depends on the temperature.
 MOLECULARITY OF THE REACTION
 The molecularity of a reaction refers to the number of molecules, atoms or ions reacting
in an elementary process to give the reactants.

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 Unimolecular reaction – If only one type of molecule undergoes a change to yield the
product.
Br2  2Br
 Bimolecular reaction – two types of molecules are stoichiometrically involved in
reaction.
H2 + I2  2HI
 Half-life – It is the time required for the concentration of the reactant to reduce to half
of its initial concentration.
 Shelf life (t90) – It is defined as the concentration of the reactant to reduce to 90% of its
initial concentration.

 ORDER OF REACTION
ZERO ORDER FIRST ORDER SECOND ORDER
Rate of reaction is Rate of the reaction is directly Rate of the reaction is
independent of the proportional to the first power directly proportional to the
concentration of the of the concentration of a single second power of the
reacting species. reactant. concentration of a single
reactant.
Rate equation Rate equation Rate equation
𝑨𝒐 − 𝑨𝒕 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒂 𝟏 𝒙
K= K= log K=
𝒕 𝒕 𝒂−𝒙 𝒂𝒕 𝒂−𝒙
Ao  initial concentration a  initial concentration Initial concentration of a and b
At  concentration after t time x  decrease in concentration are not equal
t  time a⇏b
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒃(𝒂−𝒙)
K= log
𝒂−𝒃 𝒂(𝒃−𝒙)

Half life Half life Half life

𝑨𝒐 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑 𝟏
t1/2 = t1/2 = t1/2 =
𝟐𝑲 𝑲 𝒂𝒌
Shelf life Shelf life
𝟎.𝟏 𝑨𝒐 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑪𝒐
t90 = t90 = log
𝑲 𝑲 𝟎.𝟗 𝑪𝒐
or
𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟐
t90 =
𝑲
Graph Graph Graph

Unit Unit Unit

K = moles/ litre/ second K = second-1 K = Litre.mole-1 second-1

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 METHODS OF DETERMINING ORDER OF REACTIONS

GRAPHICAL METHOD SUBSTITUTION METHOD HALF-LIFE METHOD
 More reliable because  The kinetic study is  The average k value is
deviations from the best conducted and data are calculated using the data
fit line can be easily collected on the time of for zero, first and second
observed. changes in the orders as given in
 The kinetic study is concentration of the substitution method or
conducted and data are reactants. graphical method.
collected on the time of  Data are substituted in  Then, the t1/2 values are
changes in the the integral equations of calculated for each time
concentration of the zero, first and second period in the kinetic
reactants. order reactions to get study.
the k values.

 DRUG STABILITY
 The ability of a pharmaceutical product to retain its physical, chemical,
microbiological and biopharmaceutical properties within the specified limits
throughout the shelf life.

 TYPES OF STABILITY
STABILITY CONDITIONS MAINTAINED DURING THE SHELF LIFE OF
THE PRODUCT
Chemical Retains its chemical integrity and labelled potency
Physical Retains appearance, palatability, uniformity, dissolution and
suspendability
Microbiological Retains sterility and effectiveness of antimicrobial agents
Therapeutic Drug action remains unchanged
Toxicological No significant increase in toxicity

DIFFUSION AND DISSOLUTION

 Diffusion - The process of spontaneous migration of solute
molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration until the concentration is uniform
throughout the system.
 Dissolution – the process by which a solid solute enters into
solution when added to an appropriate solvent.

 FICK’S FIRST LAW OF DIFFUSION

 The rate of diffusion of solute molecules through a barrier is proportional to the
concentration gradient.

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𝒅𝒎
J=
𝒅𝒕
or
𝒅𝒄
J = - D 𝒅𝒙
Where,
D  diffusion coefficient
J  flux of component

 FICK’S SECOND LAW OF DIFFUSION

 The change in concentration with respect to time at a particular region is proportional to
the change in concentration gradient at that point in the system.
dc d 2C
=D 2
dt dx
 Steady state – The solute molecules diffuses through the barrier membrane to reach the
receptor compartment which is kept under sink condition by constantly replacing the
solution with fresh solvent to keep the concentration in receptor compartment at low level.
 Time lag –
 The time required for the diffusant to establish a uniform gradient with in the membrane
that separates the donor and receptor compartment.
 It is represented by tL.
tL = h2/ 6D

 Noyes-whitney equation
dc DS
= (Cs - Ct )
dt h
where,
dc/dt  rate of dissolution
D  diffusion coefficient
S  surface area of the exposed solid
h  thickness of the diffusion layer
Cs  solubility of solid drug
Ct  solubility of drug at time t

 Modified Noyes whitney equation

dc DAK w/o (Cs - Ct )
=
dt Vh
where,
D  diffusion coefficient
A  surface area of the exposed solid
Kw/o  water/ oil partition coefficient of drug
V  volume of dissolution medium
h  thickness of the diffusion layer
(Cs – Cb)  concentration gradient for diffusion of drug

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Pharmaceutical
Technology
PREFORMULATION
DEFINITION:- This is an investigation of physical and chemical properties of
drug substance alone and when combined with excipients.

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 TYPES OF USP DISSOLUTION APPARATUS & THEIR APPLICATION

USP ROTATING
DESCRIPTION DOSAGE FORM
APPRATUS SPEED
Conventional tablet, chewable
Type 1 Basket apparatus 50-120rpm
tablet, controlled release
Orally disintegrating tablet,
Type 2 Paddle apparatus 25-50 rpm chewable tablet, controlled
release, suspension
Reciprocating Controlled release, chewable
Type 3 6-35 rpm
cylinder tablet
ER, poorly soluble API, Powder,
Type 4 Flow through cell N/A granules, microparticles,
implants
Type 5 Paddle over disk 25-50 rpm Transdermal
Type 6 Cylinder NA Transdermal
Reciprocating Controlled Release Dosage
Type 7 30 rpm
holder Forms

 TYPES OF DIFFERENT DISSOLUTION APPARATUS

APPARATUS
I.P. U.S.P. B.P.
TYPE
TYPE I Paddle Apparatus Basket Apparatus Basket Apparatus
TYPE II Basket Apparatus Paddle Apparatus Paddle Apparatus
TYPE III ---- Reciprocating Cylinder Flow Through Cell
TYPE IV ---- Flow Through Cell ----
TYPE V ---- Paddle Over Disc ----
TYPE VI ---- Rotating Cylinder ----
TYPE VII ---- Reciprocating Disc ----

 TRICK TO REMEMBER DISSOLUTION APPARATUS

 PARTS OF TABLET MACHINE

PART FUNCTION
Hopper For holding & feeding granulation to be compressed
Dies Define the size and shape of the tablet
Punches Used for compression of granulation with the die

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 NIOSOMES
 Niosomes are promising vehicle for drug
delivery and being non-ionic.
 Niosome are non-ionic surfactant vesicle +
Cholesterol or other lipids.
 Niosome have better stability than liposome.
 Their physical properties are similar to
liposomes.

 NANOPARTICLE
 Nanoparticles are defined as particulate dispersion,
or solid particles having the size range 10- 1000 nm.
 Biocompatible, Biodegradable, offer complete drug
protection.
 Nanospheres – Polymeric matrix
 Nano capsules – Drug encapsulated in a shell

 MICROSPHERES
 Microsphere are small spherical particles, with diameters in
the micrometer range {Typically 1 mm to 1000 mm (1
mm)}.
 Microspheres are sometimes referred to as microparticles.
 Drug is dispersed in polymeric matrix.

 RESEALED ERYTHROCYTES
 Prepared by dipping RBCs in hypotonic media which leads to rupturing of cell
membrane and formation of small pores.
 When RBCs are again placed in an isotonic media at 37°C resealing of membrane takes
place with drugs.

 DENDRIMERS
 The name comes from the Greek word (Dendron), which
translates to “tree”.
 A dendrimer is typically symmetric around the core, and often
adopts a spherical three- dimensional morphology.

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 NEED OF PHARMACOKINETIC MODELS

 There are three main reasons due to which the data is subjected to modelling.
 Descriptive: To describe the drug kinetics in a simple way.
 Predictive: To predict the time course of the drug after multiple dosing based on single
dose data, to predict the absorption profile of the drug from the iv data.
 Explanatory: To explain unclear observations.

 COMPARTMENTAL MODELS
 A compartment is not a real physiological or anatomic region but an imaginary or
hypothetical one consisting of tissue/ group of tissues with similar blood flow &
affinity.
 Our body is considered as composed of several compartments connected reversibly
with each other.
 Depending on whether the compartments are arranged in parallel or in series
compartment models are of two types:
1. Mammillary Model
2. Catenary Model
MAMMILLARY MODEL CATENARY MODEL
Arrangement of compartments in a manner similar to
connection of satellites to a planet (i.e joined in
parallel to central compartment)
Central compartment (compartment 1) - Plasma,
Highly perfused tissues (such as lung, liver kidney).
Peripheral compartment (denoted by no. 2,3) - Other In this model compartments are
organs joined to one another in a series.
This model is rarely used.
Elimination occurs from central compartment
Movement of drug between compartments is defined
by characteristic first order rate constant denoted by
later K.
The number of rate constant in a particular
compartment model is given by R. For IV
administration R= 2n-1
(n=number of compartments) For extravascular
administration R=2n

 VARIOUS MAMMARY MODELS

 Model 1 - One-compartment open model, intravenous bolus administration

 Model 2 - One-compartment open model, extravascular administration

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Pharmaceutical
Engineering
FLOW OF FLUIDS

 The fluid obeys Newton’s law of viscosity, it is known as a

Newtonian fluid.
 The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient and shear
stress is more than the yield value, it is known as ideal plastic fluid.
 The density of the fluid doesn’t change with the application
of external force, it is known as an incompressible fluid.
 The density of the fluid changes with the application of external force, it is known as
compressible fluid.
 Venturimeter is a type of flowmeter that works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation.
 Relative roughness factors are responsible for frictional factor, of a rough pipe and
turbulent flow.
 Inclined manometer is suitable for measuring minute pressure differences in a fluid
 Static velocity head is measured using pitot-tube.
 Bernoulli’s experiments are used for the study of the flow of fluids.

