Sacred

Sanskrit
Words

s<Sk«t
 Sacred
Sanskrit
Words
for Yoga, Chant, and Meditation

s<Sk«t
Leza Lowitz and Reema Datta

Stone Bridge Press • Berkeley, California

Published by
Stone Bridge Press
P.O. Box 8208
Berkeley, CA 94707
TEL 510-524-8732 • sbp@stonebridge.com • www.stonebridge.com

Title page: The word “Sanskrit” (Saṃskṛt) in Devanāgarī script.

The publisher wishes to gratefully acknowledge the developers of

Adobe InDesign and of the fonts Sanskrit 99 and Gentium, whose
work greatly facilitated the production of this book.

Text © 2005 Leza Lowitz and Reema Datta.

Front-cover design by Michael Rowley.

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form

without permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 1-880656-87-6
 CONTENTS

7 Introduction

29 The Entries: Abhyāsa through Yoni

219 Chants

233 Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

A Brief History of Sanskrit

The Sanskrit language was introduced into the
highly evolved and urbanized Indus Valley civiliza-
tion with the Aryan migration of 2500–1500 B.C.E. The
Aryans, who were mostly Sanskrit-speaking, tall,
fair-skinned, nomadic warriors, migrated to North-
west India from Central Asia (present-day Iran and
southern Russia). The fusion of the Aryans with the
well-developed native Dravidian culture gave rise to
the rich Hindu tradition.
The earliest form of recorded Sanskrit is the Rig
Veda, which dates back to about 1500 B.C.E. Vedic cul-
ture flourished from 1500–500 B.C.E.; the insights and
wisdom revealed in the text provided not only the
foundation of Hinduism and yoga philosophy but a
legacy of literary skill.
As the culture in North India evolved, the San-
skrit language underwent changes. When the lan-
guage began to diverge from that of the sacred texts,
priests and holy men of the Brahmin class became

• 7 •
concerned that the hymns might not be preserved
and transmitted without corruption. Consequently,
they pursued studies of Sanskrit as a language, espe-
cially its phonetics. It was the work of the Indian
grammarians, in fact, codifying and cataloguing
Sanskrit’s rules of usage, that led to the development
of the field of linguistics. Around 500–350 B.C.E., one
of these grammarians, Pāṇini, composed a text on
Sanskrit grammar, the Ashtadhyayi (“Eight Chapter
Grammar”), marking a shift from Vedic to Classical
Sanskrit.
Sanskrit houses an enormous pantheon of Hin-
du gods as reflected in its script, whose name, “Deva-
nāgarī,” literally means “language of the gods.”
Though Sanskrit is written in many scripts, includ-
ing Telegu, Bengali, and Brahmi, Devanāgarī script
is the one most commonly used. In fact, many people
believe that Divine Light took the form of the several
dozen sacred letters of the Sanskrit language, through
which the Divine speaks and resonates even today.
The way in which the development of the San-
skrit language reflects the development of the Hindu
religious and philosophical tradition gives it one of
the richest spiritual histories of any extant language.
Unlike most ancient languages, however, Sanskrit is
not dead. It is very much alive. Amazingly, the very
• 8 •
words holy men used to record sacred texts twenty-
five millennia ago in the form of mantra are still used
by their spiritual descendents for the same purposes
today. Since Sanskrit is not commonly used for every-
day communication, it tends to show less change than
languages that are put to more practical use.
One of the most significant uses of Sanskrit was
for the recitation of ritual texts. Rituals were per-
formed largely to create a meditative atmosphere
for looking inward as well as for connecting with the
surrounding nature—all leading to an understanding
of the self and the cosmic order. Sanskrit was thus
used to explore and describe the subtle and com-
plex realms of metaphysics, cosmology, theology, the
workings of the mind and soul, forms of thought, and
states of consciousness—areas that were of the high-
est importance to its creators. And to what end? Ulti-
mately, for the discovery of our own divine nature
and an understanding of how to live in harmony with
the cosmic order for ultimate well-being and libera-
tion. In the East, Sanskrit continues to exert a power-
ful influence. Though there are now over a hundred
languages and scripts in India, including Tamil, Ben-
gali, Gujarat, Urdu, Pali, and others, Sanskrit contin-
ues to be used in the pursuit of the spiritual.
Sanskrit has many words for the Divine and

• 9 •
many terms for defining different levels of conscious-
ness. It is this rich spiritual and mental background
that draws contemporary students to Sanskrit today,
even in the West. We can gain access to this heritage
through the same words the masters used, and by so
doing we can touch and be touched by the “spirit of
the letter” that touched these sages. And while one
can’t help but be aware of Sanskrit’s longevity, along
with this awareness comes the knowledge of our
own impermanence, a fact that is in itself a source
of liberation from the present moment and its con-
cerns. Though the lessons we learn about ourselves
might be contemporary, through Sanskrit we have
the opportunity to come into the realm of a sacred
language that is timeless, immutable, and eternal.
Introduction to the Sanskrit language provides
a key to the philosophical teachings of ancient Hindu
literature, from which the ever-popular practice of
yoga and the holistic science of Āyurveda evolved.
Some of the earliest scriptures on yoga—the practice
of which was passed down through oral tradition for
thousands of years—were written in Sanskrit about
2,000 to 2,500 years ago.
The keen interest that yoga students show in
Sanskrit has surprised us since we began teaching
yoga in the San Francisco Bay Area a few years ago.
• 10 •
Some students are mesmerized by the beauty of the
sound of the Sanskrit language, others by the artistic
look of the Devanāgarī scipt, and many by the world
of thought that “karma,” “dharma,” “ahimsa,” “Om,”
and many other Sanskrit words embody. Musicians,
health practitioners, scientists, philosophers, histo-
rians, and everyday people have all been profoundly
moved by this remarkably scientific language, in
which lie all the tools to understand the self and
nature and ultimately to connect with the Divine or
cosmic source that links us all.

The Sanskrit Alphabet: Pronunciation Guide

The charts below indicate where sounds are articu-
lated in the mouth:

• Guttural: throat
• Palatals: middle of the mouth (at the palate)
• Cerebrals: roof of the mouth (with the tongue
bent)
• Dentals: teeth
• Labials: lips

• 11 •
Vowels
Vowels can be short or long. Long vowels are pro-
nounced (or held) twice as long as short vowels and
are indicated by a macron written over the letter.

VOWELS: SHORT AND LONG

Guttural A a (like the first “a” in America)

Aa ā (like “a” in father)

Palatal # i (like “i” in it)

$ ī (like “ee” in sheet)

Labial % u (like “u” in put)

^ ū (like “oo” in food)

Cerebral \ ṛi (like “ri” in river)

§ ṛī (like “ri” in river, held twice as long)

Dental ¤ ḷi (like “lry” in cavalry)

Diphthongs @ e (like “a” in ate)

@e ai (like “ai” in aisle)

Aae o (like “o” in snow)

AaE au (like “ou” in loud)

Nasal A< aṃ (nasalized “a” followed by the sound m)

Aspirate A> aḥ (echoed “a” with light aspiration)

Consonants
The consonants followed by an “h” are aspirated. “C”
• 12 •
is pronounced “ch” as in chase. “J” is pronounced “ j”
as in jungle. Consonants marked with a dot below are
retroflex, pronounced by rolling the tongue back so
that the tip is pointing to the back of the palate. There
is a subtle difference between “Ś” as in Śakti and “s”
as in ṛiṣi. Both are pronounced “sh,” the former as in
dish, the latter as in harsh, the tongue retroflexed.
“S” is like the s in sour. “M” is pronounced by nasal-
izing the vowel it precedes and following it with the
sound “m.” “H” is pronounced by making an echo of
the vowel preceding it with a slight aspiration.

Gutturals Ka k Kha o Ga g Gha " Ṅa '

Palatals Ca c Cha D Ja j Jha H Ña |
Cerebrals Ta q Tha Q Da f Dha F Ṇa [
Dentals Ta t Tha w Da d Dha x Na n
Labials Pa p Pha ) Ba b Bha É Ma m

SEMI-VOWELS

Palatal Cerebral Dental Labial

Ya y Ra r La l Va v

SIBILANTS

Palatal Cerebral Dental Labial

Śa z Ṣa ; Sa s Ha h

• 13 •
 Sanskrit is written from left to right. For each
word, all the letters making up the word are written
first, and then a horizontal line is added on top of the
letters last, showing that the letters under the line
make up that word. For example, for the word āsana
(Aasn), first the vowel “a” (A) is written by making
the number “3” and then adding a small horizontal
line to connect to the vertical line. To show that the
vowel “ā” is long, another vertical line is added (Aa).
For the “s” sound, the number “2” is written, fol-
lowed by a small horizontal line connected to a verti-
cal line (s); for the “n” sound, we draw a small circle
and, from it, a horizontal line that leads to another
vertical line (n). After the three letters are written, a
horizontal line is added on top, again made from left
to right (Aasn). Once written, the phonetic nature of
the Sanskrit language makes it very easy to read in
the Devanāgarī script.

Sacred Sound
Those who become familiar with the language may
find that Sanskrit words are powerful in ways that
words from other languages are not.
The sound of each one of the Sanskrit letters is
actually considered sacred, with its own vibration
• 14 •
and deeply resonating tone. Legend has it that these
sacred sounds were born from Lord Śiva’s drum itself
(although, as if to deliberately confuse the issue, some
historical theories have it that Sanskrit sounds and
language came much before the mythology of Śiva!).
In fact, many people come to Sanskrit these days
through sound. If you’ve ever been in a room full of
people chanting the sacred sound Om, you know what
a transcendent and powerful experience it can be to
enter the current of this ancient sound and have it
resonate within your own being. The different tones
mingle and soar, moving in and out of harmony.
The scientific basis for the Sanskrit language is
the idea that sound, made up of vibrations, is energy.
According to legend, holy men, or ṛiṣis, composed
mantras (sacred hymns found in Sanskrit texts) by
arranging Sanskrit words in such a way that the
sounds not only convey meaning but have the poten-
tial to calm, purify, and energize the mind as it
vibrates in the different chakras (energy centers) of
the subtle body.
The rhythmic repetition of sound—a discipline
known as Mantra Yoga—is based on the principle
that sound has the power to build consciousness
and manifest energy to the point where one can
awaken kuṇḍalinī śakti, dormant energy lying at the

• 15 •
base of the spine. Upon awakening kuṇḍalinī, one
can achieve samādhi, or supreme consciousness.
Many schools of Hindu thought, particularly Tantra,
believe that sonic consciousness ultimately leads to
supreme consciousness.
The Vedas state that sound is the easiest, most
direct way to connect with the Divine. We have seen
in our own practice and teaching that once a prac-
titioner connects with the sound and energy of his/
her breath, the heightened consciousness makes it
possible then to connect with the sound/energy of a
mantra, the sound/energy of a room, and the sound/
energy of the surrounding people, plants, and spirits.
This then leads toward the realization, ultimately,
that it is all one energy, one vibration, originating
from the one primordial sound Om, from which all
of existence begins and dissolves. It does seem that
sonic consciousness is the most direct way to real-
ize the state of yoga, the ultimate unity in all things.
More and more yoga practitioners are enthusiasti-
cally taking to Mantra Yoga, expanding and deepen-
ing their experience of yoga.
The word “Sanskrit” means “polished,” “refined,”
or “perfectly composed.” Its highly refined nature
can be appreciated by understanding the scientific
pattern of the sounds and the regulated pronun-
• 16 •
ciation. Sanskrit is devised according to where in
the mouth the sounds are made, a direct influence
on how much energy one uses to create the sound.
Ancient Indians have been called pioneers of the sci-
ence of phonetics due to the highly refined arrange-
ment of the alphabet.
For every sound in the Sanskrit language there
is just one letter, and for every letter, just one sound.
It is a phonetic language, the structure of which
enables one to write all the phonemes accurately,
either as separate consonants and vowels, or syllable
to syllable. Sanskrit consists of over two dozen conso-
nants and over a dozen vowels, each of which resides
in the different chakras. Every word or sound (śabda)
has energy and power (śakti).
As the ancients knew, sound affects conscious-
ness. The mantra So Hum is one example of how
sound can affect one’s state of mind. When the mind
quiets, a practitioner of yoga/meditation can hear
that the natural sound of the breath is So Hum. The
sound vibration of the inhalation is So, while that of
the exhalation is Hum. If one focuses on this sound-
vibration, every inhalation can become inspiring and
every exhalation a release, resulting in a lightness of
mind that allows one to move more freely toward the
spirit, truth, and higher consciousness.

• 17 •
 Sacred sound awakens the life force that is alive
within us, sending it through us and out into the
world. The sound simply takes over the body, and
before long you can’t tell where your voice ends and
another begins, where your body ends and another
begins.
When we chant together without regard to how
we “sound,” we’re cracking open the most frozen of
hearts, and it’s impossible not to be moved by the
vibrations of these primal, unadorned sounds. That
power and aliveness moves us instinctively inward,
and we move away from our uncluttered, noisy minds
into our pure, essential, joyful essence. And we’re not
just chanting in the here and now. Chanting San-
skrit, we go back centuries, dipping into the stream
of those who have made similar inquiries, leading to
rich discoveries and profound revelations along the
way. Chanting is an act of devotion, and an act of unit-
ing with oneself as well as with others. It’s a powerful
practice of joy and surrender. Much like yoga or med-
itation, it’s a way of liberating the spirit, of becoming
free. When we hear the echoes of our own souls in
these sounds, it’s like hearing a thousand-year-old
temple bell ringing in an old Zen temple. What we
hear is the deepest silence. And within that silence is
the music of the heart that beats within us all.
• 18 •
Our Offering
We started to put together this primer largely in
response to yoga students who wanted to learn San-
skrit chants and terms, and as a guidebook in our
own study and teaching. Sometimes students would
ask, “What does Om mean?” Or, if they were studying
the Vedas or the Yoga Sūtras, they might ask, ”What
is the difference between puruṣa and prakṛti?” Often,
when there were glossaries or dictionaries available,
they didn’t have both the English pronunciations and
the Devanāgarī script together. So we were intrigued
when we were having lunch at a Japanese restaurant
on Solano Avenue in Berkeley with our publisher, and
he suggested that we create this primer as a kind of
sister volume to Designing with Kanji, a book on the
Japanese ideogram. Though we are far from special-
ists in Sanskrit, we’ve found that the best way to learn
about something is to write about it, so researching
and writing about Sanskrit became our own deep
learning process as well.
Most Sanskrit words derive from a particu-
lar verb-root (dhātu) that reveals the origin of the
word. The various terms and philosophies Sanskrit
words describe contain subtle but very particular
distinctions in terms of meaning according to dif-

• 19 •
ferent schools of Hindu or Buddhist thought. Those
distinctions are often contradictory, particularly
to the layperson. A Jainist understanding of a word
might be different from a Buddhist understanding,
for example, and such subtle distinctions are beyond
the scope of this book. Though it is precise, Sanskrit
is a complex and multifaceted language. For example,
it is easy to get lost in the many different names for
the gods and their many different and sometimes
paradoxical characteristics.
We have therefore tried to simplify the defini-
tions while not omitting important information, but
space considerations and the nature of this book have
dictated that much of the nuance and complexity
associated with these words had to be left out. There
are also many debates about the translations of cer-
tain key terms. When possible, we have offered alter-
nate translations. However, this book is not intended
to be a language textbook. Rather, it is more of a
window into an ancient language and the precepts
for living that this language illuminates. We hope it
inspires people to pursue a more in-depth study of
this rich language and its living guides—the Vedas,
the Upaniṣads, the Bhagavad Gītā, and the Yoga Sūtras,
among others. We recommend that those looking for
an in-depth discussion of Sanskrit language, gram-
• 20 •
mar, and meaning and of Indian philosophy consult
the books listed in the Bibliography. Sacred Sanskrit
Words is offered as a basic compendium and as a cel-
ebration of an ancient Eastern language that has
become increasingly popular in the West.
The book is organized in alphabetical order, with
the Devanāgarī script and English transliteration of
each word given on the same page, along with a defi-
nition and relevant facts, myths, history, and quota-
tions. Though there were many words we wanted to
include, space limited our entries to words of partic-
ular interest to students of yoga, Hindu mythology,
and philosophy.
As Sanskrit has become popularized in the West,
many alternative spellings and pronunciations have
arisen to make the words easier to say. For example,
the word ācārya (yoga master) is often spelled Acha-
rya, and Śiva and Śakti are often spelled Shiva and
Shakti. We have noted alternative spellings in the
entries whenever applicable. And while linguists
might not agree, we have added an “s” to form plu-
rals of Sanskrit “nouns”—Vedas and Upaniṣads, for
example—to improve sense and readability in a book
intended primarily for laypersons. Sanskrit terms
that are very well known as English words (such as
yoga, karma, and guru) are treated as English (writ-

• 21 •
ten in roman type, without diacritical marks). Proper
names (Kṛiṣṇa, Śiva, etc.) are written in roman type
with diacriticals, as are compounds where one word
is Sanskrit and the other is treated as English (Haṭha
Yoga, Mahāyāna Buddhism). All other Sanskrit terms
are written in italic type, with diacriticals.

Sanskrit Here and Now

Although most young people in India do not study
Sanskrit, much as Greek and Latin are not widely
studied in the West, Sanskrit words and their mean-
ings continue to affect the everyday lives of most
Indians in the form of morning prayers, celebrations
of birthdays and marriages, and their perspectives
on life and death, joy and suffering, poverty and
wealth.
Sanskrit is the root of a great number of lan-
guages, including those of Europe and South Asia.
Buddhist as well as Hindu texts are written in the
Sanskrit language. Buddhism had a deep impact on
religion and philosophy in China, which imported
many Sanskrit words and concepts. These imports
eventually made their way to Japan and are now part
of the Buddhist tradition there. Though Buddhism
and Hinduism have their differences, concepts such
• 22 •
as karma, māyā, mantra, reincarnation, yoga, and
meditation are common to both.
Sanskrit words and concepts started to crop up
in the popular culture of the West over three decades
ago, with songs like the Beatle’s “Jai Guru Dev Om”
and Steeley Dan’s “Bodhisattva.” Band names like Nir-
vana and Third Eye Blind, and albums like No Doubt’s
Secret Samadhi or Madonna’s Ray of Light continue to
reflect the interest artists have in Eastern traditions.
Sanskrit even began a few years ago to hit Madison
Avenue, which is a sure sign of becoming mainstream,
at least on the surface. Brand or product names like
Tantra, Shanti, Om, Prana, and Shakti appeared by
the dozens. Then there was a craze for body painting
and henna tattooing, and red dots started to pop up
on the foreheads of models and rock stars. In the past
few years, more and more people, especially devoted
yogīs and yoginīs, have had Namaste, Om, or Jīvanmukti
tattooed onto their bodies as a way to remind them or
tell others of their spiritual paths. While most of the
tattoos are written correctly (yogīs tend to do their
research), occasionally a Sanskrit word has been tat-
tooed upside down, sideways, or out of proportion.
This book offers a basic guide to some of the
most significant words in the language and provides
the proper Devanāgarī script accompaniment.

• 23 •
 In the West today, one can find yoga studios and
meditation centers where Sanskrit words, sūtras, and
scriptures have been copied onto walls or stenciled
onto fabrics draped over altars or hung in meditation
rooms. The use of Sanskrit emphasizes the realm of
all the things the Sanskrit language embodies—spiri-
tual inquiry, devotion, offering, prayer, transcen-
dence. Chants can be copied so they can be studied,
meditated upon, or followed while sung. Sanskrit
words like smṛiti (“mindfulness”) can be used on
cards, papers, jewelry, textiles, meditation cushions,
and clothes to set one’s intention or to invoke those
qualities in one’s life, like a sacred stone or amulet.

Namaste
We offer a thousand and eight lotus blossoms of
thanks to Matthew Clark, Alan Finger, Scott Gerson,
Shogo Oketani, Danny Paradise, Larry Schultz, Jayant
Shroff, our intrepid publisher Peter Goodman, Jaime
Starling, Barry Harris, our patient and painstaking
editor Elizabeth Floyd, and the talented designer
Michael Rowley for helping us bring this book into
being. We are grateful to have received the guid-
ance of Sanskrit scholars in Varanasi, England, and
the United States, who gave of their time and knowl-
• 24 •
edge anonymously. We thank them from the bottom
of our hearts, and acknowledge that any mistakes in
the text are ours, not theirs. We give a special thanks
to our parents and families for their patient and per-
sistent love and support. We also want to give a spe-
cial thank you to Hideaki Oketani, whose vast library
contained rare books of Hindu philosophy and litera-
ture, and to Donna Mendelsohn, who sent shiploads
of books overseas in care packages (and thanks also
to the American and Japanese postal services for
delivering them). Namaste also to Windi Braden, our
loving and wise spiritual guide. We humbly honor
our teachers—past, present, and future—and our
students, and all the bodhisattvas out there (you know
who you are) for giving of yourselves so generously.
Thank you!
As we put the finishing touches on this book, a
new year has arrived. Each culture around the world
acknowledges and celebrates the new year with its
own gestures, symbols, and rituals to the Gods. In
Japan, people are cleaning their homes to welcome
the toshigami (the gods of the incoming year) and dec-
orating their doorways with sprigs of pine attached
to cut bamboo. They leave rice cakes, tangerines,
kelp, and dried persimmon at the family altar as an
offering to the spirits.

• 25 •
 In India, business owners remove accounting
books from their shelves to conduct pūjā (prayers)
over their pages, bowing to Goddess Lakṣmi, thank-
ing her for the profits of the year past, and request-
ing blessings for the year to come. Homes vibrate
with the serene sounds of Sanskrit prayers, the sweet
aroma of homemade milky deserts, and the rich col-
ors of new clothes and decorations. People gather all
over the country in homes, temples, and āśrams to
chant God’s many names for hours before the new
year strikes. They use their voices and the sounds
and vibrations of the Sanskrit language to welcome
the new year with bliss, love, and unity. Like them,
we know that Sanskrit is a language of offerings. So
we make this offering to you, with blessings for peace
and happiness, joy and love.

—Om Śānti—
Leza Lowitz
Tokyo, Japan
Reema Datta
Varanasi, India, and on the road

• 26 •
 Sacred
Sanskrit
Words

s<Sk«t
 A_yas
Abhyāsa
“Constant practice,” “continuous effort,” “repeated
endeavor or exertion,” “discipline.” Originating from
the roots as (“to throw”) and abhi (“toward”), abhyāsa
means “to throw oneself into an endeavor toward a
particular aim”—in other words, “to pursue the prac-
tice of yoga as a means of achieving spiritual whole-
ness.” According to Mīmāṃsa, which is one of the six
orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, abhyāsa is one
of the six markers (sad-liṅga) on the traditional path
to understanding the Vedas, India’s oldest and most
sacred scriptures: this understanding ultimately
leads to spiritual development and liberation. See
also SAD-LIṄGA, VEDA.

AacayR
Ācārya
A spiritual guide, master, or teacher who passes

• 29 •
down the wisdom of the Vedas. From the verb root car
(“to go”) and the prepositional prefix ā (“toward”),
the term literally denotes a teacher moving a student
forward on the path toward enlightenment. The title
of ācārya is often given by a guru to a learned yogin or
other teacher under his tutelage, upon the student’s
mastery of an art. The ācārya’s duties include initiat-
ing, guiding, and instructing others on the spiritual
path. Ācāra also refers to behavior, traditions, and
established rules of conduct, so an ācārya is “someone
who knows, and whose life exemplifies, the ‘rules’ of
conduct according to classical principles of yoga.”
The word is sometimes spelled Acharya in English,
and the title Yoga Acharya is used to denote a yoga
master. See also VEDA, YOGIN.

AÖEt
Advaita
From the roots a (“not”) and dvaita (“two”), advaita
literally means “not two,” or “oneness with all.”
Advaita is the term used to express the Indian phil-
osophical and spiritual concept of Nondualism, or
• 30 •
the belief that there is only One Reality (brahman).
Nondualism holds that we are not separate from
the Divine, nature, or one another, and that all
is one interconnected transcendent reality. Advaita
is also used to refer to Advaita Vedānta, the first
school of Indian philosophy to promote the con-
cept of Nondualism; this school teaches that the
individual soul ( jīva) is not distinct from the Abso-
lute, the Supreme Being (brahman). See also BRAH-
MAN, JĪVANMUKTA.

AiGn
Agni
The powerful Fire God, one of the main deities cel-
ebrated in the Vedas. Some see Agni as a symbol
of divine will, or the sacred spark of the immortal
within each mortal being. While Agni is an internal
fire, Agni is also a purifying fire—the heat, light, and
energy that burns through illusion and leads a seeker
to self-knowledge, ultimate Truth, and a state of bliss.
As the Fire God, Agni carries the food offered by the
ṛiṣis to the Gods from earth to heaven during sac-

• 31 •
rificial rites; he is sometimes represented as a ram.
The square fire pits used by the Vedic Brahmans in
these ceremonies were called agni hotra. “Thou (Agni)
dost create food of all kinds and digest it (after it is
taken in): and thus Thou preservest all people like a
mother, goading them on towards a better and richer
life, towards clearer and broader vision, playing vari-
ous roles, Thou preservest us all in every way” (from
Mandala V, the Rig Veda, Gopalacharya). See also ṚIṢI,
ŚĀNTI.

AimtaÉ
Amitābha
From amita (“unmeasured”) and ābhā (“splendor”),
“Amitābha” means the “Buddha of Unparalleled
Splendor” or the “Buddha of Immeasurable Glory.”
Amitābha is considered the Buddha of Three Forms:
the Absolute and Unconditioned, the Savior of Sen-
tient Beings, and the historical Buddha who came to
earth to share his teachings. Dogen said, “The Bud-
dha meditated for six years, Bodhidharma for nine.
The practice of meditation is not a method for attain-
• 32 •
ment of enlightenment, it is enlightenment itself.”
See also BUDDHA.

Am&t
Amṛita
From the root mṛita (“to die,” “death”) and the pre-
fix a (“not”), amṛita means that which is undying or
immortal. It is used as one of the Goddess Lakṣmi’s
108 names, often rendered in English as “the Immor-
tal One” or “the One Who Does Not Die.” Amṛita-
rasa also refers to the nectar of the Gods—a sacred
ambrosia that emanates from the crown chakra. In
yoga practice, inverted postures like the headstand,
or the viparita karani mudrā (“inverse-action seal”),
are believed to seal in the amṛita and prevent this
precious energy from leaking out from the crown of
the head. In Tantric philosophy, the life-sustaining
sexual fluids are considered a form of amṛita-rasa—a
powerful nectar of immortality. See also CHAKRA, R ASA,
TANTRA.

