PUBLIC ADMINISTARTION

UNIT – 1
Public Administration – definition, nature, scope and importance; public administration vs. private administration;
politics vs. administration; new public administration.
Organization – meaning and importance; principle- hierarchy; span of control; delegation of authority; unity of
command; integration; centralization vs. decentralization (principles, limitation & examples)
Public Administration – Introduction – ​Public administration has been co-existing in every political system as the
action part of government for the fulfilment of the objectives set by the political decision makers. In the wake of
the industrial revolution, the modern welfare states, the multiplication of state functions, public administration
has become highly complex and specialised.
Meaning – ​Public administration is the branch of the wider field of administration. In the words of E.N. Gladden,
administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning. The word administer is derived
from the Latin word ad+ministaire, means to look after the people, to care of, to serve or to manage the affairs of
the state. Public administration is a co-operative human effort towards achieving the common goals. Thus,
administration can be found in various institutional settings such as Business Firm, Hospital, University and
Government Departments.
Pfiffner and Presthus said that administration is an organisation, direction of men and materials required to
achieve the goals. Public administration operates within a specific political setting. It has become ever-increasing
body of knowledge and experience. According to Marshal Dimock,” Administration is concerned with the what and
the how of the government”. The what is the subject matter, technical knowledge which enables the administrator
to perform his tasks. The how is the technique of management according to which co-operative programmes are
carried to success.
Public administration is that type of collective activity which involves rational organisation of men, materials and
methods. Public administration is a joint term having two words. Public and Administration. Public means
government. Administration of Governmental affairs is known as public administration. Administration means to
run the activities for the good of the people. Government in action is called public administration.
Definitions – Alexander Hamilton, ​“Administration of governmental affairs is known as public administration”.
Woodrow Wilson, ​“Public Administration is the co-ordination of collective effort to implement the public policy”.
Dr. L.D. White, ​“Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or
enforcements of public policy”.
Nature – ​The nature of public administration with reference to human beings is worth nothing. The activities of
public administration are expressed through organisation and human beings. Public administration is a human
activity, it is managed by human beings and it serves human beings. In the study of public administration, the
importance of human beings and organisations should be kept in mind. Public administration is essentially a
matter of human relationship. It is nothing but the organisation and management of men, materials and methods.
The nature of public administration can be analysed with the following two views –
1. Integral View (Broader View) – ​Prof. L.D. White has adopted the integral view of public administration. To him,
“Public administration consists of all those operations, having for their purpose the fulfilment of public policy”.
This definition covers multitude of particular operations to many fields such as delivery of letters, sale of public
land, treaties, compensation to the injured workers, licensing, etc. according to this view, public administration
is a sum total of all the activities undertaken in the pursuit of and in the fulfilment of public policy. These
activities include managerial, technical and electrical. Thus, the activities of all officials from top to bottom
constitute administration. It denotes the activities that are conducted by the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary – the three branches of the government.
2. Managerial View (Narrower View) – ​According to this view, the work of those persons who are engaged in the
performance of managerial functions in the organisation that constitute administration. Their job is to plan,
programme and organise all the activities to achieve the desired ends. In this sense, Luther Guillick said that,
“Administration has to do with getting things done by others, i.e., government is action. For e.g. – the
executive branch of the government is concerned with the execution of the will of the people as expressed in
the form of laws.
Public administration is run by the civil service which constitute the fourth wheel of the government
machinery. In public administration everything is to be properly arranged and managed, but ultimately it is the
participation of human element that matters.
Scope – ​There is no unanimous view regarding the scope of public administration. Some thinkers identify with the
entire gamut of government activities comes under legislative, executive and judicial organs. Other thinkers
restrict it to the operations of the executive branch only i.e. the executive. Scope of the subject is divided into two
senses broader and narrower.
In its broader sense, public administration embraces the entire area and all the activities of the government. But
by usage the scope has come to the organisation, personnel, practices and procedures essential to the effective
performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of the government. Therefore, it is not
concerned with all the acts of three branches pf the government, but studies only a part of the executive branch
i.e. the policy executing branch. Public administration is in fact the executive in action where we study the actual
administrative machinery of the state.
In the narrower sense, public administration is the organisation and use of men and materials in the pursuit of
common objectives. It does not include all activities of the organisation. Therefore, the scope of this subject is
limited to the techniques of management.
In actual practice, it is seen that the administration is concerned not only with managerial technique, but also with
questions of policies and programs. The problems of organisation and management are to be found not only in the
executive branch of the government but in the other branches as well. For e.g. – summoning of sessions of the
legislature, conducting proceedings of the legislative chambers and passing of legislative bills involve more
intricate problems of management. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to give the definition of Dimock and
Dimock that “public administration examines every aspect of government’s efforts to discharge law and to give
effect to public policy”.
General Principles of Scope of Public Administration –
1. General Administration – ​This study refers to the functions of direction, supervision and control over the
administration, who is to perform these functions.
2. Organisation – ​It refers to the organisation of different departments and services. It means the structuring of
individuals and functions into productive relationship. It represents the static part of administration. It is
central to everything.
3. Personnel – ​It refers to the recruitment of persons who have to manage the activities of administration.
Personnel or the Civil service is part of public administration.
4. Supply of Materials – ​It includes the tools with whose help administration is carried on. The materials such as
buildings, furniture, files, etc. are supplied to the personnel to discharge their duties. Office work cannot be
done without furniture’s.
5. Public Finance – ​Finance is the centre of everything that the government does. Public finance helps to stabilise
and motivate the economy. Without finance the administration cannot move.
POSDCORB View – POSDCORB ​is given by Luther Guillick in the following letters –
P – Planning – ​Planning is necessary for every enterprises and for better management to accomplish the purpose.
It is found in everything the government sets out to do.
O – Organisation – ​Organisation refers to structure, power and functions of public authority.
