Padm 301 Administration Theory

DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA
COURSE MATERIAL
FOR
Course Code &Title: PADM 301: ADMINISTRATION THEORY
Programme Title: BSc Public Administration
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COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018 Distance Learning Centre, ABU Zaria, Nigeria
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the Director, Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria.
First published 2018 in Nigeria.
ISBN:
Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria.
Tel: +234
E-mail:
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COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Mohammed Lawal (Subject Matter Specialist)

Ibrahim M Dikko (Subject matter Reviewers)
Adeyemo, Peter Adekunle (Language Reviewer)
Nasiru Tanko Instruction Design/Graphics
Ibrahim Otukoya
Prof. Adamu Z. Hassan (Editor)
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QUOTE
Open and Distance Learning has the exceptional ability of meeting the challenges of the three
vectors of dilemma in education delivery – Access, Quality and Cost
- Sir John Daniels
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CONTENTS
Title Page…………………………………………………………….……..1
Acknowledgement Page…………………………………………… ……..2
Copyright Page………………………………………………………..……3
Course Writers/Development Team………………………………………4
Table of Content………………………………..……………………………5
COURSE STUDY GUIDE…………………………………………………..

i. Course Information………………………………………………6
ii. Course Introduction and Description ………………………….6
iii. Course Prerequisites …………………………………………….7
iv. Course Learning Resources …………………………………….7
v. Course Objectives and Outcomes……………………………….7
vi. Activities to Meet Course Objectives………………………………9
vii. Time (To complete Syllabus/Course) ……………………………10
viii. Grading Criteria and Scale……………………………………….11
ix. OER Resources ……………………………………………………12
x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar………………………………….14
xi. Course Structure and Outline……………………………………...15
xii. STUDY MODULES
Module 1: Conceptual Exploration____________________________________________20
Study Session 1: Concept of Theory_____________________________________________20
Study Session 2: Concepts of Administration and Management_______________________27
Study Session 3:Organisation__________________________________________________36
Study Session 4: Concept of Theory of Administration ______________________________41
Module 2: Theories of Administration__________________________________________47

Study Session 1: The Classical/Traditional School of Thought_________________________47
Study Session 2 Neo-Classical School of Thought___________________________________53
Study Session 3: Modern Management Theories____________________________________58
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Module 3: Administrative Principles____________________________________________65
Study Session 1: Leadership in Organisation_______________________________________65
Study Session 2: Communication in Organisation____________________________________73
Study Session 3: Decision Making________________________________________________83
XIII. Glossary ?
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COURSE STUDY GUIDE
i. COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code: PADM 301
Course Title: Administration Theory
Credit: 2 Credit Units
Year: Three
Semester: First
ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION/DESCRIPTION

Introduction:
Organisations, public or private are a combination of men and resources (financial
and material) and are purposely set up to realise some carefully designed
objectives. However, the realisation of these objectives is not as easy as it may
sound as there are many factors at play. For instance, the people that work in an
organisation naturally behave differently and they all have their ‘selfish motive’ for
joining the organisation.
Description:
The financial resources needed for the payment of salaries and/or wages;
procurement of raw materials and production aids and other relevant expenditures
are usually not in abundance. This obviously calls for efficient resource allocation
and utilisation. For these reasons and many others, an administrator needs a guide
on the efficient and effective ways of ‘manipulating’ men and resources towards
the attainment of broad goals. This notwithstanding, the workers in an organisation
should also receive a ‘fair’ treatment from an administrator. In this manner, Theory
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of Administration offers the very ready tools. The course is taught mainly via the
internet and you'll take part in an online collaboration with your course mates.
This Course stresses on broadening your horizon on the approaches, techniques,
mechanisms and principles of managing not only public sector organisations but
also their private counterparts. It specifically explores the concepts of
administration, management and organisation; concepts of theory and theory of
administration. It also covers the three Schools of Management Thought: Classical,
Neo-Classical and Modern and their arguments. Inclusive are also some principles
of administration such as leadership, communication, decision making, and
conflict management.
iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

A basic knowledge of administration would be useful.You should note that
although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills
iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

i. Course Textbooks
There is no particular textbook for this course. However, you may find any or a
combination of the following useful:
1. Sharma, M.P et al (2011) Public Administration in Theory and Practice.
New-Delhi: KitabMahal Publishers.
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2. Sapru, R.K (2013) Administrative Theories and Management Thought
(3rd edition) Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
3. Naidu, S.P. (2006). Public Administration Concepts and Theories. New-
Delhi: New Age International publishers.
v. COURSE OUTCOMES
After studying this course, you should be able to:
1. Explore the basic concepts to the study of Theory of Administration and
how they relate to it.
2. Describe the scope of administrative theory in clear terms.
3. Identify, explain and critique the contributions of the different Schools of
Management Thought.
4. Describe the principles of administration that are fundamental to the role of
an administrator.
vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

This is a hands-on course; it will require a considerable amount of your
participation in terms of extensive reading, writing, and researching. Research will
require interacting with others and sharing the results of your efforts. Find the
Course Structure in the table below, showing clearly the sequence of activities, due
dates, etc. for the course.
Optional tutorial sessions shall be held preceding the Semester examination or at

any time required.
Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
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i. Studying courseware
ii. Listening to course audios
iii. Watching relevant course videos
iv. Course assignments (individual and group)
v. Forum discussion participation
vi. Tutorials (optional)
vii. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).
vii. TIME (TO STUDY AND COMPLETE COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours
weekly for the Course.
viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10
B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%
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C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44
D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)
Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments
Student based:
Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource, deployment, and
assessment).
IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
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children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
• OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges
and rankings of college degree programmes
• Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
• OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school
through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school
resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
• Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings
• Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
• JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!
Other sources for open education resources

Universities
• The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
• OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
• Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
• African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects
in English, French, and Portuguese
• https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses
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• Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including
on open source and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)

• Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
• K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
• Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
• Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
• Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade,
or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)
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XI. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER
PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination
N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

- 1 Week break between Semesters and 6 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)
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xi. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE
Course Structure
WEEK/DAYS MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY
Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Concept of Theory 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
1&2 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8ZIUrsNoUI
4. View referred Animation
https://bit.ly/2Qv4TnH
Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Concepts of 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Administration and 3. View any other Video/U-tube
Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQTA2OZMkxs
https://bit.ly/2CcTzE3
STUDY
MODULE 1 Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Organisation 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
3&4 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_MF-tmhiG-o
4. View referred OER
https://bit.ly/2QQYB13
Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Concept of Theory of 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Administration 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fOR3bXfCzBE
5&6 4. View referred Animation
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Concept+of+Theory+of+Administr
ation
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Study Session1 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
The 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Classical/Traditional 3. View any other Video/U-tube
School of Thought https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o5l4loFHCBI
https://bit.ly/2A17PhL
STUDY Study Session2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
MODULE 2 Neo-Classical School of 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Thought 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c3r9cYa9g-g
7&8 4. View referred Animation
https://bit.ly/2UK0bkE
Modern Management 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Theories 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zi3fUOZiD8
https://bit.ly/2Qx7SMD
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session1 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
9 Leadership in 3. View any other Video/U-tube
Organisation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgBdELW0Vco
https://bit.ly/2zW8yAY
STUDY Communication in 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
10 MODULE 3 Organisation 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlNywlZB0c4
https://bit.ly/2QNLuOo
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Decision Making 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
11 & 12 3. View any other Video/U-tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Lg7G8TMe_A
https://bit.ly/2Ge4e5z
Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online)
Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION
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Course Outline
Module 1: Conceptual Exploration
Study Session 1: Concept of Theory
Study Session 2: Concepts of Administration and Management
Study Session 3:Organisation
Study Session 4: Concept of Theory of Administration
Module 2: Theories of Administration