• 33 •
 AanNd
Ānanda
A beloved disciple of the Buddha whose name comes
from the root verb nand (“to rejoice”), Ānanda report-
edly became an arhat (a Buddhist saint who has been
freed from the cycle of birth and death) on the same
day that the first Buddhist council (Sanskrit, sang-
hiti) occurred in Rājagriha (in 499 B.C.E.), to collect
and preserve Buddha’s teachings after his passing. In
this exchange in the Buddhist text Samyutta Nikaya,
he learns what constitutes a holy life. “The venerable
Ānanda said to the Lord, ‘Half of this holy life, Lord,
is good and noble friends, companionship with the
good, association with the good.’ The Lord replied: ‘Do
not say that, Ānanda. . . . It is the whole of this holy
life, this friendship, companionship and association
with the good.’ ” When Ānanda reached Arhatship, his
seat “shone like the lotus flower touched into bloom
by the rays of the sun.” Ānanda also means “absolute
bliss,” “complete joy,” and “delight.”

• 34 •
 AnNt
Ananta
From an (“without”) and anta (“limit”), Ananta is the
Divine Serpent upon whom Lord Viṣṇu reclines. It
means “he who is infinite,” “he who is not confined
by time, space, or the material plane.” The masculine
form, Ananta, is also one of the fourteen names of
Lord Viṣṇu. The Feminine form, Anantā (with a long
final “a”), is another name for Pārvatī, Śiva’s consort.
See also PĀRVATĪ, ŚIVA, VIṢṆU.

Apan
Apāna
From the roots an (“to breathe”) and apa (“away”),
apāna literally means “carried-downward breath.”
It refers to the exhalation, the “dying breath” taken
when we literally “expire” as we release the breath.
Apāna is a downward-moving energy that moves from
the pelvic bowl and radiates down, coming to rest in

• 35 •
earth energy. It is an open, receptive, vast energy,
sometimes called “feminine energy.” Its opposite is
prāṇa, the inhalation, the active breath/energy that
rises from the diaphragm. When we direct apāna
energy upward to meet with pranic energy through
the use of the “energy lock” (bandha) called mūla
bandha, we can attain higher states of consciousness
and awareness. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA (PRĀṆĀYĀMA),
BANDHA, PRĀṆA.

Aasn
Āsana
From the root ās (meaning “to sit” and also “to be”),
āsana literally means “to sit and be.” The cognate
term āsandī means “stool,” suggesting the seat where
a Vedic ascetic would sit to meditate or to contemplate
the universe. In ancient times and in early sacred
texts, āsana referred to the platform used to sit on
during meditation. Later, in the Yoga Sūtras (written
by Patañjali in about C.E. 200), the meaning became
“physical posture” or “yoga posture.” The earliest
āsana, or yoga postures, were Padmāsana (Lotus),
• 36 •
Siddhāsana (Adept’s pose), and Vīrāsana (Hero’s pose).
Āsana, or “Posture,” is the third limb, or stage (aṅga),
in the Eight Limbs of Yoga (Aṣṭāṅga Yoga) codified
in the Yoga Sūtras. Thus, āsana “seats” the body in a
particular posture—standing, sitting, lying down,
twisting, inverting, bending backward or forward—
leading to physical opening (greater flexibility and
improved flow of energy), purification, and spiritual
awakening.
The practice of āsana (assuming yoga postures)
is considered an external spiritual practice, or bāhira
sādhana, initially to be undertaken under the guid-
ance of a guru, master, or teacher, but eventually to
be practiced alone as a meditative discipline where
the practitioner is fully connected with the inner
teacher. Traditionally, there are thought to be 840,000
yoga āsanas, most of which represent the natural pos-
tures of animals as well as objects in nature such as
mountains, trees, and the sun. Most people practice
about 50 āsanas, with countless variations and modifi-
cations, but usually in set sequences (sun salutations,
standing postures, seated postures, meditation, and
full relaxation). Practice of āsana strengthens the
muscles, increases flexibility and strength in the
spine and joints, and encourages proper alignment
while releasing tension and fatigue. It also promotes

• 37 •
healthy functioning of the internal organs. Āsana also
has spiritual benefits—it promotes inner stability
and equanimity and fosters the kind of quiet, reflec-
tive mind that makes it possible to observe one’s own
mental and physical habits and patterns and, finally,
become free of them. It balances the gross and subtle
body. Practicing āsana as a series of meditative move-
ments makes it possible to grow beyond the ego-self,
to open the heart and shatter the illusion (māyā) of
separateness that keeps us isolated from others and
disconnected from our own true nature.
Chapter Two, verses 46–48 of the Yoga Sūtras
states (in Miller’s translation):
Sthira-sukham-āsanam
Prayatna-śaithilya-anata-samāpattibhyām
Tato dvanda-anabhighātāh

The posture of yoga is steady and easy.

It is realized by relaxing one’s effort and resting like the
cosmic serpent on the waters of infinity.
Then one is unconstrained by opposing dualities.

Through āsana practice we can find the “seat” of

the soul and gain liberation (mokśa). See also AṢṬĀNGA
YOGA (PRĀṆĀYĀMA), MĀYĀ, SĀDHANA, YOGA.

• 38 •
 Aaïm
Āśram
Also āshram. A “place where effort is made.” A her-
mitage; an abode of spiritual practice, study, and
meditation. Usually the home of a spiritual leader
(guru) and his pupils (chelas). Also refers to a stage
in the life of the seeker, such as brahmacharya, or self-
control (one of the five yamas of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga). See
also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, GURU, SṚ AM.

Aòa¼yaeg
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga
Also Ashṭāṅga Yoga. “Eight-limbed Path.” This term
refers to the eight limbs, or stages (āṅga) of classical
yoga practice (sādhana) that a yogin passes through
to attain awakening. These stages, which were first
codified in the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali more than two
thousand years ago, have many similarities to the

• 39 •
Eightfold Path of early Buddhism. The practice of
austerities, breath control, meditation, and develop-
ment of heat for purification actually share similari-
ties with indigenous spiritual traditions throughout
the world, such as those in the Americas, the Mid-
dle East, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. This Eight-
limbed Path is said to be the route to the removal of
afflictions, leading to liberation (mokśa).
While the first five limbs are bāhira sādhana
(external practices), the last three are saṃyama
(internal practices, also referred to as the three
stages of meditation) that can only be undertaken
on one’s own. Some scholars believe that Patañjali
did not write the section of the Yoga Sūtras outlining
the Eight-limbed Path, but that instead it was later
added to his original text. Regardless of its origins,
the Eight Limbs of classical yoga are studied and
practiced by yoga students around the world today.

The Eight Limbs of Classical Yoga

1. Yama ym
Restraints, or moral discipline. The yamas consist of
five elements of outward spiritual practice performed
to avoid unrighteous behavior:

• 40 •
APARIGRAHA Apir¢h
Nonacquisitiveness. In contemporary terms, this could
mean to avoid greed and the acquisition of material
goods, to avoid grasping for power, and to simplify your
life. Be content with what you have. Do not hoard. Share
and share alike.

ASTEYA Astey
Nonstealing. Do not take that which does not belong
to you in a material, physical, spiritual, intellectual, or
emotional sense. Respect others’ boundaries and
property.

AHIṂSĀ Aih<sa
Nonviolence. Do no harm. Practice nonviolent words
and deeds toward yourself and others. Live peacefully in
word, deed, and thought.

BRAHMACHARYA äÒcyR
Moderation, self-control, strength of will, sexual
restraint. Though this yama was originally intended
to mean abstinence from sexual activity or depravity
for spiritual and religious purposes, it has far-reaching
significance today. Even if you do not take a vow of celi-
bacy, be virtuous and loving in thought and action. Do
not fall prey to lust, selfishness, over-indulgence, or ego
trips. In other words: If you talk the talk, you must walk
the walk. You cannot live one way on the yoga mat and
another off it. Beware of gurus and teachers who live
this kind of double-life.

• 41 •
 SATYA sTy
Truthfulness, sincerity, integrity, honesty, the power
of the word. Speak the truth. Tell no lies. Be honest to
yourself and others, and the world will reflect that hon-
esty back to you, providing you with all the support you
need. See also SATYA.

2. Niyama inym
Observances; self-restraint. The niyamas consist of
five inner practices to follow in maintaining correct
moral principles. These are:

SAṂTOṢA S<TAE;
Contentment, equanimity, happiness, satisfaction.
Practice happiness and contentment, honoring all that
you are and all that you have right now in this moment.
Know that it is truly enough. Be satisfied with your life
on a deep level in the present moment. Enjoy the now.

TAPAS tps!
Burning zeal, desire to achieve self-realization, purifica-
tion. Practice discipline and cultivate a fiery spirit. Burn
through the ego. Practice endurance, building strength,
stamina, and wisdom. Understand that discipline is a
form of self-care, not self-deprivation.

SAUCHA zaEc
Purity of body and mind. Embrace purity in your
body, environment, relationships, communications,
and actions. Keep yourself and your life clear and clean,

• 42 •
 within and without. Care for your soul and the
environment.

SVĀDHYĀYA SvaXyay
Self-observation, self-study. Be rigorous in looking at
yourself. Practice introspection. Study the ancient texts
and scriptures, read philosophy to enrich your mind
and recite poetry to lighten your heart. Know yourself
deeply and authentically, so that you may fully know
others. Assess your thoughts and actions. Change what
you don’t like, relinquish what does not serve you or
others well. Embrace what does.

ĪSHVARA PRAṆIDHANA $Zvrài[xan

Surrender to God or the Divine. Be devoted. Let go of
your small self and your ego, throw away willfulness
and competition. Embrace a higher source, and trust in
its benevolence. Accept the mystery and miracle of life,
approach it with a sense of gratitude, awe and wonder.

3. Āsana Aasn
Yoga postures. An external spiritual practice that
helps us attain stillness in mind and body. These
powerful poses create strength, flexibililty, vitality
and self-awareness, cleansing the body and mind and
guiding us to a sense of stillness and unity within
and without. See also ĀSANA.

4. Prāṇāyāma àa[ayam
Breath control; achieving a balanced state of mind
• 43 •
through the steadiness of the breath. Prāṇāyāma
refers to an array of invigorating and relaxing yogic
breathing exercises that help us calm the mind and
steady the thoughts, awakening inner peace and
cleansing the system.

5. Pratyāhāra àTyahar
Withdrawal of the senses, turning the senses inward,
controlling the mind through the control of the
senses. Practicing detachment from the vicissitudes
of life. Moving beyond the ups and downs of external
reality into a greater sense of stillness, ease, and spa-
ciousness, by turning awareness inward.

6. Dhāraṇa xar[
Concentration, fixing the attention on one focal point
to gain unbroken contemplation. Fostering equilib-
rium, equanimity, poise, and grace.

7. Dhyāna Xyan
Meditation, sitting in stillness as the threshold to
union with the Divine. Quieting the mind and open-
ing the heart to allow the radiance of the Divine to
nurture, heal, inspire, and enliven.

8. Samādhi smaix
Super-consciousness, pure contentment, equilib-
rium, enlightenment, ecstasy (standing outside the
• 44 •
ordinary self), enstasy (standing inside the self),
bliss, peace, union with the Divine. In this state, the
spiritual seeker (sādak) loses the individual self and
merges with the Universal Spirit. Samādhi is the state
in which one feels, knows, and revels in the direct
presence of the Divine with the entire body and soul.
See also SAMĀDHI.

In modern times, Aṣṭāṅga often refers to a branch of

yoga reportedly reconstructed from the Yoga Korunta,
a thousand-year-old manuscript of verses on Haṭha
Yoga written on palm leaves and discovered in the
1930s by yoga master Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya
and his then-student Śrī Pattabhi Jois, who translated
it. Also called Aṣṭāṅga Vinyasa Yoga to differentiate it
from Patañjali’s Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, it synchronizes āsana
(yoga postures), prāṇāyāma (yogic breathing), and
the practice of mūla, uḍḍīyāna, and jālaṃdhara bandhas
(forms of internal energy locks) to produce a purify-
ing internal heat. See also AṣṬĀNGA YOGA (PRĀṆĀYĀMA),
PATAÑJALI, SAMĀDHI, YOGA SŪTRA.

• 45 •
 AaTmn
Ātman
Also ātma AaTm. Thought to derive from either the
root at (“to breathe”) or the root “ap” (“to pervade,”
“to reach up to”), ātman is the transcendental self—
one’s true nature, or the highest form of self—as
distinct from the level of the ego, individuality, or
personality. According to the Upaniṣads, ātman is
the ultimate existence of the universe and the vital
breath of human beings.

AayuvdRe
Āyurveda
From āyur (“life knowledge,” “life science,” or “the sci-
ence of daily living”) and veda (“to know”), Āyurveda
is sometimes called “the knowledge of longevity.”
This five-thousand-year-old traditional Indian medi-
cal science was created from the directly realized
knowledge and subsequent practical experience of
• 46 •
ṛiṣis in ancient India, then passed down through oral
tradition and eventually recorded in the Vedas.
At the core of Ayurvedic science is the con-
cept that the five elements of nature (earth, water,
fire, air, and ether) present themselves as elements
in the body. In Ayurvedic science, the body is made
up of dhātus (tissue), malas (waste products), srotas
(channels), and doṣas (energetic forces), which the
Tridoṣas—or three body types: kapha (Earth/Water);
pitta (Fire/Water); and vāta (Air/Ether)—help to cre-
ate, regulate, and maintain.
Vāta regulates body movement, elimination,
metabolism, heart functioning, musculature, and
sense perception. Pitta also regulates metabolism,
as well as body temperature, vision, comprehension,
and appetite. Kapha regulates structure, lubrication,
stability, fertility, and strength. Vāta is considered the
most important of the three, because an imbalance in
Vāta can cause the other two doṣas to become imbal-
anced. Āyurveda posits that we all contain unique
proportions of the doṣas, each of which serve particu-
lar functions in the body. However, one doṣa is usually
dominant in our constitution. Mental, physical, and
spiritual health and balance can only be achieved
when the individual is in harmony both with nature
and with his or her own fundamental nature.

• 47 •
 Each doṣa has specific characteristics and needs
that can be balanced or weakened by diet, environ-
ment and lifestyle. Kapha is considered the most
grounded doṣa, embodying stability, patience, and
openness. People with this constitution usually
have a large build, high body weight, and calm men-
tal activity. When this doṣa is imbalanced, one can
become lethargic and feel “weighted” to the earth.
Pitta types are medium in build and weight. Those
with a dominant pitta doṣa are often fiery, passionate,
active types. Pitta imbalance can lead to irritation,
aggression, and anger. Vata types are small, thin, and
restless. This doṣa has the quality of dryness, cold-
ness, and mobility. Vata individuals are more ethereal,
creative, and spontaneous types. When imbalanced,
those in whom this doṣa is dominant can be noncomit-
tal, unreliable, or flighty.
Modern life and all its stresses can impair
the body’s natural functioning. Ayurvedic healing
restores it by keeping the doṣas in balance through
specific types of exercise, environmental modifica-
tions (temperatures, seasons), food, daily activities,
colors, sounds, and cleansing procedures best suited
to each of these constitutions.

• 48 •
 bNx
Bandha
From the verb root bandh (“to bind”), bandha means
“lock,” “bind,” “bond,” bondage.” In Indian philoso-
phy, bondage is traditionally considered the result of
ignorance (avidyā) or of karma. The bonds of igno-
rance can be broken through study and wisdom
( jñāna). In yogic breathing, or prāṇāyāma, there are
also three major bandhas, or “energy locks,” used to
help seal in the life force energy (prāṇa) during yoga
practice, meditation, or mudrās. They are:

Jālaṃdhara bandha jal<xrbNx

Jāla means “net,” “web,” or “mesh.” An energy lock
in which the chin is lowered toward the chest, which
rises to meet it. Used during prāṇāyāma, or yogic
breathing practice. Cleans nasal passages, regulates
bloodflow to heart, head, and endocrine glands in
the neck (thyroid, parathyroid).

Uḍḍīyāna bandha %f!fIyanbNx

Uḍḍīyāna means “flying up.” Energy lock in which the
abdominal muscles are pulled in and up toward the
spine. Engaging this internal lock strengthens the

• 49 •
solar plexus, expands lung capacity, and helps keep
the spine erect and the digestive system toned and
strong.

Mūla bandha mUlbNx

Mūla means “root,” origin,” or “source.” Energy lock
in which the anus and perineum (and, in women, the
Kegel muscles as well) are lifted. Many yoga prac-
titioners consider mūla bandha to be the secret to
maintaining strong life-force energy. Mūla bandha is a
grounding, centering force that helps to create heat,
protects the overstretching of muscles, and increases
the functioning of the parasympathetic nervous sys-
tem that is responsible for relaxation. Engaging mūla
bandha thus creates a relaxed state in the midst of
deep movement.

Another important energy lock is Śiva bandha, in

which the tongue is placed on the upper palate,
where the teeth meet the gums, to deepen the effects
of prāṇāyāma, or yogic breathing. See also APĀNA,
AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA (PRĀṆĀYĀMA), PRĀṆA.

• 50 •
 ÉgvÌIta
Bhagavad Gītā
From the roots bhaj (“to love”) and ga (“to sing”) and
usually translated as “Song of the Beloved” or “Song
of the Lord.” This phrase is the title of a 700-verse
scripture contained within the 100,000-verse Mahā-
bhārata (in Book VI, Chapters 13–40). The Bhagavad
Gītā is considered one of the essential Hindu scrip-
tures. It was written between the fifth century B.C.E.
and the second century C.E. and is attributed to the
sage Vyasa. It is one of the oldest known texts on
yoga, which itself dates back more than 3,500 years.
The Gītā, as it is commonly called in modern times,
tells the story of two warring clans, the Kauravas
and the Pāṇḍavas. The warrior Prince Arjuna, leader
of the Pāṇḍavas, confides to his charioteer (who is
really Lord Kṛiṣṇa) his reluctance to order the bat-
tle to begin at Kurukshetra, since this will make
him responsible for the deaths of his own family
members. Lord Kṛiṣṇa explains to Arjuna that as a
member of the warrior caste he has a duty to fight. If
Arjuna takes decisive action, he will be fulfilling his
duty—which is the highest possible action—rather

• 51 •
than obeying his ego. Kṛiṣṇa reveals to Arjuna that
being alive means actively opposing evil by keep-
ing one’s actions beyond the grip of the ego. Kṛiṣṇa
patiently explains to Arjuna the Trimārga, or the
Threefold Path of Yoga, and helps him to overcome
his doubts and fears. The Threefold Path consists of:
Bhakti Yoga (the yoga of devotion), Jñāna Yoga (the
yoga of wisdom, meditation, and asceticism), and
Karma Yoga (acting while renouncing the fruits of
the action). Finally, Kṛiṣṇa reveals that it is Karma
Yoga that Arjuna must practice. Kṛiṣṇa states, “He
who gives up action, falls. He who gives up only the
reward, rises.” Emboldened, Arjuna takes action and
orders the battle to begin. Kṛiṣṇa has taught Arjuna
how to maintain goodness in the world, and ulti-
mately to attain Godhood. The Gītā also describes
four types of yogī—the sufferer, the seeker of mate-
rial goods, the seeker of knowledge, and the man of
wisdom. In the Vedantic tradition, the Bhagavad Gītā
is called Smṛiti Prasthāna, or the “Remembered Foun-
dation”; the name reflects both its origins as an oral
history and its “recollection” of the wisdom we all
possess within and are capable of invoking. See also
BHAKTI YOGA, GUṆA, JÑĀNA YOGA, K ARMA YOGA, K ṚIṢṆA.

• 52 •
 ÉiKt
Bhakti
From the root bhaj, “to love and revere.” Bhakti
refers to devotion to the Beloved—that is, to God or
the Divine. Bhakti Yoga is a path of yoga in which
the disciple devotes his practice to God as a spiritual
offering.

ÉiKtyaeg
Bhakti Yoga
The yoga of devotion. One of the triumvirate of clas-
sical yoga known as the Trimārga, or the Threefold
Path of Yoga, which also includes Karma Yoga and
Jñāna Yoga. Bhakti Yoga is the path to self-realization
and union with the ultimate force of the universe
(brahman), in which a practitioner cultivates faith and
devotion, surrendering to the Divine. This is achieved
by channeling one’s energy and devotion through
postures, chanting, singing, scriptural study, ritual,

• 53 •
and service to one’s particular divinity. Sanskrit is
central to this path, as it is the language of the sacred
scriptures, chants, and mantras used for devotional
practice. The practice of kirtan, or devotional chant-
ing, is a central practice of Bhakti Yoga, when one
sings wholeheartedly in praise of the gods.
Bhakti Yoga is based on complete faith and
surrender to God, but it is not a passive surrender;
indeed, one’s whole being is active in the process.
In India and elsewhere, sādhus may spend years in a
particular pose, losing all muscle tone and feeling in
certain body parts, essentially giving up the physi-
cal “envelope” of the body in devotion to the Divine.
Or they may spend their entire lives rolling through
the streets, naked but for a thin covering of ash, as
a form of devotional worship. See also BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ,
JÑĀNA YOGA, K ARMA YOGA, R ĀJA YOGA, SĀDHU.

ibNdu
Bindu
Also bindi ibiNd. “Dot,” “seed,” or “point”; can also
mean “semen.” This is a point where the Divine
• 54 •
Energy (kuṇḍalinī śakti) converges to create the poten-
tial to manifest itself in the universe. In India, you
will often see people with a red dot painted between
the eyebrows on their forehead at the sixth chakra,
the most potent physical point on the body. This
dot symbolizes the Third Eye and the inner knowl-
edge and wisdom that connect us to the sacred. This
dot is also called tilaka or tika when made in a ritual
offering (pūjā) before practice. It is often made from
kum-kum (“red-red”), which contains a mixture of
turmeric, iodine, camphor, and other substances and
has a cooling effect. It can also be made of ground
sandalwood and musk. Yogīs or sannyāsīs (monks,
ascetics, or spiritual devotees) often use ash for their
tilaka bindi, as this substance—the result of fire—rep-
resents their renunciation of the material plane. The
bindhu is also found at the center point of yantra, a
geometrical diagram used in meditation to connect
with the Divine that lives in the entire cosmos. See
KUṆḌALINĪ ŚAKTI, YANTRA.

• 55 •
 baeix
Bodhi
Enlightenment; a state of being awakened. Known
as nirvāṇa, this is the ultimate state of being. The
Buddha reached bodhi under the Bodhi (fig) tree
in India. Buddhist scholar Gary Gach has pointed
out the significance of the Bodhi tree as the place
of Buddha’s enlightenment: fig trees are partheno-
genic, rerooting their own branches in the soil, and
as such, they are forever self-renewing. See also BUD-
DHA, NIRVĀ ṆA.

baeixsÅv
Bodhisattva
“One who is on his way to Buddhahood”; a “Buddha-
in-waiting.” A bodhisattva is a sattva (being) who seeks
to attain bodhi (enlightenment) so that he may be of
service to others, spreading the teachings of Buddha
and guiding others on the path to liberation. In the
• 56 •
1880s, Lafcadio Hearn described the bodhisattva in
“The Lotos of Faith”:
In the years when Brahmadatta reigned over Benares—
the holy city—the city of apes and peacocks,—the city
possessing the seven precious things, and resounding
with the ten cries, with the trumpeting of elephants,
the neighing of horses, the melody of instruments and
voices of singing girls,—then the future Buddha-elect
was born as a son in the family of the royal treasurer,
after having passed through kotis of births innumer-
able. Now, the duration of one koti is ten million years.
And the Buddha-elect, the Bodisat, was brought up in
splendid luxury as a prince of the holy city, and while
yet a boy mastered all branches of human knowledge,
and becoming a man succeeded his father as keeper of
the treasury. But even while exercising the duties of his
office, he gave rich gifts to holy men, and allowed none
to excel him in almsgiving.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the bodhisattva path is

not the renunciation or deferral of full Buddhahood
until enlightenment is attained by all creatures (as is
commonly believed), but rather the commitment to
remain in the material plane as enlightened beings in
order to help all others attain enlightenment. Only
when the bodhisattva’s mission is accomplished will
he leave his physical body and enter the Ultimate
Reality. The Four Vows of the Bodhisattva are:

• 57 •
 Beings are numberless, I vow to awaken them.
Delusions are inexhaustible: I vow to end them.
Dharma gates are boundless; I vow to enter them.
Buddha’s way is unsurpassable: I vow to become it.

äüa
Brahmā
“He who has expanded”; the Creator of the Universe.
In Hindu tradition, the evolution and the existence
of the Universe is the result of the dynamic inter-
play of three forces, symbolized by the three Gods
of the Hindu Trinity, or Trimūrti. These are Brahmā
(the Creator); Viṣṇu (the Sustainer); and Śiva (the
Destroyer). The three cosmic principles they repre-
sent—creation, sustenance, and destruction—are
present on every level of existence, from the macro-
cosmic to the microcosmic, from the Universal to the
Individual. They are embodied in the cycle of birth,
life, death, and rebirth and play out on every level of
being, from the physical to the spiritual. Though the
three deities are represented individually, they are
considered aspects of the same Supreme Force. Yet

• 58 •
they have very distinct characteristics and qualities.
Brahmā, the Creator of the Universe, is considered the
father of all beings, though he emerged from Viṣṇu’s
navel in a lotus flower. He is red-skinned and has four
heads, from which the four Vedas are said to have
been born. It is believed that Brahmā created a God-
dess (Gāyatrī/Sarasvatī) from within his own body,
in order to create the human race. He also has four
arms. He holds a cup, a bow (or sometimes a prayer
book), a spoon, and the Vedas, which he created and
disseminated. He is the only one of the Trimūrti who
does not carry a weapon. Brahmā sits in Padmāsana
(the Lotus posture), and when he needs transporta-
tion he is carried on the back of a white swan. The
swan has magical powers, enabling her to separate
divine nectar (soma) from water and to cull good
from evil. Brahmā reigns over Brahmāloka (the realm
of Brahmā), encompassing the plane of the entire
earth and other worlds. He is also believed to control
the daily movement of light to dark. The related word
brahman means Absolute Reality as manifested by
Brahmā. A “Brahmin” is “one who knows Brahmā.”
See also BRAHMAN, SARASVATĪ, ŚIVA, TRIMŪRTI, VIṢṆU.