S – Staffing – ​Staffing refers to personnel. The recruitment, training, promotion, discipline, retirement of
personnel.
D – Direction – ​Direction includes supervision, guidance, control and instructions to the subordinate officers.
CO – Coordination – ​Efficiency of administration depends mainly upon co-ordination between materials and
methods. It also brings proper relation between different departments of the government it is necessary to
eliminate the possibilities of friction, delay and overlapping.
R – Reporting – ​Reporting leads to the responsibility of the executive to send a report concerning the activities of
public administration to the legislature. For e.g. – Comptroller and Auditor General of India audits the expenditure
incurred by the government and report the same to the President of India.
B – Budgeting – ​Budgeting is the annual statement of accounts. It refers to preparation, enactment ad execution of
the budget.
The Subject matter of Public Administration –
1. Theoretical Approach – ​It relates to the structure, organisation functions and methods of all public authorities
engaged in administration whether national, regional or local, whether executive or advisory, whether
government departments or public corporations, independent Commissions and Boards.
2. Applied or Practical Approach – ​It includes the study of specific administrative system and their problems,
such as hospital administration, public health administration, educational, revenue, functional administration.
 It also includes organisation and methods at the government levels – local, national and international
organisation. ​Sphere of Public Administration –

Importance of Public Administration – ​The importance of public administration in the modern state can hardly be
over emphasized. The complexities of modern industrial and urbanised civilization have resulted in an
ever-growing expansion of functions of the state. Today we find that the state is managing almost the entire life of
the community. The well-being of the community is increasingly dependent on efficient governmental
management i.e. Public Administrations.
During the 19​th​ century the state performed limited functions. But in the beginning of the 20​th​ century the old
concept of Police State has been replaced by a new concept of Welfare State. The essence of Welfare State is the
promotion of common welfare. It has a great impact upon the life of the people. It is a vital process charged with
the implementation of objectives. The importance of public administration may be studied under five headings.
1. For the People – ​The individual in the modern society depends upon administration at every turn of his life.
The government begins to take care of the expectant mother, and thus locks after the health of the baby even
when it is in the embryo. Immediately, on its birth the administration moves to register its birth and to provide
hospital and medical services. When the infant develops into a child, the state undertakes his schooling. After
he has completed his studies, there are chances of entering into a government service. The government
provides minimum of 25% jobs. The state also helps him through minimum wages act and labour laws, if he
works in the private organisations. There is also a use of state transport service for travelling purpose. For all
his communications he has to depend upon the state service. Likewise, for the use of electricity, health,
sanitation and entertainment he has to depend upon the services rendered to him by public administration.
Administration also continues to serve him even after his death. Not only for registering his death, but also by
providing his will if he has left behind any provisions for his dependents.
2. Protection of the Culture – ​Public administration has a very important place in the life of the people. It has
become an important mechanism for preserving and promoting the culture of the community. The ideals of
the state may be high, but the impact of these ideals upon the life of the people could be ganged when the
ideals are put into actual practice. Public administration is part of the economic, cultural and social life of the
people, and is, therefore a permanent force in determining the character and activities of a nation. Hence,
Prof. Waldo ​calls it,” A cultural complex which is not only acted upon but also acts”. Public administration
reflects the genius of its people and embodies all their qualities, desires and aspirations. Thus, it is not only
preserver of the life but also an agent of social change and progress.
The state today is undertaking more and more activities in the economic, industrial, commercial and social
fields. Therefore, public administration is not only a protector of its citizens from external danger or internal
disturbances, but it has become educator, manufacturer, distributor, helper and servant in different directions.
Thus, our welfare and progress depend upon standard of efficiency of organisation and management in
 government. If public administration fails, the whole structure of modern society and civilization would fall, to
pieces.
3. For Development – ​For improving the life of the people the state has to undertake development programmes
from the available resources. For development purpose the state undertakes various plans. Public
administration helps in implementing these plans.
4. Subject of Study – ​public administration holds a very important place in the life of the people. It touches them
at every step. Therefore, its study cannot be ignored by the citizens. Its teaching and learning have become an
important part of the curricula of educational institutions. At the higher secondary stage, it may be taught as
part of the social studies. But at the college level it has become distinct subject of study. The students of today
are the administrators of tomorrow. The study of public administration will prepare them into better
administrators and facilitates their willing participation in the nation building programs.
Public administration has become a great stabilizing force in the society. It is not merely a preserver of civilized
life but also a great instrument of social reforms. The burden of carrying out the social reform in a planned and
orderly manner rests upon public administration. Success or failure of activities depends upon the stamina of
public administration. Therefore, public administration is described as the heart and soul of modern
civilization.
5. Ideals of Democracy – ​In a democracy the importance of public administration is democracy –
progress, prosperity and protection of the common man has obtained through impartial, honest and efficient
administration. Modern democracy has bought a new concept i.e., welfare state. It has increased the scope of
state activity. An administrator must have qualities of leadership as L.D. White puts, “Administration is a moral
act and administrator is a moral agent”. If democracy is to be successful, public administration must be proper
and efficient.
Public and Private Administration –​ Public administration and private administration are the two species of the
same genius i.e., administration. But the question arises that what relation is there between public and private
administration. There are two different views on the question of the relationship between the two.
Urwick, Mary Parker Foilet, Henry Fayol upheld the view that all administration is one whether it is public
organisation or private organisation. The view is based on in daily observation. There are some points of
similarities between public and private administration.
Similarities between Public and Private Administration –
1. It is difficult to differentiate between public and private administration. The activities performed by
governmental agencies come under public administration. There are many activities of public nature, which are
performed by governmental agencies. But we do not study them in public administration. Likewise, there are
many activities which are of public purpose, performed by voluntary organisations which are not included in
public administration.
2. There are skills, techniques and procedures which are common to both public and private administration.
According, statistics, management, procedures, purchases, disposals, stocking, etc. are common to both public
and private administration.