 MEASUREMENT OF RATE OF FLOW OF FLUIDS

HYDRODYNAMIC METHOD USES
Orifice meter Used for testing purpose like for steam lines
(variable heat
meter)

Venturi Used in online installation and measurement of

meter gases
(variable
heat meter)

Pitot tube Measure the velocity at one point only

(insertion
meter)

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EVAPORATION

 Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on

the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas
phase.
 Rate of evaporation is directly proportional to
temperature of liquid.
 Evaporation occurs only at surface of a liquid.
 The rate of evaporation increases if surface area of
liquid is large.
 Climbing film evaporator is also known as rising
film evaporator.
 Entrainment of liquid is the problem one can face during evaporation in climbing film
evaporator.

 EVAPORATION EQUIPMENTS
EVAPORATOR PRINCIPLE CHARACTERISTIC AND USE
Evaporating pan Natural circulation It contain liner as pan and use for
aqueous and thermo-state liquor
Vacuum pan Natural circulation Use for thermolabile materials
Evaporating stills Natural circulation Use for thermolabile materials
Horizontal Tube Natural circulation Use for liquor that do not crystallization
Evaporator and not form scale and non viscous
Vertical tube Natural circulation Use in sugar industry, concentrate cascara
Evaporator CALANDRIA extract and not for foamy liquid
Vertical tube (basket Natural circulation Use for sugar, salts and heavy chemical
type) evaporator
Climbing film (Kestner Natural circulation Use for Insulin, Vitamin Blood plasma,
Tube) Liver extract like thermolabile material
Evaporator and for foamy corrosive liquid.
Not for viscous liquids

DISTILLATION
 Jabir ibn Hayyan is discovered distillation.
 The process of heating a liquid mixture to form vapours and
then cooling the vapours to get pure component is called
distillation.
 Porcelain pieces are put into the distillation flask to avoid
Bumping of the solution.
 The boiling point of chloroform is 334 K.
 The distilled water is collected in receiver.

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 COSMETICS FOR NAILS (FORMULATION)

INGREDIENTS EXAMPLES
Cellulose nitrate (most widely use),
Film formers Cellulose acetate, Cellulose acetobutyrate,
Ethyl cellulose & Vinyl polymer
High boiling : Butyl lactate, ethyl oxalate
Solvents Medium boiling : Isopropyl acetate, Toluene

Low boiling : Ether, Acetone, Methyl acetate

Diluents Alcohol, Benzene, Xylene, Toluene

They impart flexible & gloss to the film & also help in
Plasticizers adhesion to film to the nails.
Eg :- Dibutyl phthalate, resorcinol, castor oil etc.
Insoluble pigment and lake colors are used titanium
Colors dioxide, Iron oxide
Impart pearly appearance to the film
Pearlescent Eg. :- 2 amino-6-oxypurine (Crystalline guanine),
Bismuth oxychloride pigment

 TOOTH POWDER (FORMULATION)

S.NO. INGREDIENTS FUNCTIONS EXAMPLES

Sodium metaphosphate
Calcium carbonate,
Removal of dental Dicalcium phosphate,
Abrasive and
1 plaque and stain Tricalcium phosphate
Polishing Agents
To polish enamel Ca++ pyrophosphate,
Hydrated Alumina,
Silica & Silicates

Soap, SLS (2%), Sodium

It imparts more
salt of Sulphated
Detergent & effective cleansing
2 monoglyceride,
foaming Agent dull to the lower
Sodium-N-lauryl
surface tension
sarcosine

Sweetening
3 Sweeteners Saccharin
Agents
Spearmint, Cinnamon,
4 Flavoring Agents Flavors
Mint

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ND
IMR = ×1000
NB
ND = Number of deaths registered below one year of age in particular
area in one year
NB = Number of births registered during the year of age in that area
Infant mortality
Question: Number of deaths registered below one year of age in slum
rate
area in 2019 is 112 and number of registered in slum area in the same
area is 6000. What is infant mortality rate of slum area in that year?
N 112
Solution: D ×1000  1000 = 18.66
NB 6000
infant mortality rate = 18.66
N
Death rate = D ×1000
MP
ND = Number of deaths registered in particular area in one year
MP = Mean population in that area during the year
Question: Number of death in Delhi city in the year 2019 was found to
Death rate be 8000. The mean population of city was 6400000 in 2019. What is
the death rate of Delhi in that year?
ND 8000
Solution: ×1000  1000 = 1.25
MP 6400000
Death rate Is 1.25.
 NPD - NME 
Q=  ×100
 NPD 
NPD = Number of prescribed dose
NME = Number of medication errors
Percent of
Question: In one hospital, Total 180 prescription are prescribed by
patient
physician. Out of them 9 medication error are reported. What is the
compliance
Percent of patient compliance?
 NPD - NME   180  9 
Solution:   ×100    100 = 95
 NPD   180 
So Percent of patient compliance = 95%

PHARMACOGNOSY
FORMULA USED FOR DOSE CALCULATION IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Wa
%Total ash Value = ×100
%Total ash Wd
value Wa = Weight of ash
Wd = Weight of drug

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Pharmaceutical
Jurisprudence
PHARMACEUTICAL LEGISLATION IN INDIA
 INTRODUCTION TO JURISPRUDENCE
The study of fundamental legal principles is called jurisprudence. In general sense,
jurisprudence includes knowledge of the law while in technical sense it is the science of
the first principles of civil law.
 ETHICS - Ethics is the science of human conduct. With reference to the human conduct
there is the ideal moral code and the positive moral code. Ethics lays down rules for
ideal human conduct and laws are meant for regulating human conduct.
 LAW- Rules of human conduct binding on all person in a state or nations
 JURISPRUDENCE - Serves to train the mind into legal ways of thought and affords a
key to the solution of many provisions of civil law.

 HEALTH SURVEY AND DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES

(1) Bhore Committee : -
Government of India set up Health Survey and Development
Committee in October 1943 under the chairmanship of Sir
Joseph Bhore.

(2) Bhatia Committee : -

Government of India in 1953 appointed the pharmaceutical enquiry committee under
the chairmanship of Major General S. L. Bhatia to make enquiry into the working of
pharmaceutical industry.

(3) Mudaliar Committee : -

Government of India in June 1959 under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshman
swamy Mudaliar appointed a Health Survey and Planning Committee.

(4) Hathi Committee :-

Government of India under the Chairmanship of Jaisukhlal Hathi appointed a
committee. This committee covered all aspects ranging from licensing price.

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EXTRA PHARMACOPOEIA (MARTINDALE)

Martindale contains information on drugs in clinical use worldwide, as well as selected

investigational and veterinary drugs, herbal and complementary medicines, pharmaceutical
excipients, vitamins and nutritional agents, vaccines, radiopharmaceuticals,
contrast media and diagnostic agents, medicinal gases, drugs of abuse and
recreational drugs, toxic substances, disinfectants, and pesticides.
 It is published by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain and was first published in 1883 by William Martindale.
 It is an authoritative reference book on drugs and medicines users.
 It aims to provide practicing pharmacists and physicians with up to
date information on all drug substances, official, unofficial & propriety that are currently
used in pharmacy

YEARS OF DIFFERENT ACTS

Act: Regulation, Bill, Law (As Chapters As Sections)
Rule: Guidelines for successful implementation of act (As Parts As rule no.)
Ethics: Rules by which a profession regulates actions & sets standards for all its members
YEAR LIST OF ACT & RULES
1857 Opium act-1857
1911 Design act-1911
1919 Poison act-1919 (3/Sep/1919)
 Dangerous drug act-1930
1930
 Design rules-1930
1940 Drug & cosmetic act-1940 (D&C act)
1941 DTAB
1945 D & C rules-1945
 Pharmacy act-1948 (4/Mar/1948)
 Factory act-1948 (Come in force in 1949)
1948
 Minimum wages act-1948
 Shop & establishment act-1948
1949 Pharmacy council of India (PCI)
1954 Drug & magic remedies act-1954, Enforced 1 April 1955

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 FORMS FOR IMPORT, MANUFACTURE, REPACKAGING AND SALE OF DRUGS

APPLICATION LICENSE
PURPOSE DRUGS MADE IN GRANTED
FORM IN FORM
(i) Drugs specified in schedule C and C1 8 10
(ii) Drugs specified in Schedule X 8A 10A
IMPORT
(iii) Import of drugs of or testing ---- 11
(iv) Small quantity of drugs for personal use. 12 12B
(i)Homoeopathic Drugs 19B 20C, 20D
(ii) Drugs other than those specified in schedule ---- 20B
C, C1 and X
SALE OF (iii) Drugs other than those specified in ---- 20BB
DRUGS schedule C, C1 and X from a motor vehicle
(A) (iv) Drug specified in schedule X ---- 20G
WHOLE SALE (v) Drugs specified in schedule C and C1 but not 19 21B
included in schedule X
(vi) Drugs specified in schedule C and C1 but not ---- 21BB
included in Schedule X from a motor vehicle
(i) Homeopathic drugs 19B 20C
(ii) Drugs other than those specified in schedule 19 20
(B) C, C1 and X
RETAIL SALE
(iii) Drugs specified in C and C1 excluding X. ---- 21
(iv) Drugs specified in schedule X ---- 20F
(C) (i) Drugs other than those specified in schedule ---- 20A
RESTRICTED C, C1 & X
(ii) Drug specified in C, C1 but not in schedule X ---- 21 A
1. Homoeopathic drugs 24 C 25 C
2. (i) Cosmetic 31 32
(ii) Loan manufacture of Cosmetic 31A 32A
3. (i) Ayurvedic and Unani Drugs 24D 25D
4. (i) Drugs specified in schedule C,C1, and X 27B 28B
MANUFACTURE (ii) Drugs specified in schedule C and C1 27 28
excluding those specified in Schedule X
(iii) Drugs other than those specified in 24 25
schedule C, C1 and X
(iv) Drugs specified in schedule X 24 F 25 F
5. Manufacture for examination test or analysis ---- 29
REPACKING Drugs other than specified in schedule C and C1 24-B 25-B
LICENSE