• 59 •
 äün!
Brahman
From the root bṛh (“to expand”). Brahman is the
Ultimate Reality, the Absolute, the cosmic principle
of existence, the Divine, Greater than the Greatest,
the Supreme, God. Brahman the Divine is consid-
ered infinite and all-pervasive, both physically and
metaphysically, and is believed to be the foundation
of the universe and the “abode of all consciousness.”
Everything in the world—mental, spiritual, and
material—contains the essence of brahman, which
is pure existence and pure consciousness. In the
Upaniṣads, brahman is called “satcidānanda”—from sat
(“absolute existence”), cit (“absolute consciousness”),
and ānanda (“absolute bliss”). Brahman manifests in
each individual as the Supreme Self. Yoga reminds
us that there is something larger and more eter-
nal than the “little self”—something beyond the ego
or the physical body. When we practice yoga and
meditation, we come to realize that we are part of
a much larger force that unifies all living things. By
looking deeply inside the little self, we “expand” to
the bigger Self, the Absolute—or brahman—and know
• 60 •
that we are part of a larger cosmic whole. See also
ĀTMAṆ.

äaü[
Brāhmana
One endowed with purity and wisdom, who has
understood brahman (the Ultimate Reality) and who
spreads the wisdom of the Vedas. Brāhmaṇas are the
liturgical texts used to describe the rituals and rites
of the Saṃhitās, collections of ancient Vedic hymns.

äüivhar
Brahmā-Vihāras
“Dwelling in Absolute Reality.” According to Bud-
dhism, there are four sublime states or characteristics
of a bodhisattva, or one who has attained liberation.
These states are the four Brahmā-Vihāras, namely:

• 61 •
Karuṇā ké[a
Compassion, reflecting the belief that one should feel
sympathy for others in pain, be they friends, enemies,
or complete strangers.

Maitra mEÇ
Love (sometimes translated into the Pali word metta,
meaning lovingkindness).

Upekṣa %pe]
Equanimity.

Mudita muidt
Joy; sympathetic joy. An overwhelming sense of joy
in life and all that is.

buÏ
Buddha
“Awakened One.” Someone who has attained enlight-
enment, or bodhi. Though there are many enlightened
beings in many different traditions, it is Gautama
(“best on earth”) or Siddhārtha (“attained goal”) to
whom we generally refer to when we speak of “the

• 62 •
Buddha.” Born in 624 B.C.E. in the foothills of the
Himalayas in current-day Nepal, Siddhārtha enjoyed
a life of privilege as a prince in the Śakya clan, son
of Queen Mayadevi and King Śuddhodana. He is also
called Śakyamuni Buddha, from Śakya (his clan
name) and muni (“able one”). Though his father shel-
tered him and gave him numerous palaces and mate-
rial riches, on four occasions he ventured away from
the palace and encountered a very different reality.
Each time, he came upon a “sign”—an old man, a sick
man, a corpse, and a monk. These signs embodied the
suffering of humanity and represented Siddhartha’s
destiny as a spiritual teacher. He renounced his life
of leisure, left his wife and son, and traveled east to
study Buddhism with various teachers. Eventually
he left his teachers and continued wandering on
his own, living as an ascetic for nine years. Fearing
that his pursuit had been worthless, he sat beneath
the Bodhi tree and began to meditate on the Middle
Way, the path of nondualism. Forty-nine days later,
he attained enlightenment. He gave his first sermon
at the Deer Park in Banaras, and devoted the rest of
his life to teaching and spreading Buddhism and the
possibility of enlightenment. Among his last words,
as Gach notes, is this teaching: “Be a lamp unto your-
self. Don’t look for the answer outside yourself. Hold

• 63 •
onto the truth like a torch.” See also AMITĀBHA, BODHI,
MAHĀYĀNA, MAITREYA.

buiÏ
Buddhi
From the root budh (“to wake up,” “know,” “under-
stand”). The causative root bodhaya, taken from budh,
can mean “to cause to awaken”; hence, to enlighten.
Buddhi represents the higher mind, the discriminat-
ing mind, higher intelligence, reason, intellectual
faculty, and mental perception. The Katha-Upaniṣad,
which is one of the earliest texts on yoga, written
in approximately 1000 B.C.E., promulgates the “yoga
of the deep self” (adhyātma-yoga), which views the
Supreme Being as lying hidden in the deepest recesses
of the human heart. In the Katha-Upaniśad, the self
is described as the charioteer and the body as the
chariot. The discriminative faculty (buddhi) is the
driver, the mind (manas) is the reins, and the senses
are the horses. When the mind is unyoked from the
body, the senses are like wild, uncontrollable horses.
But when the mind is yoked, the senses are horses
• 64 •
who gently follow along the driver’s path, and the
self is unified.

c³
Chakra
From the root car (“to move”), chakra can also mean
“wheel,” “circle,” “center,” “disc,” “sphere.” In yogic
practice, it refers to wheels of energy. According to
yogic and Tantric philosophy, there are seven major
chakras or wheels of energy in the human body, and
hundreds of minor ones. The body has a central chan-
nel of subtle energy, the suṣumṇa nāḍi, which runs
inside the spine, and two other channels of energy
running from the right nostril to the crown of the
head and then down the spine (piṅgalā nāḍi), and
an equivalent channel on the left side (iḍā nāḍi). Six
chakras are located at the specific points these right
and left channels intersect with the central channel.
The seventh chakra is located at the crown of the head.
Some also believe there is an eighth chakra, the Soul
Star, or Transpersonal Chakra, that links the soul/
spirit to matter and to its true essence. Each chakra

• 65 •
has a particular consciousness. It regulates, distrib-
utes, and balances the energy and nerve functions of
the area where it is located. It also has an associated
color, mantra, tone, sound vibration, image, God or
Goddess, sense, tattva (element), and kośa (layer of
experience). The cosmic energy (kuṇḍalinī śakti) lies
dormant at the base of the spine. When the chakras
are activated through yoga, meditation, mantra
recitation, or other spiritual practices, the kuṇḍalinī
energy rises along the central channel, the suṣumṇa
nāḍi, and activates the chakras, ultimately reaching
the crown, the center of higher consciousness and
bliss. When the chakras are “whirling” in a bright,
balanced, and attuned way, our minds, bodies, and
spirits are working in harmony. From top to bottom,
the seven chakras are:
Sahasrāra shSrar — Seventh Chakra
From the Sanskrit meaning “thousand-fold” or
“thousand-petaled.” The seventh, or crown, chakra
is located at the top of the head. It is considered the
center of transcendence, the point from which the
spirit leaves the physical body for higher realms. This
chakra is associated with spirituality. It symbolizes
the higher mind, cosmic intelligence, and union with
the Absolute. It governs the central nervous system,

• 66 •
upper skull, cerebral cortex, and skin, and revital-
izes the cerebrum. Element: none. Associated gland:
pineal. Image: A halo or full moon made of a thou-
sand white petals, representing infinity, rapture,
bliss, with each petal opened to the highest state
of consciousness. Color: white, gold, or violet. Dei-
ties: Para-Brahman, Śiva. Mantra: Silence, or the bija
(seed) mantra Om. Tone: B (ti). Vowel sound: ē.

Ājña Aa}a — Sixth Chakra

From the Sanskrit term meaning “to perceive,” “to
know.” The sixth chakra is the third-eye chakra,
located in the brain but depicted between the eye-
brows on the forehead. Element: light. Also known
as the “guru chakra.” Considered the center of inner
wisdom, intuition, wisdom, and individuality, this
chakra governs the eyes and the base of the skull.
Sense: cultivation of the “sixth sense.” Associated
gland: pituitary. Image: blue-gray two-petaled lotus,
with the petals outstretched like wings on each side
of a circle that represents two realities. The wings
symbolize the ability to transcend the physical realm
and enter the spiritual realm. Colors: purple, indigo.
Deities: Paramaśiva and Hakini. Mantra: The bija
(seed) mantra Om. Tone: A (la). Vowel sound: i/ē.

• 67 •
Vishuddha ivzuÏ — Fifth Chakra
From the Sanskrit term for “pure” or “purification.”
The fifth chakra is located at the throat and known
as the throat chakra. Element: ether. Considered the
center of communication, self-expression, poetry,
speaking truth, and inner listening. Amṛita, the nec-
tar of immortality, pours forth from this chakra.
Governs the functioning of the mouth, lungs, and
skin. Sense: sound. Associated gland: thyroid. Image:
sixteen-petaled blue lotus, each petal containing a
Sanskrit vowel. Inside the lotus is a downward-fac-
ing triangle, representing speech; a full moon, and
Airavata, a white, many-tusked elephant. Color: blue.
Deities: Ardhanarishvara and Shakini. Mantra: Ham.
Tone: G (so). Vowel sound: ē/eh.

Anāhata Anaht — Fourth Chakra

From the Sanskrit for “unstruck,” referring to the
natural sound of the cosmos, a sound that is not made
by “striking” an instrument, but instead one that is
inherently present in all living things. The fourth
chakra is the heart chakra, located at the heart cen-
ter, the abode of the primordial sound (śabda). Ele-
ment: air. Considered the center of compassion,
self-forgiveness, love, and relationships, this chakra
governs the functioning of the heart and lungs.

• 68 •
Sense: touch. Associated gland: thymus. Image: blue
or green twelve-petaled lotus around a six-pointed
star made of two triangles. The downward-facing tri-
angle symbolizes spirit descending into matter (the
physical body), the upward-facing triangle, matter
rising to join spirit. Color: green. Deities: Isha and
the Goddess Kakini. Mantra: Yam. Tone: F (fa). Vowel
sound: ā/ay.

Maṇipūra mi[pur — Third Chakra

From the Sanskrit meaning “lustrous gem.” Known
as the solar plexus chakra, the third chakra is located
at the navel. It is considered the center of personal
power, will, manifestation. Element: fire. This chakra
governs the functioning of the digestive system, the
back, spleen, stomach, and abdomen. Sense: sight.
Associated gland: pancreas. Image: yellow ten-pet-
aled lotus with a downward-facing triangle within
it, surrounded by three svāstikas—which are ancient
Hindu symbols of Fire (the Fire God, Agni) and self-
transformation. Color: yellow. Deities: Lakini and
Rudra. Mantra: Ram. Tone: E (mi). Vowel sound: aw/
ah.

Svādhiṣhṭhāna Svaixóan — Second Chakra

From the Sanskrit meaning “sweetness.” Also trans-
lates as “one’s own place,” “base,” or “support of life.”

• 69 •
The second chakra, or sacral chakra, is located at the
spleen/genital area. It is considered the center of cre-
ativity and sexual energy, survival, and the fulfill-
ment of physical needs. Element: water. This chakra
governs the functioning of the reproductive system.
Sense: taste. Associated gland: reproductive organs.
Image: orange/crimson six-petaled lotus contain-
ing a white circle that represents water, and a light
blue crescent moon that represents the light visible
within the darkness and the yin/yang balance. Inside
the moon is a makara, an eel-like water creature that
symbolizes sexuality and passion. Color: orange. Dei-
ties: Viṣṇu and Rakini. Mantra: Vam. Tone: D (re).
Vowel sound: ō/oh.

Mūlādhāra m lU axar — First, or Root, Chakra

From the Sanskrit term for “root” or “support.”
The root chakra. The first chakra is located at the
perineum, where the kuṇḍalinī śakti is coiled. Element:
earth. This chakra is considered the center of physical
and material existence, health, survival. Some ver-
sions show a snake coiled around a liṅga, represent-
ing kuṇḍalinī śakti and male sexuality/creative power.
Governs the functioning of the legs. Sense: smell.
Associated gland: adrenal. Image: red lotus with four
petals encompassing a downward-facing triangle

• 70 •
set within a square. Color: yellow. Deity: Gaṇeśa (the
Elephant God). Mantra: Lam. Tone: middle C. Vowel
sound: ū/ooo.
See also AGNI, GAṆEŚA, KUṆḌALINĪ ŚAKTI, LIṄGA, NĀḌI (IḌĀ,
PIṄGALĀ, SUṢUMṆA NĀḌI).

ict
Cit
From the verbal root cit—“to be aware of, perceive,
know.” Represents ultraconsciousness, superaware-
ness. It also means “spirit” and “consciousness” and
is sometimes written chit.

icÄ
Citta
Variously translated as “consciousness,” “thought,”
“mind.” There is not one citta, but many. Citta, or con-

• 71 •
sciousness, is composed of three aspects: manas, the
lower mind (or the “gathering mind”), that part of the
mind that is bound to sense perception; buddhi, the
higher mind, or intelligence; and ahaṃkāra, the ego, or
individual identity. This concept appears in the most
often-quoted phrase of the Yoga Sūtras (Chapter 1, Verse
2), which lays out the foundation of yoga: Yogaḥcitta
vṛitti nirodhah, which can be translated as “Yoga
is that which stills the fluctuations of the mind.”
Another word, bodhicitta, combines bodhi (awakening)
and citta (mind) to mean the “awakened heart” or the
“awakened mind.” See also BODHI, BUDDHI.

dzRn
Darśana
Also darshana. “Sight,” “vision,” “philosophical sys-
tem.” Has the dual meaning of “seeing/being seen”
and “reflecting,” which can refer to self-reflection
and mirroring. The term also means “vision of real-
ity.” This “vision” can be literal or metaphorical: to
physically see or be in the presence of a holy being,
Divine Presence, or sacred place; or to perceive real-
• 72 •
ity on a deeper level. Darśana is commonly understood
to mean “philosophy” or “metaphysical system.”
In classical Indian philosophy, there are six main
darśanas: vaisheshika darśana (analysis/characteriza-
tion of the universe; Atomism); nyaya darśana (Logi-
cism); saṃkhya darśana (philosophical classification
of the universe that distinguishes tattvas [elements;
principles of the universe] from puruṣa [the individ-
ual soul]); yoga darśana (the union of individual con-
sciousness with universal consciousness); mīmamsa
darśana (ritual interpretation of the Vedas; formal
religion); vedānta darśana (metaphysical inquiry into
the self, the universe, and God). These differing but
complementary philosophies all share an underlying
belief in karma (cycles of birth, death, and reincar-
nation) and belief in the possibility of transcending
one’s karma through mokśa, or liberation.

dev
Deva
“Higher being,” “being of light.” From the root div (“to
shine”). One who radiates or shines; a celestial being.

• 73 •
 devnagrI
Devanāgarī
Deva means “god,” and nāgara means “city”; devanāgarī
literally means “divine city.” This term for the most
commonly used Sanskrit script has its origins in the
fact that it was used for holy writings and temple
scripts. Some modern Indian languages use varia-
tions on this script, and Hindi still uses the origi-
nal Devanāgarī, with some additions to account for
sounds of Persian and Arabic origin.

devI
Devī
From the root div (“to shine”). Shining; radiant God-
dess; Śakti. Devī was Lord Śiva’s lover, who embodies
the energy of the cosmos, or Śakti. This Hindu God-
dess is often depicted as the twelve-armed warrior
created by Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva to kill the buf-
falo-demon Mahishasura, who terrorized the Uni-
• 74 •
verse. There are said to be over 33,000,000 different
Devis, which are all aspects of the Primordial God-
dess. Her benevolent form is known as Pārvatī, while
her malevolent form is Kālī Durgā. A prayer to Devi is
often chanted in yoga practice:
PRAYER TO DEVI
(Chant each line twice)

Kālī Durga Ānanda Mai

Sarasvatī Devī Ānanda Mai

To warrior and protector goddesses Kālī and Durgā,

mothers of bliss

Uma Pārvatī Ānanda Mai

Sarasvatī Devī Ānanda Mai

To Sarasvatī, pure Goddess of wisdom and the arts,

mother of bliss

Sarasvatī Devī Ānanda Mai

Kālī Durga Ānanda Mai

To Śiva’s Śakti, Umā, and Pārvatī, mothers of bliss

• 75 •
 xmR
Dharma
“Duty,” “righteousness,” “law and order,” “religion.”
From the verb root dhr (“to hold,” “to establish,” “to
support”), dharma literally means “that which holds
together.” In both Buddhist and Jainist traditions,
dharma is considered to be the underlying moral
structure of the universe. Following one’s dharma,
or duty, is the path to liberation. The term can also
refer to the teachings of the Buddha, as well as
everything to which they pertain. As Tyberg notes,
the great modern sage Śrī Aurobindo said, “Dharma
is both that which we hold to and that which holds
together our inner and outer activities, and in this
its primary sense, it means a fundamental law of our
nature which secretly conditions all our activities,
and in this sense each type, species, individual group
has its own dharma.”

• 76 •
 dI]a
Dīkshā
Initiation. From the roots da (“to give”) and ksha (“to
destroy”), dīkshā refers to the process by which an
adept or disciple is inducted into a lineage or school of
traditional yoga, or taught secret rituals or practices,
which helps destroy the bonds of ego and lead one
toward a state of grace. Scholar Monier Williams has
suggested that dīksh is an independent verb meaning
“to consecrate,” which is derived from daksh, “to be
able” or “to be strong.”

dIpavlI
Dīpāvalī
“Row of lights.” Among the most important of the
Hindu holidays, Dīpāvalī marks the New Year on the
Hindu calendar and celebrates the triumph of light
over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over igno-
rance, and justice over injustice. Though its signifi-

• 77 •
cance varies regionally, it is most often celebrated
as the day Lord Kṛiṣṇa kills the demon Narakasura;
the day Lord Rāma returns to Ayodhyā after defeat-
ing his rival, Rāvana; and the day Lakṣmi, Goddess
of wealth, marries Lord Viṣṇu. Homes are cleaned
and decorated with earthen oil lamps, signifying the
power of light to dispel the darkness from within us
and from our surroundings. The upward movement
of the flame denotes a path toward knowledge and
divinity. Children light fireworks, wear new clothes,
and decorate the entrance of their homes with col-
orful “rangoli” patterns symbolizing welcome and
revelry. The clean homes and bright lights are said
to attract Lakṣmi, who blesses her devotees with
wealth and prosperity. Often referred to as the “fes-
tival of lights,” Dīpāvalī is a day when people pray
for illumination and prosperity on both the spiri-
tual and physical planes. Also known as Diwālī or
Divālī.

• 78 •
 d&iò
Driṣti
Meaning “gaze,” “view,” “sight,” driṣti is from the root
dṛsh (“to see,” “perceive,” “understand”). The driṣti is
the point of focus, or “looking place,” assigned to each
āsana, or yoga posture. Maintaining a steady gaze is
an important part of yoga, as it focuses the senses,
harnesses the mind, and allows the yoginī to stay cen-
tered in her own inner experience rather than gaz-
ing outward or focusing on the external. This gaze
ultimately leads to samadriṣti, or “equal vision”—a
state of equanimity in which the yoginī sees herself
as akin to everything in the world, viewing all things
as equal and ultimately seeing the Divine in every-
thing. There are nine different driṣti in yoga practice:
nasagrai (the tip of the nose); broomadhya (the third
eye); nabi chakra (the navel); hastagrai (the hands);
padhayoragrai (the toes); pārśva driṣti (to the far left
or far right); angusta ma dyai (the thumb); and ūrdhva
driṣti (to the sky).

• 79 •
 du>o
Duḥkha
From dur (“bad”) and kha (“state”), this term is
commonly used to mean “sorrow,” “grief,” “imper-
manence,” “suffering,” “dissatisfaction,” “stress,”
“craving,” “attachment.” The original meaning was
“bad axle space,” referring to a chariot wheel that
was improperly aligned, leading to a bumpy ride and
difficulty negotiating turns. Duḥkha refers to the
human condition, which is one of suffering, as long
as we remain in ignorance (avidyā) of ātman, our true
transcendent nature. It is also the first Noble Truth
in Buddhism and the foundation of the Four Noble
Truths, which are duḥkha (suffering), duḥkha-samu-
daya (the cause of suffering), duḥkha-nirodha (the end
of suffering), and duḥkha-nirodha-mārga (the path to
the end of suffering). To become awakened and free,
it is necessary first to become aware of and under-
stand this cycle of human existence. See also ĀTMAN,
SUKHA.

• 80 •
 g[ez
Gaṇeśa
Also Gaṇesha. From gaṇa (“multitude”) and īsha
(“lord”). Gaṇeśa is the son of Śiva and Pārvatī.
According to legend, Pārvatī gave birth to her son
Gaṇeśa while her husband Śiva was off hunting.
Gaṇeśa was born fully mature, and immediately
assumed the duty of protecting his mother. When
Śiva returned to find Pārvatī naked, bathing, he also
found this “stranger” in his home and promptly cut
off Gaṇeśa’s head. To his horror, he discovered that
he had beheaded his own son, and promised Pārvatī
that he would replace his son’s head with the head of
the first being he found. When he went outside, what
he encountered first was an elephant, so he promptly
took the head home and attached it to Gaṇeśa’s body.
He made Gaṇeśa, or Ganapati, the leader of his Army
and decreed that everyone must pray to him before
beginning any undertaking. Ganapati is beloved as
the Lord of Categories: gana means “category,” or “all
that can be classified, comprehended, or quantified.”
Gaṇeśa embodies the relativity principle of the uni-
verse, through which the order of things and their

• 81 •
relationships can be seen. He is also immensely pop-
ular as Vighneshvara (alternatively, Vighnaharta),
Remover of Obstacles, the Deity of Beginnings, and
the Deity of Wisdom. People pray to him for success
when starting new ventures and business endeav-
ors, hoping that he will bestow siddhi (powers of suc-
cess) and buddhi (intelligence). His huge elephant
head symbolizes wisdom, and his small, strong body
suggests alacrity and might. From a philosophical
point of view, his head is said to represent brahman
(the Highest Reality), while his body represents māyā
(illusion). His enormous ears are like “winnowing
baskets” used to separate the real (brahman) from the
unreal (māyā) with discrimination (viveka). Gaṇeśa
has four hands: one carries a rope (to pull his dev-
otees toward the truth), another wields an axe (to
sever their attachments to material goods), and a
third holds an Indian sweet called a laddoo (to reward
them for their spiritual prowess); Gaṇeśa’s fourth
hand is always outstretched to offer his blessings.
Gaṇeśa is also revered as the scribe who wrote down
the beloved epic Mahābhārata (the story of the Bharat,
or people of South Asia). See also MAHĀBHĀRATA, PĀRVATĪ,
ŚIVA.

• 82 •
 gu[
Guṇa
Three qualities, attributes, or characteristics of na-
ture, or types of energy. These are:

Rajas rjs !
Vibrancy, activity, and passion; a state of motion and
an overactive mind. From the verb root raj (“to glow”).
Rajas also has pain in its nature, for pain arises from
activity.

Tamas tms !
Dormancy, dullness, inertia, and ignorance, a state
in which the mind is underactive. From the verb root
tam (“to perish”).

Sattva sÅv
Luminosity, purity, harmony, and lightness, the bal-
ance of rajas and tamas, a balanced state wherein the
mind can accurately discriminate. From the root sat
(“being”), the present participle of as (“to be”). In
contrast to rajas, sattva is a painless state, as it is a
state where there is nothing to do, no desire, nowhere
to go. All that remains is light and bliss.

• 83 •
 The first of these motivates one to take action,
to assert oneself, to be willful, to conquer, resist,
and aspire. The second induces slothfulness, iner-
tia, sleep, indifference, apathy, distintegration, and
death. The third leads to harmonious living, well
being, and equanimity. All of the tri-guṇas, or three
guṇas, are believed to limit the soul, however, since
they are driven by ego and motivated by desire, and
also belong to the mental realm, which is by nature
exclusive and divisive rather than inclusive and all-
encompassing.
Guṇa also means “that which binds,” since the
three gunas also have the potential to stifle spiri-
tual growth, binding one to the material world. Rajas
binds man through ambition and drive, as does tamas
through negligence and error, and sattva through
virtue and knowledge for their own sake. The three
guṇas are central to Ayurvedic science, as they pro-
vide a deeper understanding of our mental and spriti-
tual nature than do the three biological humors (vata,
pitta, and kapha) alone. In the Bhaghavad Gītā, Kṛiṣṇa
teaches Arjuna to be a man of action, but reveals that
in order to be spiritually liberated, one must move
beyond the three guṇas, beyond human ego. Free-
dom over the power of the three guṇas is called nis-
traiguna, from nir (“without”) plus trai (“three”) and
• 84 •
guṇa (“quality”). Only when one has gone beyond the
three qualities of nature (Trigunātitya) can one sur-
render to the Divine and attain Oneness with God.
See also BHAGHAVAD GĪTĀ, PRAKṚTI.

gué
Guru
From the verb root gri (“to invoke,” “to praise”), guru
is also an adjective meaning “heavy,” “weighty,”
“serious,” or “venerable”—hence, “guru” literally
means “heavy one.” The word may also have a con-
nection to the root gur, meaning “to raise,” “lift
up,” or “make an effort.” Its origins are in the Guru
Gītā, the “song of the spiritual teacher” found in the
Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, a collection of mantras presented
in the form of a dialog between Śiva and Pārvatī; in
that context the root gu means “darkness” and ru
means “removal.” A guru is a spiritual guide and
teacher who has attained enlightenment and who
has the capacity to pass on his wisdom to others, illu-
minating the spiritual path, removing the darkness
of ignorance, and shining the light of understanding.

• 85 •
Ideally, a guru also teaches his disciples, by example,
how to live a good and ethical life; sadly, this is not in
fact always the case.
In M. P. Pandit’s translation of the Kulārnava Tan-
tra (Chapter 13, Verse 104), an important Hindu Tan-
tra text quoted in The Yoga Tradition, Śiva speaks to
his wife Devī about the difficulty of finding a good
guru: “There are many gurus, like lamps in house
after house, but hard to find, O Devī, is the guru who
lights up all like the sun.” A classic example of the
relationship between guru and śisya (pupil) is found
in the Bhagavad Gītā, where Lord Kṛiṣṇa teaches the
warrior Prince Arjuna to overcome his doubts and
fears, ultimately attaining Godhood.
In addition to the outer guru (a separate person),
there is also an inner guru—the higher self that can
be known by developing our sense of inner listen-
ing, inner wisdom, and intuition. According to the
Vedas, the inner guru is the most important source of
knowledge. The practice of yoga ultimately connects
one to this invaluable source of knowledge, peace,
and strength. See also BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ.