3. All undertakings, whether public or private, requires planning, organisation, command, coordination and
control. In order to function properly both must observe the same principles. For e.g. – Public corporation is a
half-way house between the commercial prototype and the traditional government department.
4. The parties in private administration resembles with public administration. Both employ modern methods to
increase efficiency.
Differences between Public and Private Administration – Prof. Herbert Simon ​said that to a little extent public
administration is a symbol of political and bureaucratic structure. Public administration is not political but it is
business oriented as people felt. But this idea may be wrong, because the students of public administration can
reject the differentiation between public and private administration. Public administration has important factors
and hence it can be separated from private administration. But the thinkers cannot agree with this. According to
Appleby public administration is different from private administration.
1. Public Direction – ​The difference between public and private administration that public administration is
subject to political direction whereas private administration is not subject to political direction. Its objectives
do not depend upon political decisions. The administrator under public administration has to carry out the
orders with the approval of the political executive and not of his own choice.
2. Service Motive – ​Public administration is conducted with service motive, while private administration stands
for profit motive. In public administration some functions are performed by the state which are entirely money
 consuming functions for e.g. – running of a government school. But private administration will never undertake
a work, if it does not bring profit to him.
3. Service or Cost – ​In public administration, money is raised by taxation which is necessary for rendering the
services. There is intimate relation between the service rendered and the cost of service charged from the
public. For e.g. – Government budget is a deficit budget, expenditure exceeds income. But in private
administration income always exceeds expenditure.
4. Nature of Functions – ​Public administration deals with various need of the people. It maintains railways, post
and telegraphs, maintenance of hospitals, defence of the country and maintenance of law and order. The aim
of public administration is to look after the welfare of the people. But no private administration can undertake
any of these functions.
5. Public Responsibility – ​Public administrative is responsible to the public. The public officials work in
accordance with the wishes of the people expressed through their representatives. But private administration
does not have any such responsibility towards the public. But a clerk in post office will not sell stamps on credit
to persons who very often purchase them.
6. Uniform Treatment – ​Public administration is consistent with procedure and uniform in dealing with public.
The public servants cannot show favour to some people and disfavour to others. Private administration need
not bother about uniformity in treatment. E.g. – a shopkeeper selling cloth may give cloth on credit to a person
who is his regular customer.
7. Public Relations – ​Both public and private administration differ on the principle of public relations. This
principle was borrowed by public administration from the private business world. But public administration
does not have full application of public relations.
8. Efficiency – ​Private administration functions on the level efficiency superior to that of public administration.
People regard private administration from the private business world. But public administration does not have
full application of public relations.
9. Financial control – ​Public administration is subject to external financial control. Legislature controls the
Finance but finance in private administration cannot be controlled externally.
10. Framework of Law – ​Public administration functions within the framework of the land(constitution).
Administration cannot break private administrative functions without any rules and regulations. It frames its
own rules.
11. Operation – ​The functions of public administration re vast and hence their operation is problematic as it is not
profitable. Service is its motto. Public administration has made its services the basic foundation. Therefore, is
has become useful tool for the purpose of work operation. Police, fire protection, railways, post and telegraph,
etc. are the works of public administration. But private administration cannot do all this.
In conclusion, both public and private administration are placed in different surroundings. Both have the two
species of the same genus but they have their own values and techniques which are distinct in character.
Politics V/S Administration - ​Public administration is closely related to the study of political science. This is
because public administration is a part or branch of the study of political science. It gives ample testimony to their
mutual relationship. An understanding of politics is key to an understanding of public administration. Politics and
public administration are the two sides of the same coin.
Most of the present writers have found it difficult to make a distinction between politics and administration.
Pfifner has rightly said that politics and administration are so intermingled and confused that a clear distinction is
difficult.
But some earlier writers have made a sharp distinction between politics and administration. To them, politics was
concerned with laying down policies whereas administration was concerned with the execution of policies.
Woodrow Wilson was the first writer to draw a line between politics and administration. In his article on ‘Study of
Administration’ he said, “Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administration questions are
not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate
its offices. The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics. At the
most it stands even apart from the debatable ground of constitutional body.
Pfiffner has enumerated the points of distinction between political and administrative officers. These are
Political Officers and Administrative Officers
Amateurs Professional & skilled
Non-technical Technical
Partisan Non-partisan
Temporary Permanent
More public contacts No public contacts
More co-ordination More performance of duty
Decision makers Advisors
Distinction b/w politics and administration are as under-
There is difference between the duties of political officers and administrative officers. But we may say that what
the top administrative officers do is political in nature. Though policy-making is the function of the ministers and
legislatures, yet most of the ground work is done by the administrators behind the curtain.
Political science is the study of state and government. It studies the various forms of government in order to find
out which form of government can best administer to the needs of the people. So, politics is concerned with
policy-making and administration is concerned with implementation of policy matters.
Study political theory has been divorced from the study of public administration. The reason for this is that political
theory is philosophical whereas public administration is empirical in nature. But the divorce between politics and
administration has ended in a happy re-union. Prof Waldo said “Students of administration have been reaching out
towards political theory, and have been contributing in the way of political theory.” According to Lipson,
“Government is a continuous process. But this process contains two phases. They are legislation and
administration. But these two are merged together and at certain point become indistinguishable.”
The study of public administration is no longer a dull study of legal concepts but a lively discussion of human
problems. Its study includes all the processes of policy-formulation, politics, parties and public opinion. John Gaus
concludes that “a theory of public administration means in our time a theory of politics too.”
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION - ​1960 and 1970 was the period of turbulence, instability and confusion in the
west [USA] It challenged the traditional contents of the subject. Like other social sciences, public administration
was also shaken by this revolutionary period. Earlier public administration included economy and efficiency which
were found inadequate and incomplete objectives of administrative activities. It was thought that efficiency was
not the only factor but man is the centre of administrative activity. Man cannot be subjected to the mechanical
test of efficiency and economy. It was asserted that public administration is value-oriented. Therefore, it promotes
values in the society.