Study Session 1: The Classical/Traditional School of Thought
Study Session 2 Neo-Classical School of Thought
Study Session 3: Modern Management Theories
Module 3: Administrative Principles

Study Session 1: Leadership in Organisation
Study Session 2: Communication in Organisation
Study Session 3: Decision Making
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STUDY MODULES
1.0MODULE 1: Conceptual Exploration
Contents:
Study Session 1: Concept of Theory
Study Session 2: Concepts of Administration and Management
Study Session 3:Organisation
Study Session 4: Concept of Theory of Administration
STUDY SESSION 1
Concept of Theory
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2,0 Main Content
2.1. Definition of a Theory
2.2. Characteristics of a Theory
2.3. Significance of a Theory
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
4.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings
Introduction
Theory as a concept has its genesis from the natural and applied sciences where for
centuries it has been used to study, explain, analyse, verify and even predict a
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phenomenon, fact or claim. However, the common usage of the concept in these
sciences notwithstanding, theory is nowadays gaining wider currency and
application in the social and management science. As Isah (2015:1)
noted,“virtually all the disciplines in the
social and management science make
use of theories to scientifically analyse a
fact or phenomenon”. In terms of
etymology,
the origin of the concept is credited to
the Latin word “theoria” and the Greek word “Theoro”, meaning contemplation,
speculation and sight (Thornhill and Dijk, 2010).
1.0 Study Session Outcomes

At the end of this session. You would be expected to:
1. Define Theory
2. List the characteristics of a Theory
3. Enumerate the significance of a Theory
2.0. Main Content

2.1. What is a Theory?
The answer to this may appear easy but, at the same time, it could be misleading. It
is a complex term that is confused by many with such other
concepts like a model. It is against this backdrop that Oruku
and Lugard (nd) describe the concept as one of the most
elusive and misunderstood term in scientific enquiry.
According to them, a theory is based on the use of abstract
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deductive reasoning that enables conclusions to be drawn from a set of initial
hypothesis or assumptions about any real world problem. Osuala (2013) defines a
theory as an attempt at synthesising and integrating empirical data for maximum
clarification and unification. In his contribution, Isah (2015) argues that a theory is
the systematic analysis and explanation of the relationship between two or more
variables that will lead to a logical conclusion.
In-text Question 1 Define the concept of theory according to Oruku and Lugard (nd).
Answer
It is the use of abstract deductive reasoning that enables conclusions to be drawn from a set of
initial hypothesis or assumptions about any real world problem.
These are some of the many definitions the concept has been subjected to by
authors. On the whole however, I am more convinced with Straits’ (2000)
argument, as captured by Oruku and Lugard (nd: 40). He writes that:
A complete and formal presentation of theory must
embrace the definition of concepts and a set of
assumption describing circumstances under which it
applies its central features, a set of interconnected,
abstract principles or propositions that have some basic
form as laws but are more general.
2.2. Characteristics of a Theory

There are some discernible features of a theory from the discussion above. Apart
from that, Brieger (2006:7) outlines some others. These are:
1. A theory should logically explain existing empirical generalisations and yield
precise and accurate predictions of new generalisations.
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2. It should explain empirical findings in substantive terms, not as artifacts of the
methods employed to obtain them.
3. It should apply to complex real-life settings as well as to highly simplified and
tightly controlled research contexts.
4. It should be generalisable to well-defined and relevant universes and
populations beyond the boundaries of the particular studies in which it was built
and tested.
5. It should infer casual relationships between phenomena being investigated.
6. It should define these phenomena in validly
measurable terms appropriate to the explanations and
predictions made.
2.3. Significance of a Theory

Some basic purposes served by theory according to Osuala (2013:21); are
1. Theory synthesises isolated bits of empirical data into a broader conceptual
scheme of wider applicability and predictability.
2. Theory permits the prediction of the occurrence of phenomena and enables
the investigator to postulate and, eventually, to hitherto unknown and
unobserved phenomena.
3. Theory acts as a guide to discovering facts; it pinpoints crucial aspects to be
investigated and crucial questions to be answered.
4. Theory is based on the assumption that detailed empirical findings are
special cases of more general laws and that progress
cannot be made as long as observations are simply
accumulated.
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5. Just as facts underlie theories, theories underlie facts, each raising the other
on a spiral to even more precise scientific formulations.
In-text Question 1What is the genesis of a theory and why is it needed there?
Answer2It originates from the natural and applied sciences and it is been used to study, explain,
analyse, verify and predict a phenomenon, fact or claim.
Tutor Marked Assignments

Does a theory of administration serve useful purpose? Discuss
5.0. Self-Assessment Question

1. Define Theory?
2. List four characteristics of theory.
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

a. Visit U-tube Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cldYj0Dr5dA
b. View the animation oand critique it in the discussion forum
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8ZIUrsNoUI

Isah, S. (2015) Administrative Theories and Practice. Zaria: Faith Printers
International.
Thornhill, C and Dijk, G.V (2010) Public Administration Theory: Justification for
Conceptualisation, in Journal of Public Administration Vol. 45 No 1.1 pp.
95-110.
Oruku, M and Lugard, M (nd) ``Administrative Theory`` (MGS712). A Lecture
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Note Prepared for the Students of the National Open University of Nigeria.
Osuala, E.C (2013) Introduction to research Methodology (3rd edition). Onitsha:
Africana-First publishers Plc.
Brieger, W.R. (2006) Using and Making Models and Theories. John Hopkins
University
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STUDY SESSION 2
Administration and Management
Introduction
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Differences between Administration and Management
2.2. Similarities between Administration and Management
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities)
Introduction
Administration as an activity is as old as organised social life. It cuts across all
societies and cultures in the world and it occurs in all forms of organisations,
public and private. A business firm, government entity, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), labour organisations, religious organisations and sporting
clubs are some of the avenues where administration obtains.
The fact that administration deals with cooperative efforts
of people and use of resources to attain some objectives, is
what makes it common to all of the above organisations.
However, its form and nature is determined by the character
and orientation of the institution that adopts it (Naidu, 2006).
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In the literal sense of the term, it has a Latin origin from ‘ad’ and ‘ministrare’-
administrare, meaning to serve. Thus, based on this, administration means to
serve. The most popular conception of administration among writers and students
alike is the analogy drawn by Simon, Smithburg and Thomson (cited in Sharma,
Sadam and Kaur, 2011). According to them, when two or more men cooperate to
roll a stone that neither could have moved alone, the rudiments of administration
have appeared. These rudiments are cooperation, action and purpose.
Therefore, we can define administration as a social process where individuals