• 86 •
 h<s
Haṃsa
The term haṃsa comes from the roots ham, mean-
ing “expel,” “abandon,” or “release,” and sa, meaning
“to hold” or “to be.” Considered an expression of the
sound of the breath and of the rhythms of the uni-
verse, this word is closely related to the well-known
mantra Om. This sound is the natural rhythm of the
Self—the sound that occurs organically in the ebb
and flow of the breath. Sanskrit tradition holds that
we make this sound 21,600 times a day. In its com-
plete form, haṃsa becomes ahaṃsa, meaning “I am
He/She.” This vibration can also be felt when invert-
ing the syllables and repeating the phrase “so’ ham,”
which also means, “I am He/She”: so is the inhalation,
and ham the exhalation. When we breathe deeply and
quiet the mind, we can hear these sounds deep within
ourselves. According to the Sahajiya, or Doctrine of
Nature, this sound embodies the meeting of the self
with the higher self. Removing the consonants from
so’ ham leaves the primordial sound Om. See also OM.

• 87 •
 hQyaeg
Haṭha Yoga
Thought to derive from the verb root “hath” (“to
force” or “stick fast,” “hold firmly”), “Haṭha Yoga”
combines the words ha (“sun”) and tha (“moon”) with
the word yoga (“union”). Haṭha Yoga is the “yoga of
force”; it is a practice of steadfastly balancing the
opposing energies of the body—sun and moon, male
and female, yin and yang, hot and cold, light and
dark, right and left—which makes it possible to yoke
and unify these energies through āsana (physical
postures), prāṇāyāma (breath control), meditation,
and mudrās (“energy seals”). Haṭha Yoga activates
and purifies the energy centers of the body, stilling
the wanderings of the mind and creating equanim-
ity and balance, perhaps even leading to samādhi, or
union with the Divine, and the creation of a divine,
immortal comprehension of eternal existence (divya-
deha). See also ĀSANA, AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA (PRĀṆAYAMA), MUDRĀ,
SAMĀDHI.

• 88 •
 hQyaegàdIipka
Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā
“Light on the Union of the Sun and Moon” or “Light
on Haṭha Yoga.” This is the title of the authoritative
practical treatise on Haṭha Yoga authored by Yoga
Swāmi Svātmarama in the mid-fourteenth century.
In this work, Swāmi Svātmarama credits Matsyendra
(Lord of the Fishes) and Gorakśa (an early preceptor
of Haṭha Yoga) as being the teachers from whom he
directly received the teachings of yoga. In his pref-
ace to the 1914 edition, yoga master Pancham Sinh
states that there are two classes of yoga students: (1)
those who study it theoretically; and (2) those who
combine the theory with practice. He maintains that
yoga is of very little use if studied theoretically, and
that it was never meant for such a study. “In its prac-
tical form, however,” he comments, “the path of the
student is beset with difficulties.” To offset these,
modern students often turn to this ancient manual,
which is as practical today as it was thousands of
years ago. The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā offers 389 floras
(verses) elucidating haṭha vidya (the science of Haṭha
Yoga) and explaining the elements of Haṭha Yoga as

• 89 •
a means of developing inner consciousness and mov-
ing toward bliss and union with the higher self. It is
divided into four sections: (1) āsana (yoga postures)
and yamas (restraints) as seen in the Yoga Sūtras of
Patañjali; (2) kriyā (cleansing rituals) and prāṇāyāma
(breath-control exercises); (3) mudrās (energy seals)
and bandhas (energy locks); and (4) samādhi (union or
liberation). See also HAṬHA YOGA, PĀRVATĪ.

haelI
Holī
Often referred to as the “festival of colors,” Holī
falls on the day after the first full moon in March.
This celebration of good harvest, fertility, and the
spring season also commemorates the immortal love
of Radha and Kṛiṣṇa, as well as the story in Hindu
mythology of the demon Holikā, who is forgiven for
her sins before her death. On the eve of Holī, huge
bonfires are lit to ward off evil spirits. In the morn-
ing, neighborhood streets fill with people running,
laughing, and splashing brightly colored powders,
water, and paint onto each other’s white clothes. An
• 90 •
uninhibited atmosphere is created, where people cel-
ebrate together regardless of caste, sex, age, or past
grudges. The bright colors symbolize joy, energy,
forgiveness, love, unity, and life. Dances, folk songs,
and the exchange of sweets are all part of this festive
day.

$Zvrài[xan
Īshvara Praṇidhāna
Praṇidhāna means “devotion” or “surrender” and
Īshvara means “God,” “the Divine,” “Great Ruler,”
or “Higher Power” and comes from the verb is (“to
rule”). Praṇidhāna is a vow taken by a bodhisattva to
commit one’s life to helping others achieve enlight-
enment or liberation. Īshvara praṇidhāna is the state
in which one surrenders to the Absolute, giving up
the ego and sense of individual self, and surrender-
ing to a higher power in service of others. Īshvara is
one of the five niyamas (inner practices) of Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga, believed to still the fluctuations of the mind
and ultimately lead to samādhi. Practicing īshvara
praṇidhāna helps still the mind insofar as when we

• 91 •
recognize and embrace the realm of the Divine and
connect with Source power, we automatically move
away from the realm of the individual self, the ego,
and all the afflictions, suffering, and separation that
the ego-identity creates. When we do this, we realize
we are not separate from the Divine or others, and
begin to take our place in the great stream of life. See
also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, KRIYA YOGA.

jEn
Jaina
Relating to the jinas (“victors,” “conquerors”). The
spiritual tradition of Jainism is, with Hinduism and
Buddhism, one of the three major socioreligious
movements in India. It was established in the sixth
century B.C.E. by the charismatic ascetic Vardhamāna
Mahāvīra (the “Great Hero”), who was a contempo-
rary of Gautama Buddha. The twenty-four teachers of
Jainism were called “conquerors,” with Vardhamāna
being the last in the line of a succession of teachers
known as tīrthankaras (“ford-makers”) that began
with Riṣabha, who reportedly lived for 8.4 million
• 92 •
years. Vardhamāna’s work in shaping the philsophy
of Jainism was undoubtedly influenced by the work
of these “ford-makers.” The Jainas believe that all
beings may become liberated, blissful, and omniscient
due to their own efforts, by following the teachings
and actions of their spiritual teachers and through
penance (tapas), renunciation, and adherence to a
strict moral code. One of the main influences of this
religion is the ethical precept of the practice of non-
violence (ahimsā). Another is the teaching of the laws
of cause and effect (karma). The Jainist doctrine of
Syādvāda posits that since every assessment of reality
is subject to different conditions and limitations, it
is possible that many different assessments of real-
ity are simultaneously true. Thus, the Jainist view of
reality is multifaceted and allows for many perspec-
tives. This practical, down-to-earth religion holds
that since all beings have souls, liberation is avail-
able to anyone. Thousands of years ago, Vardhamāna
wandered India preaching his philosophy, naked but
for a coat of ash. These days, sādhu can still be seen
emulating this practice. See also BHAKTI YOGA.

• 93 •
 jIv
Jīva
From the root verb jīv (“to live” or “continue breath-
ing”), this is the individual self, the embodied soul,
the eternal, conscious omnipresent entity. In the
yoga tradition, the soul is passive and unchanging.
Tradition holds that enlightenment is attained when
the jīva eradicates ignorance (avidyā) and stills the
fluctuations of the mind (vṛtti). Another word for jīva
is puruṣa (“what lies in the citadel of the body”).

jIvnmuKt
Jīvanmukta
Meaning “someone who is liberated in this lifetime,”
this word derives from the verb roots much and
mokś—“to liberate,” and jīvan—“living.” Many spiri-
tual traditions believe that it is possible to achieve
enlightenment while still within the physical body.
The body is not incompatible to enlightenment,
• 94 •
according to Advaita Vedānta. Enlightenment occurs
when ignorance (avidyā) has been eradicated. Funda-
mentally, the body, too, is seen as an illusion. Since
the body is neither real nor unreal, it is not an obsta-
cle to liberation. The jīvanmukta lives in his or her
body, but is not of it. Also, the related word jīvanmukti
means “a state of living liberation.”

}an
Jñāna
Pronounced gyāna. From the root jñā (“to know”),
this term means “knowledge,” “wisdom,” “under-
standing,” “comprehension.” In the Advaita Vedānta
tradition, jñāna is the path to liberation or union
with God. According to Jainism, it is the knowledge
of worldly things.

• 95 •
 SANSKRIT FACTS & LEGENDS
The sounds of the Sanskrit alphabet are consid-
ered the children of the primordial sound of the
Absolute Om. All sounds derive from Om.
In turn, they are called matrikās or
“little mothers.”

Sanskrit might have as many ways to say seer/

sage/spiritual master as the Inuit language has
for “snow.” Among them are: ṛiṣi, sādhu, guru, ṣrī,
avatār, mahātman, ācārya, swāmi, sannyāsin, yogī,
and yoginī.

s<Sk«t
The potency of Sanskrit is so great that there
is even a Tantric initiation ritual in which the
teacher visualizes the letters of the Sanskrit
alphabet in the adept’s body and then makes them
disintegrate until the student achieves union
with God.
 SANSKRIT FACTS & LEGENDS
A medieval scripture, the Brihat-Samnyāsa Upaniṣad,
declares that if you chant Om 12,000 times, all your
sins will disappear. If you chant Om 12,000 times a
day for a year, you will enter the
Godhead (brahman).

For a “dead language,” Sanskrit is remarkably alive

in the modern world. There is a village of 3,000
people in India who communicate only in the five-
thousand-year-old language.

The Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana, the two great

s<Sk«t
Indian epics, were recited to a popular audience
and passed down in the oral tradition by the Sūtas,
who were not upper-class Brahmins. The two epics
are thus composed in Classical Sanskrit mixed
with local dialects, reflecting the men’s natural
speech rather than the more grammatically for-
mal Sanskrit of Pāṇini.
 }anyaeg
Jñāna Yoga
Also Gyāna Yoga. The “yoga of wisdom.” One of the
Trimārga, or Threefold Path of Yoga, the triumvirate
of classical yoga that also includes Bhakti Yoga and
Karma Yoga. Often called the “Pathless Path,” Jñāna
Yoga is the “yoga of knowledge,” based on the study
of scripture, self-study, and direct inquiry, rather
than following in the footsteps of a guru, performing
a set system of beliefs or postures, or giving oneself
over to the Divine through faith and devotion. In this,
it is considered a yoga that develops the individual
personality. In the Advaita Vedānta tradition, Jñāna
Yoga is considered the path to the higher self (ātman)
or liberation (mokśa). This freedom is gained through
the individual’s own efforts at study, questioning, and
exploration. The yogī ultimately achieves the ability
to distinguish the real from the unreal (viveka) and
cultivates vairagya (nonattachment). When the soul
has union with God based on wisdom, it can more
easily overcome obstacles. When we see through the
veil of illusion that surrounds us, we realize that the
self is not distinct from the Divine. As we are already
• 98 •
one with the Source, we need not look outside our-
selves for the answers. See also BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ, BHAKTI
YOGA, K ARMA YOGA.

kEvLypd
Kaivalyapad
Path of renunciation. “Aloneness,” “isolation.” This is
a state of total detachment from matter and nature.
It is a state of neither pain nor pleasure. In yoga, it is
a state of liberation—a state of isolation that has been
achieved through viveka, or discernment.

kalIdugRa
Kālī Durgā
From the root kal, “to incite” or “to impel,” and durgā,
which means “goddess” or “supreme female godhead.”
Kālī Durgā is “the black one,” the malevolent form
of the Goddess Devi/Pārvatī; Durgā is the fierce ele-
• 99 •
ment of the cosmic duality. The name may be derived
from the word kālī, which means “black,” and kāla,
which means “time.” Kālī is “black” as she is envel-
oped in darkness, shrouded in shadow. This Goddess,
who has a hundred different names, is considered
the embodiment of past, present, and future time.
She represents the destructive forces of nature—a
necessary counterpoint to the creative elements of
the universe. She is depicted as a fierce-looking, half-
naked, wild-haired, wrathful warrior. A garland of
skulls, one for each letter of the Sanskrit alphabet
(the letters embody the sound of the Divine), adorns
her chest like a macabre necklace. Her four arms
wave in a powerful dance. One hand holds a severed
head, another brandishes a machete-like weapon
called a kartri, another dispels fear, and another gives
ecstasy. She is sometimes depicted dancing atop the
corpse of Lord Śiva, her consort, whose corpse rep-
resents the end of finite existence. Though feared by
some, she is also worshipped and adored by Bhairavas,
a Tantric sect called the “Fearless Ones,” who under-
stand that it is necessary to destroy that which is no
longer productive, thus making room for creation.
Without destruction, there can be no creation, and
vice versa. See also DEVĪ, PĀRVATĪ, ŚIVA.

• 100 •
 kilyug
Kali Yuga
This phrase refers to an age of moral and spiritual
decline, and derives from the roots yuj (“to unite,”
“union”) and kal (“to incite,” “to count or impel”). In
this sense, kali does not refer to the Goddess Kālī but
rather to “the losing throw of a die.” There are said to
be four yuga, or ages: satya, treta, dvapara, and the last
and final age, kali. This is the age in which truth (the
“cow of dharma”; the animal that represents the uni-
verse) has deteriorated to the point where it is stand-
ing on only one of its four legs. In the present day, we
are believed to be in the dark age of kali yuga.

kmR
Karma
From the root kṛ (“to act,” “do,” “make”), the term
encompasses the meanings of “action,” “deed,”
“rite,” and “cause and effect.” According to the laws

• 101 •
of karma, our current situation in this life is the result
of past actions in previous lifetimes. One’s deeds in a
past or current lifetime determine one’s fate: in other
words, “What goes around comes around.” Repercus-
sions will be carried over into the next lifetime until
the cycle is complete—that is, when all karmic debts
have been paid and one can reach nirvana. As Kṛiṣṇa
says in the Bhagavad Gītā, “There are two paths on
which the soul of both man (manuṣya) and God walk.
The first path helps free it from the cycle of life and
death. The second path is ascribed to cycles of rebirth
and death according to deeds (karma).”

kmRyaeg
Karma Yoga
The “yoga of action”; “devotion to duty.” Part of the
Trimārga, or Threefold Path of Yoga—the triumvirate
of classical yoga that also includes Bhakti Yoga and
Jñāna Yoga—Karma Yoga is the yoga of awareness of
our actions and their consequences. Also known as
the “yoga of doing,” it is fundamentally the yoga of
service, and is based on the idea that our kinship with
• 102 •
humanity is made concrete when we serve others
selflessly, offering our skills, resources, time, energy,
or entire lives to helping others without regard to
recognition, outcome, or personal gain. Karma Yoga
can take the form of charity work, volunteer service,
selfless teaching, or other avenues of unconditional
giving. Since the world is “the body of God,” when we
heal the world, we heal ourselves. This is one form of
yoga that transcends schools and disciplines. Yogīs of
all persuasions can follow this path. See also BHAGAVAD
GĪTĀ, BHAKTI YOGA, JÑĀNA YOGA, R ĀJA YOGA.

Klez
Kleśa
From the root klish, kleśa means “to suffer” or “be in
distress.” This word means affliction, suffering, pain.
There are five kleśas, or root causes, of human suf-
fering. They are: avidyā, or ignorance; asmitā, or ego;
rāga, or attachment; dveṣa, or aversion; and abhini-
veśa, or the will to live.

• 103 •
 kaez
Kośa
Also kosha. From the root kuś, “to unfold,” the term
also means “sheath,” “layer,” “subtle body,” or “trea-
sury.” Three thousand years ago, the kośas were first
written about in the Upaniṣads as a kind of roadmap
of the inner landscape. There are five layers of subtle
energy that envelop the individual from the periph-
ery of the physical body to the center, or innermost
core. Each sheath exists inside another, and as they
are peeled away like the layers of an onion, ener-
gies become more and more subtle until the cen-
ter sheath—the layer of bliss (ānanda-maya kośa)—is
reached. The anna-maya kośa is often referred to as
the sthula-śarīra, the “gross body” while the next
three layers are considered the suksma-śarīra (the
“subtle body”). In yoga practice, we seek to shift our
awareness gradually from outer to inner. The sheaths
of the body (from the outer layer inward) are:
Anna-maya kośa ANnmykaez
The physical body, or food sheath. This is the layer of
skin, muscle, tissue, and bone. Expression is through

• 104 •
movement and the workings of the body (such as
digestion and elimination).

Prānā-maya kośa àa[amykaez

The vital body, or breath sheath. This is the layer of
the circulation of the breath and of life-force energy.
Expression is through the breath and movement of
energy.

Mano-maya kośa mnaemykaez

The mental body, or sheath of the mind. This is the
mental layer, encompassing the nervous system.
Expression is through thought patterns.

Vijñāna-maya kośa iv}anmykaez

Consciousness, or the sheath of intellect. This is the
layer of higher states of awareness, or the “wisdom
self.” Expression is through observation or aware-
ness. This is known as “witness consciousness,” or
the ability to stand outside the self and watch the
fluctuations of mind, body, and breath objectively,
observing them without judgment or attachment, as
a witnessing awareness.

Ānanda-maya kośa AanNdmykaez

The sheath of bliss. This is the subtle core, the inner-
most layer where we exist purely in the moment,
without thought, sensation, or judgment. Rather than

• 105 •
“feeling” such states as bliss, wholeness, integration,
contentment, joy, and love, we embody them, and
simply are them.

k«palu
Kṛipālu
From kṛpā—“grace” or “favor. “ The three types of
grace are:

Sādhana-kṛpā saxnk«pa
Grace arising from individual effort.

Guru-kṛpā guék««pa
Grace arising from the guidance of a teacher or
master.

Divya-kṛpā idVyk«p« a
Divine grace arising from union with God.

Kṛipālu is also the name of a style of yoga that focuses

on body sensing and awareness, and of a famous yoga
center in Massachusetts.

• 106 •
 k«:[
Kṛiṣṇa
Also Krishṇa. From either krṣ, meaning “black,”
“dark,” or krṣ, meaning “truth,” and na, “bliss.” Lord
Kṛiṣṇa is also called “the Dark One,” as dark blue
and black were considered the colors of the infinite
in ancient India. Kṛiṣṇa is the eighth incarnation of
Viṣṇu and is considered an avatār, a Deity who has
“crossed or passed over” to earth. (Avatārs are indi-
vidual forms of the Supreme Being who descend
from the spiritual realm to the material realm to
delight, teach, and protect humankind in times of
need. Though they have individual missions, their
main purpose is to reveal the “Absolute Truth” and
to remind humanity of its original state of bliss in
the kingdom of God.)
Like Rāma, Kṛiṣṇa is revered for his bravery
and ability to vanquish evil; it was Lord Kṛiṣṇa who
delivered his sage battlefield advice to the warrior
Arjuna in the Bhaghavad Gītā. Kṛiṣṇa is depicted play-
ing a muralī, or Indian flute, symbolizing the “music
of love” that is a source of joy for both humanity and
the gods. He is also depicted with Rādha, his con-

• 107 •
sort and devotee. Together, they represent the love
shared between the human and the Divine. Kṛiṣṇa
has 1,008 names, including Rādhā-Kṛiṣṇa. Another
of his names is Govinda, from go (“cows”) plus inda
(“master”) or, alternatively, from go (“speech”) plus
vid (“knower”). The literal meaning of this second
possibility is “knower of the Vedas.” This gentle cow-
herder was “learned in the Vedas, a master of speech,
and a savior of the earth.” Kṛiṣṇa is often depicted
with his favorite cow. See also R ĀDHĀ, VIṣṆU.

i³ya
Kriyā
“Action,” “practice,” “rite,” “skill,” “exercise,” “move-
ment,” “function,” “performance.” Kriyā are tradi-
tional Haṭha Yoga purification rituals that awaken
the kuṇḍalinī energy. These work on both gross and
subtle levels to cleanse, replenish, and balance mus-
cle tissue, bone matter, joints, blood, internal organs,
the workings of the mind, and the subtle energies
of the body. Though there are dozens of purifica-
tion rituals, the six main ones are called sat-kriyā.
• 108 •
They are: nauli (abdominal churning to cleanse the
intestines); neti (cleansing the nasal passages with
water or string); vasti (cleansing the colon); trātakam
(cleansing the eyes [the tear ducts] by gazing at an
object without blinking); kapālabhāti (“skull-shining
breath,” or rapid diaphragmatic breath to cleanse the
lungs); and dhauti (cleansing the stomach and rec-
tum and teeth and throat). These ancient kriyā are
still used by many yogī around the world to purify
the body and mind and prepare them for higher
consciousness.

i³ya yaeg
Kriyā Yoga
The “active performance of yoga.” This is the method
of “yoga in action” outlined by Patañjali in the Yoga
Sūtras more than two thousand years ago. It consists
of three elements—“ascetic practice,” “study and
chanting of sacred hymns,” and “dedication to the
Lord of Yoga.” These three pursuits are offered as a
kind of performance guideline to the yogī, who will
need diligence, guidance, and devotion on the ardu-

• 109 •
ous path to liberation. Chapter 11, Verse 1 of the Yoga
Sūtras states: “Ascetic practice, study of sacred lore,
and dedication to the Lord of Yoga is what constitutes
the practice of Kriyā Yoga.” Kriyā Yoga is considered
an adjunct to the Eight Limbs of Yoga, or Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga, which outlines the path to liberation through
eight stages of yoga practice. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA.

kul
Kula
From the root kul—“grouping together.” Kula means
“group,” “school,” “clan,” “cluster,” or anything that
is bound or contracted together by the forces of
energy. It also denotes the human body, home, com-
munity, family, lineage, the world, the universe, the
cosmos, and divine creative energy.

• 110 •
 ku{filnI ZaiKt
Kuṇḍalinī Śakti
From the verb kuṇḍ (“to burn”), kuṇḍalinī means “ser-
pent” or “life-force.” It also means “coiled, winding,
spiraled one,” as this powerful life-force is consid-
ered a coiled goddess slumbering at the base of the
spine. This primal cosmic energy, or śakti, sleeps
in the mūlādhāra (root) chakra until the practice of
yoga, including prāṇāyāma, meditation, mantra, or
other spiritual pursuits awakens it. In other words,
the kuṇḍalinī energy is a physical manifestation of
the primordial creative cosmic energy, or śakti, coiled
in the base of the spine of the human body. Once
unbound, it then begins to travel up the suṣumṇa nāḍi,
the central channel of energy in the body, and the iḍā
nāḍi and piṅgalā nāḍi, activating the chakras. When
it reaches the sahasrāra (crown) chakra at the top of
the head—the highest point in the body—union with
the Divine is attained. Kuṇḍalinī śakti is the mother of
the primordial, pulsing sound of the universe within
us, the original intelligent life-force that embodies
creation, existence, and dissolution. It is the active
power that gives birth to the universe and the uni-

• 111 •
verse within. The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā states, “You
should awaken the sleeping serpent by grasping its
tail.”
Kuṇḍalinī śakti represents a very ancient teach-
ing also found in Native American shamanic tradi-
tions. For example, Mayan elders refer to “kuthalini”
as the coiled life-force that rises through the spine
when a person is enlightened. Quetzalcoatl, the great
spirit messenger of ancient Central America, is the
name for the sleeping serpent residing at the base of
the spine (coccyx) until awakened. Various shamanic
traditions also use sweatlodges, trance dance, fast-
ing, silence, prayer, and plant medicines to facilitate
the awakening of kuṇḍalinī. See also CHAKRA, KUṆḌALINĪ
YOGA, NĀḌI, ŚAKTI, ŚIVA.

ku{filnIyaeg
Kuṇḍalinī Yoga
A form of yoga that seeks to awaken the kuṇḍalinī
śakti through set sequences of yoga āsanas (postures)
and prāṇāyāma (breath control exercises). Typically,
the breath-control exercises involve anuloma-viloma
• 112 •
(alternate nostril breathing) to balance the iḍā nāḍi
(left energy channel) and the piṅgalā nāḍi (right
energy channel) and kapalabhāti (“breath of fire”),
a rapid diaphragmatic breathing that helps to move
energy up the suṣumṇa nāḍi (central energy channel).
As the kuṇḍalinī śakti rises, it strikes each chakra and
activates the energy there to bring about awaken-
ing, balance, and vibrancy. Ultimately, the kuṇḍalinī
rises through all six chakras and enters the seventh,
the sahasrāra (crown) chakra, the highest spiritual
center of the body. Here the individual self merges
with the universal self, and higher consciousness is
attained. Kuṇḍalinī Yoga remained a secret disci-
pline until 1969, when Yogī Bhajan, Ph.D., a master of
White Tantric Kuṇḍalinī Yoga, taught the tradition
to his disciples. See also CHAKRA, KUṆḌALINĪ ŚAKTI, NĀḌI,
ŚAKTI, ŚIVA.

lyyaeg
Laya Yoga
The “yoga of dissolution.” This is a form of Tantra
Yoga in which the energies of the individual chakras

• 113 •
are dissolved through the awakening and ascent of
the kuṇḍalinī śakti. The passage of this once-dormant
energy leads to dissolution (laya) of the ego. Lallā,
the fourteenth-century Kashmiri mystic poet, holy
woman, Sufi, yogī, and Śiva devotee who was popu-
larly known as Lal Ded (b. 1326), wrote of her ecstatic
union with Śiva through the practice of Laya Yoga:
“I, Lallā, became enraptured in the bliss of ecstasy,
through concentration and rhythmic recitation of
Om. I worked hard to give the letter proper pitch and
volume, and the effect was that I was set free, attain-
ing enlightenment. That is; from ashes have I trans-
formed into pure gold” (Vākya 1).

lIla
Līlā
“Divine play” or “sport.” Līlā is a worldview in which
creation is considered a drama conceived and real-
ized by God for the sheer joy of it. The idea of a cos-
mic play is similar to Shakespeare’s “All the world’s
a stage, and all the men and women merely players,”
with the added notion that Divine Sport is God’s
• 114 •
motivation for creating this world. As a child Kṛiṣṇa
engaged in līlā. Kṛiṣṇa Līlā is celebrated every August
on Kṛiṣṇa’s birthday with greatly festive, creative,
and colorful dance, song, and drama.

il¼
Liṅga
Also liṅgam, lingam. From “mark” or “sign,” and mean-
ing “phallus.” In ancient India, the Aryan people
worshipped sacred phalli as symbols of creation and
the embodiment of the productive and regenerative
power of the cosmos, which is manifest in all things
great and small. The liṅga (phallus) is also a symbol of
Lord Śiva and is thus often called “Śiva Liṅga,” which
rises from a yoni (vulva) base. This union of Śiva (male)
and Śakti (nature/female) represents the meeting of
the universal creative principle with the universal
productive principle, symbolizing intercourse as cos-
mic union. See also ŚAKTI, ŚIVA, YONI.

• 115 •
 laek
Loka .