The term new refers to new directions and new purposes. We have new federalism and likewise w have new
public administration also. The new public administration was used to describe new trend in the field of public
administration.
Following are the landmark factors in the emergence of new public administration such as –
John Honey’s report on higher education for public services -1967.
The Philadelphia Conference on the theory and practice of public administration, 1967.
The Minnow brook conference of 1968.
Publication of “Toward a new public administration.” The Minnoow brook Perspective-1971.Dwight Waldo’s book
“Public Administration in times of turbulence” 1971
John Honey’s Report ​– 1967 -John Honey, professor of Syracuse University, was asked to evaluate the study of
public administration in the US Universities. He submitted the report in 1967. It sought the modern scope of public
administration with the process of government that is legislature, executive and judiciary.
Recommendations of the Report ​–
The establishment of National Public Service Commission. Public service education should exert broad leadership
to meet the needs of the governments.
A substantial fellowship programme for the post-graduate students who are preparing for public service at the
master’s and doctoral levels and also to include professional degrees.
Internship programmes to operate at federal, state and
local level to prepare for public service careers.
A special fellowship programme for those who have interest to become teachers in the schools.
A programme to provide opportunities for practical government experience to be engaged as university faculty in
public affairs-Teaching and research.
A programme of assistance to the universities for public affairs, curricular experimentation and development.
To support the university personnel for engaging in research on governmental and public affairs issues.
This report made many scholars to think deeply about its place in the society.
Philadelphia Conference ​– 1967 -The Philadelphia Conference was organized by the American Academy of Political
Science and social sciences to discuss about the theory and practice of public administration–scope, objectives and
methods. James Charlesworth was the chairman of this conference. Some participants defined public
administration as administration in the public interest and some others said that government administration.
Recommendations - ​Agencies of public administration have to make policy administration dichotomy is erroneous.
Study of bureaucracy should be made functional and structural.
Training in business administration and public administration should be separated.
Public administration should remain separate from profession and discipline of political science.
Focus on the policy and political considerations for replacing management ability as the major concern in public
administration.
Administrators should be trained in professional schools. Public administration curricula should emphasize not
only administrative organization and procedures but also psychological, financial and sociological aspects.
Public administration is a discipline but it cannot all the methods of the social sciences.
The Minnow Brook Conference​ – 1968 - Minnow Brook Conference was the youth conference on public
administration and was academic get-together which gave rise to new public administration. According to it the
new public administration is concerned with the societal problems of the day. It deals with morals, values,
innovation and social equality. The administrator should think of poor people. This conference sought to give a
new image to public administration. The conference produced the first coherent grammar of new public
administration.
Recommendations ​– Public administration should act as agent of change.
Needs of the organisation should be suited to the fast-changing environment.
Toward New Public Administration-The Minnow Brook Perspective – 1​971 - The book “Toward New Public
Administration-the Minnow brook perspective was edited by Frank Marini, a pioneer in the area on the basis of
Minnow Brook Conference.
Recommendations ​– The administrators should become champions of the underprivileged sections of the society
and must be active agents of change.
Public administration should be concerned with the problems of society and must have reformist intentions.
Public Administration in Times of Turbulence​–​Prof. Dwight Waldo ​– 1971 - The Minnow brook ideas found wider
circulation through public administration in times of turbulence authored by Dwight Waldo which carries the
Minnow Brook ideas. His book also gave currency to the concept of new public administration.
Recommendations ​– The new public administration gives stress on social equity. It should be the guiding factor for
public administration. Public administration should become champion of the underprivileged people. The
administrators should be active agents of economic and social change.
The new public administration advocates a client-centred approach. The administrators should provide the people
a major say in how and when and what is to be provided.
The new public administration gives importance to innovation and change.
The key-note of new public administration is concerned with societal problems of the day.
It should be based on morals, values, innovation and social equity.
There were no serious publications on new public administration since 1971. Articles have been appearing from
time to time, but they are of different types. Because some articles support the movement of new public
administration and some other criticised it.
Organization – Meaning – ​In public administration, important place is given to organisation. For administration
management good organisation is a must. The word ‘organisation’ has come from the word ‘organism’. The
administration is carried on by coordinating the departments, sections and wings.
To run the administration successfully, planning and preparations must be made and organisation is a must to
achieve the goals. To achieve the determined goals, how man power and instruments are to be used, itself is the
general meaning of organisation. The organisational settings are deciding factors of good administration. If the
functions of administration are not determined in advance, there will be confusion among the employees and with
this they will work against each other. Therefore, organisation is a technique of delegating functions that are used
for achieving foals through the physical and mental labour of employees.
Public administration is concerned not only with the organisations but also with management. In common
language, organisation means the act of putting things in working order.
Definitions – L.D. White, ​“Organisation is the arrangement of personnel for facilitating the accomplishment of
some agreed purpose through the allocation of functions and responsibilities”.
J.D. Mooney, ​“Organisation is the form of every human association for the attainment of a common purpose”.
Urwick, ​“Organisation is the determining of the activities and arranging them in groups systematically”.
Principles of Organisation – ​Every administrative organisation has its own problems. By solving and implementing
them, the employees will shoe their skills and ability. The principles relating to this are called the principles of
organisation. The following are the principles of organisation –
1. Principles of Hierarchy – ​Hierarchy is one of the carinal principles of organization. This is why, every
administrative organization is hierarchically organized. It makes the working of a department smooth and
efficient. It is essential for the students of public administration to study this principles, for it specifies the place
of every official working in an organization, and defines their relationship.
Prof. Mooney and Railey ​have called it ‘scalar process’. Mooney observed that the supreme coordinating
authority must rest somewhere and in some form in every organization…… It is equally essential to the
organization that there must be a process, formal in character through which the coordinating authority
operates from the top throughout the entire structure of the organized body”.