cooperate and work to attain some common objectives through the utilisation of
resources (financial and material). Along this line of thought, Viegas reiterated by
Sharma et al (2011), define the term as a determined action taken in pursuit of a
conscious purpose. To Pfiffner and Presthus, administration is the systematic
ordering of affairs and calculated use of resources aimed at making those things
which we want to happen and at the same time preventing the occurrence of those
events that fail to meet our objectives. Also to Gullick (cited in Sharma et al,
2011), the term has to do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of
defined objectives. To this end, there are two views on administration – the integral
and the managerial views. While the former recognises the contribution of all
organisational members to the attainment of goals; the latter emphasises on the
contribution of only a group of people (the management) towards the realisation of
organisational directives. From the definitions above, for instance, Vieg belongs to
the integral school whereas, Gullick belongs to the management school of
administration.
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A closely related and often confused term with administration is management.
While some scholars, writers and practitioners believe that the terms are
synonymous and connotative and as such could be used interchangeably; others
hold a contrary opinion. Indeed as noted by Sapru (2013:29), “in the narrow sense,
the words ‘administration’ and ‘management’ are shorthand descriptions of an
activity or a function. But in a broader sense, words have power’. Etymologically,
management comes from the Latin word ‘manus’, which means to control with the
hand, and as earlier stated, administration comes from ‘administrare’, meaning to
serve.
Therefore, while management deals with controlling the affairs of an organisation,

administration serves those affairs. Adeleke (2001) seems to agree with this when
he defines management as the basic integrating process of the work activities that
surround the work environment for the achievement of goals. Also Follet (cited in
Adeleke, 2001) sees the term as the process of getting things done through other
people. Stoner and Wankel (1986) define it as the
process of planning, organising, leading and controlling
the efforts of organisational members and of using all
other organisational resources to achieve stated
organisational goals. It needs to be emphasised here that
these conceptions further confirm our argument that management and
administration in broad terms are two different things. If anything, we can only
equate management to the managerial view of administration.
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Study Session Outcomes
After going through this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain the differences and similarities between management and administration
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Differences between Administration and Management
The traditional distinction between management and administration has been based
on institutional selling, i.e. the former deals with the private sector and the latter
with the public sector. However, apart from this, there are strong indications that
even within a single institutional setting (private or private), the two terms differ
from each other. The tables below highlights this further:
Table 1: Distinctions between Management and Administration

On the Basis of Functions: -
Basis Management Administration
Meaning Management is an art of getting things done It is concerned with formulation of

through others by directing their efforts broad objectives, plans & policies.
towards achievement of pre-determined
goals.
Nature Management is an executing function. Administration is a decision-

making function.
Process Management decides who should as it & how Administration decides what is to
should he dot it. be done & when it is to be done.
Function Management is a doing function because Administration is a thinking

managers get work done under their function because plans & policies
supervision. are determined under it.
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Skills Technical and Human skills Conceptual and Human skills
Level Middle & lower level function Top level function
In-text Question 1
On what basis would you differentiate management from administration?
Answer
On the bases of meaning; nature; process; function; skills; and level.
On the Basis of Usage: -
Basis Management Administration
Applicability It is applicable to business concerns It is applicable to non-business

i.e. profit-making organisation. concerns i.e. clubs, schools, hospitals
etc.
Influence The management decisions are The administration is influenced by

influenced by the values, opinions, public opinion, govt. policies, religious
beliefs & decisions of the managers. organisations, customs etc.
Status Management constitutes the Administration represents owners of

employees of the organisation who the enterprise who earn return on their
are paid remuneration (in the form capital invested & profits in the form of
of salaries & wages). dividend.
Source: Adapted from MSG Experts (2016): Management and Administration.
In-text Question 1
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What is administration and what are the 2 major views on it?
Answer
It is a social process where individuals cooperate and work to attain some common
objectives through the utilisation of resources (financial and material). The two
major views on it are: managerial view and integral view.
2.2. Similarities between Administration and Management

The above discussion on the differences between administration and management
notwithstanding, the two concepts have some areas of convergence. As
management scholars would say, the concepts are generally interrelated. The
following are the areas of agreement between management and administration
according to Oruku and Lugard (nd: 7).
1. Both concepts are used in modem organisation. They embrace
organisational activities such as organising, coordination, budgeting,
evaluation or organisational activities for purposive goals.
2. Management and administration take place in any human organisation.
They are targeted at meeting individual and organisational goals. They are
used for meeting human needs.
3. Management and administration are global phenomenon cutting across
cultural boundaries.
4. Administration and management enhances how far both human and material
Resources are channeled for purposive enterprise.
They enable organisation to effectively and
efficiently organise and utilise its resources for
collectivism.
5. They are targeted to enhance the attainment of
goals and objectives of human organisation.
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In-text Question 1
Where is administration obtainable?
Answer
In public and private organisations such as a business firm, government entity, non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), labour organisations, religious organisations, sporting
clubs etc.
3.0. Tutor Marked Assignments

With a good examples discuss the differences between administration and
management.
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) .

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQTA2OZMkxs
b. View the animation and critique it in the discussion forum
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Concepts+of+Administration+and
+Management
7.0. References/Further Reading

Naidu, S.P. (2006). Public Administration Concepts and Theories. New Delhi:
New Age International publishers.
Sharma, M.P et al (2011) Public Administration in Theory and Practice. New
Delhi: Kitab Mahal Publishers.
Sapru, R.K (2013) Administrative Theories and Management Thought (3rd edition)
Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Adeleke, A. (2001) Management Concepts and Applications. Lagos: Concept
Publishers
Stoner, J.A and Wankel, C (1986) Management (3rd edition). New Delhi: Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited.
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MSG Experts (2016). ‘’Management and Administration’’. Retrieved from
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/management_administration.htm
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STUDY SESSION 3
Organisation
Introduction
1.0. Learning Outcomes
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Definition and Characteristics
2.2. Importance of Organisation
Introduction
Following a conceptual discourse especially of administration, it came to limelight
that the term simply deals with a cooperative effort by a number of people in order
to achieve specified objectives. The implication of this is that the activity of this
number of people must be planned in such a manner that will ease the realisation of
the cardinal objectives. This way, confusion and working at cross-purposes would
be avoided. To ensure this, administration work
through a framework known as organisation.
Properly speaking, organisation is prior to every
administrative action, for no administrative action
can be implemented without an organization
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(Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010). Therefore we may be right to say, administration
functions in a predetermined and pre-concerted environment organisation.
Study Session Outcomes