“World,” “universe,” “plane,” “realm.” Loka can also

mean “a state of light,” “heaven,” or “the ascension
of the soul.” Indian culture traditionally holds that
there are seven planes or plateaus of the universe,
built by the Supreme Being to represent the heavens,
light, and becoming. They are bhūrloka, the mate-
rial world (from bhū—earth); bhūvarloka, the world
of becoming (from bhū—to become); svarloka, the
world of light (from svar—heaven); maharloka, the
infinite world (from mahas—vastness); janaloka, the
world of joy of spiritual living (from jan—to be born);
taparloka, the world of Will or Conscious Force (from
tapas—spiritual force/fire); and satyaloka, the world of
the highest truth of being (from satya—truth). In the
human body, these loka are said to exist in the feet,
genitals, navel, heart, throat, third eye, and crown of
the head.

• 116 •
 mhaÉart
Mahābhārata
This beloved Indian tale, meaning “The Great
Bhārata,” describes a war between two rival fami-
lies, the Pāṇḍavas and the Kauravas, and imparts
many ethical, philosophical, and moral lessons about
virtue and selflessness, karma and liberation. The
Mahābhārata is based on popular stories of kings,
gods, seers, and sages. It was created in India’s pre-
classical, or epic, age, from about 1000 to 100 B.C.E., and
was passed down orally by priests, wandering men-
dicants, ascetics, actors, and minstrels who recited,
danced, sang, and performed the tale. These various
stories were unified in 350 C.E. into a 100,000-verse
sacred text, written in Sanskrit and disseminated
throughout India by royalty and wealthy patrons of
the arts. It is still extremely popular today, and is
performed all over the world.
In this ancient epic, a king has two sons. The
elder, Dhritarashitra, is blind, so the younger, Pāṇdu,
succeeds to the throne after the king’s death. King
Pāṇdu has five sons, while his blind brother Dhrita-
rashitra has one hundred sons, the Kauravas. Pāṇdu’s

• 117 •
eldest son Duryodhana begins to resent his father’s
love of the Pāṇḍavas, and tricks the Pāṇḍavan Prince
Yudhishthira into gambling away his kingdom and
wife in a game of dice. The five Pāṇḍava brothers are
then banished. After a thirteen-year exile, the vir-
tuous brothers return and demand the restoration
of their kingdom. The hundred Kaurava brothers
choose to fight instead. As the kin battle it out, Lord
Kṛiṣṇa must descend to earth to try to restore law
and order. After eighteen days of battle, the Kauravas
are defeated.
The Mahābhārata contains the earliest complete
work on yoga, the Bhagavad-Gītā, in which Kṛiṣṇa
lectures the reluctant warrior Arjuna on the nature
of ethical action, just prior to a battle in which he
must take up arms against his own kin. This beloved
epic, together with the Rāmāyaṇa, deeply informs the
Hindu culture of India. See also BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ.

mht!
Mahat
From the root mahā, meaning “great,” “supreme,”
• 118 •
“mighty,” “powerful,” “noble.” Mahat is the great
principle of nature; cosmic intelligence.

mhaTmn
Mahātman
Also Mahātma mhaTm. This word also derives from
mahā (“great”), plus ātman (“self”). The meaning is
essentially “supreme soul” or “great self.” It is used
as an honorific for outstanding individuals, such as
Mohandas K. Gandhi, often called Mahātma Gandhi.

mhayan
Mahāyāna
From mahā (“great”) and yāna (“vehicle”). Literally,
the “Greater Ox-Cart,” meaning “Higher Vehicle,”
or “vehicle to a higher state.” Before Mahāyāna Bud-
dhism arrived in India in the first century C.E., the
most popular form of Buddhism was Theravada,
• 119 •
which centered on the Eightfold Noble Path and
required its disciples to follow this path through the
rigors of meditation. Since the majority of people
could not follow the strict practices of Theravada,
a more populist form of Buddhism was created,
descending from the same stream of thought as the
first Buddha (Gautama, or Siddhārtha). They called
their new religion the “Greater Ox-Cart,” since it had
the potential to carry people from all stations and
classes to enlightenment. Mahāyāna offered enlight-
enment for the many, rather than for the few, and
presented the idea of levels of Buddhahood attained
in various lifecycles or incarnations. The concept of
the bodhisattva, or “Buddha-in-waiting,” was central
to this doctrine. A bodhisattva gave up his worldly life
to be of service to the Buddha, teaching others the
tenets of Buddhism and acting with great compas-
sion, selflessness, and virtue to all he encountered.
Mahāyāna Buddhism held that one of these bodhisat-
tvas could be the “Second Coming of Buddha,” the
Maitreya who would heal the world. See also BODHI-
SATTVA, BUDDHA, DUḤKHA, MAITREYA.

• 120 •
 mEÇey
Maitreya
“Friendly,” “benevolent,” “loving”; also refers to the
Mahāyāna Buddhist belief in the “Future Buddha,”
the “Second Coming” of Buddha, who would arrive
on earth and enlighten the world. As the coming
of this maitreya was prophesized by the First Bud-
dha (Guatama Buddha), Mahāyāna philosophy holds
that the “Future Buddha” must already be among
us, going through the cycle of karma and assuming
various incarnations. According to this thought, any-
one could be the Maitreya—the beggar, the saint, the
child—we all contain the potential to be holy. In Bud-
dhism, the qualities of maitreya are represented by the
“Laughing Buddha,” a fat, jolly, smiling Buddha found
throughout Asia, often gracing shop entrances. His
protruding belly is a symbol of happiness, luck, and
generosity. In Japan, the Laughing Buddha is called
Hotei; he is one of the “seven lucky gods” and carries
a sack full of candy and other goodies on his back,
and shares his benevolence and wealth with all he
meets on the path of life. See also BUDDHA, MAHĀYĀNA.

• 121 •
 mEÇI
Maitrī
Friendliness, love. One of the highest virtues in yoga,
a quality inherent in all enlightened beings and bod-
hisattvas. In Miller’s translation of the Samādhi Pada,
Patañjali states: “Through cultivation of friendliness
(maitrī ), compassion (karunā), joy (muditā), and indif-
ference (upekṣā) to pleasure and pain, virtue and vice
respectively, consciousnesss becomes favorably dis-
posed, serene and benevolent.” In the Vibhūti Pada,
Patañjali writes: “He gains moral and emotional
strength by perfecting friendliness (maitrī ) and other
virtues towards one and all.”

mala
Mālā
A garland or string of beads used for prayer when
reciting mantras, like a rosary. It has 108 beads, one
for each of the earthly desires to be transcended.
• 122 •
 m<fl
Mandala
From the Sanskrit word for “circle,” “connection,”
“community.” It also means “entire world,” “center
of the Universe,” “magic circle,” or “healing circle.” A
mandala is a sacred symbol used for meditation, par-
ticularly in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Though
there are many kinds of mandalas, they are typically
vibrant, colorful representations of the whole world,
with an enlightened being residing in the center. As
one meditates on a mandala, one’s consciousness
passes through outer protective circles (symbol-
izing grasping at the surface or exterior of things),
then enters square structures and inner gates that
enclose the center point or bindu (which symbolizes
the essence of life), considered the palace of Buddha.
These sacred symbols have individual characteristics
representing the distinct qualities of the particular
deities they house. Though mandalas can be made of
many materials, and can even refer to a geographic
location or a space visualized in the mind, some of
the most intricate are sand mandalas painted by
Tibetan Buddhist monks, wherein the process of cre-

• 123 •
ation itself is no less important than the actual man-
dala. Monks train in their art for years, undergoing a
series of rituals, purifications, and rites to consecrate
body and mind, only to have these beautiful works
blown away instantaneously in a gust of wind. Such
is the impermanent nature of existence, and the
sand is believed to carry its illuminated essence back
to nature. Many traditions in Western culture have
their own sacred circles, like the medicine wheels
used in Native American healing ceremonies and the
talismans of blessing and protection found in many
other religions and traditions. Mandalas differ from
yantras in that these separate entitites representing
holy abodes tend to be far more complex in design
and liturgical representation than yantras, which are
physical expressions of divine sound vibration, or
mantras. See also MANTRA, YANTRA.

mNÇ
Mantra
From the verb man (“to think”) and tra, meaning
“instrumental,” the mantra is a word, phrase, or hymn
• 124 •
with sacred or spiritual resonance, significance,
or value, or “that which brings thoughts together.”
The literal meaning is “instrument of thought”; this
suggests that a mantra is a vehicle by which higher
consciousness is manifest—a means by which we
become harmonious with the world. Mantras raise
consciousness, quieting and elevating one’s state of
mind. Sanskrit words form the basis for sacred man-
tras, and each one of the letters of the Sanskrit alpha-
bet (called matrikās, or “little mothers”) is believed
to constitute the Divine in the form of sound (śabda
brahman, or Supreme Sound). This “soundless sound”
is believed to exist in all things in the universe and
can be activated with the deeply resonant vibration
of mantra that connects us to all living things. The
belief that these sacred Sanskrit sounds can activate
divine energy within the human ( jīvan) is reflected
in the fact that the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet
are depicted in ancient yantras, mandalas, and dia-
grams as embedded in the petals of the chakras, the
energy centers in the human body.
There are a myriad of different mantras, report-
edly as many as 70,000. They can be male (solar), or
gender-neutral. Female, or lunar, mantras are also
known as vidyas. One-syllable mantras are called
bija mantras; the word bīja means “seed,” and these

• 125 •
sounds contain the essence or seed of the Divine.
The best known bīja mantra is Om. There are also
string or garland mantras, like those in the Chants
section at the back of this book, and unspoken man-
tras (ajapa, the sound of the in-and-out breath, or
hang-sah). There are also mantras that are written
down (likhita) as a spiritual practice, in much the
same way that sūtras are copied mindfully as a form
of meditation.
Though mantras are evoked for their deep
vibratory and healing effect on consciousness and
energy, in ancient times, they often served more
practical purposes, such as warding off evil or dis-
ease. Later, mantra recitation, called japa (literally,
“whispering”) developed as a ritual wherein a dis-
ciple is given a secret mantra by his guru (a ṛiṣi who
had received the mantra directly from Source dur-
ing meditation). This mantra may or may not have
a literal meaning, but it contains the pure vibration
of divine power, which is also passed down to the
student through the sound. Mantra Yoga, the “sci-
ence of sound,” uses the repetition or recitation of a
mantra as the path to liberation (mokśa). In Mantra
Yoga, the inner sound (nāda) is awakened through
the outer sound (mantra). Nowadays many yogī con-
tinue this ancient ritual by beginning and/or end-
• 126 •
ing their yoga practice with a mantra to evoke the
Divine, to offer themselves and their practice to a
higher power, and to express gratitude to a teacher
and acknowledge his or her lineage. These mantras
can be ancient quotations from the Vedas or other
scriptures; prayers to the Gods; prayers for peace and
happiness of all beings; or personal prayers offered
in sound and tone. See also the Chants section and
entries CHAKRA, NĀDA YOGA, OM.

maya
Māyā
From the verb root mā (“to measure,” “limit,” “give
form to”). Māyā is the veil of illusion that prevents
human beings from perceiving the Divine. It is also
sometimes defined as “that which measures.” In
Advaita Vedānta, it is considered “that which causes
the illusory nature of the universe.” There are two
aspects of this veil: avidyā māyā—the ignorance that
separates man from God; and vidyā māyā, the wisdom
that eventually allows man to become liberated, thus
joining with God in Divine union.

• 127 •
 mae]
Mokśa
From the verb mokś (“to liberate”), this term means
“spiritual freedom” or “release” and is considered
human beings’ ultimate goal—to be released from
the bonds of ignorance and suffering. In yoga, mokśa
is the culmination of Aṣṭāṅga, the Eight-limbed Path
to Enlightenment, the aim of which is the achieve-
ment of samādhi. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, SAMĀDHI.

muÔa
Mudrā
From mud (“ joy”) and rā (“to give”). “Hand pose,”
“seal,” “stamp.” Mudrās are called “energy seals”
because they seal (mudrānāt) the energy of the uni-
verse in the body, leading to a higher state of con-
sciousness. In the yoga tradition, mudrās are a way of
holding the prāṇa within the body in a beneficial way,
and of healing, cleansing, and activating physical
• 128 •
and spiritual release. They are used as rituals, offer-
ings, salutations, means of meditation, and means of
encouraging specific energetic effects on the differ-
ent kośas (layers) of the body. They are also used to
channel the breath and energy in meditation. There
are dozens of mudrās, and while we often think of
mudrās as hand gestures, there are also whole-body
mudrās, like the yoga mudrā (gesture of understand-
ing of nonduality) in which the benefits of the yoga
practice are “sealed in” the body before completing
the yoga practice.
Deities, saints, gods, and goddesses are often
pictured with their hands in mudrās, making ges-
tures of devotion or offering, and in classical Indian
dance—which often recounts ancient myths and
legends—the hands play an important part of the
storytelling process, through their graceful and
expressive movements. Mudrās also express feelings
and convey meanings such as charity, knowledge, and
courage, and one can offer a mudrā to a god, goddess,
nature god, guru, teacher, friend, or even a complete
stranger. Some powerful hasta (hand) mudrās are:

Añjali mudrā AÃilmuÔa

Añjali means “offering.” This gesture of putting the
fingertips together and joining the hands at the

• 129 •
heart is often called “prayer pose.” By joining the
right and left hands together, we join the right and
left sides of the brain and body, yoking them gently
at the heart in a symbolic “shrine” or “steeple.” When
we make this gesture, we are “offering” ourselves
from our deepest core—the heart chakra, whose
“voice” speaks louder than the mind. In yoga, this
mudrā is often accompanied by the Sanskrit greet-
ing namaste—“the light/Divine within me greets
the light/Divine within you”—which is uttered to
give over one’s practice as a devotional offering to
a higher power. This gesture and greeting together
underscore the yogic philosophy of seeing the Divine
in everyone, of “hearts touching hearts” and meet-
ing in a state of grace. Añjali mudrā is commonly used
in India as a daily greeting or salutation, as we might
say “hello” in the West.
Dhyāna mudrā XyanmuÔa
“Gesture of meditation.” Dhyāna means “medita-
tion” and is one of the eight stages of yoga practice
in Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, or the “Eight-limbed Path.” This is a
gesture used to deepen meditation, enhance aware-
ness, and send the breath and prāṇa throughout the
entire body. In this mudrā, which is done while sit-
ting in a comfortable meditation pose with the spine

• 130 •
straight and the chest wide and heart open, the right
hand rests in the palm of the left hand at the lap, with
the tips of the thumbs gently touching. In the yoga
tradition, the right hand represents the sun, and the
left hand, the moon. This symbolic hand gesture cre-
ates a circle of energy, balancing the body and the
mind and awakening a deep unity within.

Jñāna mudrā }anmuÔa

“Gesture of knowledge/wisdom.” Jñāna means
“knowledge” or “wisdom.” Sitting in a comfortable
meditation pose with the spine straight and the
chest wide and heart open, here the arms rest on
the thighs and the hands rest on the thighs or knees,
palms facing up. The elbows are drawn in toward the
torso. The tips of the index fingers touch the tips of
the thumbs, while the little, ring, and middle fingers
are extended. This is a gesture that slows the breath,
increases blood flow to the brain, and connects us
to higher knowledge and inner wisdom as we sym-
bolically allow the individual self (represented by the
index finger) to bow to and enter the realm of the
universal self (represented by the thumb).

• 131 •
 muiKt
Mukti
Liberation, release, spiritual freedom. From the verb
root much and mokś (“to liberate”). Mukti refers to
being liberated from bondage and/or the fetters of
karma or material existence and attaining freedom
and bliss. According to the great poet Rabindranath
Tagore, mukti is “the one abiding ideal in the religious
life of India,” which he defines as “the deliverance of
man’s soul from the grip of self, its communion wih
the Infinite Soul through its union in ānanda with the
universe.” Not merely a theological doctrine or some-
thing to be studied in a classroom, mukti is, accord-
ing to Tagore, a larger “spiritual truth and beauty of
our attitude toward our surroundings, our conscious
relationship with the Infinite, and the lasting power
of the Eternal in the passing moments of our life.” For
Tagore, who advocated an “open” school in nature,
this ideal is made possible by living intimately with
nature and by “growing in an atmosphere of service
offered to all creatures, tending trees, feeding birds
and animals, learning to feel the immense mystery
of the soil and water and air.” See also JĪVANMUKTA.
• 132 •
 nadyaeg
Nāda Yoga
The yoga, or union, of sound. Nāda means “sound”
or “tone” and “universal pulse of life” or “flowing
stream of consciousness.” In yoga, nāda refers to
the nasal sound often found in mystical words. Yoga
means “union” or “path toward union.” Nāda Yoga is
an ancient, scientific practice that originated in India
around 200 B.C.E., sprung from the Vedic tradition of
Śabda Yoga (sound mysticism, the “yoga of sound”). It
explores the relationship of sound to consciousness,
using sound and rhythm as a path to healing, aware-
ness, and spiritual understanding. Nāda Yoga stems
from the belief that the primordial sound (śabda) is
a root vibrational energy or force from which the
ultimate reality springs. Everything in this world
vibrates with this “sound within sound,” includ-
ing human beings, who embody this sound in the
heartbeat. There are two types of nada—āhata nāda,
or “struck sound” created by friction, and anāhata
nāda, unstruck sound, which is the naturally occur-
ring and eternal song of the earth and all beings. The
heart chakra is called anāhata chakra, as it is the part

• 133 •
of the body most connected to this sound. In Nāda
Yoga, chanting sacred mantras attunes our inner
rhythm to this ancient, primal pulse and connects
us to this primordial singing beneath the surface
of the world. Through chanting and drumming, we
also harmonize the different frequencies in our bod-
ies, tuning the chakras and balancing the right and
left hemispheres of the brain. This synchronizes the
body/mind, leading to relaxation, heightened cre-
ativity, and higher states of consciousness. See also
CHAKRA, MANTRA, YANTRA.

naif
Nāḍi
Conduit; one of the approximately seventy-two thou-
sand subtle channels of energy in the body through
which prāṇa (life-force energy) circulates. Nāḍi are
“cables” composed of three layers: the innermost
(sirā), middle (damanī), and outer (nāḍi). The entire
channel itself is also called a nāḍi. There are three
main nāḍi in the body that connect the chakras, or
energy centers. They are:
• 134 •
Suṣumṇa nāḍi su;uM[a naif
“Very gracious channel.” This is the central channel
of energy in the body, running alongside or parallel to
the spine, where the kuṇḍalinī śakti (serpent energy)
moves, activating the chakras as it threads its way up
to the top of the head. Mokśa (liberation) is attained
when the kuṇḍalinī reaches the crown chakra, joining
the individual self with the Higher Power in bliss.

Iḍā nāḍi #fa naif

“Pale channel.” This is the conduit for prāṇa on the
left side of the central channel. It affects the para-
sympathetic nervous system (regulating “rest and
digest”) and is calming and cooling when activated.
It is the carrier of female, lunar energy throughout
the body.

Piṅgalā nāḍi ip<gla naif

“Red-colored channel.” This is the conduit for prāṇa
on the right side of the central channel. It affects the
sympathetic nervous system (regulating the “fight
or flight” response) and is warming, energizing, and
invigorating when activated. It transports the mas-
culine, solar energy throughout the body.

• 135 •
 nmSte
Namaste
From na (“not”), ma (“mine”), and te (“to you”). The
literal meaning is “honor/obeisance” (namas) to you
(te). Also translated as literally meaning “Not mine,
but Thine—Yours, the Divine.” This phrase is vari-
ously translated as “The light in me greets the light
in you” or “The Divine in me recognizes the Divine
in you.” This is the traditional, everyday greeting in
India—with fingertips touching and hands held at the
heart in añjali mudrā. This expression is often used in
yoga classes to begin or complete the practice, offer-
ing one’s soul to the Divine. It is also often used in the
context of worship. See also MUDR Ā.

neitneit
Neti-neti
From the word na (“not”) and iti (“thus”). “Not thus,
not thus” or “not such, not such” or “not this, not
• 136 •
this.” In the Upaniṣads, Yajñavalkya said, “The Ātman
is not thus, not thus,” expressing the belief that the
ātman, or higher reality, is beyond definition. It is
neither this nor that, and cannot be put into words.
In Vedantic philosophy, the entire material plane is
considered an illusion, and all the veils of illusion
must be stripped away to reveal the essential self. In
other words, true reality is “not this, not this”—we
are not our roles in society or family, our jobs, our
accomplishments, our bodies, our egos, our minds.
We are our essential, highest selves, that which defies
definition, that which exists beyond material, indi-
vidual reality.

inraex
Nirodha
“Control,” “restraint,” “restriction,” “cessation.”
Nirodha forms the basis of the last three of the Eight
Limbs of Yoga: dhāraṇa (concentration), dhyāna (med-
itation), and samādhi (pure contentment, enlighten-
ment, bliss). One of the most famous aphorisms of
the Yoga Sūtras is “Citta vritti nirodha,” which is trans-

• 137 •
lated as “restricting the fluctuations of the mind” or
“controlling the fluctuations of thought”—this is the
key to reaching nirvana. Vritti comes from the verb
root vṛt—“to turn, revolve, move.” Stilling the mind,
however, is by no means an easy thing to do. As the
warrior Arjuna says to Kṛiṣṇa in the Bhagavad Gītā,
“The mind is very restless, forceful, and strong. It is
more difficult to control the mind than to control the
wind.” See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, YOGA SŪTRA.

invRa[
Nirvāṇa
From the roots vā (“to blow”) and nir (“out”), nirvāṇa
literally means “to blow out (from lack of fuel).” It is
extinction, perfection, the Great Peace, absolute free-
dom, and unconditional tathatā, or “suchness.” Nir-
vana is considered a state of enlightenment because,
when it is reached, all the impressions or imprints of
karma have been extinguished and one is free from
the wheel of karma. This state of bliss is believed, in
the yoga tradition, to be achieved when the mind has
been controlled to the point of utter stillness. The
• 138 •
Mokśa-Dharma, the twelfth book of the Mahābhārata,
states, “Yoked by that joy, he delights in the practice
of meditation. Thus do the yogins go to nirvana, free
from ill.” See also SAṂSĀRA.

inviÄmagR
«
Nivritti-mārga
From the roots vri (“to turn”) and ni (“back”). This
is the path of renunciation, or turning one’s back
on the world of material things, turning away from
the world. In the Bhagavad Gītā, dharma, or duty, is
composed of two parts: taking an active stand in the
world (pravritti) and backing away from activity (niv-
ritti). Thus, the fallow periods and the periods of cul-
tivation and harvest are equally important aspects
of liberation.

• 139 •
 Aaejs!
Ojas
From the verb root jas (“strength”), ojas means “vital-
ity,” “spiritual energy,” “radiance,” “magnificence.”
It is used to refer to the seminal fluids that are con-
verted into subtle energy through yoga when stored
in the body through the practice of brahmacharya
(chastity).
The term ojas is used in Āyurveda for a highly
refined substance that is converted into a subtle
energy. This energy specifically prevents the decay
and fragmentation of the mind and body and provides
strength against all disease. The Bengali commenta-
tor and medicinal writer Cakrapanidatta (eleventh
century C.E.) describes two types of ojas: para and
apara. Para ojas is located in hridaya (the heart) and
occurs in the quantity of ashta bindu (eight drops);
apara ojas is located in the dasa dhamanīs (ten vessels)
originating from the heart. According to Suśruta, the
father of Ayurvedic surgery, ojas is viscous, slightly
yellow, slimy, cold, and sweet in taste. Ojas circulates
throughout the entire human being and is respon-
sible for natural immunity against physical and men-
• 140 •
tal disease; its loss from the body leads to decay and
disease.

`
Om
The prāṇava, the Eternal. This is the primordial San-
skrit sound (prāṇava), the One sacred sound from
which all word variations originate. Considered the
“sound of all sounds” because it originates from the
sounds of nature and embodies them in its vibration,
this mystical single-syllable word and its Sanskrit
symbol represent the Divine Presence and Power that
is the Universe. Two thousand years after the sound of
Om was discovered by ṛiṣis in ancient India, an anon-
ymous sage explained the three parts of the mantra
in the Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad. He wrote, “ ‘Aum’ consists
of four, not three elements . . . the fourth is sound-
less: unutterable, a quieting down of all the differ-
entiated manifestations, blissful, peaceful, nondual.
. . . ” In the metaphysical terms of Advaita Vedānta,
the three sounds of the mantra A-U-M reflect the
three divinities—inner, outer and superconscient.

• 141 •
When making the sound, there are the sounds of ah,
oh, mmm, and silence. In the yoga treatise Gorakśa-
Paddhati (“Tracks of Gorakśa”), which may have been
written in the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, Om
does symbolize the Absolute, but its parts (A-U-M)
represent the earth (bhūh), middle region (bhūvah),
and heaven (svah).
As Patañjali states in the Yoga Sūtras, “When Aum
reveals itself, introspection is attained and obstacles
fall away.” Om, also called Omkāra, is usually chanted
at the beginning of ceremonies, as a prelude to man-
tras, and before and after yoga practice as an offer-
ing to the Divine. Chanting Om can create a shift in
consciousness, as it represents the passage of birth,
life, death, and rebirth, and the resonance is said to
activate the seven chakras. It has been noted that the
word “Aum” bears a resemblance to the Hebrew word
“amen” often used at the end of Jewish blessings and
prayers to acknowledge the Divine. One beautiful
definition of Om is “summoning God.” See also HAṂSA,
MANTRA.

• 142 •
 ` tt! st!!
Om Tat Sat
This is a sacred expression meaning “Thou Art That.”
It denotes that we are the Divine, and that we should
look within ourselves to find the holy. It embodies the
meaning and power of Om (the vibration of creation),
tat (the radiance or light perceived in deep medita-
tion); and sat (higher consciousness). See also OM, SAT,
TAT.

pÒ
Padma
Lotus, the Goddess. In Buddhist iconography, the
Buddha is always depicted sitting on a lotus leaf. The
lotus is said to represent the power of transforma-
tion, as its roots take hold in a muddy swamp and yet
the flower blossoms into a thing of great beauty and
luminescence. So, too, can the self transcend its hum-
ble origins and rise above them to achieve a state of

• 143 •
radiant bliss and enlightenment. In meditation and
in yoga, the Lotus posture or Padmāsana, is one of
the most widely practiced of all the āsanas, embody-
ing the nobility and grace of this ethereal flower.
For that reason, this representative posture is called
the “Royal posture” or “Throne of the Lotus flower.”
The subtle energy centers of the body, the chakras,
are also called lotuses (padma), due to their swirling,
circular form and the way that the life-force energy
(prāṇa) flows to and from them. Finally, the lotus is
also a symbol of the feminine principle or yoni, or
vulva/womb. See also BUDDHA, CHAKRA, PRĀṆA, YONI.

prmaTmn!
Paramātman
From parama (“highest”) and ātman (“self”). This is
the supreme self, the Absolute. It refers to the singu-
lar transcendental self (paramātman). The self that
exists in myriad forms and beings is called jīvātman
(“liberated higher self”).