According to ​Prof. L.D. White, ​“Hierarchy consists in the universal application of the superior subordinate
relationships through a number of levels of responsibility reaching from top to bottom of the structure”.
In a hierarchical organization authority descends down and from the top step by step. In hierarchy there are
various levels of authority and responsibility. Here everyone has a duty to obey the commands given by the
superior. Hierarchy becomes a channel of command and means of communication and various levels of
authority. The ideal type of hierarchy is found in military administration. Because in hierarchy there are various
levels of delegation of authority. Every subordinate is delegated an area of discretion by his superior. In this
area he has authority to take decisions. Thus, hierarchy creates different interrelated centres of decision
making.
The system of hierarchy is found in every government department. For example – Revenue Department.
Chief Secretary --- Deputy Commissioner --- Assistant Commissioner --- District Collector --- Tahsildar --- Village
Accountant
Characteristics of Hierarchy – ​Principle of hierarchy has seven characteristics –
A. Leadership – ​The Chief Executive, sitting at the apex of the organization, is called the leader. Leadership is an
activity which receives cooperation from the members of an organization by persuasion and inspiration. It is an
influence which guides the people to work together in a collective effort to achieve the purposes of the
enterprise.
B. Delegation of Authority – ​If a complex organization is to work efficiently, there should be delegation of
authority at various levels and steps in the chain of command. By delegation a higher official confers authority
on lower officials to do things and take decision. Delegation means conferment of some discretion and powers
given to the subordinates to take decisions to meet their obligations. But it should be done carefully and within
limits.
C. Channel of Communication – ​Channel of communication is one of the important features of hierarchy.
Communication flows like channel from superior to subordinates. Administration runs properly, efficiently and
effectively through communication.
D. Harmonious Relations – ​Principle of hierarchy brings harmonious relationship between the superior
subordinate officials. There lies step-by-step delegation of authority and responsibility which flows downwards.
E. Pyramidical Form – ​Hierarchy is formed in a pyramidical form. On its apex there is Chief executive at the
bottom, there are various levels of authority and responsibility.
F. Authority Command and Control – ​It is most important feature of the principle hierarchy. We can find
authority, command and control in every level of administration. There is no possibility of skipping from
responsibility.
G. Unity of Command – ​All the employees working in an organisation have to work in accordance with the order
of their superior. Therefore, unity of command is also regarded as one of the features of the principle of
hierarchy. Every member of an organisation has to report to his superior.
Merits of Hierarchy –
A. Unity and Responsibility – ​It secures complete unity of purpose and responsibility and facilitates
communication upward and downwards. Everyone knows from whom he has to get work and to whom he is
answerable.
B. Delegation of authority – ​Hierarchy is based on the principle of delegation of authority and responsibility. The
head of an organisation is relieved from the burden of taking decision on all matters.
C. Efficiency – ​It promotes division of labour and specialization. It also ensures greater efficiency in
administration. Responsibility and work are divided between the different levels of hierarchy.
D. No Confusion – ​There is no confusion regarding the work and responsibilities. Everyone knows his position and
act accordingly.
E. Chain of Relations – ​It gives effect to the proper channel. It promotes chain of relations between all the
officers. Every one works under every one and thus harmonious relations continues.
 Demerits of Hierarchy –
A. Rigidity – ​It tends to bring about rigidity in an organization. Hence, development work suffers.
B. Delay and Red-Tape – ​It causes delay and red tape. Every paper has to move step by step and at every step it
has to wait a certain time. The officer is too officious and too lazy. The paper may be lost from the file and may
be found when it is too late. We sometimes read in the newspapers that a retired person was sanctioned his
pension after his death.
C. Formal relationship – ​No organisation can work only on formal principle. Many a time informal relation
between the superior and subordinate do not depend on the formal authority.
2. Principle of Unity of Command – ​This principle was borrowed from military organisation. Unity of command is
an essential feature of scalar system. This means that an employee should receive orders from one superior
only. Every member of an organisation should report to one. If a person is called upon to obey two commands,
the result is confusion, inefficiency and paralysis of organizational activity. Therefore, it is suggested that a
subordinate should accept the authority of one superior. This is known as unity of command.
Henry Fayol ​is an advocate of this principle. To him, when there is direct superior subordinate relation, there is
no confusion of responsibility. Everyone knows who is superior and when he has to obey. In the words of
Pfiffner and Presthus “​each subordinate officer should report to one superior only”. The concept of unity of
command needs to be reconciled with dual activity i.e., technical and administrative. The two types of
supervision may be exercised by different individuals. The one is concerned with professional and the other is
concerned with the efficient utilisation of the resources – men and materials. If two superior officers give
orders to subordinates, there may be possibility of friction. Hence, subordinates should obey the orders of one
superior only. All administrative authority flows from one responsible head.
S.W. Tylor, ​the father of scientific management movement, criticised the principle of unity of command and
said one worker has to obey the orders of eight supervisions. They are Gang officer, Room Clerk, Inspection
card Clerk, etc. In this was the principle of unity of command has become popular method.
Merits –
A. No difference of opinion in administration.
B. Clear supervision and responsibility.
C. Efficiency in administration.
D. No delay in work.
Demerits –
A. One man should obey one superior cannot be applied universally. There are some exceptions to this principle
i.e. technical experts do not come under this category. They receive and issue commands to various officials.
B. To receiver orders from one superior is not practicable. In case of conflict, the subordinate is expected to obey
the command of one superior only.
C. Today’s states are welfare states and it has become inevitable for one departmental head to give one direction
to the others of other department. Hence, unity of command is improper Tylor, Simon, Millet have not
supported the unity of command. Instead they said that there should be dual command.