1. Define an organisation,
2. Explain the significance of organisations
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Definition and Characteristics
The term organisation is generally used in at least three different meanings as
follows:
(a) The act of designing an administrative structure;
(b) Both designing and building the structure, i.e., planning the scheme of the
structure and appointing suitable personnel to it;
(c) The resulting administrative structure itself (Sharma et. al, 2011)
Organisation according to Gaus (cited in Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010) is the

arrangement of personnel for facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed
purposes through the allocation of function and responsibilities. It is seen by
Pfiffneras reiterated by Sharma et. al., (2011) to consist of the relationship of
individual to individuals and of group to groups which are
so related as to bring about an orderly division of labour.
Also, William described it as a combination of the
necessary human beings, materials, tools, equipment and
working space brought together in systematic and effective
34
coordination to accomplish some desired objectives (Bhagwan and Bhushan,
2010). In essence, organisation is a dynamic and open social system that utilises
human, material and financial resources to attain carefully designed objectives.
From the foregoing definitions, we can see organisation as possessing the
following features:
(1) It is a social system that consist of individuals who form its membership.
(2) It exists to achieve specialised and limited goals without which they have no
reason to exist.
(3) It is characterised by sustained cooperative activity of individuals.
(4) An Organisation works through methodologies to attain its goals.
(5) They acquire and allocate resources necessary for their survival.
(6) They are legal entities that can sue and be sued (Stoner and Wankel,
1986:3).
In-text Question 1
Identify 3 features of an organisation.
ITA
The act of designing an administrative structure; designing and building the structure; and the
resulting structure itself.
2.2. Importance of an Organisation

Organisations are organised social entities that have cross-cultural and cross-
temporal relevance from time immemorial. They overcome our limitations as
individuals as they enable us to reach goals that would otherwise be much difficult
or even impossible to reach. Efficient and coordinated administration is only
possible throughorganisation, that is to say, organisation
35
is the backbone of administration. Organisations act as premise for self-mental
development of its workers just as it provide them with a source of livelihood.
Smooth flow of work is ensured by organisation as responsibilities are well
defined. Organisations lastly, but not exhaustively, provide us with certain goods
and/or services.
In-text Question 1
What are the 3 approximations of organisation?
Answer
It consists of individuals who form its membership; it acquires and utilises resources; and it is a
separate legal entity.

To what Importance is theory of Administration to organisation?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0SdBo6UxRI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_MF-tmhiG-o

Bhagwan, V. and Bhushan, V. (2010). Public Administration. India: S Chand &
Co Ltd.
Delhi: KitabMahal Publishers.
36
STUDY SESSION 4
Theory of Administration
Introduction
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Importance of Theory of Administration
Introduction
In Session 1(12.1.2.1), the concept of theory has been studied in great detail. In this
unit, however, the aim is to discuss theory of administration as a concept. In the
natural and applied sciences, the theory of relativity helps the physicist and the
laws of aerodynamics helps the engineers. Similarly, theory of administration
makes it easier for us to decide what we must do to function most effectively as
administrators. Without a theory of administration, administrators are only left
with intuitions, hunches and hope which
are of limited relevance in today’s
increasingly complex organisations
(Stoner and Wankel, 1986). Theory of
administration according to Oruku and
Lugard (nd) is concerned with how
37
organisations should be constructed and operated in order to accomplish its work
efficiently.
It is a body of knowledge that focuses on facilitating the work of administrators in
delivering results by providing the framework within which issues could be
handled. It is essentially meant to study, explain, describe, analyse and predict
individual, group and organizational behaviour. Oruku and Lugard (nd: 39-40)
summarised some fundamental questions which theory of administration aims to
answer. These are:
1. What are the limits of knowledge and how can human minds accumulate and
apply it?
2. How is specialisation in administrative organisation related to the
specialisation of knowledge that prevails in societal occupational structure?
3. What knowledge can or cannot be transmitted in organisational setup?
4. What is the weight that should be applied in any concrete situation?

1. Explain the significance of the Theory of Administration.
2.0. Main Content

2.1. Importance of Theory of Administration
A lot of parties stand to benefit from theories of administration, the most important
of which are public administration students and practicing administrators. Owing
to these theories, as pointed out by Sharma et al (2011), our understanding of
organisational and administrative phenomena is far more than what it was about
38
100 years ago. Some of the arguments for theories of administration, according to
Oruku and Lugard (nd: 41-3) are:
1. It enables administrative agents, administrators, managers,
practitioners and theoreticians in the science of administration to
communicate with air of efficiency and effectiveness.
2. Theories of administration enable us to carryout case studies, as
regards ecology of administration, and how regime types influences
administrative process.
3. They enable scholars to develop analytic and diagnostic competence
in science of administration; it also aids administrative capacity to
identifying and certification of defined problems
4. Theories of administration enable us to analyse some principles of
administration and understand the contending controversies
surrounding the application of theories and practice of administration.
5. Adequate understanding of theories and principles of administrative
science, will apply on efficiency criteria in management of both
material and human resources of an organisation
6. Theory is needed for the purpose of explaining observations of
administrative or organisational phenomena
7. Finally theory of administration is needed to
pose the right questions and distinctive

research to provide the right answers to
problem facing administration of human
organisation today
39
In-text Question 1
Does a theory of administration serve any useful purpose?
Answer
Of course yes, consider items 1-7 above

As a concept, explore theory of administration and its importance to you?
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
In this session we discussed the concept of theory, including its characteristics and
importance. We also explored the concepts of administration and management,
highlighting their differences and similarities. The phenomenon of organisation, its
features and importance also forms part of the module. Lastly, theory of
administration as a concept and its importance to administrators was discussed.
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fOR3bXfCzBE
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Concept+of+Theory+of+Adminis
tration
40
MODULE 2
Theories of Administration
Contents:
Study Session 1: The Classical/Traditional School of Thought
Study Session 2: Neo-Classical School of Thought
Study Session 3: Modern Management Theories
STUDY SESSION 1
The Classical/Traditional School of Thought
Introduction
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Principles of the Classical Theorists
2.2. Criticisms against the Classical Theorists
Introduction
This school of administrative thought is otherwise termed Structural/Mechanistic
school. The name “Classical” was given by H.A. Simon to the ideas, principles,
submission and contributions of early administrative thinkers and practitioners in
the twentieth century. The school consists of scholars who though proffer different
41
principles on administration of organisations, have some areas of convergence.
This is more so that they all believe in the existence of certain universal principles
of administration, the application of which could make organisations function more
efficiently. The proponents of this school see
organisation as a formal structure of plan that
can be treated in accordance with certain
principles and can be prepared in advance of its
goal. This movement originated in the pre-
democratic climate of the nineteenth century industrial institutions. The validity of
this observation is attested by its metamorphosis: command, control, direction and
communication through channels (Naidu, 2006; Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010).
In their approach to organisational management, they emphasise on the structure

and purpose of organisation. They believe that a clear understanding of the purpose
of an organisation shows how it works and how its method of working could be
improved. Organisational structure is on the other hand emphasised to increase
organisational efficiency. The classical have two basic assumptions regarding
administrative management. Firstly, that there are certain principles in accordance
with which an organisation can be built; secondly, that the job is independent of its
incumbent (Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010). Some of these theorists include; F.W.
Taylor, Henry Fayol, Max Weber, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Robert Owen,
Henry, L. Gannt, Luther Gullick, Lyndall Urwick, Charles Babbage etc.