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THE NARCOTIC DRUGS & PSYCHOTROPIC

SUBSTANCE ACT, 1985
 INTRODUCTION

 16 sept. 1985 – bill passed – 14 Nov. 1985 enforced

 Coca, hemp, opium, LSD, Heroin, brown sugar, smoke, ganja (NOT bhang)
 Cocaine : Methyl ester of benzyl ecgonine & its salts (MEBE).
 Heroin : Diacetyl morphine (DAM).
 This act contains the stringent provision to prohibit control and regulate the
operations relating to Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substance.
 Licencing authority – narcotic officer (supervise the activity of narcotic substances)
 Govt opium factory – Gazipur (UP), Neemuch (MP)
 Narcotic & psychotropic consultative committee (NMT 20 member)- give advise to central
govt
 DEFINITION
1. Coca plant: It means the plant any species of the genus erythroxylon.
Coca derivatives:
• Extract of coca leaf
• All preparation containing not more than 0.1% of cocaine.
2. Cannabis:
 Bhang: Leaves of plant cannabis sativa.
 Ganja: Flowering or fruiting tops of the cannabis plant (exclude seed or leaves)
 Charas: separated resin and resin known as hashish oil or liquid hashish.
3. Opium:
Coagulated juice of the opium poppy but does not include any
preparation containing not more than 0.2 % of morphine.
Opium derivatives:
 All preparation containing more than 0.2% of morphine or
containing any diacetylmorphine. Poppy straw means all part
(except the seed) of the opium poppy.

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THE DRUG PRICE CONTROL ORDER (DPCO)

 Essential commodities Act – 1955
 Drug (price control) order – 1995
 Objectives
 To achieve adequate production
 To secure or regulate the equitable distribution
 To maintain and increase the supplies of bulk drugs and formulation.
 To make these available at fair price
 Three Schedule
 Schedule 1 : List of 74 bulk drug
 Schedule 2: Form for approval or revision of prices of schedule formulation
 Schedule 3: Maximum per tax return as sales turnover of manufactured importer
of formulation – A, B & C category
 MANUFACTURER TO SUBMIT INFORMATION ABOUT
For both List & Cost up to 30 September ; of each year Form no. 1
DPCO 1995 DPCO 2013
Governed by essential commodity act – It is governed by national
1995 pharmaceutical pricing authorities.
(DPCO has enable NPPA regulate price
of 348 drugs that come under national
list of essential medicines)
They regulate price of only 74 drugs They regulate price of 652 drugs
If once price 3 fixed they cannot change Pricing is mainly based on simple
according to act average price be lowered dependency
upon margin.
Retailer margin 16% Retailer margin 16%, wholesale
margin – 8%
Formula: Calculation of Retail price:
1 + MAPE
R.P = (M.C + C.C + P.M + P.C) X + ED
100
R.P = Retail price New pricing in 2015 is
M.C = Material cost MRP = Selling price + local taxes
C.C = Conversion price
P.M = Packing material cost 1+ m
P.C = Packing charges Selling price = Ps
MAPE = Maximum allowable post
100
manufacturing expenses (NMT 100%)
E.D. = Excise duty

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Pharmacology

GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY
 Pharmacology is branch of biology concerned with the study of drug
action.
 Orphan drugs is uses for diagnosis /prevention of rare disease.
 Essential drugs are safety priority healthcare and need of
majority of the population.
 Prescription drugs is schedule H drugs should be retail only
against prescription of registered medical practitioner.
 Counterfeit medicine is fake medicine.

 SCIENTIST NAME AND THEIR DISCOVERIES

S.NO. DISCOVERIES SCIENTIST
1. Father of Pharmacology Oswald Schimedeberg
2. Founded first institute of Pharmacology Rudolf buiccheim
3. Father of chemotherapy Paul Ehrlich
4. Discovery of Penicillin Alexander Fleming
5. Discovery of Streptomycin Selman Walksman
6. Discovery of Insulin Banting and Best
7. Discovery of antimicrobial effect of prontosil Gerhard Domagk
8. Father of medicine Hippocrates
9. Father of Indian Pharmacology Ram Nath Chopra

 ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

 Intradermal injection is used for drug sensitivity testing.
 Thrombophlebitis is occurred by I.V. route causes
inflammation, blood clot and blocked-in vein.
 Sublingual route of administration is avoided first pass
metabolism.
DEGREE ADMINISTRATION
S.NO. ROUTES EXPLANATION
OF ANGLE DOSE IN (ml)
Larger joint Up to 40
Drug inject in knee
1. Intra articular - Mg (1.0ml) Smaller joint
joint
5-10mg (0.125-0.25ml)

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produce pharmacological  Preclinical Data: Subacute

effect with a max dose toxicity study in one species
≤100 micrograms by two routes of
administration.
Human Healthy volunteers  To know maximum
I pharmacology and (sometimes patient) (20- tolerable dose (MTD)
safety 80)  Safety and tolerability.
 To establish therapeutic
Therapeutic 100-500 Patients efficacy.
II
exploratory (homogenous population)  Dose ranging and ceiling
effect in controlled setting
 To establish the value of
drug in relation to existing
Therapeutic therapy.
III Up to 500-3000 patients)
confirmatory  To confirm safety and
tolerability in large
patient population.
 To determine rare and
long-term adverse effects
Post marketing Large number of  Special groups like children,
IV surveillance / patients being treated by pregnancy/ lactiating
Pharmacovigilance practicing physicians women, patient with renal
hepatic disease etc. can be
tested

ADVERSE DRUG REACTION

• ADVERSE EFFECT: Undesirable or unwanted effect due to drug administration.
Augmented pharmacology It is a dose dependent
effect
Augmented Side effect Unwanted effect at therapeutic dose
pharmacology Toxic effect Unwanted effect due to overdose
effect Intolerance Toxic effect in therapeutic dose show
Bizarre effect Non-dose dependent
Chronic effect Duration dependent adverse effect on prolonged treatment
Delayed effect Adverse effect long time after stopping the drugs
 Type A is Dose dependent and immediate adverse reaction.
 IgM antibody is responsible for blood agglutination.
 Glucocorticoid effective in type II, III and IV reactions.
 Teratogenicity produces fetus abnormality. (3-8 week of fetal life)
 Tachyphylaxis – Acute tolerance (responsiveness decrease rapidly after administration
of drug) ex. ephedrine
 Anaphylaxis – Immunological mediated drug reaction, it is life-threatening allergic
reaction.

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CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM

• Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter in cholinergic system.

• Acetylcholine is quaternary ammonium compounds and is
rapidly hydrolyzed by cholinesterase’s, hence no therapeutic
application.
• Ach is synthesized from – Acetyl CoA + Choline
• Rate limiting step in biosynthesis of Ach - Uptake of choline by neurons
• Ach is not used clinically because it is quickly metabolized by acetyl choline esterase
enzyme into Choline + Acetic acid
• Acetyl choline & Carbachol is give action on both muscarinic & nicotinic
• Acetyl cholinesterase have 2 sites – Anionic & Esteratic
• Organophosphate bind only with esteratic-site
 Types cholinergic receptor
CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS

Nicotinic (N) Muscarinic (M)

NN NM M1 M2 M3
 Ganglia  Neuro-muscular  Stomach  Heart  Bronchus
 Adrenal medulla junction  GIT
 Bladder
 Glands
 Eye
 Classification of Cholinergic Drugs
CHOLINERGIC DRUGS

Directly acting Indirectly acting

(Anticholinesterase)
Choline esters Alkaloid
 Acetylcholine  Pilocarpine
 Bethanechol  Muscarine
 Methacholini  Arecoline Reversible Irreversible
 Carbachol

Lipid Soluble Water Soluble Organophosphate Carbamates

 Physostigmine  Neostigmine  Malathion  Carbaryl
 Tacrine  Pyridostigmine  Parathion  Propoxur
 Donepezil  Edrophonium  Ecothiophate  Aldicarb
 Rivastigmine  Tabun
 Gallantamine  Sarin Nerve gas
 Soman
 Diazoxide
Oraganophosphate
 Dyflos
insecticide

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 DRUGS USED IN GLAUCOMA

• It is a progressive form of optic nerve damage.
• In glaucoma raised (> 21 mmHg) intraocular tension
(I.O.T)
• Types of glaucoma
1. Open angle glaucoma
2. Closed angle glaucoma

 MYASTHENIA GRAVIS (MG)

• Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease which results from
antibodies that block or destroy nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
at the junction between the nerve and muscle.
• In Ameliorative test: Edrophonium is injected I.V.
• In Provocative test: d-tubocurarine is injected I.V.
• Alzheimer's disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that
usually starts slowly and gradually worsens over time.

EDROPHONIUM

Myasthenia gravis Cholinergic crisis

 Patient feels better after getting  Patient condition worsens after
edrophonium edrophonium

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Atenolol, Acebutolol, Bisoprolol,

Cardioselective (β1) Betaxolol, Celiprolol, Esmolol,
Nebivolol, Metoprolol

AUTACOIDS
• Autacoids (autos – self, akos – healing substance or remedy.)
• Autacoids acts locally that why called as local hormones, produced at any place and acts
at the produced place
• Hormones are produced by specific cell only, produced at one place and act at different
plant.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AUTACOIDS
Amine autocoids (Derived from Histamine, 5-hydroxy tryptamine (5-HT)
cytoplasm)
Lipid autocoids (Derived from cell Prostaglandin (PGSs), Leukotrienes (LTSs), PAF
membrane)
Peptide autocoids (Derived from Plasma kinins (Bradykinin, kallidin) Angiotensin.
blood plasma α2 globulin)

HISTAMINE AND ANTIHISTAMINES

• Tissue rich in histamine are skin, gastric and intestinal mucosa, lung, liver, placenta
etc.
• Histamine is mostly present within storage granules of mast cell.
• Olopatadine are topical H1 antihistaminic used by nasal route
• Histamine is positively charged, mainly present in mast cell with positively charged
Heparin.
• Hydroxyzine (1st generation)
metabolized into cetirizine (2nd
generation).
• All 2nd generation antihistaminic are
metabolized to active metabolite
except cetirizine.
• Loratadine are Long-acting drugs
• Fexofenadine Active metabolite of
terfenadine (banned due to Torsade’s
de pointes)
• Astemizole banned due to Torsade’s
de pointes
• Cetirizine is active metabolite of
hydroxyzine
• Azelastine are Dual acting antihistaminic (Bronchodilator)
• Ebastine is converted to active metabolite carbastine.