• 144 •
 pavRtI
Pārvatī
Literally, “daughter of the mountain.” Pārvatī is Lord
Śiva’s consort. It was Pārvatī who is credited with
helping spread knowledge of yoga in the world. Once,
when Śiva and Pārvatī were on a deserted island
together, Śiva explained to his consort the myster-
ies of yoga. A fish overheard their conversation, and
when Śiva discovered him eavesdropping, he sprin-
kled water on him and gave him divine form. The
Lord of The Fishes (Matsyendra) then disseminated
yoga throughout the land and became the teacher
to Gorakśa, who was an early teacher of Haṭha Yoga
in the tenth to eleventh centuries. While Pārvatī is
generally thought of as Śiva’s consort, some schools
of thought hold that these deities are in fact nei-
ther male nor female, but instead represent particu-
lar aspects of an individual God. In this viewpoint,
Pārvatī represents the “mother” aspect of Lord Śiva,
as she is considered the “Divine Mother” or the
“Mother Goddess.” This beautiful Goddess embodies
the wife and mother archetype, symbolizing blissful
matrimony (to Śiva) and contented motherhood (of

• 145 •
Gaṇeśa). Alone, she is depicted riding on a lion, the
Queen of the Jungle. She is also often portrayed with
Śiva and Gaṇeśa as part of the Divine Family, which
makes its home on Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas.
Pārvatī’s “natural” family tree consists of some of the
great wonders of the Indian landscape: she is beloved
as a daughter of the magnificent Himalayan moun-
tains and sister to the sacred Ganges River. She also
assumes several other divine forms, among them the
fierce warrior goddesses Durga (“Goddess Beyond
Reach”) and Kālī (“Goddess of Destruction”). She
is also called Uma. See also DEVĪ, GAṆEŚA, K ĀLĪ DURGĀ,
ŚIVA.

ptÃil
Patañjali
The author, about two thousand years ago, of the Yoga
Sūtras. Details about Patañjali’s life are unknown,
aside from the fact that he lived in about 150 C.E.
Patañjali is believed to have been an incarnation of
Ananta, the mythical Serpent-King on whom Lord
Viṣṇu takes his rest before embarking on a new cre-
• 146 •
ation cycle. Patañjali is said to have fallen into the
arms of his mother as she was giving water to the sun
in a gesture of worship. His name comes from pata—
meaning both “serpent” and “fallen,” and añjali,
refering to the gesture his mother’s hands made when
touching in prayer. He is usually depicted in front
of a thousand-headed snake, which drapes over his
head like a suit of armor. He has four arms, in which
he holds a conch shell, a disk, a mace, and a sword.
In another depiction, he is half-man, half-snake, car-
rying the weight of the world on his hooded head or
curled beneath Viṣṇu, for whom he serves as a kind
of cushion or bed.
The author of the Yoga Sūtras is thought by many
also to be the author—who also went by the name
Patañjali— of various ancient texts on Āyurveda and
Sanskrit grammar (such as the Mahābhāshya), though
it is not clear whether the two authors are in fact the
same. Those who believe that they are the same date
the Yoga Sūtras to about the third century C.E. Those
who believe that the works were written by two dif-
ferent people date the Yoga Sūtras to about the third
century B.C.E. Patañjali’s yoga as outlined in the Yoga
Sūtras comprises what we refer to as classical yoga.
The history of Patañjali is quite elusive, and Swāmi
Satchidanada and others have suggested that Patañ-

• 147 •
jali may have actually represented a group of people
who together codified the practice of yoga in the Yoga
Sūtras. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, YOGA SŪTRA.

à}a
Prajñā
“Wisdom,” “intuitive wisdom,” “gnosis.” Mahāyāna
Buddhism holds that prajñā, or the “inner guru,”
is the highest form of wisdom, as it is the intuitive
inner knowledge that comes from the essential self,
a knowledge that exists beyond finite facts, logic, or
information. See also GURU, MAHĀYĀNA.

àkaz
Prakāśa
From the root kāsh (“to shine”) and pra (“forth”).
“Shining,” “luminous,” “radiant,” “pure conscious-
ness,” “self-revelation.” When one attains a state
• 148 •
of pure consciousness, all is illuminated. This is
one of the dual aspects of Paramśiva, the ultimate
reality.

àk«it
Prakṛti
From the roots kṛ (“to make,” “do”) and pra (“forth”).
The substance of the material world, primal or pri-
mordial nature. Also understood as “the Creatrix.”
All of prakṛti (nature/matter) is composed of three
qualities or guṇas, which exist in combination in
everything in the world. The three guṇas are: rajas
(“active”), tamas (“passive”), and sattva (“balanced”).
In the Yoga Sūtras, the material reality of prakṛti is
composed of many levels: pradhāna (“foundation”),
which is an eternal dimension; sūkshma-parvan (“sub-
tle existence”); and sthūla-parvan (“physical exis-
tence”). In the Saṃkhya system—the influential Vedic
philosophy of dualistic realism concerning the uni-
verse and creation—the basic principles of existence
(tattva) are classified into puruṣa (“spirit”) and prakṛti
(“matter”). Because prakṛti is unconscious in nature,

• 149 •
it is viewed as the polar opposite of puruṣa, the tran-
scendental self. Yet, it is the interaction of these two
eternal substances of spirit and matter that leads to
creation. Finally, mūla prakṛti (mUlàk«it), derived from
mūla (“root”) and prakṛti (“creatrix”), means “the
natural form or condition of things” and is another
name for Śakti. See also GUṆA, PURUṣA, ŚAKTI.

àly
Pralaya
From the verb root lī (“to dissolve”) and pra (“away”).
In the periodic dissolution and reabsorption of the
universe, pralaya is the period of rest or repose, a
phase of passivity in which the world lies dormant.
This dormant period—like the fallow period before a
harvest, when germination and cultivation occur—is
just as significant as the period of action.

• 150 •
 àa[
Prāṇa
From the root an (“to breathe”) and pra (“forth”),
prāṇa means “breath,” “vital air,” “breath of life,”
“life-force,” “vitality.” This ancient Sanskrit term
appeared first in the Vedas. Although it is commonly
thought of as the external air we breathe through
the nose and mouth, it also refers to the internal life-
force energy in the individual, otherwise known as
ki (in Japanese) or chi (in Chinese). The ancient sages
first related the breath to the vital life-force energy.
According to Vedic philosophy, there are five vital
life forces in the body. These are: prāṇa (ascend-
ing air), apāna (descending air), vyāna (that which
holds prāṇa and apāna), samāna (digestive breath; the
energy that carries gross matter such as food to the
apāna and brings subtle matter to the limbs of the
body), and udāna (that which carries the energy of
food and drink up or down through the body). The
Atharva-Veda details seven types of prāṇa, seven types
of apāna, and seven types of vyāna.
That the breath is so closely linked to the life-
force energy is not surprising. Breath is the one thing

• 151 •
that human beings cannot live without for any length
of time. We can live for days without food, water, or
shelter, but when we stop breathing, we stop living.
As the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā states, “As long as there is
breath in the body, there is life. When breath departs,
so too does life. Therefore, regulate the breath.” See
also APĀNA, BANDHA, AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA (PRĀṆĀYĀMA).

àa[ayam
Prāṇāyāma
From prāṇa (“breath”) and yama (“regulation,” “re-
straint,” “control”). Literally, breath control, breath
regulation, breath expansion/extension, and breath
restraint. One of the Eight Limbs of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga,
prāṇāyāma is practiced to deepen one’s yoga, enhance
the flow of life-force through the body, control the
wandering mind, and achieve union with the Divine.
More than just breathing exercises, prāṇāyāma
regulates the flow of breath to shift the flow of prāṇa
in the energy channels of the prāṇāyāma kośa, or
energy body. According to Swāmi Satyananda Saras-
wati, prāṇāyāma is actually the word prāṇa plus ayama,
• 152 •
which means “extension” or “expansion.” In this
view, prāṇāyāma means “expansion of the dimension
of prāṇa.” Dozens of forms of prāṇāyāma are practiced
in yoga, often in conjunction with the use of the ban-
dhas (energy locks) and mudrās (hand seals). Some of
the most powerful and popular forms are:
Ujjāyi %JjayI
“Victorious breath,” a deep breathing through the
nose in which this deep, loud breath is “victorious”
over the noise of the chatter of the mind.

Kapālabhāti kpalÉatI
“Skull-shining breath,” a rapid, forceful diaphrag-
matic exhalation that energizes the brain and revi-
talizes the body.

Pūraka pUrk
Inhalation. Breath exercises that stimulate the
system.

Kumbhaka kuMÉk
Retention. Distributes prāṇa through the body.

Recaka reck
Exhalation. Releases unhealthy air and toxins.

These breathing exercises calm the body and nervous

system, restoring serenity. There are prāṇāyāmas for

• 153 •
release of toxins from the bloodstream, revitaliza-
tion of the internal organs, relaxation, and many
other functions. See also APĀNA, AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, BANDHA,
PRĀṆA, R ĀJA YOGA.

àsad
Prasāda
From the root sad (“to sit”) and the prefix pra
(“grace,” “favor”). This is a state of divine grace or
mental acuity that is considered a gift from God. It
can also be used to describe an offering to God, which
then spreads among his devotees with God’s bless-
ings, tranquility, and serenity bestowed upon them.
Prasāda is believed to purify all offerings.

pUja
Pūjā
From the root pūj (“to worship,” “honor,” “serve,”
• 154 •
“collect,” or “shine”), pūjā is a ritual offering or cer-
emony intended to honor or express appreciation or
adoration for the Divine, while affirming or develop-
ing one’s own inner Divinity. Pūjā rituals can be per-
formed with an image (mūrti), icon, or other objects
considered sacred. Traditionally, a devotee presents
an offering to the Deity (pūjā), and is then granted an
audience with or glimpse of the Deity (darśana); the
devotee receives a sacred article of worship (prasād)
with which to invoke the Deity. A prasād can be a
mantra, yantra, or mūrti. Pūjā is an essential aspect
of Tantra Yoga and Bhakti Yoga. See also BHAKTI YOGA,
TANTRA.

pué;
Puruṣa
Also purusha. “Spirit,” “individual soul,” “spirit,”
“seer,” “person,” “indwelling form of God,” “indi-
vidual soul.” Puruṣa has also been literally trans-
lated as “what lies in the citadel of the body.” The
word means “absolute spirit” or pure consciousness,
independent of everything. It is eternal, change-

• 155 •
less, and pure. Puruṣa (“spirit,” “soul”) is forever
entwined in duality with prakṛti (“matter,” “materi-
ality”). Puruṣa can also refer to the “Supreme Being”
or “God.” Advaita Vedānta sees it as the “eternal
witness,” the “Supreme Self,” or paramātman. See
also PRAKṚTI.

raxa
Rādhā
Literally meaning “fortunate, successful,” Rādhā is
the name of Kṛiṣṇa’s consort, the most adored of the
Gopīs, or ethereal “milkmaids” of Vraja who were
Kṛiṣṇa’s childhood companions and devotees. The
Gopīs are the embodiment of ecstatic, totally uncon-
ditional devotion to the Divine. See also K ṚIṢṆA.

• 156 •
 rag
Rāga
A special form, structure or underlying framework
of a melody in Classical Indian music, as in the melo-
dies of the Sāma Veda verses and chants. Rāga melo-
dies exist between two scales and modes, and each
rāga has its own flavor (rasa) and mood (bhāva). They
reflect the rhythms of nature, the changing of the
seasons, the pulsing of the energy of the world. See
also R ASA.

rajyaeg
Rāja Yoga
From rāja, which means “king” or “ruler,” plus yoga,
“union.” One part of the Trimārga (Threefold Path
of Yoga), the triumvirate of classical yoga that also
includes Bhakti Yoga and Jñāna Yoga. Also known
as classical yoga or the “yoga of kings,” Rāja Yoga
is codified in the systematic path to enlightenment

• 157 •
(Aṣṭāṅga Yoga) outlined in the Yoga Sūtras. While
Bhakti Yoga is the yoga of devotion and Jñāna Yoga
is that of knowledge, Rāja Yoga is considered the yoga
of balance between devotion and knowledge. The
Rāja yogin seeks to quiet the mind through medita-
tion or mantra, freeing the mind from saṃskāra (the
veil of illusion) so that it can embody purity and vir-
tue, ultimately reaching a higher state of conscious-
ness and allowing the individual to merge with the
higher self. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, BHAKTI YOGA, JÑĀNA
YOGA, PATAÑJALI, SAṂSKĀRA, YOGA SŪTRA.

ram
Rāma
From the verb root ram, meaning “pleasing” or
“delightful.” Also called the “Dark One” or the “Pleas-
ing One,” Rāma is the hero of the immensely popu-
lar Hindu epic the Rāmāyaṇa (The Story of Rāma), a
twenty-four-thousand–verse epic written by the mys-
tic and sage Valmiki in the third century B.C.E. Unlike
the other great Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata, the
Rāmāyaṇa appears to have been written by a single
• 158 •
author. Both of these epics brought religious teach-
ings to a popular audience through the adventures
of an avatār (god who takes human form) who comes
to earth to uphold and espouse moral and ethical
virtues. The Rāmāyaṇa incorporates many ancient
legends and draws on the Vedas to tell the story of
Rāma, heir to the royal family of Ayodhyā. Rāma
was forced into a fourteen-year exile in the forest
by his stepmother—the second wife of his father,
King Dasaratha—so that her own son, Bharat, could
inherit the kingdom. During this time, Rāma’s con-
sort Sītā was kidnapped by Rāvana, an evil spirit
who prevented people from freely practicing their
religion. Rāvana, who was the King of Sri Lanka, was
a devotee of the three main Hindu deities—Brahmā,
Viṣṇu, and Śiva—and as such, he was invincible. But
the people could no longer tolerate his oppression,
so they went up to the heavens and asked the gods
for help. The gods decided to send Viṣṇu down to
earth, incarnated as Rāma, King Dasaratha’s first
son. His mission was to destroy the evil Rāvana. With
the help of Hanuman, his extremely loyal monkey-
headed general, Sītā is rescued, and Rāma defeats
Rāvana and returns from exile to assume his right-
ful place as the heir to the throne, which he ruled
for eleven thousand years. The Rāmāyana shows how

• 159 •
Rāma’s selfless conduct, unconditional love, and abil-
ity to maintain strength and calm in the midst of
adversity pave the way for good to triumph over evil.
He demonstrates the moral virtues later codified by
Patañjali in the Yoga Sūtras as the Yamas (Moral Dis-
cipline) and Niyamas (Self Restraint), the first and
second limbs of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga. In the Vedas, Rāma
is the Supreme Being or Godhead and is considered
the total embodiment of righteousness (dharma). See
also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, MAHĀBHĀRATA, SĪTĀ .

rs
Rasa
From the verb root ras (“to feel,” “be aware of”), rasa is
used to mean “taste,” “essence,” “savor,” “ juice,” and
“nectar of delight.” It also means “essence of things”
or “delight in life.” Indian aesthetics holds that there
are eight types of rasa: shṛṇgāra (love between a cou-
ple; erotic love); hāsya (mirth); karuṇa (compassion
or sorrow); raudra (anger); vīra (fortitude); bhayānaka
(fear); bībhatsa (disgust); and adbhūta (wonder). Oth-
ers believe there are two additional rasas, which
• 160 •
are peace (shānta) and devotion (bhakti). Rasa also
expresses the devotion and love between the Gopis
and Kṛiṣṇa. See also KṚIṢṆA, R ĀGA.

\i;
Ṛiṣi
Also ṛishi. From the verb root dṛsh (“to see”). The ṛiṣi
is a seer or sage, someone who traditionally “heard”
or “saw” the ancient Vedic hymns during deep medi-
tation. To honor this lineage, each mantra has three
demarcations, which are written in the scripture
preceding the chants: ṛiṣi (the sage who first “saw”
the mantra); chandas (the particular rhythm, meter,
and flow of the chant); and devata (the Deity to whom
the chant is addressed). To honor the ṛiṣi, the fore-
head is touched with the fingers of the right hand. To
honor the chandas and the powers of speech (vak) that
reside on the tongue, the mouth or lips are touched.
To illuminate the devata and invoke the Deity, the
heart is touched before offering the invocation; in
this way, the soul of the ṛiṣi remains forever linked
to the chant.

• 161 •
 There are three classes of ṛiṣis: brahmāṛiṣi, born
from the mind of Brahmā; devaṛiṣi, sages who were
born of the Gods/Deities; and rājaṛiṣi, kings or roy-
alty who became ṛiṣis. Ṛiṣi is also an honorific title
given to great masters such as the sage Ramaṇa, who
is called the Mahāṛiṣi, from mahā (“great”) and ṛiṣi
(“seer”). See also DRIṢTI.

saxn
Sādhana
“Practice” or “accomplishing.” A particular spiritual
discipline. Also a Tantric term for spiritual disci-
pline, or the “path to Realization” that leads to siddhi,
or perfection. The Yoga Sūtras contain a section on
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, the Eight-limbed Path, delineating the
eight stages of practice (sādhana) that the yogin takes
to attain awakening and union with the Divine. See
also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, YOGA SŪTRA.

• 162 •
 saxu
Sādhu
“Holy man,” “saint.” From the root sādh (“to go
straight to the goal”). Sādhus often cover their bod-
ies with ash, to symbolize having left the material
world behind, or having “died” to their own desire.
They often devote themselves completely to worship,
renouncing worldly goods and trappings, sometimes
sitting alone in mountain caves for years at a time
without eating or speaking, sometimes wandering
endlessly on pilgrimage and pursuing other devo-
tional acts expressive of their surrender to a higher
power.
Some sects of sādhus, including the Naga Babas
and the Aghori sādhus, cover their bodies with ash
from cremation grounds, wander naked, and have
long, matted hair that reaches to the ground and
beyond. They also follow austere practices such as
those of yoga. In the subcontinent the wandering
sādhu is a common sight. There are even some charla-
tans. The real sādhus, however, live completely inde-
pendently, relying on nothing from the outside, even
under extremely difficult circumstances. They are

• 163 •
healthy, radiant, and clear, representing the ancient
principles of yoga—independence, freedom, and liv-
ing in harmony with nature. See also BHAKTI YOGA.

sdil<g
Sad-liṅga
The sad-liṅga are the six markers on the traditional
path to understanding the Vedas (and, eventually, to
enlightenment). The six sad-liṅga consist of: upakrama
and upasaṃhāra (“beginning” and “ending”); apūrvata
(“novelty”); abhyāsa (“repetition”); phala (“the fruits
of one’s labor”); arthavāda (“praise”); and upapatti
(“understanding”).

shj
Sahaja
“True nature.” The term means, literally, “born
together” and suggests that empirical reality and
• 164 •
transcendental reality are not mutually exclusive
but in fact coexist. When they come together, we
ourselves are realized, or “born” into our own true
natures, our essential being.

ziKt
Śakti
Also shakti. From śak (“to be able”). The “divine cos-
mic energy,” “cosmic power,” “force/potency/capac-
ity of the universe.” Śakti is the energy of the cosmos
that maintains the universe and also makes it disin-
tegrate. It is the name for the dynamic forces of the
entire universe. Śakti is the spouse of Śiva, and the
two create a cosmic dance of creation and destruc-
tion, birth and death. There can be no Śiva without
Śakti, no Śakti without Śiva. Śakti is considered the
feminine aspect of Śiva, the Divine Mother of cre-
ation. This energy is believed to lie dormant in each
of us at the base of the spine, waiting to be awakened.
See also KUṆḌALINĪ ŚAKTI, ŚIVA.

• 165 •
 SANSKRIT FACTS & LEGENDS
The Sanskrit name for the Ganges—one of Seven
Holy Rivers—means “she who moves swiftly.”

Sanskrit is the language of three world religions:

Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. It is also the
language of yoga, since all of the original texts on
yoga and yoga philosophy were composed in it.

The Gheranda-saṃhitā (“Gheranda’s Collection”), a

classical manual of Haṭha Yoga, states that there
are over 840,000 yoga poses or āsanas—one for
each living thing.

s<Sk«t
Sanskrit isn’t called “The Language of the Gods”
for nothing. There are thousands of deities in
the Hindu pantheon, and even their names have
names. Lord Kṛiṣṇa for example, has 1,008 names,
representing the multiplicity of forms the divine
and its human and energetic manifestations
can take.
 SANSKRIT FACTS & LEGENDS
Early Buddhists and Jainists rejected the use of
Sanskrit in their scriptures, wanting them to be
accessible to common people in their own tongue.
Instead, they used Middle Indo-Aryan.

In the early 1980s, NASA announced that Sanskrit

is the only unambiguous spoken language in the
world, making it perfectly accessible to computer
processing. NASA researcher Rick Briggs reported
the remarkable discovery that “There was a lan-
guage [Sanskrit] spoken among an ancient scien-
tific community that has a deviation of zero.”

s<Sk«t
The Sanskrit alphabet is said to have its own God-
desses that protect it, expressed by the word
avipastha—protector (pa) of animals (avi), or
“established in those who protect the
finite beings.”

The Triple Blessing Śānti, Śakti, Śambu means

“Peace, Power, Plenty.”
 smaix
Samādhi
“Bringing together,” “union,” “contemplation,” inte-
gration,” “pure contemplation.” The final limb of
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, sometimes called “bliss” or “enlight-
enment.” Samādhi is the ultimate state of being, when
the meditator merges with the object of meditation
and the distinction between subject and object van-
ishes. In the Yoga Sūtras, samādhi is “meditation that
illumines the object alone, as if the subject were
devoid of its own identity.” In the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā,
samādhi is “that which conquers death and leads to
bliss.”
Samādhi is often translated as “ecstasy,” mean-
ing “to stand outside the ordinary self,” but it has
also been translated as “enstasy,” meaning “to stand
inside the Self.” Both views are correct, as this is a
state in which one is both fully embodied within the
Self and fully detached from the Self, or ego. There
are two main types of samādhi—one attained by
deliberate effort such as meditation or concentration,
and one attained spontaneously. The state of samādhi
is sometimes interpreted as the beginning of mov-
• 168 •
ing into higher states of consciousness. Individuals
experience samādhi in many different ways. Samādhi
is synonymous with many Sanskrit words, such as
umānī (negation of the cognitive mind), manomanī
(fixedness of mind), amarata (immortality), laya
(absorption, dissolution), tattva (thatness, truth, real-
ness), shūnyashūnya (void yet not void, voidless void),
parampada (supreme state), amonoksa (beyond cogni-
tive mind), niranjana (without stain, pure), jīvanmukti
(living liberation), sahaja (natural state), and turya
(the fourth state; state beyond wakefulness). See also
AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA.

s<sar
Saṃsāra
“All together,” “flowing.” From the verb root samsṛi
(“to pass through”). “The world of flux, fluctuation
and change,” “existence,” “carrying on.” This term
also suggests the “ocean of life and death” and the
“wheel of time.” It is considered the melding of Śiva’s
three powers, or śaktis: iccha (will); jñāna (knowl-
edge); and kriya (action), which together create the

• 169 •
diversity of the universe. Saṃsāra is a world opposite
from the unchangeable, ultimate reality of nirvana,
or brahman. See also NIRVĀṆA, ŚIVA.

s<Skar
Saṃskāra
“Subliminal impressions,” “veil of illusion.” Saṃskāra
also encompasses psychological imprints based on
past behaviors, patterns, and experiences. The end-
less cycles of saṃskāra must be transcended by the
individual in order to free the mind to achieve lib-
eration. In the Samādhi Pada, or first chapter of the
Yoga Sūtras, Patañjali writes: “When consciousness
dwells in wisdom, a truth-bearing state of direct
spiritual perception (prajňā) dawns. . . . This truth-
bearing knowledge and wisdom is distinct from and
beyond the knowledge gleaned from books, testi-
mony, or inference. . . . A new life begins with this
truth-bearing light. Previous impressions (saṃskāra)
are left behind and new ones are prevented (Chapter
1, Verses 48–50). See also R ĀJA YOGA.

• 170 •
 s<ym
Saṃyama
Meaning, literally, “constraint,” saṃyama is the “self-
control” or “self-restraint” that develops when the
last three limbs of the Eight-limbed Path of Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga are integrated. These limbs are inward-directed
practices—dhāraṇa (concentration), dhyāna (medi-
tation), and samādhi (contentment)—that focus on
an object of meditation. Their integration produces
mastery over the mind and leads to bliss and union
with the Divine. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, PATAÑJALI, R ĀJA
YOGA, YOGA SŪTRA.

s<Nyaisn!
Sannyāsin
From the verb root as (“to throw”) and the prefixes
ni (“down”) and sam (“completely”). A sannyāsin is
one who has completely cast off or renounced worldy

• 171 •
goods and things; a renunciate, hermit, or disciple of
a particular guru or spiritual leader.

zaiNt
Śānti
Also shānti. From the verb root śam (“to be at peace”).
“Peace,” “contentment,” “stillness.” The eternal prin-
ciple of calm and repose, which posits that while
everything is known in the all-powerful silence, at
the same time it is manifest in the Universe. Śanti
is often chanted three times after prayers, to invoke
peace. The peace invocation is also found in lon-
ger chants or hymns, such as the Śanti Patha of the
Puruṣa Suktham in the Rig Veda (Invocation to Peace,
The Song of Puruṣa, Chapter 10, Verse 90) in which
peace is sought for all beings on earth. When com-
bined with Om, this becomes a prayer for peace for
all creation. This hymn was first “seen” by the ṛiṣi
Narayana (another name for God, or brahman). The
Deity it invokes is Puruṣa itself, “who alone adorns
the unmanifest universe.”

• 172 •
 ŚANTI PATHA
We seek that which gives us peace from sorrow--present
and future.
We seek growth for the rite of sacrifice, and growth for
the patron of the rite, the Yajamana.
May the Grace of the Gods be with us.
May well-being be granted to all mankind.
May plants and medicinal herbs flourish and grow.
May good come unto us from two-legged creatures, and
may good come from four-legged creatures.
Om. Peace. Peace. Peace.