At the end of this session you should be able to:
1. Describe the principles of Classical Theories as well as criticism of it.
42
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Principles of the Classical Writers on Administration
The underlying ideas of the classical writers as summarised by Bhagwan and
Bhushan (2010) are that:
1. They take an administrative view of human relationship.
2. They consider human behaviour to be completely rational and ignore the
irrational elements in human nature.
3. Job tasks in organisations are independent of their incumbents.
4. They believe in universality of principles in
administration.
5. They view organisation purely as a formal
structure of plan.
6. The classicals consider the economic incentives
to be the sole motivating factor in human life.
7.
In-text Question 1
In the absence of a theory, what are administrators left with?
Answer
They are left with intuitions, hunches and hopes which are of limited relevance in today’s
increasingly complex organisations.
2.2. Criticisms against the Classical Movement on Administration

If not anything, the classicals were the first to theorise on administration of
organisations and their principles are still in operation. These nonetheless, the
following are some shortcomings identified with the movement:
43
1. They overemphasised the formal structure and under-estimated the
importance of the human factor and informal groups in the functioning of an
organisation.
2. It treats an organisation as a closed system completely unconcerned with and
not influenced by its external environment.
3. The administrative principles promoted by the classical writers lack
sufficient scientific base as they are based on simple observation.
4. They have oversimplified human motivation to financial
reward and threats.
5. Accused of pro-management bias as it attach much
importance to the efficiency and greater productivity of
the organisation and neglected the individual employee
and his needs (Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010).
In-text Question 2
What prompted the development of administrative theories?
Answer
The 18th century Industrial Revolution in Europe which saw a breakthrough in technology,
coupled with increased complexity of organisations.

Discuss the criticisms against the Neo-Classical Theorists
5.0. Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do classical administrative thinkers have in common?
44
Co Ltd.
45
STUDY SESSION 2
Neo-Classical School of Thought
Introduction
2.0. Main Content
2.1. Principles of the Neo-Classical Theorists
2.2. Criticisms against the Neo-Classical Theorists
Introduction
The late 1930s marked the emergence of a revolution against traditionalism in
organisational management. It was a revolt against the dehumanisation of
organisation and against the belief of regarding human beings as passive elements
in the organisation. The approach of the classical thinkers towards organisational
theory has been an emphasis on organisation; its structure, principles and rules and
regulations. However, critics especially from the neo-
classical movement argue that traditionalism missed
out for not considering an organisation as also a social
and not only a structural entity. Prominent neo-
classicals adopt an interdisciplinary approach to
management through the knowledge of psychology,
sociology and anthropology. Belonging to this category are theorists as George
46
Elton Mayor, Herbert A. Simon, Abraham Maslow, Chris AGyris, Douglas
McGregor, Mary Parker Follet, Chester Bernard, Fredrick Herzberg, Rensis Likert
etc.
It is important to know that the neo-classical school was built on the base of the
classical movement. It modified, added to, and in some way extended the classical
school. Properly speaking however, the basic assumption of the neo-classical
approach is that psychological and social aspects of the worker as an individual
and his work group ought to be emphasised. They stressed the importance of
emotional elements such as feelings and sentiments to explain human nature and
performance in organisations. Their argument being that, the solutions of the
problems of management are available in the realm of social psychology (Sharma
et al, 2011).

At the end of this session you should be able to:
1. Discuss the principles of Neo-classical Theories as well as the criticisms against
it.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Principles of the Neo-Classical Theorists on Administration
In short, the following are some other arguments of the neo-classicals:
(1) That since management and administration involve group efforts and
collective endeavours of people, the study of management must be centered
on the individual as a socio-psychological being (Basu, 2004).
47
(2) That people are basically good and in order to stimulate their performance,
management should humanise work.
(3) That people will be productive if they are given opportunities to use their
abilities and creative skills.
On the whole, three basic levels of analysis are involved in the neo-classical
approach. Firstly, the individual, his personality, motives,
drives, attitudes, values, learning and adaptation abilities.
Secondly, the group level with its norms, values,
sentiments, interaction pattern, problem solving, decision
making etc. Thirdly, the total organisation, generally
viewed as a complex human system (Bhagwan and
Bhushan, 2010).
2.2. Weaknesses of the Neo-Classical Theorists on Administration

1. Their assumption of great deal of compatibility between individual and
organisational goals is not based on reality.
2. It does not attach any importance to non-human aspects of organisation.
3. It has the same weakness as that of the classical approach and that is its
assumption that the one best way of managing is
humanizing organisations.
4. It is wrong to assume that all employees will seek
self-actualisation because people have diverse needs
(Sharma et al, 2011:259).
48
In-text Question 1
How are the neo-classical scholars different from the classical writers?
Answer
They adopt an interdisciplinary approach to management through the knowledge of psychology,
sociology and anthropology.

What is contingency Approach to Administration?
4.0. Conclusion/Summary
In this study session it explain you the principle of the neo-classical theories on
administration and some weakness of the neo-classical theorist on administration.

1. What is the basic assumption of the neo-classical writers?
2. State three weaknesses of the classical movement on administration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c3r9cYa9g-g
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Neo-
Classical+School+of+Thought

Co Ltd.
Basu, R. (2012). Public Administration Concepts and Theories (5th edition)
49
India: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd
50
STUDY SESSION 3
Modern Management Theories
Introduction
2,0 Main Content
2.1. Systems Approach to Administration
2.2.Contingency Approach to Administration
Introduction
In study sessions 5 and 6 we discussed the classical and the neo-classical
approaches to administration. It is important to note that theories and their schools
of thought are built on the premise of an existing other.
Therefore, just as the neo-classical school was built upon the
shortcomings of the classical school, the modern theories are
hinged on the weaknesses of the already existing theories. In
other words, this management school attempt to integrate the
ideas and principles of the earlier schools. The systems theory
and the contingency theory are the two modern management theories.
51
1. Explain Systems Approach to Administration and
2. Describe Contingency Approach to Administration
2.0. Main Content

2.1. Systems Approach to Organisational Management
While the classical approach to management emphasised on technical requirements
of an organisation (its purpose and structure); the neo-classical stressed on the
socio-psychological aspects as well as human needs. The systems approach differs
from the above two movements (classical and neo-classical) in that, it encourages
managers to view an organisation both as a whole and as part of a larger
environment (Stoner and Wankel, 1986). In other words,
whereas the classical and neo-classical managers are
closed by orientation, a manager trained in the system
approach views an organisation as an open social system
that influences and is being influenced by the environment.
The theory has its origin from the natural sciences (biology) and is said to have
many contributors including Bertalanffy; Boulding; Miller and Rice; Bernard; and
Easton (Sapru, 2013). An organisation based on this approach is considered to be a
system comprising parts, each of which makes a contribution to the operation of
the organisation and is dependent on the others for its own needs. Therefore, a
system (organisation) is a set of inter-related and interdependent parts arranged in a
manner that produces a unified whole. The diagram below depicts how an
organisational system functions.
52
Environment
Input Output
Process
Feedback
From the above inputs are seen as the physical, social, economic and political
products which serve as raw materials to an organisation. Process refers to the
effective and efficient transformation of inputs through social interactions,
technological processes and decisions in order to produce output. Output here
implies goods and services as well as government policies that result from the
transformation process in an organisation. Feedback is the mechanism that has a
modifying effect on the environment that receives outputs and, the organisation
itself that produces the outputs. Lastly, the environment refers to any condition,
event or factor defined as external to the boundaries of a system. This is to say that
an environment is beyond the direct control of a system.
In-text Question 1
Differentiate the view of a system manager from those of the classical and neo-classical
managers.
Answer
Whereas the classical and neo-classical managers are closed by orientation, a manager trained
in the system approach views an organisation as an open social system that influences and is
being influenced by the environment
2.2. Contingency Theory