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DRUGS USED IN GOUT

TREATMENT OF
GOUT

Acute Gout Chronic Gout

• NSAIDs
• Colchicine
• Corticosteroids
Drugs increasing Synthesis Drugs increasing
excretion of Uric inhibitor metabolism of Uric acid
acid (Uricosurics)
• Probenecid • Allopurinol • Rasburicase
• Sulfinpyrazone • Febuxostat • Pegloticase
• Benzbromarone

 DRUGS AND THEIR MECHANISM OF ACTION

DRUGS MECHANISM OF ACTION
NSAID DRUGS It inhibits the COX enzyme.
It is act by inhibiting the granulocyte migration into the inflamed joints.
COLCHICUM It inhibits the release of mediators (glycoprotein) which aggravated
inflammation.
Allopurinol prevents the synthesis of uric acid by inhibiting the enzyme
ALLOPURINOL
Xanthine oxidase thus reduce plasma urate levels.
FEBUXOSTAT It is Xanthine oxidase inhibitor and reduce the uric acid.

PROBENECID It acts by promotes uric acid excretion and reduce its blood level.

DRUGS ACTING ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Salbutamol (Albuterol) highly selective β2 – agonist.

 Bambuterol biscarbamate ester prodrug of terbutaline.
 Salmeterol first long – acting selective β2 – agonist used in
Nocturnal asthma
 Formoterol round the clock bronchodilation.
 Cough is a protective reflex, its purpose being expulsion of
respiratory secretion of foreign particles from air passage.
 Cough may be dry or protective.

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 DRUGS USED IN COUGH

TYPES DRUGS
Pharyngeal demulcents Lozenges, Cough drops, Liquorice
Expectorants (Mucokinetic) Sodium or Potassium citrate, Guaiphenesin,
(a) Bronchial secretion enhancers Tolu balsam, Ammonium chloride
(b) Mucolytic Bromhexine, Ambroxol, Acetyl cysteine, carbocisteine
Antitussive
(Cough Centre Suppressants) Codeine, Pholcodeine, Ethylmorphine
(a) Opioids
(b) Non-opioid’s Noscapine, Dextromethorphan, Chlophedianol
(c) Antihistamines Chlorpheniramine, Diphenhydramine, Promethazine
Adjuvant antitussives, Bronchodilators Salbutamol, Terbutaline

 DRUGS USED IN BRONCHIAL ASTHMA

S.NO. CLASSES DRUG MECHANISM OF ACTION
β2 Sympathomimetic Agonist action on the β2 receptor
 Salbutamol cause the activation of adenyl cyclase
 Terbutaline and increase the intracellular level of
 Bambuterol cGMP in bronchial muscle cell 
 Salmeterol relaxation.
 Formoterol
 Ephedrine
Methylxanthines  Inhibition of phosphodiesterase
 Theophylline (PDE) cause increase cAMP cause
 Aminophylline relaxation of bronchial muscle.
1. BRONCHODILATOR  Choline,  Release of Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic
Theophylline, reticulum especially in skeleton and
Doxophylline cardiac muscle.
 Blockage of adenosine receptor and
adenosine act as contract smooth
muscle.
Anticholinergic  Blockage of M3 receptor in bronchial
 Ipratropium bromide muscle cause inhibit IP3/DAG
 Tiotropium bromide pathway
 Decrease intracellular level of Ca2+
cause relaxation.
 Montelukast  Cystenyl leukotrienes (LT-C4/D4)
 Zafirlukast are important mediator of asthma
LEUKOTRIENE
2.  Antagonistic action on receptor and
ANTAGONIST
prevent from leukotriene mediated
bronchoconstriction.
 Sodium cromoglycate Inhibit degranulation of mast cells
MAST CELL
3.  Nedocromil cause the inhibition of release of
STABILIZER
 Ketotifen inflammatory mediator’s PGs, LTs,

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROPYLTHIOURACIL AND CARBIMAZOLE

PROPYLTHIOURACIL CARBIMAZOLE
Dose to dose less potent About 5 times more potent
Highly plasma protein bound Less bound
Less transferred across placenta & in milk Larger amount cross to foetus and in milk
Plasma t1/2 - 1-2 hour 6-10 hours
Single dose act for 4-8 hours 12-24 hours
No active metabolite Produces active metabolic – methimazole
Multiple (2-3) daily doses needed Mostly single daily dose
Inhibit peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 Dose not inhibit T4 to T3 conversion

INSULIN & ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS

 Diabetes Insipidus -Due to deficiency of ADH
 Insulin discovered by – Benting & Best
 Insulin are 51 amino acids in an insulin molecule.
 Two chain polypeptides
 Chain A - has 21 amino acids
 Chain B - has 30 amino acids
 Both chains are connected by Disulphide Bridge.
 Insulin is synthesized from β-cells of pancreatic islets
from a precursor preproinsulin.
 Glucose is the main stimulus for the release of insulin from the β-cells of pancreas.
 Insulin is hormone of Anabolism while Glucocorticoid is hormone of Catabolism
 Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar,
either because
 The pancreas does not produce enough insulin,
 Cells does not respond to the insulin that is produced

 HORMONES OF PANCREASE
PANCREAS
HORMONES FUNCTION DISORDER
CELLS
Stimulates the conversion of stored Hyposecretion cause
α cells Glucagon glycogen (stored in the to glucose and hypoglycaemia.
Stimulates glycogenesis.
Control blood glucose levels by Hyposecretion cause
β cells Insulin signalling the liver, muscle and fat diabetes mellitus
cells to take in glucose from the blood.
Suppresses the release of insulin and -
δ cells Somatostatin
glucagon
Pancreatic Inhibits the release of digestive -
F-cells
polypeptide secretion of the pancreas.

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 It is a versatile LA, good both for surface application as well as

injection.
Lidocaine  Lidocaine is a popular antiarrhythmic
 Lidocaine is depressant, i.e., drowsiness, mental clouding,
dysphoria, altered taste and tinnitus.
Tetracaine  A highly lipid soluble PABA ester, more potent and more toxic
(Amethocaine) due to slow hydrolysis by plasma pseudo cholinesterase.
 It is used in obstetrics (mother can actively cooperate in
vaginal delivery) and for postoperative pain relief)
 Epidural anaesthesia with 0.75% bupivacaine during labour
Bupivacaine
has caused few fatalities due to cardiac arrest. So it is
contraindicated.
 It also prolongs QT interval and cause tachycardia.
Benoxinate  It is a good surface anaesthetic for the eye.
Benzocaine and  Used as lozenges for stomatitis, sore throat; as dusting
Butylamino-benzoate powder/ointment.
(Butamben)  Both are PABA derivative—can antagonize sulphonamides

DRUGS ACTING ON CENTRAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 The nervous system is your body's decision and communication
center and divided into two parts
1. Central Nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system
Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

system system

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous system nervous system

 TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
NEUROTRANSMITTER RECEPTOR
1. Inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA GABAA, GABAB
Glycine Glycine
Dopamine D1-5

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 CLASSIFICATION AND MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIEPILEPTIC DRUGS

S.N. CLASS DRUGS MECHANISM OF ACTION
1. Hydantoins Phenytoin, Prolongation the inactivated state of voltage
Fosphenytoin sensitive neuronal Na+ channel that govern
2. Iminostilbenes Carbamazepine, refractory period of the neurone.
oxcarbamazepine
3. Phenyltriazines Lamotriazine
4. Aliphatic Valproate,  Prolongation of sodium channel
carboxylic acid Divalproex inactivation
 Enhance release of inhibitory transmitter
GABA due to inhibition of its degradation
(by GABA-transaminase)
 Inhibition of T types of Ca2+ current
 Blockage of excitatory NMDA glutamate
receptor.
5. Barbiturate Diazepam, Binds to / subunit of GABAA receptor and
Lorazepam, increase the duration of Cl- channel opening.
Clobazam,
Clonazepam
6. Benzodiazepines Phenobarbitone, Facilitation of GABAA mediated Cl-channel
Pentobarbitone opening
7. Cyclic GABA Gabapentin, It is the GABA derivative cross to the brain and
analogue Pregabaline enhance the GABA release but does not act as
agonist at GABAA receptor.
8. Succinimides Ethosuximide Inhibition of T types Ca2+ current
9. Newer Drugs Levetiractam Synaptically release the GABA/ glutamate by
binding with SV2A.
Topiramide  Prolongation of sodium channel inactivation
 Antagonism of certain glutamate receptor
and neuronal hyperpolarization through
certain K+ channel.
 GABA potentiation by postsynaptically
effect.
Zonisamide  Prolongation of sodium channel
inactivation
 Inhibition of T types of Ca2+ current
Lacosamide Prolongation of sodium channel
inactivation
Vigabatrin It is the inhibitor of GABA-transaminase, the
enzyme which degrades GABA.
Tiagabine GABA neuronal inhibition by blocking GABA
transporter GAT-1 which removes
synaptically release GABA into neurons and
glial cells.
Topiramate Prolongation of sodium channel inactivation

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ANTIARRHYTHMIC DRUGS
 DEFINITION
• Arrhythmias occur when the electrical signals that coordinate
heartbeats are not working correctly, an irregular heartbeat
may feel like a racing heart or fluttering
• Class IA agents also have Class III property; Propranolol; Sotalol
• Beryllium-both Class II & III actions.
Phase 4 It is resting membrane potential (When the cell is not being stimulate), This
phase is associated with diastole.
Phase 0 Rapid depolarization phase occurs due to fast inflow of Na+ ions.
Phase 1 Rapid repolarization occurs due to stoppage of inward flow of Na+ and start
of K+ and Cl- outflow from the cell.
Phase 2 Plateau phase, during this phase, Ca+2 enters and K+ moves out, This leads to
contraction.
Phase 3 Second phase of rapid repolarization occurs due Ca2+ close and to fast
outflow of the K+ ions.
Phase 4 The membrane potential returns to the resting value. Fully repolarized stage.