3. Principle of Delegation of Authority –​ In every organization, a superior controls the activities of his
subordinates. It is his responsibility to observe that everything is being done in accordance with the rules and
regulations. But the superior has some physical and psychological limitations upon his subordinates. Human
span of attention also imposes the important limitation on his span of control. Thus, an individual can
effectively control and supervise the activities of only a limited number of persons viz, seven, nine or twelve.
The need of control is an organization or administration is obvious without control, the administration cannot
run effectively. If there is insufficient control in any agency or office. His work becomes slack and disorderly.
Thus, in every organization control is a must.
Meaning – ​What should be the span of control, i.e., can an individual keep effective control, if so, over how
many subordinates? It is called span of control. In the words of ​Prof. Dimock, ​“The span of control is the
number and range of direct habitual communication contracts between the Chief Executive of an enterprise
and his subordinate officers”.
Span of control is limited. So, there is a limit of number of persons over whom a superior can keep control
effectively. In the words of ​Prof. J.D. Millet, ​“Experience and psychological research, have confirmed that there
is a limit to the supervisory capacity of an administrative officer”.
But there is difference of opinion among the writers on public administration over the number of persons upon
whom the span of control can be effective. ​Hamilton ​said one officer has to control 3 to 4. If one officer has to
control more workers there lies inefficiency, laizy. It depends on two factors –
A. How many employees are to be supervised?
B. How many subordinates are to be controlled by one superior?
For Example – Karnataka Police Administration –
Inspector General of Police – Deputy IGP – Commissioner of Police – Superintendent of Police – Dy. SP – Circle
Police Inspector – Inspector of Police – Sub-Inspector – Head Constable – Constables.
It is clear that the writers are not unanimous about the span of control. Thus, it can be concluded that it is
futile to argue the ideal number of persons whom a superior can effectively control.
Factors Responsible for Span of Control – ​There are some factors responsible for fixing the numbers of
persons for span of control. Prof. Luther Guillick has indicated four factors –
A. Function – ​Span of control depends on the nature of work. If a boss has to control the individuals engaged in
the same type of work the span of control can be bigger, i.e., he can control a greater number of persons. For
example, an engineer can control greater number of junior engineers.
B. Time – ​It simply means that if an organisation is old, permanent and stable, the span of control can eb
extended.
C. Space or Place – ​If the officers of the subordinate staff are stretched too far distant places, the span of control
must be smaller and vice-versa.
D. Personality – ​Besides the factors indicated by Prof. Luther Guillick, the span of control also depends upon the
personality of the superior. If the executive has a charming, attractive and effective personality and natural
traits of leadership, he can control greater number of persons.
4. Principle of Span of Control – ​Delegation of authority means conferment of authority and power by higher
officer to the subordinates. The subordinate officer exercises the delegated authority and performs his duty.
Responsibility goes to the higher officer for the decision taken and the action done.
Legally all the powers are vested in the head of the organisation. But it is physically impossible for him to
exercise all powers or he alone cannot perform all the functions of the organisation. So, delegation of authority
is necessary for the smooth functioning of the organisation. Delegation of authority is a common feature in all
types of large organisations.
According to Mooney, ​“Delegation is the devolution of authority by a superior to his subordinates subject to
supervision and control”.
Delegation does not mean the final transfer of power and responsibility to the subordinates. The person who
delegates authority still retains the full power of supervision and control. Delegation of authority also means
assigning duties to others. Therefore, delegation is merely a device for division for authority.
Forms of Delegation of Authority –
A. Full & Partial Delegation – ​Delegation is full when complete authority in conferred on the officer. E.g.
diplomatic representative is sent abroad with full powers to negotiate the treaties. It is partial, when he is
required to get advice and guidance or crucial points from the head office.
B. Conditional & Unconditional – ​The delegation is conditional when the action of a subordinate is subject to
confirmation and control by the head. It is unconditional when the subordinate is free to act without
reservations or control.
C. Formal & Informal – ​Formal delegation is based on written rules or laws or provisions of the law of the land.
Informal delegation is based on customs and conventions. For example – In India President is legally the Chief
Executive nut his powers are exercised by the cabinet headed by the Prime Minister.
D. Direct & Indirect – ​Delegation of authority from the higher to the lower level is direct delegation. For example
– In the University the controller of exams delegates his power to his subordinates directly. Indirect delegation
means the authority flows from lower to higher. For example – The President of USA is elected indirectly
through electoral college. The people of America delegate the authority of governing the country to the
President indirectly.
E. Downward and Upward Delegation – ​The superior officer delegates authority to his subordinates. The voters
delegated the power of ruling the country to the Members of Parliament.
F. Outward Delegation – ​Land tribunals are given the authority to distribute the land among the landless. Prof.
M.P. Sharma said that the superior officer should not delegate the following authorities to the subordinates –
a) Financial approval,
b) New plans and policies,
c) Rules making power, and
d) Recruitment of officials.
5. Principle of Centralization & De-centralization – ​Broadly speaking, an organisation is said to be centralised if
the power of making decisions is vested in the top level so that the lower ones have to refer almost all
problems to the head office. A decentralised organisation is one in which lower level are free to decide most of
the matters which some up before them.
Definitions – Prof. L.D. White, ​“The process of transfer of administrative authority from a lower to higher level
of government is called centralisation, the conserve decentralisation”.
Prof. Willoughby,​ “Under a highly centralised system local units are executing agencies, they have no power to
act on their own initiative, the action is the action of central office, even as regards matters of internal”.
Administrative, such as promotion of employees, the purchase of supplies, etc., authority from action from
headquarters must first be received. The best example of centralised system in France, where the whole
country is divided into 90 departments. The chief executive of the department is the perfect, who is appointed
by and represents the central government. On the contrary, U.K. is the best example of decentralised system,
where local units are free to work in their respective field.