The traditional and neo-classical scholars focused on the technical requirements of
organisations and socio-psychological aspects respectively. This way the
contingency approach criticised them on grounds of believing in the existence of
“one best way” of managing. On the contrary, this approach believes the task of
53
managers is to identify which technique will in a particular situation and time, best
contribute to the attainment of organisational goals. Management scholars who
have contributed to this theory include; Katz and Kahn, Burns and Stalker,
Lawrence, Thompson etc (Sharma et al, 2011). Contingency managers believe that
the same individual may be motivated by different things in a variety of situations.
Similarly, all workers are not motivated in the same way. Therefore, situations
dictate managerial action, i.e. different situations call for
different approaches as no single way of solving
problems is best for all situations because task and people
in organisations differ. Thus, the choice of a particular
method of managing largely depends on the nature of the
job, the people involved, the situation, resources and
goals of the organisation (Sharma et al, 2011).
Summarily, the dictates of this theory include:

a. Managerial actions are contingent upon certain actions outside the system or
sub-system;
b. Efforts of the organisation should be based on the actions outside the system
so that the organisation is integrated with the environment;
c. Managerial actions and organisational design must be appropriate to the
given situation;
d. What a manager does depend upon the given situation and there is an active
interrelationship between the variable in a situation and the managerial
action;
e. The theory rejects the universality of principles, no one best way of
managing;
54
f. There are several variables which influence the decisions and actions of the
management (Sharma et al, 2011:265-6).
In-text Question 2
Summarise the contingency view on administration.
Answer
The proponents of this theory argue that, the choice of a particular method of managing largely
depends on the nature of the job, the people involved, the situation, resources and goals of the
organisation.

Discuss systems approach to organisation management.
The module discussed the basic administrative schools of thought based on their
historical sequence. We stressed on their philosophy to the management of
organisation. And apart from their principles on administration, we also
highlighted weaknesses in their approaches to administrative management.
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

What are the principles of the classical writers on administration?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zi3fUOZiD8
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Modern+Management+Theories
55
56
MODULE 3
Administrative Principles
Contents:
Study Session 1: Leadership in Organisation
Study Session 2: Communication in Organisation
Study Session 3: Decision Making
STUDY SESSION 1
Leadership in Organisations
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1. Definition of Leadership
2.2. Importance of Leadership
2.3. Approaches to Leadership
Introduction
Since man started living in groups, organised or unorganised, especially to achieve
his goals, leadership has existed. This is so because, there has always been one
person or a few persons that lead others. Therefore, all organisations (public or
57
private; big or small; simple or complex) need administrative leadership to pave
the way toward the achievement of organisational goals. In today’s dynamic world,
organisations need strong leadership to inspire organisational members to achieve
carefully outlined visions, missions and objectives. In fact,
Naidu (2006) argues that without leadership, an
organisation is only a confusion of people and machines.
What then is leadership?

At the end of this Study session, you are expected to be able to:
1. Define Leadership
2. Enumerate the Importance of Leadership and,
3. Explain the approaches to Leadership
2.0. Main Content

2.1. Definition of Leadership
A writer once notes that there are as many definitions of leadership as there are
scholars who have attempted to define it. The reason for this is not far-fetched.
They attempted the definitions from various angles such as traits, behaviour,
influence, interaction patterns and occupations. For instance, Certo’s (2002)
definition is from the behavioural perspective. According to him, leadership is the
process of directing the behaviour of others toward the accomplishment of some
objective. To Weihrich and Koontz (1993) it is the art or process of influencing
people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the
achievement of group goals (Sharma et al, 2011; Sapru, 2013). Evidently, this
definition emphasise on the influence leaders exert on their followers. In the words
58
of Naidu (2006), leadership is the art of influencing and directing people in a
manner that wins their obedience, confidence, respect and enthusiastic cooperation
in achieving a common objective. Also House et al (2002 in Sharma et al, 2011)
view it as the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to
contribute towards the effectiveness and success of the organisation. On the whole,
the implication of all the above definitions is that:
(a) Leadership must involve other people (subordinates or followers) without
whom all the qualities of a leader would be irrelevant;
(b) Leadership involves an unequal distribution of power and authority between
leaders and followers;
(c) Leaders exercise some degree of influence on their subordinates in a variety of
ways in order to attain goals (Stoner and Wankel, 1986).
Properly speaking, Sharma et al (2011) point some variables which affect the
leadership process. These are:
(a) The characteristics of the leader
(b) The attitude, needs and other personal
characteristics of the followers.
(c) The nature of the organisation (e.g.
purpose, structure, tasks etc).
(d) The social, economic and political
environment.
59
In-text Question 1
Why are there many definitions of leadership?
Answer
Because the definers attempted the definitions from various angles such as traits, behaviour,
influence, interaction patterns and occupations.
2. In the absence of leadership, what is the faith of an organisation?
Ans. An organisation becomes only a confusion of people and machines.
2.2. Importance of Leadership

The relevance of leadership to an organisation can hardly be over-looked. The
following are some of them:
1. Leaders help others to arrive at a better understanding of themselves, of
others, and of the issues at hand.
2. Leadership creates a spirit of cooperation and teamwork in an
organisation.
3. It motivates subordinates to work willingly and
enthusiastically.
4. Leadership coordinates the activities of groups and
sub-groups within an organisation.
5. It balances the interest of followers with that of the organisation (Naidu,
2006:200).
2.3. Approaches to Leadership

Various theories exist to unbundle the complexity associated with leadership.
These include the trait theory; the behavioural theory and; the situational theory.
1. Trait approach: - This is the first approach developed in studying leadership.
According to this approach, leaders are seen as people blessed with certain
personal characteristics that account for their success. Ordway Tea, Barnard and
Schell are the prominent advocates of this approach (Naidu, 2006). The
60
approach suggests that people without leadership qualities cannot be made
leaders even by training. This is to say that, leadership training is helpful only
to those who have innate leadership traits.
For many years, the trait theorists have made attempts to identify a set of traits that
are common to many successful leaders. As a result, a number of traits associated
with leadership have been proposed, including: intelligence, honesty, foresight,
confidence, self-assurance, responsibility, respect, appreciation, charisma, bravery
etc. The theory assumes that (Sharma et al, 2011:728):
(a) Leaders are born not made.
(b) Inborn leadership qualities enable a leader to be successful.
(c) Inborn leadership qualities cannot be acquired through training.
(d) Ordinary persons having no inborn leadership qualities cannot aspire to
become leaders.
(e) Leadership qualities and effectiveness are not linked to each other.
2. Behavioural approach: The failure of the trait approach to identify certain

qualities that are consistent with all leaders stimulated the behavioural
movement. Instead of looking at traits that leaders should possess, this
approach looks at what good leaders do. The approach attempts to explain
the quality of leadership in terms of leader behaviours. It analyses what the
leader does, how he leads, and how he behaves. Thus, emphasis is shifted
from who the leader is to how the leader behaves (Naidu, 2006).
In a study conducted by Lewin and Lippitt (1938) as captured by Sapru