 CLASSIFICATION AND MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIARRHYTHMIC DRUGS

CLASSES DRUGS MECHANISM OF ACTION
CLASS I A. Quinidine, Procainamide, Primarily action of drug in this class is to
(Membrane Disopyramide limit the conductance of Na and K
+ +

stabilizing agents B. Lidocaine, Mexiletine across cell membrane and reduce rate of
Na+ channel
C. Flecainide, Propafenone phase-4 depolarization in automatic cell.
blockers)
CLASS II Propranolol, Block β1 and β2 adrenoreceptor present
(β blockers,  ERP Sotalol on nodal cells and decrease the phase 4
& Prolong depolarization.
duration of AP)
Amiodarone, Bretylium, Blockade of myocardial K channel
+

CLASS III Dofetilide, Ibutilide, Sotalol thereby prolongation of repolarization of

(Agents widening phase 3: AP is widened and ERP
AP, prolong (Effective Refractory Period) is
repolarization & increased. The tissue remains refractory
ERP) even after full repolarization: recentrant
arrhythmias are terminated.
CLASS IV Verapamil Restrict the influx of calcium ions by
(Calcium channel blocking voltage sensitive L-type calcium
blockers) channel.
Purine nucleotide: It activates Ach sensitive K+ channel to
MISCELLANEOUS Adenosine accentuate inward rectifier K+ current
and cause membrane hyperpolarization

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS ON THE BASIS OF BACTERICIDAL & BACTERIOSTATIC

MECHANISM OF
BACTERICIDAL BACTERIOSTATIC
ACTION
Tetracycline,
Protein synthesis Chloramphenicol,
Aminoglycoside, Streptogramins
inhibitor Macrolides, Lincosamide,
Linezolid, Tigecycline

Cell wall synthesis

Penicillin, Cephalosporins,
Vancomycin, Bacitracin,
-
inhibitor
Cycloserine, Fosfomycin
Drug acting on cell
membrane
Polymyxin B, Colistin, Tyrothricin,
Amphotericin B
-
Antitubercular Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide Ethambutol
Drug affecting Combination of two drug may be Sulfonamide, Trimethoprim,
intermediary bactericidal, Ethambutol.
metabolism E.g. Cotrimoxazole.
Drug affecting DNA Quinolones, Metronidazole. Nitrofurantoin, Novobiocin

 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS

Cell wall synthesis inhibitors

DNA replication (DNA gyrase)
Cycloserine
Vancomycin
Bacitracin Nalidixic acid DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
Fosfomycin Quinolones
Cephalosporins Rifampin
Monobactams DNA
Carbapenems Protein synthesis
PABA
mRNA (50S inhibitors)
Sulfonamides FA

{
DHFA Ribosomes Erythromycin
Folic acid
FR 50 50 50 Chloramphenicol
metabolism Clindamycin
THFA 30 30 30
Trimethoprim Streptogramins
Protein Synthesis
Cell membrane (30S inhibitors)
Polymyxins
{Aminoglycoside
Tetracycline
Fig: MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS

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 CLASSIFICATION AND MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTICANCER DRUGS

CLASSES DRUG MECHANISM OF ACTION
Nitrogen mustard: It is produces highly reactive carbonium ion
 Mechlorethamine intermediate which transfer alkyl group to
 Cyclophosphamide cellular macromolecule by forming covalent
 Ifosfamide bond and positioned
 Melphalan 7-guinine are more susceptible react with
 Chlorambucil carboxyl, hydroxyl, amino, sulfhydryl group
Alkylating agent of biomolecules result cross
Ethylenimine: Thiotepa
Alkyl sulfonate: Busulfan linking/abnormal base pairing of DNA
Nitrosourea: strand.
 Carmustine
 Lomustine
Triazine: Dacarbazine
 Cisplatin It hydrolyzed intracellularly to produce a
Platinum  Carboplatin highly reactive moiety which cause cross
coordination  Oxaliplatin linking of DNA at site N7 of guanine residue,
complex and it can react with the -SH group of
cytoplasmic and nuclear protein.
Folate antagonist: Dihydrofolic acid (DHFRase) → dihydrofolate
Methotrexate reductase (DHFR) → Methotrexate →
tetrahydrofolicacid → synthesis of pruine &
thymidines → DNA & RNA synthesis
Purine antagonist: They inhibit the conversion of inosine
 Mercaptopurine monophosphate to adenine and guanine
 Thioguanine nucleotide that are building block for RNA
 Azathioprine and DNA.
Fludarabine It is inhibited DNA polymerase and
ribonucleotide reductase interfere with DNA
Antimetabolites repair and incorporated to form
dysfunctional DNA.
Pyrimidine antagonist: In body 5-FU→5-Fluro-2
 Fluorouracil deoxycridine→deoxyuridilic acid → inhibit
 Capecitabine thymidylate synthesis →deoxythymidylic
 Cytarabine acid →failure of DNA synthesis due to non-
availability of thymidylate Fdump=
fluorodexyruidine monophosphate TMP=
thymidylate monophosphate
The triphosphate of cytarabine is and
inhibitor of DNA polymerase and block the
production of cytidylic acid.
Vincristine, Vinblastine These are mitotic inhibitors, bind to β-
tubulin and prevent the polymerization and
Vinca alkaloids assembly of microtubules cause the
disruption of mitotic spindle and interfere
with cytoskeleton function.

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Human Anatomy
And Physiology
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
 CELL
 A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit
of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.
 Cells are the lowest level of organization in
every life form.
 Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665.
 Based on cellular structure, there are two
types of cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
 In Prokaryotic cells, there is no nucleus.
They all are single-celled microorganisms.
Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
 Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus. The size of the cells ranges between
10–100 µm in diameter. This involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals. It is also
responsible for cell-to-cell communication.
 CELL STRUCTURE
 The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions. These
components include- Cell wall, Cell membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, and Cell
organelles.
 The Cell membrane supports and protects the cell. Thickness of the cell membrane varies
from 75 to 111Å.
 The Cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The Cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane. Most
of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The Nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA. It sends signals to the
cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 CELL ORGANELLES
 The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis.
 Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

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THE BLOOD
 Blood is a special type of fluid connective tissue derived from mesoderm.
 Blood is a mesenchymal tissue and its components are plasma, RBC, WBC and
platelets.
 The plasma form 55-60% of the blood volume whereas the volume of blood cells is
40-45%.
 Neutropenia is the reduction in number of neutrophils below 2500 cell/cu-mm.
 The RBCs of mammals are the smallest.
 Life span of W.B.C count is 2-5 days.
 The process of formation of RBC is called Erythropoiesis.
 Blood is slightly alkaline and its pH in normal conditions is 7.4.
 Average lifespan of RBC is about 120 days.
 Each hemoglobin molecule contains four atoms of iron.
 Blood group is discovered by the Austrian Scientist Karl
Landsteiner, in 1901, honored with Nobel Prize in 1930 for this
discovery.
 Landsteiner discovered A, B & O blood groups.
Karl Landsteiner
 Decastello & Sturle in 1902 discovered blood group AB.
 A, B, O system of blood groups is based upon antigens.
 Antigens also known as Agglutinogens and found on the
surface of RBC.
 Antibodies also known as Agglutin’s and are present in blood
plasma.
 Antibodies are produced in lymph nodes and lymph glands.
 Heparin is the natural anticoagulant due to which blood does not coagulate in blood
vessels.

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 RESPIRATORY DISEASE
EUPNOEA Normal breathing
HYPOPNOEA Slower breathing
HYPERPNOEA Rapid breathing
TACHYPNOEA Rapid shallow breathing
HYPOXIA O2 deficiency at tissue level
DYSPNOEA Breathing in which the subject is conscious of shortness of breath

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

FIG. : AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

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 The whitish nervous band by which two cerebral

hemispheres are interconnected is called corpus
callosum.
 Downward growth of hypothalamus give rise to
infundibulum.
 Infundibulum and hypophysis collectively form
master gland Pituitary.
 Foraman of Monro connects Ist & IInd ventricle to
IIIrd ventricles i.e. paracoel to diocoel.
 Branching radiation of white matter into grey matter
is called Arbor vitae.
 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present in Amniotes
and 10 pairs in Anamniotes.
 Medulla oblongata controls involuntary functions
like, heartbeat, rate of respiration, secretion of
glands, vomiting, coughing etc.
 31 pair of spinal nerves are present in human.
 The spinal formula of spinal nerve in man is C8Th12L5S5Co1.
 Post ganglionic nerve fibre are mostly adrenergic in sympathetic but cholinergic in
parasympathetic ANS.
 The time for restoration of nerve fibres is called refractory period. It is about 0.001 sec.
 Speed of nerve impulse in more in myelinated nerve.
 Nervous system is developed from ectoderm.

CRANIAL NERVES

 CRANIAL NERVES
S.NO. NAME NATURE FUNCTION
I. Olfactory Sensory Smell
II. Optic Sensory Sight
III. Oculomotor Motor Movement of eyeball
IV. Pathetic or Trochlear Motor Rotation of eyeball

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Pathophysiology

CELL INJURY & ADAPTATION

 Ischemia refers to a critical lack of blood
supply to a localized area. It usually occurs in
the presence of atherosclerosis in the major
arteries. Example: Angina pectoris.
 Infarction is localized area of tissue death
due to lack of blood supply. It is also called
Ischemic Necrosis. Example: Acute
myocardial infarction.
 Caseouse necrosis is a good example of
structure less necrosis.
 Tissues for electron microscopy are fixed in
4% glutaraldehyde.
 Enzyme which prevents ageing is Telomerase.
 Annexin V is used as a marker for Apoptosis.
 Immune system in the body is activated by
Cytokines.
 In cell cycle, signal transduction system is activated by G protein receptors.
 The major mechanism of damage to plasma membrane in ischemia is Increased Ca++
ions in the cytosol.
 Mechanism of mammalian apoptosis involves the most important role of the BCL-2
protein.
 Idiopathic calcinosis cutis is an example of Dystrophic calcification.
 In atrophy, the cells are Shrunken cells.