Factors determining Centralisation and Decentralisation – ​The centralisation or decentralisation of authority
within an organisation depends upon the following factors –
A. The Factor of Responsibility – ​The principle of administrative responsibility is deterrent to decentralisation of
authority. According to this principle, every head is answerable for all the administrative activities of his
department to the executive, and is responsible to the central budgetary, accounting, auditing and personnel
agencies for the institutional activities of his agency and is responsible to law courts. As a result, head of an
agency hesitates in delegating wide discretionary authority to the field officials.
B. Administrative Factor – ​The second category of factors, responsible for centralisation, is administrative in
character. It includes age of organisation, stability of its policies, methods and competence of its field officers.
If the organisation is old, its policies and methods of working are well determined and stable, its personnel
have worth and are efficient, it can easily be centralised. In the converse circumstances, centralisation shall be
useful.
C. Functional Factor – ​The third category is functional in character. It is concerned with the functions performed
by an organisation. Multiplicity of functions within an organisation is deterrent to decentralisation for they
encourage the head office to keel all powers themselves. Similarly, the technical, services, dislike
decentralisation because they would not like to delegate, their functions which they feel require expert
knowledge to the field officials who usually are general administrators rather than technicians.
D. External Factor – ​Finally, there are external factors which influence the problem of centralisation vs.
decentralisation. The more important in the category are the administrative process (as in development
programmes). Collaborating with each other federal, state or local agencies (as in educational, public health
and irrigational activities). If for the success of organisational programmes public support is required,
decentralisation becomes desirable.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIT – 2
1. LINE & Staff –
a. Meaning, differences, functions, Line agencies (Departments; public corporations/ Companies; In dep
Regulatory Commissions)- their features, working and control.
b. Staff agencies- general, specialized/ technical & auxiliary (importance, functions, examples)
2. CHIEF EXECUTIVE – types, functions & role.
3. DELEGATED LEGISLATION – Causes for growth, forms, merits, limitations & safeguards (apt examples)
4. ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUDICATION – importance, causes for growth, functions, limitations working of tribunals
(examples)
Line, Staff & Auxiliary Agencies –

Public work is done through an intricate and elaborate organisation which is tied down in a single chain of
command. The controlling hierarchy of this organization is called a line and those, which fall on the margin, are
known as staff and auxiliary agencies.
In every administration organisation many activities are performed. There are separate agencies to perform these
activities. ​According to Willoughby, ​there are two types of activities in a government department – 1. Primary or
Functional, and 2. Institutional or House-keeping
In the words of ​Willoughby, ​“To understand the special character of the problem of general administration it is
necessary to appreciate the fundamental distinction that exists between, what may be termed the primary or
functional and the institutional or house-keeping activities of government services”.
The term ‘line’, in a governmental organisation, with main or primary functions for which the organisation came
into being.
The department education, for example, is primarily concerned with the planning and implementation of the
educational programme, hence it is a line agency. There are, other agencies whose activities are not such for which
the government came into being, and yet are necessary to perform them and without them the administrative
machinery cannot function adequately. The civil servants have to be recruited and trained accounts of income and
expenditure are to be maintained the auditing accounts has to be done. All these activities are called staff
activities. To charity the difference ​Prof. Willoughby ​has remarked, “Primary activities are thus an end in
themselves: institutional activities are means to an end”.
Line Agency​ – ​Meaning​ - The term ‘line’ is drawn from military organisation which refers to command. In
governmental organisation, that term line refers to those administrative agencies which are concerned with the
primary functions. For Example, the department education is a line agency concerned with planning and
implementation of the educational programme. Line agencies are of three kinds - Departments, Public
Corporations and Independent regulatory commissions and boards.
The primary function of the organisation is performed by the Line Agency. Every big administrative organisation is
divided into units and field agencies which are called departments; for example, the important Departments of the
Government of India, are Home, Information and Broadcasting, Agriculture, Finance, Defence, External Affairs,
Railways, Industrial Development.
These departments are called line departments. These line agencies perform the primary function of the
department, formulate policy and issue orders: These are the operating agencies. They plan and take decisions.
The Line Agencies are field units, directly under the departments, viz., Circles, Divisions, and Bureaus etc. They are
all linked in a chain of command. According to L.D. White, “They are concerned with the primary objects for which
government exists.” These line units are organised on the basis of the principle of hierarchy.
Functions of Line Agencies - ​The Line agencies are concerned with the primary objects for which government
exists. From top to bottom a single line of authority extends downwards from Secretary through the Deputy
Secretary, Under Secretaries, Superintends and clerks.
The functions of line agencies are primary, i.e.; those which they perform in order to accomplish the purpose for
which they exist. For example, the primary function of the Secretary of the Department of Home Affairs is to
maintain peace and order in the country.
The line agencies are thus concerned with the fulfilment of the primary objectives of the government. They deal
directly with the people and implement policies laid down by the legislature. The people come directly in touch
with the line agencies. The major line agencies of the Government of India are Defence, Home, Health, HRD,
Railway and Transport. They perform the following functions.
1.​ To make the decisions
2.​ Responsibility
3.​ To define and implement the laws.
4.​ Formulation of planning.
Following are the Line Agencies ​-
1. Departments - ​In the technical phraseology of administration, the term department means the biggest block or
compartment, below the Chief Executive into which the entire work of the government is divided. Thus, it is
the highest and the biggest unit of the administrative hierarchy.
The department is one of the line agencies. It may be small or large. Some departments have operating duties
according to the nature of the work and some have supervisory or co-ordinating functions only. Likewise, some
departments work is concentrated at the headquarters and is geographically done through field agencies.
Each department has its head, known as Head of the Department. He exercises supervision, direction and
control on the functions of the department. He has to see that the department has adequate staff to work,
whether the process of work is simple and economical.
The departments which consist of qualified and skilled persons such departments work will be effective and
efficient. In some states the number of departments may be more or less. Example USA has 13 departments
and France has 90 Departments.
The department is further divided into divisions, sections, wings, bureaus and posts.