(2013:470) at the University of Iowa, they identified the following three styles
or behaviours of leaders:
61
(a) Autocratic leadership behaviour: - This is where the leader tends to
centralise authority, dictate work methods, make unilateral decision and
limit subordinate participation.
(b) Democratic leadership behaviour: - This kind of leader tends to involve
subordinates in decision making, delegate’s authority, encourage
participation in deciding work methods and goals.
(c) Laissez-fair leadershipbehaviour: - This describes a leader who generally
gives complete freedom to the group to make decisions and complete the
work in whatever way they see fit.
3. Situational Approach- It considers leadership as a relationship between the
leader, the led and the situation in which the parties find themselves.
Although it does not deny the importance of individual traits in leadership, it
however asserts that in addition to personal characteristics, the situation in
which an individual finds himself is
equally important. Since no two
situations are exactly alike, a leader
in one situation may cease to be a
leader in a different situation.
Different situations require different
leaders. Victor Vroom and Fred E.
Fieddler are from the major
contributors of this approach (Naidu, 2006). This contingency approach, as it
is otherwise called, emphasises the importance of adopting the most
effective leadership style according to the needs of the work situation or the
job concerned.
62
In-text Question 2
What makes the situational approach different from other approaches?
Answer
It considers leadership as a relationship between the leader, the led and the situation in which the
parties find themselves.

List and explain the types of Communication
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

What is the philosophy of the trait approach to leadership?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgBdELW0Vco
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Leadership+in+Organisation

63
STUDY SESSION 2
Communication in Organisations
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1. Characteristics of Organisational Communication
2.2. Communication Process
2.3. Barriers to Effective Communication
2.4. Types of Communication
Introduction
Many administrative theorists regard communication as the first principle of
administration. This is because, it is an integral part and necessary aspect of the
functioning of any organisation. In this sense, every task of managers and their
relationships with subordinates is tied to communication. According to Naidu
(2006), communication is the interactive process by which one person makes his
ideas and feelings known to another. Stoner and Wankel (1986) see it as the
process by which people attempt to share meaning via the transmission of
symbolic messages. Also, Allen (in Sharma et al, 2011) defines it as the sum of all
the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of
64
another. Obvious from the above definition is that, communication is an attempt to
bring minds together on an issue, idea, thought or feeling and it involves at least
two persons.
However, the essence of communication is not

sending information but understanding it. If the
message conveyed is not understood, the very
essence of communication is lost.

After going through this session, you are expected to be able to:
1. Explain characteristics of Organisational Communication
2. Describe Communication Process
3. Discuss Barriers to Effective Communication
4.Enumerate types of Communication
2.0. Main Content

2.1. Characteristics of Organisational Communication
As an administrative principle, communication possess the following features:-
1. It involves two or more people who form the communication team (sender &
receiver).
2. It is a process that begins from the sender to the receiver.
3. Communication always has a channel for sending
information to the receiver e.g. telephone and email.
4. Communication is incomplete without a receiver to
whom the message is intended.
65
5. It is an all-time or continuous activity in an organisation.
6. It has a feedback mechanism.
7. Communication involves not only information but also understanding (Sharma
et al, 2011).
2.2. Communication Process

Communication process refers to those elements that make communication
effective. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with a
feedback. The following model depicts the communication process (Sharma et al,
2011).
1. Sender: - The sender or communicator initiates the communication. He is a

person who has a message, idea, information, thought, need or desire which he
wants to transmit to some other person or group of persons.
2. Encoding: This takes place when the communicator translates the information
to be transmitted into a representative common language or symbol. This
becomes necessary as information can only be transferred from one person to
another through symbols.
3. Message: -This is the physical form into which the sender encodes the
information. It may be in any form that can be experienced and understood by
one or more of the senses of the receiver. A speech may be heard, written words
may be read and gestures may be seen or felt.
4. Medium: Medium is inseparable from the message and for effective
communication, the medium should be appropriate for the message. It is the
66
carrier of the message and serves as the link between the sender and receiver,
e.g., letter, memorandum, group meetings, body gesture, telephone etc.
5. Decoding: - This is the process by which the receiver interprets the message
and translates it into meaningful information that he understands. Decoding is
affected by the receiver’s past experience, education, perception and
expectations.
6. Receiver: - The receiver partners with the sender to make communication
possible. In other words, an activity that involves a sender without a receiver is
no communication because the message is
addressed to no one.
7. Feedback – This is a reversal of the
communication process in which a response
to the sender’s message is expressed. It
enables the sender to determine whether the
message received is exactly the same as the message sent. Feedback may be
direct or indirect.
2.3. Barriers to Effective Communication and Ways to overcome them

It is assumed that communication will be effective when it follows the process
discussed above. However, this is not always the situation as there are some factors
that disturb, impede, confuse or otherwise interfere with the process. These factors
are termed barriers to communication or noise. The following are some of them.
1. Differences in Perceptions: - Distortions in communication occur as a result of
people’s variation in terms of background, knowledge, experience, etc. These
create differing perspective on communication.
67
2. Language Differences and Difficulties: - For a message to be properly
communicated, the words used must mean the same thing to the sender and the
receiver. The use of jargons by professionals to someone who is not familiar
with them may serve as a barrier.
3. Emotions: - Emotional reactions such as anger, love, defensiveness, hate,
jealously, fear and embarrassment influence how we understand other people’s
messages and vice-versa.
4. Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication: -The messages we sent
and receive are strongly influenced by such non-verbal factors as body
movements, gesture, posture, facial expression etc. They create inconsistencies
between the factor and the medium.
5. Interest- Barriers to effective communication also result
from the lack of interest from the intended beneficiaries.
People listen more attentively to only those
communications which relate to their interest and basic
needs (Stoner and Wankel, 1986).
Other barriers are: semantics, lack of skills, credibility, timing, hierarchy, group
influence, conflicts, physical problems, nature of supervisors etc.
2.4. Overcoming Barriers to Communication

When distortions occur in communication, some steps could be taken to reduce
their potential for misunderstanding. However, two things need to be borne in
mind. One, we must be conversant with the various types of barriers that can
occur; secondly, we must act to overcome the barriers (Stoner and Wankel, 1986).
68
Generally speaking, the following are some hints for overcoming communication
barriers:
1. Feedback
2. Repetition
3. Listening
4. Clarity
5. Consistency
6. Promptness
7. Simplicity
8. Etc.
2.5. Types of Communication in Organisation