 IMPORTANT TERMS
S. NO TERMINOLOGY COMMENTS
1. Anaplasia Morphological and functional alteration of mature cell
2. Azotemia Characterized by abnormally high levels of nitrogen-containing
compounds (such as urea, creatinine, various body waste
compounds, and other nitrogen-rich compounds) in the blood
3. Aneurysm Permanent abnormal dilatation of blood vessel (Arteries)
4. Apnea A potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing
repeatedly stop and start

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CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

 Crude drugs are unmodified natural substance obtained from plant, animals &
minerals
Difference between organized and unorganized crude drug :
ORGANIZED UNORGANIZED
Made up of cell or definite structure Derived from part of plant or animal
E.g.- flower, seed, fruit and insects E.g.- - juice, extract, resin
Solid in nature Solid, semisolid or liquid in nature
E.g.- - oil, gum and balsams
Microscopic character is criteria for Chemical test and physical standard are
identification of organized drug confirmatory test
E.g.- - Digitalis, cinchona , clove E.g.- Aloe, agar, opium, colophony and bees wax

TRADITIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINES

 AYURVEDA –INDIAN SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
 Main objective - To maintain and promotion of positive health and cure of disease
 5 elements combine in body they form -

Tridosha exist in body in seven forms

Saptadhatu

Rasa Rakta Meda Mamsa Mazza Shukra Asthi

Lymph Blood Adipose Flesh Nervine Reproductive Bone
tissue tissue tissue
 5 characters used to treat Pathological Condition
PROPERTIES MEANING
RASA Taste
GUNA Physicochemical properties
VIRYA Potency
VIPAKA Post digestive effect
PRABHAVA Unique effect of the drug (Pharmacotherapeutic Action)

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BIOGENETIC PATHWAYS
Formation of primary and secondary metabolites :

 Glycolysis pathway
 Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular
metabolism
 Converting glucose or glycogen into pyruvate or lactate, with production of ATP
in cytoplasm of the cell
 This pathway also called as Embden-Meyerhoff Pathway
 When glycolysis pathway under anaerobic condition it produced 2 ATP
 Energy produced per molecule of glucose under aerobic (in glycolysis)condition is
8 ATP
 Energy produced per molecule of glucose when it completely oxidized (glycolysis +
citric acid cycle) under aerobic condition is 38 ATP
 Calvin cycle
 The Calvin cycle can occur at night in the stroma
 Input: ATP + NADPH (products of light reactions) + CO2
 Output: ADP + NADP+ + (G3P)×2 = C6H12O6

 Krebs cycle/ TCA cycle/ Citric acid cycle

 Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
 2-carbon acetyl CoA joins with a 4-carbon compound to form a 6- carbon compound
called Citric acid
 The carbons removed are released as CO2 -enzymes

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CYANOGENETIC GLYCOSIDE
WILD CHERRY 1. TEST WITH MERCUROUS NITRATE
BARK Extract + 3% aq. Mercurous nitrate sol. Metallic mercury
2. SODIUM PICRATE TEST
Small piece of bark put into flask . A filter paper soaked in sodium
picrate suspended to the neck of flask yellow colour
paper turn into brick red due to liberated hydrocyanic acid (which
turn sodium picrate into sodium isopurpurate)
ISOTHOCYNATE GLYCOSIDE
MUSTARD SEED Mustard powder bright yellow colour
FLAVONOID GLYCOSIDE
Shinoda test Drug +5ml 95% ethanol +conc.HCl +0.5 gm of magnesium gives
Pink colour
COUMARINE GLYCOSIDE
PSORALEA 1. Hydro-alcoholic sol. of psoralen + propylene glycol + acetic acid
gives blue fluorescence
2. Alcoholic solution of psoralea + NaOH yellow
fluorescence
BITTER GLYCOSIDES
GENTIAN Gentian extract shows light blue fluorescence
GUDMAR Dilute the solution of drug anaesthetises a sweet taste bud
Drug + shaken with water copious foam

ALKALOIDS
 Term alkaloid was coined by Meissner in 1819
 Alkaloids are basic nitrogen-containing compounds
 Liquid alkaloids - Sparteine, Conine and Nicotine
 Optically inactive are - Papaverine, Atropine

 TYPES OF ALKALOID
TYPES EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLE
Nitrogen in heterocyclic ring and originate from amino
TRUE ALKALOIDS
acid. eg : Atropine, Morphine, Nicotine
PROTO ALKALOIDS Contains nitrogen but not in ring system and originate
(Amino alkaloids) from amino acid eg : Mascaline, Ephedrine, Colchicine
Do not originate from amino acid.
PSEUDO ALKALOIDS eg : Purine alkaloids, Terpenes & Steroid like alkaloids

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Ephedra sinica, 1-phenyl-1-hydroxy-2-

Ephedra methylminopropane
gerardiana
Family: Gentaceae
COLCHICUM
Obtained from
Treatment of gout,
dried ripe seeds of
25. Colchicine antitumor activity,
Colchicum luteum
induce polyploidy
Family: Liliaceae

PURINE ALKALOIDS
 Caffeine, theophylline ,
theobromine
 Colour of leaves is
TEA due to gallotannic
acid
Obtained from
 Enzymatic mixture
prepared leaves
(thease – oxidase
26. and leaf buds of CNS stimulat, diuretics
enzyme)
Thea sinensis
 Phlobatannin
Family:- Theaceae
phlobaphene (green
colour of leave
changes to red)
 Agreeable smell due
to volatile oil
COFFEE
Obtained from  Caffeine (salt of
dried ripe seeds of chlorogenic acid)
27. Coffee arabica  Agreeable smell of Stimulant, diuretics
Family:- coffee is due to an oil
Rubiaceae caffeol
KOLA Obtained from
cotyledon of Cola Preparation of aerated
Caffeine, theobromine ,
28. nitida beverages and as a
kolacatechin (tannin)
Family:- stimulant
Sterculiaceae
COCOA
Obtained from
dried seed of Stimulant and diuretic
Theobromine and cocoa
29. Theobroma cocoa properties,
butter
Family:- Suppositories base
Sterculiaceae

GLYCOALKALOIDS
30. Obtained from Solasodine (steroidal Precursor for steroid
SOLANUM
dried and full glycoalkaloid) hormone

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CHEMICAL REACTION OF ALKANES

ALKENES OR OLEFINS
 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons having with a general formula CnH2n
 The word olefin means oil making
 Here, unsaturated carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized with a trigonal planar geometry
 The C=C bond length is 1.34 Å and the bond energy is 143.1 kcal per mol

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF ALKENES

CHEMICAL REACTION OF ALKENES

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AROMATIC COMPOUND
Aromatic compounds
 Aromatic compounds are chemical compounds that consist of conjugated planar
ring systems accompanied by delocalized pi-electron clouds in place of individual
alternating double and single bonds.
 They are also called aromatics or arenes.

 CLASSIFICATION OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

CHARACTERISTICS AROMATIC ANTI-AROMATIC NON-AROMATIC
Example

Cyclic Cyclic
Conjugated and Conjugated and
Structure delocalized over delocalized over entire
entire ring ring All compounds
which are neither
Planar Planar
aromatic nor anti-
Number of e- in (4n+2) e- number of (4n) e- number of aromatic.
the ring delocalizing electrons delocalizing electron.
Hybridisation All atoms of ring sp2 All atoms of ring sp2
hybridised hybridised
 Stability of compounds: Aromatic > Non-Aromatic > Anti-Aromatic

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STATE OF MATTER
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 The forces of attraction existing among the molecules of a substance (gaseous, liquid or
solid) are called intermolecular forces.
 Greater the intermolecular forces, higher is the melting and boiling point.

The different types of intermolecular forces are

(i) Dispersion forces or London forces: Dispersion forces or London forces are present
among non-polar atoms and molecules, e.g. among the atoms or chlorine molecules.
These are the weakest intermolecular forces.
(ii) Dipole-dipole interactions: Dipole-dipole forces act between the molecules possessing
permanent dipoles.
(iii) Dipole-induced dipole forces: Dipole-induced dipole forces act between the polar
molecules having permanent dipole and the molecules lacking permanent dipole.
(iv) Hydrogen bond: This is found in the molecules in which highly polar N—H, O—H or
H—F bonds are present.
GASEOUS STATE
LAW DESCRPTION RELATION GRAPH
The volume of a given mass of
a gas is inversely 1
BOYLE’S proportional to its pressure V
P
LAW at constant temperature.
P1V1 = P2 V2

The volume of a given mass of

a gas is directly VT
CHARLE’ S proportional to the absolute
temperature at constant V1 V2
LAW =
pressure. T1 T2

The pressure of a given mass

of a gas at constant volume
GAY pT
is directly proportional to
LUSSAC’S absolute temperature. P1 P2
=
LAW T1 T2

It states that equal volumes

AVOGADRO’S of all gases under the same Vn
LAW conditions of temperature V
and pressure contain equal =K
n
number of molecules.

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 ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS
 The parasympatholytics or cholinergic blocking agents include atropine and
related alkaloids obtained from plants, such as Atropabelladona, A. accuminata,
Hyosyamusniger, Scoplolacarniolica, Daturastrammonium, and synthetic or
semisynthetic atropine substitutes.
 The antinicotinic drugs consist of ganglion blockers and neuromuscular junction
blockers.
 Azabicyclo [3.2.1] octane ring is present in Homatropine.
 Azabicyclo [3.2.1] octane ring is present in Atropine.

 ADRENERGIC DRUGS
 The sympathomimetic drugs or adrenergic drugs, largely exert their effect by their direct
action on adrenergic receptors or Adrenoreceptors.
 Subsequently, these receptors were sub classified into 1, 2, 1, and 2 receptors based on
their apparent drug sensitivity.
 None of these receptors is truly tissue-specific, and many organs contain both - and -
Adrenoreceptors, although usually one type predominates.
 Benzene ring and secondary amine are present in Adrenaline.
 Benzene ring and Primary amine are present in Nor-adrenaline.
 Benzene rings and Primary amine are present in Dopamine.
 Dihydro Imidazole ring is present in Tolazoline.
 Naphthalene and Dihydro Imidazole rings are present in Naphazoline.
 Dihydro Imidazole ring is present in clonidine.