Mani Varadarajan, scholar and the translator of

this chant, points out that the scope of this chant is
vast, encompassing all living things—animals, plants
and all beings on earth—reflecting the entire chain
of being. Plants and herbs are praised, since they pro-
vide sustenance and healing. Ritual sacrifice was cen-
tral to the ṛiṣis, who composed chants like this, as the
Gods received their powers from the vibration of the
mantras offered during the ritual of sacrifice. Sacred
food (havis) was offered to the Gods during these rit-
uals, and Agni, the Fire God, traveled between earth
and heaven carrying the havis to the Gods. This is
why the sages ask that their sacrifices flourish and
that the patron of the sacrificial rites (Yajamana) also
prosper. See also AGNI.

• 173 •
 srSvtI
Sarasvatī
From saras (“flowing”) and vatī (“having”), sarasvatī
literally means “she of the stream” or “she who has
flow.” It is said to be derived from sara (“essence”) and
swa (“Self”). Sarasvatī was a river in ancient India and
also the name of the Vedic Goddess who was the con-
sort of Brahmā, the Creator of the Universe. He made
her from his own body so that they could procreate
and create the human race; she embodies Brahmā’s
creative force. Sarasvatī is considered the “Mother
of the Vedas” and is beloved as the Hindu Goddess
of the arts and sciences, and as the embodiment of
nature. She governs learning, music, dance, painting,
sculpture and writing, much like the Japanese God-
dess Benten. Sarasvatī is a luminescent white God-
dess who is said to radiate “more than the light of ten
billion moons.” She is depicted draped in a flowing
white sari and is sitting on a beautiful blue and green
peacock, or on the back of a white swan. She has four
arms, representing her omnipresence in all worlds:
the front two arms are said to symbolize her mani-
festation in the physical world, while the two in back
• 174 •
symbolize her presence in the spiritual realm. Two
hands hold a vina, the classical Indian instrument
that resembles a lute. Another hand holds a prayer
book made of palm leaves (to spread her knowledge
for the benefit of all beings); and the last holds a mala,
or circle of prayer beads, made of pearls (symbolizing
the jewel of meditation and the path to enlighten-
ment). According to myth, she bestowed the gift of
writing upon the world so that her beautiful songs
could be captured on the page. Sarasvatī is also wor-
shipped as the Goddess of Wisdom and Eloquence,
and those wishing to receive these gifts offer her
their devotion. See also BRAHMĀ.

zrIr
Śarīra
Also sharīra. From the root śrī, meaning “sheath” or
“to waste away.” Śarīra refers to the physical body,
or that which perishes. In Advaita Vedānta, there
are three elements to the physical body—the sthūla-
śarīra (the “gross body”), liṅga or sūksma–śarīra (the
“subtle body”), and kārana-śarīra (the “causal body”).

• 175 •
The gross body is made up of the food sheath, or the
physical body. The subtle body is made up of three
sheaths: the sheath of breath, the mental sheath,
and the sheath of consciousness/intellect. The causal
body is the sheath of bliss.

zaSÇ
Śāstra
Also shāstra. From the verb root śās (“to teach” or
“to rule”), this term refers to “scripture,” “teaching,”
“doctrine,” or “treatise.” In addition to the Tantric
doctrines, India has four kinds of scriptures. Pri-
mary scriptures are those that are heard (śruti) and
passed down through the oral tradition; secondary
scriptures include those that are remembered (smṛiti)
as well as historical and mythological texts (purậna)
and epics (ithihāsa).
The Yoga Śāstra is a text written by Dattātreya as
a 334-line dialog between a sage (Dattātreya) and a
seeker (Sāmkriti), in which concentration techniques
(sanketas) are said to be a means of entering the void
(aūnya). See also SŪNYATĀ.
• 176 •
 st!
Sat
“Being,” “reality,” “truth,” “essence,” “soul,” “the
best.” The term sat is used to refer to “ultimate real-
ity” (brahman). Sat is part of the sacred expression Om
Tat Sat and is considered the self-conductor of every-
thing. See also OM, OM TAT SAT, TAT.

sTs<g
Satsaṃga
Also satsang. “True company,” “company of Truth.”
From sat (“truth”) and sangha (“assembly”). Keeping
company with sages, holy men, enlightened beings,
and disciples. Satsaṃga also means a gathering of
spiritual or enlightened beings, a community gather-
ing, or, in more contemporary terms, “keeping good
company.”

• 177 •
 sTy
Satya
“Truth,” “reality,” “that which exists.” Sat is the pres-
ent participle of the verb root as (“to be”). Satyagraha,
which is derived from this root, means “holding
onto the truth.” In India, Gandhi instituted a cam-
paign of Satyagraha, or “Insistence on Truth,” the
most famous example of which was his model of non-
violent civil disobedience, in which he incorporated
the principle of ahimsā (nonviolence) from the Eight
Limbs of Yoga practice. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA.

seva
Sevā
Service. Offering one’s time, energy, knowledge, expe-
rience, physical labor, money, teaching, or any kind
of aid or service without expectation, acknowledg-
ment, or reward. Sevā is one of the cornerstones of
Karma Yoga (the yoga of selfless service) and Bhakti
• 178 •
Yoga (the yoga of devotion) in which selfless giving
is a spiritual practice embodying the highest form of
service.
In Radhakrishnan’s version of the Bhagavad Gītā
(Book 4, Verse 34), Kṛiṣṇa implores Arjuna to relin-
quish the ego and perform his duty with a sense of
detachment and without regard for the fruits of his
labor. The translator comments that “The goal is life-
giving wisdom, which gives us freedom of action and
liberation from the bondage of work.” Kṛiṣṇa says:
“Learn that by humble reverence, by inquiry, and by
service.”
The act of offering oneself to others breaks the
bonds of ego and unifies us with the divine source.
When we extend our hands in acts of compassion,
the “giver” disappears, becoming instead a conduit
for divine love. Sevā is an expression of nonattach-
ment in action. Giving for giving’s sake requires sur-
render and sacrifice, liberating and benefiting both
giver and receiver in a transformational exchange.
The spirit of giving is as important as the gift itself.
In the Bhagavad Gītā (Book 14, Verse 26), Kṛiṣṇa
also invites Arjuna to worship him as a form of sevā.
“He who serves me with unfailing devotion of love,
rises above the three modes [sattvic, rajasic, tama-
sic]. He too is fit for becoming Brahman,” he says. In

• 179 •
the classic guru-disciple relationship, a student will
also perform sevā by tending the teacher’s household
or performing other duties at the guru’s request. As
the student’s ability progresses, her responsibilities
increase. This is part of the learning process and
preparation for deepening one’s yoga. A sevak is one
who performs sevā.
I slept and dreamt
That life was joy.
I awoke and saw that
Life was service.
I acted and behold,
Service was joy.
—Rabindranath Tagore

isi˜
Siddhi
“Attainment,” “realization.” There are eight clas-
sic siddhis, or Tantric “powers.” These paranormal
potentialities in the human being are also known as
vibhuti. Lord Śiva, the paradigmatic yogin, is said to
have possessed eight attributes.

• 180 •
The Eight Tantric Powers
1. Aṇiman Ai[mn!
The ability to shrink, to become “as small as an
atom.”

2. Mahiman mihmn!
The ability to expand.

3. Laghiman li”mn !
The ability to levitate.

4. Prāpti àaiPt
The ability to extend, connect, bridge great distances.

5. Prākāmya àakaMy
The ability to manifest will.

6. Vashitva vizTv
Complete mastery over material elements.

7. Īshitṛtva $izTv
Lordship. Mastery over the subtle causes of the mate-
rial world, when accomplished makes the yogin equal
to The Creator.

8. Kāmāvasāyitva kamavsaiyTv
Fulfillment of desires or the ability to suppress
desire.

• 181 •
According to the Yoga Sūtras (Chapter 4, Verse 1)
these siddhis are attained with yoga practice, medita-
tion, kriyā, magic, mantras, rasa (elixirs), and oṣadhi
(herbal potions). Someone who has attained the
powers of the siddhis—an accomplished yogin or “per-
fected being”—is called a siddha.

sIta
Sītā
The literal meaning of the word sītā is “furrow.” Sītā is
the name of Rāma’s beautiful wife, who is the heroine
of the Rāmāyana. She is considered the ideal, perfect
wife who stands for love, fidelity, and devotion. In the
Rāmāyana, Rāma wishes to marry Sītā but, in typical
princely fashion, he has to compete for her hand by
bending Lord Śiva’s bow in front of Sītā’s father, King
Janaka. While the other suitors are unable even to
lift it, Rāma manages not only to bend the bow but
actually to break it, and so he easily wins the beau-
tiful Sīta’s hand. Meanwhile, Rāma’s stepmother is
determined to have her son Bharat inherit the throne
instead of Rāma, and she convinces the distraught
• 182 •
King Dasarath to send his oldest son into exile in
the forest. Even though Rāma’s brothers (including
Bharat) are furious, Rāma consents to his stepmoth-
er’s decree and takes his new bride into the forest. In
the forest, Sītā explains the three sins: lying (false
speech), being unfaithful in matrimony, and cruelty
toward those who are not a threat. When Rāma is away,
a sage comes to their hut begging for food. It is the evil
Rāvana in disguise. He captures Sītā and kidnaps her
to his kingdom in Sri Lanka. Eventually, she is rescued
by the ultra-powerful monkey General Hanuman,
who has bridged gaps between mountains with his
legs and secured potent medicinal herbs to help his
beloved master Rāma win the fight against Rāvana.
(In fact, the yoga pose for the splits, Hanumānāsana, is
named in the general’s honor, celebrating his ability
to stretch his legs across mountains.)
Finally, Rāma kills Rāvana, but because Sītā has
been held in captivity in another man’s castle, her
chastity is questioned. When she is forced to sit in
a fire as a test of her virtue, she emerges unscathed.
Rāma and Sītā return to the kingdom of Ayodhyā
to claim Rāma’s rightful throne, but Sītā’s chastity
is still questioned by the general public. Although
Rāma has no doubt of Sītā’s loyalty and assures her
of his faith in her, under public pressure, he asks Sītā

• 183 •
to go through another test to prove her purity. Sītā,
however. does not feel the need to undergo any more
tests. Disheartened by the pleas of the public, she asks
her mother, who is Mother Earth—Sītā is said to have
been born from the Earth—to take her back in her
arms if she has, in fact, been loyal to Rāma. The Earth
opens up, and Sītā’s mother takes her back into her
natural abode. Sītā is also associated with the God-
dess Lakṣmī. Though she is most often celebrated as
the perfect wife, women around the world celebrate
her loyalty to her husband and the strength she dem-
onstrates in making this last decision on her own.
See also R ĀMA.

izv
Śiva
Also Shiva. This term literally means “auspicious
one.” Śiva is variously referred to as “the Benign One,”
“Lord,” and “Deity.” The name also represents ulti-
mate reality. As one of the three Gods of the Hindu
Trinity, or Trimūrti, Śiva is commonly called “the
Destroyer,” but in actuality he represents not only
• 184 •
the destructive force of the universe but also its res-
toration. He embodies these two seemingly paradoxi-
cal qualities and so represents the union of opposites.
Through change and upheaval, Śiva destroys what is
outworn, only to give birth to something better. He is
therefore called both “Śiva the Destroyer, “ and “Śiva
the Regenerator.” To many, he symbolizes the indel-
ible link between the destructive and the ecstatic. As
Swāmi Prabhavananda writes, “Śiva is often spoken
of as “the Destroyer,” but this is a misleading word,
because the universe is never destroyed. Since it is
subject to the eternal power of brahman, the universe
is part of a beginningless and endless process, which
alternates between the two phases of potentiality
and expression.”
Śiva has many manifestations. He is often
depicted together with his wife, the Goddess Pārvatī
and his son, the elephant-headed God Gaṇeśa. This
Divine Family is said to represent the qualities of
energy (Śiva), nature (Pārvatī), and wisdom (Gaṇeśa).
In this context Śiva is often shown riding a bull (Nan-
din), symbol of sexual vitality.
Another image of Śiva is as the four-armed Nata-
raj, the “Lord of the Dance,” dancing in a circle of fire.
Here Śiva moves to the rhythms of the cosmic forces
of life and death, creation and destruction, good and

• 185 •
evil. His back right hand holds an hour-glass drum,
representing the continual dance of the universe. His
front right hand makes the “no fear” gesture, shield-
ing from harm. His back left hand carries a purifying
flame (agni), while the front left hand points down-
ward to his raised left foot, which is balanced with
poise and grace, reflecting release and everlasting
bliss. The other foot is on the ground or stomping on
the body of Apasmara, the dwarf demon of ignorance
and suffering of those on earth.
Śiva is also revered by sādhu (holy men) as the
archetypical yogī, and is most often portrayed in a
yoga posture, draped in sacred beads (rudrākśa) and
meditating in the Himalayan mountains. He is cov-
ered in purifying ash. His long, matted hair, through
which the Ganges River is said to have dripped slowly
to earth, contains the crescent moon, symbolizing
the ability to control time. The jewel in his forehead
represents the third eye, the center of inner wisdom.
He is also portrayed with serpents wrapped around
his neck and arms (symbolizing kuṇḍalinī energy),
draped in tiger skin, grasping a trident (trishul), and
beating a drum from which all of the sounds of the
universe emanate. Nearby is the liṅgam, a symbol of
Śiva’s elemental form, rising from the yoni (symbol of
Śakti) representing the creative principle of the uni-
• 186 •
verse. Śiva is considered the Father of Shamans and
the God of Yoga.
Śiva’s counterpart Śakti symbolizes the energy
of the manifested Universe. The cosmic couple of
Śiva/Śakti are interconnected and interdependent:
one cannot exist without the other, and the energy
of one informs the other. In fact, there is a say-
ing, “Śiva is Śava without Śakti.” (In Sanskrit, śava
means “corpse.”) Together, Śiva/Śakti are united as
brahman, the Absolute Reality. In the Śaiva school
of thought, Śiva is believed to represent creation
(sṛṣṭi), maintenance (sthiti), dissolution (saṁhāra),
obscuration (tirodhāna), and grace (anugraha). In
Tantric philosophy, Śiva symbolizes pure conscious-
ness while Śakti symbolizes power in the forms of
iccha (will), jñāna (knowledge), and kriya (action).
The practice of Tantra is geared toward uniting Śiva
and Śakti as a means to mokśa (liberation). Another
name for Śiva is Śambu, or “Horn of Plenty.” See
also BRAHMĀ, GAṆEŚA, KUṆḌALINĪ ŚAKTI, LIṄGAM, PĀRVATĪ,
ŚAKTI, ṢRAM, TRIMŪRTI, VIṢṆU.

• 187 •
 Sm&&it
Smṛiti
From the verb root smṛi (“to remember”). Translated
as “memory,” “recollection,” “that which is remem-
bered,” and “mindfulness.” In the Yoga Sūtras (Chap-
ter 1, Verse 20), Patañjali lists smṛiti, or mindfulness,
as one of the five essential elements of the yogin’s
successful journey to self-awareness. The others are:
śraddhā (faith or trust), vīrya (vitality or energy),
samādhi (contemplation/integration), and prajñā (wis-
dom/knowledge).

saem
Soma
“Pressed juice.” From the verb root su, “to press.” One
of the most sacred and mystic plants in the ancient
world, said to yield the nectar of immortality. It is
mentioned throughout the yogic scriptures including
the Rig Veda, Bhagavad Gītā, and Yoga Sūtras. The ninth
• 188 •
book of the ten Rig Vedas is actually dedicated to soma
hymns. In fire ceremonies described in the Rig Veda,
the soma plant was pressed between stones, mixed
with milk, and filtered through sheepskin, and then
consumed during the rituals. Considered a divine
hallucinogen and energizer, soma produced a sense of
superconsciousness and visions of the gods. Accord-
ing to Vedic hymns, “Soma” is also the name of the
God who represents the juice of the soma plant.
Certain hymns extol Soma as the creator or
father of all the gods. He is said to be divine and
immortal and to bring immortality to gods and men.
All the gods are said to drink soma, and Indra was
an especially enthusiastic worshipper. Symbolizing
ānanda (bliss), Soma is also referred to as the Moon
God and lord of the waters. Chapter 9 of the Bhaga-
vad-Gītā states: “Those who study the Vedas and drink
the soma juice, seeking the heavenly planets, worship
Me indirectly. They take birth on the planet of Indra,
where they enjoy godly delights.”
Contemporary studies in ethnobotany have
tried to identify the soma plant. Harvard researcher
Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the “fa-
ther of ethnobotany,” was one of the first modern-
day explorers to investigate the use of sacred plants
in indigenous American cultures. He and others

• 189 •
such as Huston Smith have postulated a connection
between the shamanic use of ayahuasca and soma.
Modern theories hypothesize that visions induced by
soma, ayahuasca, and other plant medicines provided
the basis for the creation of Yoga and other spiritual
traditions. Some of these theories also hypothesize
an ancient link between ritualistic plant traditions
in the Americas and Asia. See also BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ, ṚIṢI,
ṢRAM, VEDA.

ïm
Ṣram
Also shram. “Hard work,” “effort,” “exertion.” Ṣram
is the root of the word āṣram, or place of hard work,
spiritual practice, and higher learning. It is also the
root of the Sanskrit word ṣamana, meaning “ascetic,”
or “one who builds heat and practices austerities.”
Ṣamana is also an adjective meaning soothing, appeas-
ing, conquering, calming. The shaman can be defined
as one who lives within nature and perceives nature
as the spiritual teacher/healer. The ṛiṣis who “saw”
the practice of yoga under deep meditation were a
• 190 •
type of shaman, since they resided in nature, receiv-
ing all nutrition and protection directly from natu-
ral sources. To this day, shamans in South America,
Africa, Asia, and other parts of the world continue to
receive great spiritual insight from the way their lives
are immersed in nature. Contemporary yoga teachers
are beginning to understand the link between yoga
and its shamanic roots. Danny Paradise, for example,
speaks of this connection extensively in his classes.
See also ĀŚRAM, Śiva, SOMA.

ïI
Ṣrī
Also Sḥrī. From the verb root śri (“to be aflame,” “to
diffuse light”). The term means “excellent,” “vener-
able,” “auspicious,” “beautiful.” It is also used to refer
to success, prosperity, glory. A term of respect, Ṣrī
(also spelled Śrīh or Sri) is often used as an honorific
prefix to indicate the holiness of the person being
addressed or discussed.

• 191 •
 suo
Sukha
“Ease,” “peace,” “inner joy.” Sukha is a sense of
lightness and joy, a sense of effortlessness and ease.
It is one of the two qualities Patañjali delineates in
the Yoga Sūtras that should be cultivated and nur-
tured in the practice of yoga āsana. (The other is
sthira iSwr, meaning “effort,” “equanimity,” “steadi-
ness,” and “alertness.” Both are essential to the
practice of yoga, comprising the yin and yang of
Āsana Yoga.)
The literal meaning of sukha is “good space”
and refers to the hub of a chariot wheel that is per-
fectly aligned and that therefore moves smoothly.
The opposite of this quality is duḥkha, or suffering,
which originally meant “bad axle space” that might
cause a chariot to careen recklessly down a road. The
sukhaba bode, or “abode of peace,” is the quiet, joyful
place within us where we can find inner sanctuary.
See also DUḤKHA.

• 192 •
 zUNyta
Śūnyatā
From the root verb śvī (“to swell”) and mean-
ing “void,” “nothingness,” “emptiness,” “nonexis-
tence.” In Theravada, this concept pertains to the
individual. In Mādhyamika Buddhism, all is empty
(śūnya), and it is this emptiness or formlessness that
is the true nature of the universe. In Vajrayana, it
is equated with the feminine principle—that which
is unborn, vast, and boundless. The term is similar
to the Japanese Buddhist expression mu, meaning
“nothingness.”

sUyR
Sūrya
From sū (“to press out”), meaning “sun.” Represents
Divine Light. The Sun Salutation, or sūrya namaskāra,
is from sūrya, meaning “sun” and namaskāra, from
na (“not”) plus ma (“mine”) and kara (“to do”)—a

• 193 •
greeting given in the spirit of worship, essentially
acknowledging “not of my doing, but of the Divine.”
The Sun Salutation is a sequence of yoga postures
used to warm the body up and stimulate the flow of
energy (prāṇa), building heat (tapas). The arms open
out to embrace the sun and, at the same time, the
heart opens and the yoginī joins her inner radiance
with the light of the sun. In ancient times, yogī who
practiced the Sun Salutation returned their life force
to the Sun God with every breath.

sUÇ
Sūtra
From the verb root si (“to sew”), sūtra means “aph-
orism” or “thread.” Mainly understood as a set of
highly condensed or abbreviated aphorisms setting
forth the concepts and precepts of a philosophical
system. Each school of Hindu philosophy has a sūtra
to provide a thread linking its tenets. Most sūtras
were composed as mnemonic devices to stimulate
memory, rather than as full explanations of a partic-
ular doctrine. As a result, ancient sūtras usually come
• 194 •
with a commentary, called bhāṣya, to help explain
their sometimes complex or obscured meanings. See
also PATAÑJALI, YOGA SŪTRA.

Svaimn!
Swāmin
Also swāmi. From the word sva (“to own”), swāmin
refers to a “lord,” “spiritual preceptor,” “spiritual
teacher,” or “person from the upper castes.” The term
also literally means “learned Brahmin.”

tNÇ
Tantra
From the root tan (“do in detail”) and trā (“pro-
tect”), Tantra refers to a “ritual,” “rule,” “scripture,”
or “religious treatise.” Tantra is a religious science
through which adepts seek liberation by awakening
śakti (divine power) through Tantric rituals, or pūjā.
• 195 •
These rituals include the practice of mantras (sacred
words), yantras (sacred/mystical diagrams), upāsana
(meditation), pūjā (ceremonial worship, ritual), and
arcā (image worship). The word tantra is said to derive,
alternatively, from the Sanskrit roots for “body” (it
focuses on physical activity), “stretch” (it extends
individual capacity); “rope” (it binds the devotee to
the Deity), “harp” (its philosophies are harmonious),
“interiority” (its doctrines are private/protected),
and “loom” and “warp” (it weaves together the cos-
mic principles of male and female that form the fab-
ric of the universe). Tantric texts known as tantras
(rather than sūtras) explain these practices, as well
as detailing the tattvas—essential principles illumi-
nating the “thatness” and “suchness” of things. The
tantras reveal how everything in existence is woven
together: all people, animals, and elements of nature
are linked as part of the eternal One, while every-
thing within the One interrelates. The tantras also
explain the union of consciousness (śiva) and action
or energy (śakti). According to the tantras, there
should be spiritual consciousness behind all action
and thought processes. Though modern interpreta-
tions link it mainly to the sacred nature of sex, tantra
integrates spiritual awareness in all forms of action.
See also PŪJĀ.
• 196 •
 tt!
Tat
“That.” This genderless pronoun expresses the Abso-
lute, which cannot be described. A related word is
tathātā, which means “suchness” or “things as they
are,” reflecting the essential, indescribable essence
of things, an essence that transcends dualities. Tat is
part of the sacred expression Om Tat Sat. See also OM,
OM TAT SAT, SAT.

iÇmagR
Trimārga
The Threefold Path of Yoga. The triumvirate of clas-
sical yoga, which comprises Bhakti Yoga, Jñāna
Yoga, and Karma Yoga (see the respective entries for
each).

• 197 •
 iÇmUitR
Trimūrti
From tri (“three”) and mūrti (“aspects” or “faces”).
This is the famous Hindu Trinity of Gods who repre-
sent the three facets of Isvara: Brahmā (from bṛih, “to
expand”), the Evolver and Emanator; Viṣṇu (from viś
“to enter,” “pervade”), the Preserver and Sustainer;
and Śiva (from śiva, which means “kindly” or “aus-
picious”), the Destroyer and Regenerator. See also
BRAHMĀ, ŚIVA, VIṢṆU.

%pin;d!
Upaniṣad
From the verb root sad (“to sit”) and the prefixes upa
(“near”) and ni (“down”). Literally, “to sit down near,”
meaning “to place oneself close with devotion” or
“sit at the feet” of a spiritual master or guru, whose
words will impart wisdom. There are two basic types
of Upaniṣads—Agamic (Tantric) and Vedic. In the lat-
• 198 •
ter, there are ten principal Upaniṣads, the final por-
tion of the Vedas (also called Vedānta). The Vedas are
the great oral teachings of the ancient Indian sages,
which posit that humans can realize brahman, the
Absolute Reality. The Upaniṣads are primarily con-
cerned with the process of unveiling the true Self or
ātman in order to distinguish reality from unreality.
According to the Upaniṣads, individuals mistakenly
identify themselves with their body, mind, and/or
senses. Just as a shining moon appears to be a source
of light but in fact only reflects the sun, one’s true Self
is reflected not by the body, mind, or senses but by
a deeper, unchanging reality, which is the ātman, or
soul. Through meditation and observation of moral
conduct, one can ultimately realize that the true Self
is identical to brahman or God. Tat Tvam Asi, “That
Thou Art.” This realization of Oneness, which ulti-
mately leads to freedom, is actually not dependent
on studying these revered scriptures. Rather, accord-
ing to the Upaniṣads themselves, ultimate truth can
be realized only through one’s own experience. See
also BRAHMAN.

• 199 •
 vEraGymagR
Vairagya Mārga
Vairagya means “dispassion,” “detachment,” “non-
attachment.” Mārga means “path” or “way.” Vaira-
gya mārga is the path of detachment from worldly
things, and of freedom from human desires. The
seeker on this path gives up the pleasures of the
flesh and the senses, renouncing the physical body
to attain a higher spiritual manifestation in the
body of a god.

vaStu
Vāstu
From the verb vas (“to dwell,” “to live”). Vāstu means
“nature,” “surroundings,” or “environment.” Śastra
means “system” or “principles.” Vāstu Śastra, or
Vāstu, as it is commonly known today, is the ancient
Indian art and science of designing and construct-
ing structures to harmonize with nature, bringing
• 200 •
peace, joy, prosperity, and balance to the building’s
inhabitants. The principals of Vāstu revolve around
consideration of Earth, Space, Air, Fire, Water, grav-
ity, magnetic fields, and the position of the planets
when building. Important design principles include
the shape of the land (the square and the rectangle
are auspicious, while L-shaped or U–shaped struc-
tures or plots are considered unsuitable), the pres-
ence of bodies of water (north or east placement are
especially good), and the avoidance of obstructions
like trees or poles. Eight directions and their respec-
tive gods are central to Vāstu Śastra. These are:
Esshan (direction: northeast), who gives wisdom;
Indra/Angel King (direction: east), who gives pros-
perity and pleasure; Agni/Fire God (direction: south-
east), who gives us charisma and the best things
in life; Yama or Yamaha/God of Death (direction:
south), who embodies the dharma and destroys evil;
Nissan or Niruti (direction: southwest), who dispels
fear and makes us victorious against our enemies;
Varun/Rain God (direction: west), who rains down
blessings, bringing wealth and joy of living; Vāyu/
Wind God (direction: northwest), who gives us lon-
gevity, health, and endurance; and Kuber/Prosperity
God (direction: north), who gives us prosperity and
creature comforts.