Communication in organisation is usually classified based on its nature and flow
within the hierarchy; and method of transmitting the information (Naidu, 2006;
Sharma et al, 2011).
1. Informal Communication: This is the oral communication which travels
through non-formal and non-official channels of communication such as
rumors. It is often referred to as the “”the grapevine”. It occurs naturally
where few individuals are thrown together in work situations. Informal
communication is essentially face-to-face, inter-personal, unplanned and
non-documented information transmitted orally. Its importance lies in
conveying very rapidly valuable and substantial information to superiors
which informs them about the happenings in the workplace as well as the
interests of the workers.
2. Formal Communication: This is the written communication which runs
along the official prescribed formal channels in the organisation. This type
69
of communication contains task-related messages and it subdivided into the
following.
a. Downward Communication: -This is where superiors in the organisation
transmit information downward to their subordinates based on hierarchical
arrangement. It is achieved through such devices as directives, specific
orders, instructions, circular, advice and guidance to the subordinates.
b. Upward Communication: As the name suggests, this type of
communication is initiated by the subordinates and passed to the superiors
for consideration. This is why it is otherwise known as subordinate-superior
communication. It takes the form of report, requests, recommendations,
complaints etc. and it provides feedback to superior’s earlier
communication.
c. Lateral or Horizontal Communication: -It takes place among workers at
the same level in the hierarchy or among individuals of different levels who
are not in a superior subordinate relationship. It can
also take the form of communication that passes across
different departments or functional units of the
organisation. It is otherwise called cross
communication.
Apart from the formal and informal, communication can also be divided based on
its channel; i.e. verbal and non-verbal.
1. Verbal Communication: - This type of communication could be oral or
unwritten. Oral basically involves face-to-face communications in the form
of conversations between persons. Mechanical and technical aids such as
telephone are used here and also through conferences, staff meetings and
70
others. Written communication on the other hand takes the form of circulars,
bulletins, manuals, handbooks, notes etc. It generally serves as a permanent
reference for the future because it is documented.
2. Non-Verbal Communication: - It is used as a means to supplement verbal
communication. In case of face-to-face conversation between two persons,
they can better understand the feelings, attitudes and emotions of each other.
It gives an impression of people to others without saying or writing
anything. Example includes appearance, manner, expression, eye contact,
body movement etc.
In-text Question 1
What are the elements that made up the communication process?
Answer
Sender- encoding- message- medium- decoding- receiver- feedback.

Discuss the barriers to Effective Communication
This session discussed some characteristics of communication, types of
communication, communication process and Barriers to Effective Communication.

Why communication is considered the first principle of administration?
71
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlNywlZB0c4
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Communication+in+Organisation
7.0 References/Further Reading

72
STUDY SESSION 3
Decision Making
Introduction
2,0 Main Content
2.1. Types of Decisions
2.2. Elements of Managerial Decision Making
Introduction
People at all levels in organisation must constantly make decisions and solve
problems. However, identifying the problems provides the basis for decision
making. The word decision is derived from the Latin words ‘deciso’ which means
to come to a conclusion. A decision represents a judgment, a final resolution of a
conflict of needs, means or goals and a commitment to action.
Decision making according to Rao and Rao (1996) is the process by which
individuals select a course of action from among alternatives to produce a desired
result. Terry and Franklin (2003) see it as the selection based on some criteria of
one behaviour alternative from two or more possible alternatives (Sharma et al,
2011). To Robert Tannenbaum (cited in Naidu, 2006), it involves a conscious
73
choice or selection of one behaviour alternative from among a group of two or
more behaviour alternatives.
In short, decision making is an activity that has the following features:

1. It involves choosing a course of action from among different alternatives.
2. It is essentially a human process.
3. Decision making is preceded by deliberation
and reasoning.
4. It involves a time dimension for accuracy
5. It is geared towards an objective.
6. It has a lot to do with environmental
dynamics.

At the end of this session, it is expected that you should be able to:
1.Explain types of Decisions
2. Describe Elements of Managerial Decision Making
2.0. Main Content

2.1. Types of Decisions
The following are the most popular types of decisions (Sharma et al, 2011:796):
1. Active and Passive Decisions: - A decision is active when a choice is made to
do something different and new for a particular situation. Passive decision on
the other hand is more of maintaining the status-quo by letting the present
situation to continue.
74
2. Basic and Routine Decisions: - Basic decision is a one-time and strategic
decision taken in unique circumstances or to deal with unique problems. It is
usually taken by higher level taken by higher level management. A decision is
routine when it is repetitive and does not require much deliberation. Its effect
on the organisation is generally minor and it is taken by lower level managers.
3. Personal and Organisational Decision: - Personal decisions are those that
relate directly to the personal affairs of workers or managers and only has
indirect consequences on the organisation. Organisational decisions are made
by managers in their official capacity as controllers and allocators of
organisational resources. They are aimed at furthering the interests of the
organisation.
4. Programmed and Non Programmed Decisions- Programmed decisions are
those written or unwritten policies, habits, procedures or rules that guide an
organisation on recurring decisions. Decisions that have no cut and dried
methods, rules or procedures are known as non-programmed decisions. They
deal with unusual or exceptional problems.
Other types of decisions are: short range and long range decisions; individual and
group decisions as well as participatory and non-participatory decisions.
2.2. Elements of Managerial Decision making

When managers make decisions in an organisation,
Adeleke (2001:57) points that they are concerned
with the following:
- What is to be done?
- Who is to do it?
75
- How is it to be done?
- When is it to be done?
- Why is it to be done?
- Where it is to be done?
- What resources are required to do it?
In-text Question 1
Define decision making according to Tannenbaum.
Answer
It is a conscious choice or selection of one behaviour alternative from among a group of two or
more behaviour alternatives.

Discuss Elements of Managerial Decision Making
This session discussed some fundamental responsibilities no administrator can shy
away from. This is so because, these duties are at the core of his job. The
definitions; characteristics; importance; approaches and processes of leadership,
communication and decision making in organisation where detailed.

1. Discuss the Importance of Leadership?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Lg7G8TMe_A
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Decision+Making+%09
76
7.0 References/Further Reading
Adeleke, A. (2001) Management Conceots and Applications. Lagos: Concept
Publishers
77

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DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

Course Code &Title: PADM 301: ADMINISTRATION THEORY

Programme Title: BSc Public Administration

First published 2018 in Nigeria.

Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Mohammed Lawal (Subject Matter Specialist)

COURSE STUDY GUIDE…………………………………………………..

Module 2: Theories of Administration__________________________________________47

ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION/DESCRIPTION

iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Optional tutorial sessions shall be held preceding the Semester examination or at

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:

vii. TIME (TO STUDY AND COMPLETE COURSE)

viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

Other sources for open education resources

Individuals (which include OERs)

N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

Module 2: Theories of Administration

Module 3: Administrative Principles

1.0 Study Session Outcomes

2.0. Main Content

2.2. Characteristics of a Theory

2.3. Significance of a Theory

on a spiral to even more precise scientific formulations.

Tutor Marked Assignments

5.0. Self-Assessment Question

6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)

7.0 References/Further Readings

Therefore, we can define administration as a social process where individuals

Therefore, while management deals with controlling the affairs of an organisation,

2.0 Main Content

Table 1: Distinctions between Management and Administration

Basis Management Administration

Meaning Management is an art of getting things done It is concerned with formulation of

Nature Management is an executing function. Administration is a decision-

Function Management is a doing function because Administration is a thinking

Level Middle & lower level function Top level function

On the Basis of Usage: -

Basis Management Administration

Applicability It is applicable to business concerns It is applicable to non-business

Influence The management decisions are The administration is influenced by

Status Management constitutes the Administration represents owners of

Source: Adapted from MSG Experts (2016): Management and Administration.

2.2. Similarities between Administration and Management

goals and objectives of human organisation.

3.0. Tutor Marked Assignments

6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) .

7.0. References/Further Reading

Study Session Outcomes

2.0 Main Content

Organisation according to Gaus (cited in Bhagwan and Bhushan, 2010) is the

2.2. Importance of an Organisation

3.0. Tutor Marked Assignments