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 ANTIADRENERGIC DRUGS
 Adrenergic blockers are also called as antiadrenergic drugs or sympatholytics.
 These drugs block the actions of adrenergic drugs at alpha (α) or beta (β)
adrenergic receptors.
 Dihydro Imidazole ring is present in Phentolamine.
 Phynoxy and Benzyl rings are present in Phenoxybenzamine.
 Benzene ring is present in Atenolol.
 Quinazoline, furan and piperazine rings are present in Prazosin.
 Phenoxy ring is present in Bisoprolol.
 Indole ring is present in Pindolol.
 Naphthalene ring is present in Propranolol.
 Benzene ring is present in Labetalol.

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 SYNTHESIS OF ANS DRUG

DRUG STARTING MATERIAL REACTANT
P-hydroxy phenyl Epichlorohydrin
Atenolol
acetamide
Ephedrine Benzaldehyde Nitroethane
Nicotinic acid ethyl N-methyl pyrrolidine
Nicotine
ester
Neostigmine m- Nitroaniline Methylbromide
Norepinephrine / Catechol Chloroacetyl chloride
Epinephrine
/Isoprenaline
Phenoxybenzamine Phenol Propylene oxide
Pralidoxime α-picolinal Hydroxylamine
Pheniramine Phenylacetonitrile Bromopyridine
Pilocarpine Pilocarpic acid Thionyl chloride
1,2,5-thiadiazole 3,4-dichloro-1,2,5-
Timolol
thiadiazole + Morpholine
Tolazoline Phenyl acetonitrile Ethyl alcohol

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 GENERAL ANESTHETICS
 General anaesthesia is a combination of medications that put you in a sleep-like state
before a surgery or other medical procedure.
 General anaesthetics are drugs which produces reversible loss of all sensation and
consciousness.
 Benzene and cyclohexanone rings are present in Ketamine.
 Piperidine ring is present in Fentanyl.
 Barbiturate ring is present in Thiopentone.

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 SEDATIVES AND HYPNOTICS DRUGS

 Sedative are CNS depressant drugs that reduces excitement, tension, and produces
relaxation.
 Hypnotics are drugs that depresses the CNS and produces sleep.
 At low dose drug may act as sedative.
 While at higher dose same may act as hypnotic.
 Barbituric acid ring is present in Phenobarbitone, Mephobarbitone and
Probarbital.
 1,4-benzodiazepine ring is present in Diazepam, Oxazepam and Prazepam.

 ANTI-EPILEPTICS DRUGS
Epilepsy
 It is a chronic disorder in which disturbances in the electrical signalling and its
transmission in brain.
 It is characterized by sudden and recurrent seizures.
Seizures
 Seizures are defined as brief disturbances in electrical activity and physicochemical
functioning of brain.
Convulsions:
 Involuntary, violent constructions of skeletal muscles which produce twisting or
bonding of body limbs.
Anticonvulsants
 Anticonvulsants are drugs that are used to arrest seizures or convulsions in epilepsy.
 Pyrimidine ring is present in Primidone.
 Imidazolidine ring is present in Phenytoin.
 Cyclohexane ring is present in Gabapentin.

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 ANTIPARKINSON DRUGS
 It is an Extrapyramidal motor disorder occurs due to
degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia
nigra result in dopamine deficiency.
 An imbalance between dopaminergic (inhibition neuron) and
cholinergic (excitatory neuron) (cholinergic over activity).
 Benzene ring is present in Levodopa, Carbidopa and Benserazide.
 Pyrrolidine ring is present in Procyclidine.

 ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS
Psychosis: -
 Psychosis is mental state often described as involving a “loss of contact with reality”.
 Antipsychotic drugs are also termed as neuroleptics.
Antipsychotics:
 They are used primarily for the treatment of mental illness or disorders.
 They cause sedation without inducing sleep.
 They are used to treat schizophrenia and organic psychosis.
 Phenothiazine ring is present in Promazine, Chlorpromazine and Mesoridazine.
 Piperidine ring is present in Haloperidol.

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 ANTIDEPRESSANTS DRUGS
 Depression is a mental illness characterized by pathological changes in mood, loss of
interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy, and poor
concentration.
 The decrease in level of three main neurotransmitter involved in depression are dopamine,
noradrenaline and serotonin (5-HT).
 Benzene ring is present in Tranylcypromine.
 10, 11-Dihydro Dibenzazepine ring is present in Imipramine.
 10, 11-Dihydro-5H-Dibenzo cycloheptene ring is present in Amitriptyline.

 ANTIANXIETY DRUGS
 Anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often
accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and
rumination.
 Piperazine ring is present in Hydroxyzine.
 1,3-Dihydro-1,4-benzodiazepine ring is present in Clonazepam.

 OPIOID ANALGESICS
 Opioid analgesic reduces pain without loss of consciousness.
 Benzofuro[3,2-C] isoquinoline rings are present in Morphine, Codeine and Diacetyl
morphine.
 Benzomorphan ring is present in Pentazocine.
 Piperidine ring is present in Pethidine.

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 SYNTHESIS OF PNS DRUGS

DRUG STARTING MATERIAL REACTANT
Benzocaine Toluene Nitration
Bupivacaine 2, 6-dimethyl aniline α-picolinic acid
Chlorphenesin p-chlorophenol 3-chloropropan-1,2-diol
Chlorotrianisene Anisole p-methoxy benzoyl chloride
Lignocaine 2,6-xylidine Chloro acetyl chloride
Procaine 2-chloroethyl p aminobenzoate Diethylamine

DIURETICS
 Diuretics increase the rate of urine flow and sodium
excretion, and are used to adjust the volume or
composition of body fluid in a variety of clinical situations,
including hypertension, heart failure, renal failure,
nephritic cirrhosis.
 Furan ring is present in Furosemide.
 1,3,4-Thiadiazole nucleus is present in Acetazolamide.
 Benzene ring is present in Ethacrynic acid.
 Pteridine nucleus is present in Triamterene.
 Pyrazine nucleus is present in Amiloride.
 Benzothiadiazine nucleus is present in Chlorothiazide.

 SYNTHESIS OF DIURETICS DRUGS

DRUG STARTING MATERIAL REACTANT
Ethacrynic acid 2,3-dichloro phenoxy acetic acid Butyryl chloride
Chlorothiazide 3- Chloroaniline Chlorosulphonic acid
Furosamide 2,4-dichlorobenzoic acid Chlorosulfuric acid + Ammonia
Amiloride o–phenylenediamine Oxalaldehyde/glyoxal
Triamterene Benzaldehyde Hydrogen cyanide

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 β-lactam antibiotics
 β-lactam antibiotics (beta-lactam antibiotics) are the antibiotic agents that contain a
beta-lactam ring in their molecular structures.
β- lactam ring + Thiazolidine ring
Penam

β- lactam ring +Dihydrothiazine ring

Cephem

Oxapenam β- lactam ring + Oxazolidine ring

Carbapenem β- lactam ring + Pyrroline ring

 PENICILLIN
 Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be used
clinically in 1941.
 Penam, Penicillanic acid, Penicillin and
Bicyclo ring derivative Present in penicillin.
 Penam ring is present in Penicillin G and
Amoxicillin.
 Penam and Isoxazole nucleus are present in Cloxacillin.
 Penam and Piperazine ring are present in Piperacillin.

 Cephalosporins are the 2nd major class of β-lactam antibiotics. it has Cephems
(Dihydrothiazine ring fused with β-lactam)
 Beta-lactamases are a family of enzymes involved in bacterial resistance to beta-lactam
antibiotics.
 Fermentation of unusual microorganisms lead to the discovery of a class of monocyclic β-
lactam antibiotics, named Monobactams.

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Tetracyclines

Aminoglycosides
Macrolide antibiotics

 ANTITUBERCULAR DRUGS
• Tuberculosis is an infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Para amino salicylic acid (PAS) was first drug (1943).
• Pyridine nucleus is present in Isoniazid.
• Pyrazine ring is present in Pyrazinamide.

 ANTILEPROTIC DRUGS
 Mycobacterium leprae is a bacterium that causes leprosy, also known as "Hansen’s
disease”.
 It is a chronic infectious disease that damages the peripheral nerves and targets the skin,
eyes, nose, and muscles.
 Benzene nucleus is present in Dapsone.
 Cyclopentene ring is present in Chaulmaogric acid.
 Phenazine nucleus are present in Clofazimine.

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 TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
TECHNIQUE STATIONARY PHASE MOBILE PHASE
Column/Adsorption Solid Liquid
Chromatography
Partition Chromatography Liquid Liquid
Paper Chromatography Liquid Liquid
Thin Layer Chromatography Liquid/Solid Liquid
Gas – Liquid chromatography Liquid Gas
Gas – Solid Chromatography Solid Gas
Ion Exchange Solid Liquid
Chromatography

 PRINCIPLE

 ADSORPTION
 Stationary phase – Solid
 Mobile phase – Gaseous and Liquid
 Principle of separation - Utilizes a mobile liquid or
gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the surface of a
stationary solid phase.

 PARTITION
 Stationary phase – Nonvolatile liquid
 Mobile phase - Gas and liquid
 Principle - Partition of component of sample between
sample and liquid/gas stationary phase retard some
components of sample more as compare to others. This
gives the basis of separation.

 ION EXCHANGE
 Stationary phase – Coated solid (resin)
 Mobile phase – Liquid
 Principle - Ion exchange mechanism separates analytes
based on their respective charges.

 MOLECULAR EXCLUSION
 Stationary phase - Dextran (Sephadex), Polyacrylamide
gels
 Mobile phase – Toluene, Tetrahydrofuran
 Principle - Uses porous particles to separate molecules
of different sizes.