• 201 •
 vayu
Vāyu
“Air,” “life,” and “breath.” Vāyu is also the Wind God—
the vital force that links heaven and earth. While Agni
represents Divine Will and Surya represents Divine
Light, Vāyu represents Divine Energy. Vāyu inspires
prāṇa and activates all the systems of the human
body. Vāyu is traditionally called “Mātariśvan,” or
“he who extends himself in the Mother or the con-
tainer.” Here “Mother” could indicate the element of
Ether or the energy of the Earth, which is referred
to in the Vedas as “Mother.” Vāyu is also one of the
five gross elements (mahābhūta) that emerge from
the subtle essences of the elements (tanmātras). These
are: ether (ākāsa), which emerges from sound (śabda);
air (vāyu), which emerges from touch (sparśa); fire
(tejas), which emerges from color (rūpa); water (ap),
which emerges from taste (rasa); and earth (pṛthivī),
which emerges from smell (gandha).

• 202 •
 ved
Veda
From the root vid (“to know”), veda means “wisdom,”
“knowledge,” “revealed scripture,” “ritual lore.”
The Vedas are the most ancient and sacred of Hindu
scriptures, or śruti, a word that originates in the root
śru, “to hear,” and means “direct from God” or “God
reveals it.” The four principal Vedas are believed to
have been dictated by God in the fourth or fifth mil-
lennium B.C.E. and heard by highly evolved sages dur-
ing deep meditation. The Vedas are thus said to be
divine in origin, a reflection of Divine Truth itself—
of that perfect knowledge which is God. They were
subsequently passed down and recited by successive
generations of priests in each of the specific areas
of religious activity they address. They are the: Rig
Veda (Hymns of Wisdom, which reveal the meaning
of existence and of man’s contribution to the world);
Yajur Veda (Sacrificial Rites, giving most importance
to the mechanical aspects of ceremonies); Sāma Veda
(Liturgical Hymns, showing how music can elevate
one’s consciousness to the highest realm of Bliss and
Supreme consciousness); and Atharva Veda (formulas

• 203 •
to dispel evil, disease, etc.). The Vedas are comprised
of four parts—Saṃhitās, Brahmaṇas, Arāṇyakas, and
Upaniṣads.
The Saṃhitās are a collection of mantras that
sing the praises of the many Hindu Gods and God-
desses while also rejecting pantheism and recogniz-
ing God as one Supreme Being. The many Gods are
described as manifestations of the same Supreme
Being, depicted in different ways. “That which exists
is one. Sages call it by different names.”
The Brāhmanas are concerned with everyday
duties and rules of conduct. The Brāhmanas empha-
size love, truth, kindness, and self-control and for-
bid theft, adultery, and murder. Emphasis is placed
in serving the Supreme in all its forms—giving food
to the hungry, medicine to the sick, and knowledge
to the ignorant, etc. When performed selflessly, such
actions or duties purify the heart.
The Arāṇyakas are concerned with the truths
that are the basis for the forms of conduct described
in the Brāhmanas. The Arāṇyakas are more concerned
with a spiritual interpretation of the inner reality of
one’s actions than with the outward symbols of the
actions themselves.
This deeper analysis of one’s actions draws one
closer to the last and most celebrated section, the
• 204 •
Upaniṣads. The Upaniṣads embody the essence of the
Vedas, and are often called the “cream of the Vedas.”
The Upaniṣads clearly define the prime Vedic doc-
trines of self-realization, meditation, karma, and
reincarnation, and reveal the process through which
one can achieve liberation through knowledge of the
ultimate truth. Though orthodox Hindus consider
the Vedas the highest authority, the teachings are
not necessarily blindly accepted. The real study is to
realize truth through one’s own experience. See also
UPANIṣAD.

vedaNt
Vedānta
End of the Vedas. This is another name for the
Upaniṣads. It is also the name of the different schools
of thought centered on its teachings concerning the
nature of brahman. The major schools are Advaita
Vedānta, which teaches absolute nondualism, in
which it is believed that God (Īśvara), individual
souls (cit), and matter (acit) are not separate and that
everything is interconnected; Viśiṣṭādvaita, a quali-

• 205 •
fied nondualism that holds that God, individuals,
and matter are interrelated and that individuals and
matter are dependent upon an independent God; and
Dvaita Vedānta, which teaches dualism, expounding
the belief that God, individuals, and matter are sepa-
rate and distinct. See also ADVAITA, VEDA.

ivNyas
Vinyāsa
From vi (“in a special way”) and nyāsa (“to place”) and
meaning, literally, “to place in a special way.” Vinyāsa
is often defined as “flow” and is a popular and rela-
tively new form of Haṭha Yoga, born from the stream
of yoga that originated with Śrī T. Krishnamacharya,
which was then passed down to his students, who
went on to develop their own immensely popular
styles of yoga, including Iyengar Yoga, Viniyoga, and
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga. Vinyāsa Yoga incorporates elements of
each of those styles and other influences in a fluid,
flowing movement that links one āsana to another
like a dance. The concept of “flow” also pertains to
the breath, as the flow is guided by the rhythm of the
• 206 •
inhalation and exhalation, coordinating every move-
ment with every breath. In this way, the body/mind/
spirit are yoked in a dynamic interplay of breath and
movement, stillness and motion. See also YOGA.

iv:[u
Viṣṇu
Also Vishṇu. The Supreme Lord, the all-pervading.
One of the three deities of the Hindu Trinity of Gods,
or Trimūrti. Viṣṇu represents the all-pervading reality
and is known as “the Sustainer.” He is the Deity who
keeps the universe in perpetual existence. He is said
to possess six divine qualities—knowledge, strength,
divinity, power, virility, and splendor. When depicted,
his skin is dark blue, and he has four arms. One holds
a conch shell, one holds a discus. One holds a lotus,
and one holds a mace. He rides on the back of Garuda,
the great eagle. But this eagle is not just a majestic
bird. It has been likened by Śrī Brahmananda to the
“pulsation that arises from the movement of cosmic
life,” to which we must all listen attentively. Viṣṇu is
said to incarnate on earth in times of evil or chaos

• 207 •
to protect both gods and humans, and to reestablish
order. Thus far, Viṣṇu is believed to have appeared in
nine incarnations, the best known being Rāma and
Kṛiṣṇa. See also BRAHMĀ, KṚIṣṆA, R ĀMA, ŚIVA, TRIMŪRTI.

yNÇ
Yantra
“To restrain,” “to compel.” Yantra are mystical sym-
bols or diagrams designed to represent divine ideas
or qualities and/or the niruguna (unmanifested) and
saguna (manifested) aspects of the Divine. In medita-
tion, they are used to direct psychic energy toward
these aspects when the seer focuses his gaze on the
particular pattern of the yantra. Eventually the dia-
gram will be reproduced in the disciple’s mind by the
power of visualization alone. There are two types of
yantras—those for protection and those for worship.
In yantras for worship, there are specific diagrams
for aiding in meditation, and those for calling forth
divinities. In broad terms, Śrī Swāmi Satchidananda
explains it this way, “A yantra is a physical expression
of a mantra—a mantra being a Divine aspect in the
• 208 •
form of sound vibration; a yantra in the form of a geo-
metrical figure.” He notes the expression from the
Bible: “In the beginning, there was the Word, and the
Word was with God, and the Word was God,” adding
that Sanskrit has a similar expression: “Nāda, Bindu,
Kalā,” which means “the Sound, then the Dot, then
the art of Rays,” to express the manifestation of God.
Since sound is invisible, the next smallest expression
of the Divine is the dot, or bindu, which represents
the core of the cosmos. But as it is too small to see,
it expands out as kalā, the different aspects or rays
of its manifestation. Those rays are expressed in the
yantra.
Yantras differ from mandalas in that yantras
are physical expressions of divine sound vibration,
or mantras, whereas mandalas are separate entities
representing holy abodes. Also, mandalas are based
on circles, while yantras are typically based on square
structures that contain circles, lotus petals, and tri-
angles that lead to the center point, or bindu. See also
BINDU, MANDALA, MANTRA, NĀDA YOGA.

• 209 •
 yaeg
Yoga
“Divine union.” From the root verb yuj (“yoke,”
“ join,” or “unite”), yoga is the science of spiritual,
mental, and physical self-transformation. In rather
broad brushstrokes, it is an ancient discipline that
seeks union with the Divine—in other words, union
between individual consciousness ( jīvātman) and
universal consciousness (paramātman). The root yuj
originally meant “to hitch up” as in hitching a horse
to a chariot. As scholar Barbara Stoler Miller has
written, “yoga refers to both a process of discipline
and its goal. It is the entire process that enables one
to realize a state of absolute spiritual integration,
which is freedom.” Yoga balances the subtle energies
in the body and the chakras, awakening the innate
potential of the inner self, which is manifest at the
gross and subtle levels. Yoga transforms the physical
and spiritual life of the practitioner by releasing the
physical, mental, energetic, emotional, and psycho-
logical blocks that limit potential; this release helps
her evolve and grow. A sense of calm, balance, and
ease follows. On the gross level, the practice of yoga
• 210 •
has many concrete benefits, such as correcting phys-
ical ailments, reversing the aging process, providing
strength and flexibility, purifying and detoxifying
the system, toning muscles, regulating internal body
functions, calming the nervous system, and curing a
variety of ailments and illnesses.
The exact origins of yoga are uncertain, but
these ancient practices and precepts predate writ-
ten history. In the Indus Valley (now Pakistan),
archeologists uncovered five-thousand-year-old
carvings of adepts in yoga positions. This science
was originally passed down orally from teacher
to student, and was eventually codified by Patañ-
jali in the Yoga Sūtras around two thousand years
ago. Teachings on yoga were influenced by Bud-
dhist, Jainist, Hindu, Saṃkhya, and Vedantic phi-
losophy, and are also found in the Bhagavad Gītā,
the Upaniṣads, and other sacred scriptures. Over the
ages, different forms of yoga emerged to meld with
particular philosophical and religious beliefs, like
Bhakti Yoga, Haṭha Yoga, Jñāna Yoga, Kuṇḍalinī
Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga, Mantra
Yoga, Rāja Yoga, Tantra Yoga, and Yoga Chikitsa
(Science of Yoga Therapy). Today, millions of people
worldwide practice the many diversified yoga styles
that stem from the ancient stream. Aṣṭāṅga Yoga,

• 211 •
Iyengar Yoga, and Viniyoga are often cited as the
most influential of the “new” styles of yoga, but
many other popular forms have emerged in recent
years, including Anusara Yoga, Bikram Yoga, Inte-
gral Yoga, Kripalu Yoga, Satyananda Yoga, Siddha
Yoga, Vinyasa Yoga, Yin Yoga, and more.
The concept of “yoga,” or divine union, is found
in cultural traditions throughout the world. For
example, in the indigenous pre-Polynesian Hawaiian
culture, the only law that existed was that “We are
One.” Similar to the yogic scriptures, this concept of
oneness in the Hawaiian culture served as the basis
of compassionate living since it was believed that all
beings within the one are interrelated. Therefore
anything done to one person is consequently done to
the self as well. In Tibetan Buddhism one of the pri-
mary teachings is the interdependent nature of all
phenomena.
The lack of understanding of the interrelated-
ness of all things and the true nature of the Self is
considered one of the primary causes of all disease
and suffering. Even modern theories of physics, such
as the Theory of Everything (TOE), explain how all
living things are linked by lines of energy as sub-
atomic particles. Fritjof Capra, one of today’s leading
physicists, states: “The universe is fundamentally
• 212 •
interconnected, interdependent and inseparable.”
See also ĀSANA, AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, HAṬHA YOGA, PATAÑJALI, YOGA
SŪTRA.

yaegsUÇ
Yoga Sūtra
The treatise on yoga written in Sanskrit about two
thousand years ago, reportedly by the ancient Indian
philosopher Patañjali. A text composed of 195 apho-
risms or sūtra (threads), stitching together the phil-
osophical and practical system of yoga in which
liberation (mokśa) is attained by stilling the fluctua-
tions of the mind. The Yoga Sūtras begin:
This is the teaching of yoga.
Yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind.
When fluctuations cease, the spirit stands in its true
identity as
Observer to the World.
Otherwise, the observer identifies with the fluctuations
of the mind.

The Yoga Sūtras are composed of four chapters, or

• 213 •
padas, that outline the progression of yoga practice.
In the first chapter, the Samādhi-Pāda (Path of Ecstasy
Chapter), Patañjali outlines the meaning and founda-
tion of yoga. In part two, the Sādhana-Pāda (Path of
Realization Chapter), he offers a description of the
many ways yoga can be practiced. The third chapter,
the Vibhūti-Pāda (Chapter on Powers), explains the
siddhis, or powers that can arise from the practice of
yoga; the fourth chapter, the Kaivalya-Pāda (Libera-
tion Chapter), outlines the higher states of conscious-
ness that can be attained through yoga.
The Yoga Sūtras also contain a section on Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga, delineating the eight stages of practice (sādhana)
the yogin passes through to attain awakening. Some
scholars, however, believe that Patañjali did not write
this section, but that it was added later to his origi-
nal text by another writer. Debate about the author
extends to uncertainty about the date when the Yoga
Sūtras was written. Patañjali is thought by many to
be the author of various ancient texts on Āyurveda
and Sanskrit grammar that were written by someone
also named Patañjali. Those who associate the author
of the Yoga Sūtras with the grammarian Patañjali date
the Yoga Sūtras as far back as the third century C.E.
Those who believe that the two authors are different
date the Yoga Sūtras to about the third century B.C.E.
• 214 •
To this day, the Yoga Sūtras remain one of the most
widely studied texts on yoga and yoga philosophy
worldwide. See also AṢṬĀṄGA YOGA, NIRODHA, PATAÑJALI,
R ĀJA YOGA.

yaeign! / yaegI
Yogin / Yogī
“One who is joined or connected.” Literally, “one pos-
sessed of yoga.” A male yoga practitioner.
Book V of the Bhagavad Gītā reminds us that:
Only that yogī
Whose joy is inward,
Inward his peace,
And his vision inward
Shall come to Brahman,
And know Nirvana.

• 215 •
 yaeignI
Yoginī
“One who is joined or connected.” A female yoga
practitioner. Interestingly, the word has also been
defined as a “female demon” or “being endowed with
power,” or “woman representing a Goddess.” We pre-
fer the latter definitions, obviously.

yaein
Yoni
From yauna (“water”), yoni means “womb,” “source,”
“vulva,” “place of birth,” “origin.” The base of the
śiva liṅga is a yoni with Brahmā, Śiva, and Viṣṇu
inside it, emerging from it. In the Hindu trinity,
Śiva is the destroyer, Brahmā the creator, and Viṣṇu
the sustainer. The fact that the yoni, or female prin-
ciple, contains these three incredibly powerful dei-
ties, symbolizes the root of śakti as the creator of
everything—both Gods and humans alike. The yoni
• 216 •
symbolizes receptivity, fertility, birth, Mother, the
Universal Mother, Mother Earth, and the Goddess.
See also ŚIVA.

• 217 •
 CHANTS

Certain sacred Sanskrit words carry tremendous

energy. Repeating the sounds at a certain rhythm,
with proper pronunciation and deep concentration—
a practice known as Mantra Yoga, or japa—releases
this energy, giving sound a materializing value. The
chants below are a few examples of the way that
ṛiṣis selected words from ancient Sanskrit texts and
arranged them so as to convey meaning and create
tangible effects on our inner being. The soft vibra-
tions still the mind, open the heart, and eventually
balance our chakras, allowing for deeper yoga and
meditation practice. Sound has been used in spiritual
traditions and systems of psychotherapy through-
out the world as a device for moving from the con-
scious mind toward the superconscious. These simple
sounds have the power to connect man to the Divine
and the ultimate unity in all things.

• 219 •
1. The following mantra is an invocation to peace.
It is most often recited at the beginning of spiritual
study or practice.

ZaiNt mNÇ> Śanti Mantra Peace Hymn

` shnavvtu /, Om. Saha Om. May He

sh naE ÉunKtu, Nāvavatu. protect us both
sh vIRy< Saha Nau (teacher and
krvavhE , Bhunaktu. taught). May
tejiSv Saha Vīryam. He look after us
navxItmStu Karavāvahai. both to enjoy
ma iviÖ;avhE. Tejasvi the fruits of our
` z<<ait> z<<ait> NāvadhītamAstu studies. May we
Mā
z<<ait>, work together
Vidviṣāvahai. with enthusiasm
Om. Śanti, Śanti, to find the
Śanti. true meaning
of the sacred
texts. May our
knowledge
and strength
increase. May
we never
quarrel with one
another.
Om, Peace,
peace, peace.

• 220 •
2. The Gāyatrī Mantra is one of the most sacred of the
Vedic hymns, and is composed in 24-syllable meter.
This mantra is also called the Sāvitrī, as it is addressed
to the Sun God, giver of light. Especially powerful
when chanted every morning, noon, and night, it is
an ode to the power of Om, the sacred sound (śabda)
that illuminates everything on earth. Chanting this
mantra is said to give wisdom and aid in overcoming
hardships and obstacles.

GaayÇImNÇ Gāyatrī Mantra Mantra to Lord

Gayatri

` ÉUÉRuv> Sv> Om. Oh, Lord

tTsivtuvRre{y<, BhūrBhuvah. —Embodiment
ÉgaRe devSy Svah of vital spiritual
xImih Tat Savitur energy, remover
ixyae yae n> Vareṇyam. of suffering—
àcaedyat!. Bhargo Devasya you are
Dhīmahi effulgent like
Dhiyo Yo nah. the sun. May
Prachodayāt. you enlighten
my intellect.
May you give me
wisdom.

• 221 •
3. The Mahā-Mrityuṃjaya Mantra has great curative
powers. It protects against death and accidents of all
kinds. This mantra bestows peace, wealth, prosper-
ity, satisfaction, and immortality.

mha- m«Tyu<jy Mahā- The Great Mantra

mNÇ> Mrityuṃjaya for Immortality
Mantra
We worship
` ÇyMbk< Om Lord Śiva, the
yjamhe sugiNx< Tryambakaṃ three-eyed
pui:qvxRnm!, Yajāmahe Lord who is
%vaRékimv Sugandhiṃ resplendent
bNxnat! m«/TymuR Puṣṭi- with fragrance
]Iy ma m«tat!. vardhanam, and who
Urvā-rukam-iva nourishes all
Bandhanāt beings. May
Mṛtyor-muks. Īa He liberate me
mā-mṛtāt. from death
for the sake of
immortality,
just as the ripe
cucumber is
severed from its
bondage (off the
creeper).

• 222 •
4. This is one of the most popular Vedic hymns cel-
ebrating the light of immortality and peace. Though
appropriate for any occasion, it is often recited dur-
ing Dīpāvalī, the Hindu Festival of Lights.

` Astae ma Om. Asato Mā Lead me from

sÌmy , SadGamaya the unreal to
tmsae ma Tamaso Mā the real, from
JyaeeitgRmy , JyotirGamaya darkness to
m«/TyaRemRa Am«t< Mṛtyu r-Ma light, from death
gmy, Amṛita. Gamaya to immortality.
` z<<ait> z<<ait> Om. Śanti, Śanti, Om. Peace,
z<<ait>, Śanti. peace, peace.

• 223 •
5. This mantra celebrates the Hindu trinity. It is a
prayer to acknowledge the powers within and with-
out, to create and preserve positive energy and
destroy negativity.

GauéäRÒa Gurur-Brahmā Know the Guru

guéivR:[u> Gurur-Viṣṇuh. to be Brahmā
guédRevae mheZvr> GururDevo (Creator).
gué> sa]at! Mahesh/varah. He is Viṣṇu
präÒ Guruh. Sākshāt (Preserver).
tSmE ïIgurve Para Brahma. He is also Śiva
nm>, Tasmai Shrī (Destroyer).
Gurave Namah. Know him to
(Repeat twice) be Supreme
Brahmā, and
offer thy
adoration unto
him.

• 224 •
6. This popular mantra can be said at any occasion
when one thinks of or wishes to invoke the Divine.

Tvmev mata c Tvameva You are my

ipta Tvmev Mātā Cha pita mother, my
Tvmev b<xuí soa tvameva father.
Tvmev Tvameva You are my
Tvmev iv*a Ôiv[< Baṃdhush/Cha family, my
Tvmev sakhā Tvameva. friends.
Tvmev svR< mm Tvameva Vidyā You are my
dev dev, Draviṇam. knowledge, my
Tvameva. wealth.
Tvameva You are my
Sarvam. Mama everything.
Deva Deva.

• 225 •
7. The following mantra is a portion of a longer man-
tra traditionally chanted at the closing of an Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga practice. It is a beautiful way to remind yogīs
that the true purpose of practicing yoga is not for the
self, but for the welfare of humanity. Through the
science of yoga, individuals awaken peace, strength,
and knowledge within, to ultimately share it with
others.

laeka> smSwa> Lokah May all beings

suionae ÉvNtu, Samasthāh everywhere
Sukhino attain happiness
Bhavantu. and freedom.

• 226 •
8. This chant is sung in praise of divine female
energy. Each goddess represents a different form of
śakti (power, strength, and control), illuminated in
the rich mythological tradition of the Hindu culture.
Chanting their names together celebrates the mysti-
cal, deep powers of feminine energy.

dugRit naizin Durgā Nāshini Glory to Durga,

dugaR jy jy, Durgā Jaya Jaya Kali, Uma, Rama,
kal-ivnaizin Kal Vināṣani Brahmani,
kalIjy jy, Kali jaya jaya Radha, Sita,
%ma rma äüa[I Umā Rama Rukmani—all
jy jy, Brāhmini Jaya Goddesses
raxa-sIta- Jaya who vanquish
éiKm[I jy Rādhā Sīta darkness,
jy ,, Rukamani Jaya ignorance, and
Jaya unpleasant
events.

Dur: unpleasant
Gati: events
Kal: darkness/
ignorance
Vinaṣani: destroyer/
vanquisher
Jaya Jaya: Glory to

(Note: Rama here

refers not to Lord
Rāma but to the
Goddess Rama.)

• 227 •
9–12. The following four mantras are to specific
gods and goddesses. When we pay our respect to the
god(s), we acknowledge the Divine above as well as
the divine qualities within ourselves. For example,
when we chant the name of Sarasvatī, Goddess of
Knowledge and the Arts, we acknowledge the God-
dess for her creative energy, while also awakening
our own inner source of creativity. While worship-
ping Śiva, Lord of Destruction, we acknowledge the
powers above as well as within, to dissolve negativity
and birth greater good.

` g< g<< g[ptye Om. Gam. Gam. Invocation to

nm>, Gaṇapataye Lord Gaṇeśa,
Namah. the remover
of obstacles,
who guards the
doorway to the
enlightened
realms. His
blessings
are essential
for good
beginnings.

• 228 •
ya kuNdeNdu Yaa kundendu I pray for
tu;arhar tuṣārahāra protection
xvla ya zu_a dhavalā by Goddess
vSÇaivRta, ya yā shubhra Sarasvatī, who
vI[a vr-d{f vastrāvritā is white like
jasmine flowers,
mi{ftkra ya yā veenā
brilliant like
Zvet-pÒasn, varadanda
the moon, and
ya äÒaCyut- manditakarā
sparkling like
z<kr-à_a&iti_a yā shveta a necklace of
devE> sda padmāsana dew, and who
viNdta, sa ma< yā brahmā wears pure
patu srSvtI chyuta śankara white clothes,
_agvtI in>ze; prabhritibihi whose hands
jaf(apha. devaih sadā are adorned
pujitā by Veena and
sā mām pattu an auspicious
saravatī staff, and who
bhagavatī is seated on
nihshesha the throne of
a white lotus,
jādyāpaha.
and before
whom gods like
Brahmā, Viṣṇu,
and Mahesh
always prostrate
themselves, and
who completely
enlivens
people’s
uninspired
minds.

• 229 •
` nm> izvay, Om. Namah. I bow down to
Shivāya. Śiva, the Lord
of Destruction.
Śiva liberates
through change
and upheaval.

` nmae Égvte Om. Namo Invocation to

vasudevay, Bhagavate Vasudeva, the
Vasudevāya. one replete with
Divine virtues,
the granter of
liberation.

• 230 •
13. The following mantra is often recited at the end of
a spiritual practice or ceremony.

` pU[Rimd> Om Om. That is

pU[Rimd< pU[aRt! Poornamadah whole; this
pU[RmudCyte, Poornamu- is whole; the
pU[RSy pU[Rmaday dachyate whole becomes
pU[m R v
e aviz:yte. Poornaat manifest. From
` z<<ait> z<<ait> Poornamu- the whole when
z<<ait>, dachyate the whole is
Poornasya negated, what
Om. Śanti, remains is again
Śanti, Śanti. the whole.
Om. Peace,
peace, peace!

• 231 •
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• 237 •
www.ramanuja.org.
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• 238 •
 `
BIBLIOGRAPHY

About the Authors

Leza Lowitz is a frequently published writer and yoga teacher who has
been a student of Buddhism and yoga for over twenty years, since she
was a teenager. She has a degree in English literature from U.C. Berke-
ley and a Masters in Creative Writing from San Francisco State. The
coauthor of Designing With Kanji, she is also the author of three books
of poetry, including the award-winning Yoga Poems: Lines to Unfold
By, and a collection of short stories, Green Tea to Go, and the editor of
many anthologies. Leza now lives in Tokyo, Japan, where she owns
and directs the Sun and Moon yoga center.

Reema Datta has been exposed to yoga, Āyurveda, mantra, and Sanskrit
since childhood. She has degrees in International Affairs from Vassar
College and the London School of Economics (M.A.). Having worked
for the U.N. and conducted research on women’s empowerment in
Varanasi, India, she appreciates this time in her life to explore the
process of building empowerment from within. Reema has taught at
It’s Yoga in San Francisco, with Danny Paradise throughout Asia and
Europe, and at Usha Yoga, a family-run studio in Maryland. Combin-
ing her interests of service and spirituality, she conducts retreats to
Khaknar, a tribal village in north India where her grandfather runs a
grassroots non-governmental organization.
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