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 The usual adsorbents employed in column chromatography are silica, alumina, calcium
carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesia, starch. Particle size range: 60-200 µ.

 DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE (ELUTION)

In this elution technique, same solvent composition or
ISOCRATIC ELUTION solvent of same polarity is used throughout the process of
TECHNIQUE separation.
Example: Chloroform only
GRADIENT ELUTION Solvents of gradually increasing polarity or increasing
TECHNIQUES elution strength are used during the process of separation.
(GRADIENT Example: Initially benzene, then chloroform, then ethyl
GRADUALLY) acetate then chloroform

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
 Gas chromatography is a term used to describe the group of analytical separation
techniques used to analyse volatile substances in the gas phase.
 Mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a solid.
GAS - SOLID  Used for separation of low molecular gases
CHROMATOGRAPHY  Example: Air components, H2S, CS2, CO2 rare gases, CO
and oxides of nitrogen.
 The mobile phase is a gas while the stationary phase is a
GAS - LIQUID
liquid retained on the surface as an inert solid by
CHROMATOGRAPHY
adsorption or chemical bonding.

 PLATE THEORY: Each single equilibration between the phases is termed a theoretical plate
and the length of the column required for one equilibration is called the height equivalent
a theoretical plate (HETP).
HETP= L/N
 RATE THEORY: It describes the effect of an elution band as well as its time of elution. Van
Deemter equation describes the relation of the height of a theoretical plate H and the
average linear velocity of the mobile phase.
Van Deemter Equation H = A + B + Cμ
μ

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Absorption and intensity shifts

Bathochromic  When an absorption maximum of a compound shifts to longer
shift wavelength, it is known as bathochromic shift or red shift
(red shift)
Hypsochromic  When an absorption maximum of a compound shifts to shorter
shift wavelength, it is known as hypsochromic shift or blue shift.
(blue shift)
Hyperchromic  When absorption intensity of a compound increased, it is known
shift as hyperchromic shift.
Hypochromic  When absorption intensity of a compound decreased, it is known
shift as hypochromic shift.

WOODWARD-FIESER RULE
1. Homoannular Diene: It is a cyclic diene having conjugated double bond in the same ring.

2. Heteroannular diene: It is a cyclic diene in which double bonds in conjugation are present
in different rings.

3. Endocyclic double bond: A double bond present in a ring as shown in the example.
4. Exocyclic double bond: A double bond in which one of the double bond is a part of a ring
system shown in ring B

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INFRA RED SPECTROSCOPY

 IR spectroscopy based on Hooke’s law, suppose two atoms or masses are connected through
spring (bond), then frequency of vibration can be represented by following equation:

1 k
ν=
2πc μ
µ = reduce mass is expressed as:
m1 ×m 2
μ=
(m1 + m2 )
 Molecules are excited to the higher energy state from the ground state when they absorb IR
radiation.
 Molecules are excited to the higher energy state from the ground state when they absorb IR
radiation.
 REGION OF IR SPECTRA
INFRA RED REGION
Near infrared (Overtone region) 0.8 µm to 2 µm
Middle infrared Functional region 2 µm to 8 µm (1300 – 4000 cm-1)
(Fundamental region) Fingerprint region 8 µm to 15 µm (650 – 1300 cm-1)
Far infrared (Rotational vibration) 15 µm to 1000 µm

 TYPE OF VIBRATION
TYPE OF VIBRATION
Stretching Two bends increase or decrease in length
Symmetrical
vibration symmetrically.
(Bond Two bends increase or decrease in length
Asymmetrical
length altered) asymmetrically.
Scissoring Bond angle decrease.
In plane
Bending Bond angle maintained but both
bending Rocking
vibration bonds move within the plane.
(Bond angle Wagging Both atoms move to one side of plane
Out of plane
altered) One atom is above the plane and the
bending Twisting
other is below the plane.

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Ä Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
Ä Biochemistry
Ä Microbiology
Ä Hospital Pharmacy
GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER : MAKESSTUDYEASY

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

 The father of plant tissue culture is Gottlieb

Haberlandt (1902).
 Plant tissue culture broadly refers to the in
vitro cultivation of plants , seeds and various
parts of the plants.
 Phloem is responsible for the absorption of
nutrients while xylem absorbs water.
 TERMS USED IN TISSUE CULTURE
TERM DEFINITION
Explant An excised piece of differentiated tissue or organ is regarded as an explant

Dedifferentiation The phenomenon of mature cells reverting to meristematic state to

produce callus is dedifferentiation.
Redifferentiation The ability of the callus cells to differentiate into a plant organ or a whole
plant is regarded as redifferentiation.
Totipotency The ability of an individual cell to develop into a whole plant is referred to
as cellular totipotency.
The inherent characteristic features of plant cells namely dedifferentiation
and redifferentiation are responsible for the phenomenon of totipotency.
 Batch culture :- A batch culture is a cell suspension culture grown in a fixed volume of
nutrient culture medium.
 The cells exhibit the following five phases of growth when the cell number in suspension
cultures is plotted against the time of incubation.
1. Lag phase :- Characterized by preparation of cells to divide.
2. Log phase (exponential phase) :- Where the rate of cell multiplication is highest.
3. Linear phase :- Represents by slowness in cell division and increase in cell size
expansion.
4. Deceleration phase :- Characterized by decrease in cell division and cell expansion.
5. Stationary phase :- Represented by a constant number of cells and their size.
 Bergmann’s plating technique :- Bergmann (1960) developed a technique for cloning of
single cells. Now a days Bergmann’s plating technique is the most widely used method for
culture of isolated single cell.
 Organogenesis :- The formation of individual organs such as shoots , roots , directly from an
explant or from the callus and cell culture induced from the explant.

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 RNA synthesis proceeds from 5’ end to 3’ end (5’ 3’)

 The inter relationship of these three biomolecules (DNA, RNA and Proteins) is called
central dogma of molecular biology.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS DNA RNA

In chromosome & little in Distributed throughout the
Present in
mitochondria & chloroplast cytoplasm except vacuoles
Strands Double Single
Sugar Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Nitrogenous base A, G, C & T A, G, C, & U
DNA DNA (replication) RNA dose not replicate
Transcription DNARNA
(transcription)
Made up of large number Consist of less no. of
Nucleotide of nucleotides up to 4 nucleotide up to 12000
million
At the time of replication During biosynthesis
Exonuclease
exonuclease is required exonuclease is not required
Blotting Southern blotting Northern blotting

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Microbiology

INTRODUCTION OF MICROBIOLOGY
MICROBIOLOGY MICROBIOLOGY
 Microorganisms are living organisms that are usually too small to be seen clearly
with the naked eye.
 Microrganisms are used to make different products. (e.g. Penicillin, Streptomycin,
Chloromycetin), vaccines, vitamins, enzymes and many more important products.
 At present there is general agreement to include five major groups as
microorganisms.The subdivisions are

 DISCOVERY OF MICROBES & THE DAWN OF MICROBIOLOGY

 The term microbiology was given by French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822-95).
 The term microbe was first used by Sedillot (1878).
 Robert Hooke was the first to coined the term “cells.”
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered as the “Father of microbiology”
& “Father of bacteriology”.
 George Schroeder and Theodor Von Dusch (1854) were the first to
introduce the idea of using cotton plugs for plugging microbial culture tubes.
 Pasteur in 1862 suggested that mild heating at 62.8°C (145°F) for 30 minutes
 the process was called Pasteurization.
 Domagk was awarded Nobel prize in 1939 for the discovery of the first sulpha drug.
 Recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine developed in 1982.
 The discovery of microbiology as a discipline could be" traced along the following historical
eras:

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(B) Depending on oxygen requirement

(i) Aerobic media eg.: MacConkey's broth.
(ii) Anaerobic media eg.: Robertson's cooked meat medium.
(C) Depending on chemical composition:
(i) Simple or basal media: - Staphylococcus and Enterobacteriaceae grow in this media.
(ii) Synthetic or defined media
(iii) Non-synthetic or undefined or complex media.

BACTERIA

 Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular, prokaryotic

organisms. They possess both DNA & RNA.
 Bacteria has 70s ribosomes.
 Cell wall is a rigid structure made up of peptidoglycan
that surrounds the plasma membrane as an external coat

 CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
1. On basis of arrangement
TYPES BACTERIA ARRANGEMENT STRUCTURE EXAMPLE

Micrococci Occur singly Micrococcus

Two cell joints Streptococcus

Diplococci
together pneumoniae
Divided in one
plane & forms Streptococcus
Streptococci
chain like pyogenes
structure
SPHERICAL
(COCCI) Tetracoccci In group of four Gaffkya tetragena

Grapes like
Staphylococcus
Staphylococci cluster
aureus
arrangement

Arrangement of
Sarcina ventriculi
Sarcina group of eight
cell

Bacillus cereus,
ROD SHAPE
Bacillus Single cells Salmonella
(BACILLUS)
choleraesuis

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 REQUIREMENT OF A HOSPITAL PHARMACIST

 PHARMACY AND THERAPEUTIC COMMITTEE

 DRUG STORAGE CONDITIONS

CONDITIONS TEMPERATURE EXAMPLES
Cold storage 2–8 C
O Sera, vaccines, whole human blood, normal
human plasma, insulin preparation etc.
Cool temperature 8–25 OC  Penicillin preparation, tetracycline
preparations etc.
 Vitamin preparations (A, B1, B2, B6, C,
D)
 Vitamin K injection
 Vitamin K preparations
 Heparin injection
 Anaesthetic ether
Room Temperature prevailing in working area
temperature
Warm 30–40 OC
Excessive heat Above 40 OC

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In the field of pharma education, GDC boasts of being best

institution in India, providing a platform for student to shape their
careers. Our mission is to be with our students, to mentor, motivate,
guide and accompany them in their educational journey till they cross
the mile stone of their coveted entrance examination. We nurture
aspirants and facilitated achievement and we specialized in
providing correct and relevant information related to pharma
institute admission for higher education.
We have managed to touch the minds and lives of many students
through our team of highly experienced and qualified faculty under
the leadership of Mr. Peeyush Jaiswal, Director of GPAT Discussion
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We offers classroom coaching for

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