Departmental Organisation – ​The government of India is organised into 28 to 30 cabinet ministers. Some
ministries may have two or three departments with them. Under the cabinet state ministers and under the state
ministers, deputy ministers are there. The ministry or department has three organisations such as:
1. Political Wing -​It is headed by a Cabinet Minister and Minister of State is assisted by one or more Dy. Ministers.
2. The Secretariat Wing -​It is headed by a secretary who is assisted by Joint-Secretary or Additional Secretary.
Under the Joint Secretary there are Dy. Secretaries, each being head of a division which comprises 8 Sections.
Under Deputy Secretary there are Under Secretaries, each is in-charge of a branch which comprises two
sections. Under the Under-Secretary Section Officers are there in charge of a section. A section is divided into
units under the supervision of an Assistant. Under the Assistant, FDA and SDA work. The posts of Secretary to
Under-Secretary are filled in by Indian Administrative Service or Central Services.
3. Executive Wing -​It is headed by a specialist known as the Director. It assists the secretariat in the formulation
of policy. He functions as the staff officer to the Ministry. Government work is a team work. All its functions are
carried by the whole team.
Basis of Departmental Organisation ​- Luther Guillick has suggested four ways of distributing some work on the
basis of organisation such as functional, process, clientele and geographical basis.
1. Functional or Purpose Basis - ​An organisation may be stabilized on the bases of function or purpose. Example-
Defence, education, Transport, Health departments. The departments in central and state governments are
formed on the basis of purpose or function. It means that all those persons who work for the same purpose
come under the same department. There are engineers, doctors and soldiers under the Department of
Defence. In India, most of the departments have been organised on the basis of function or purpose.
Merits -
a. Co-ordination & Efficiency - ​In this system all the employees work together. They will have only one goal. With
this coordination develops and efficiency the work increases.
b. Democratic - ​The public will understand the wrong done by the departments and the matter will be informed
to the superiors in the form of complaints.
c. Discipline & Control - ​The departments created on the basis of function, try to bring discipline and control.
Work is done quickly.
Demerits –
a. Narrow Outlook - ​The employees in this organisation develop a sense of narrow outlook.
b. Duplication of Work - ​It leads to duplication of work. It leads to delay in the performance of work.
c. Anti-Specialization - ​Always there lies anti-specialization. It is against specialization.
2. Process or Technique Basis - ​It may be defined as a technical skill to perform a specialized job. [Example -
engineering, medical, steno, statistics and accounting departments] In India, we have at the centre some
process departments such as Department of Accounts and Department of Law. In the states, Public Works,
Engineering and Medical departments are the process departments. Each department has its own
organisational arrangement for the service.
Merits -
a. Use of Technology - ​Departments created on this basis utilize the latest technology to the maximum.
b. Co-ordination - ​It increases co-ordination among the technical officers; all technocrats have to work under a
technical expert.
c. Efficiency - ​Because of specialization of work and division of labour the efficiency increases.
Demerits -
a. Inconvenient - ​It is very inconvenient system. If Medical and Health Departments need statistician, they have
to approach the Department of Statistics. This is a waste of time.
b. No Co-ordination-​It lacks co-ordination among employees.
c. Feeling of Insult - ​The specialist feels insult to work under control. It suffers from technical ego.
3. Clientele or Persons Basis - ​The department is created to deal with the problems of persons is called clientele.
It serves as the basis of departmental organisation. Example – Department of Rehabilitation in the
Government of India was created to serve the displaced persons coming from Pakistan after separation. The
department take care of all requirements of persons to be served. For e.g. the Tribal Welfare Department in
Sikkim and Nagaland takes care of educational, economic, cultural and health needs of tribal people.
Merits -
a. Departmental Co-ordination​ -Centralisation of services for the displaced people is a greater degree of
co-ordination.
b. Single Department- ​The tribal people do not have to run from door to door for their requirements. They get
the facilities in a single department.
c. Specialisation - ​The services are specialised by catering to the needs of the displaced persons​.
Demerits -
a. Lilliput Departments - ​It tends to create Lilliput departments as the system cannot be accepted generally.
b. Political Pressure - ​It tends to invite and encourage political pressure. The execution of work is hindered
4. Geographical Basis - ​It means an area or territory. In India the best example of geographical basis is the
Department of External Affairs. It deals with the India’s relations with foreign countries including
Commonwealth of Nations. The geographical basis is the sub division of many of the Union and State
Departments. Out of 52 sections in the Ministry of External Affairs, nearly 17 of them rest upon geographical
basis. Indian military administration is organised into three commands SEW areas. In the state Police
Department is organised into number of circles.
Merits -
a. The departments work for the development of respective fields.
b. Co-ordination is brought in the operation of field activities.
c. No waste of public money.
Demerits –
a. Such departments will create bad regional feeling. The people will have narrow feeling
b. This system suffers from division of work and special knowledge.
c. There is too much political pressure in such departments.
5. Public corporations / companies -​ The 20​th​ century has witnessed the growth of new administration. This new
growth is public corporation system. It has become universal device for managing public enterprises. It has
 been described by professor Robson, as the most important innovation in political organization and
constitutional practice. This system arose during the time of crises in order to meet the great war and
economic depression.
Growth of Public Corporation System​ – Modern system of corporation has come into existence with the
establishment of the port of London Authority in 1908, forestry commission in 1919, the British Broadcasting
Corporation in 1922, the London Passengers Transport Board in 1933.
During the period of economic depression of 1930-1933 this system was adopted by the Roosevelt government in
the USA.
Accordingly, Inland Waterways Corporation, Tennessee Valley Authority, Federal Home Loan Banks were
established.
The system soon spread over the commonwealth and other countries. In India it came into being after the
establishment of the National Self-Government in 1948. Soon after this Damodar Valley Corporation, Industrial
Finance Corporation, Indian Airlines Corporation, Eastern Shipping Corporation, Life Insurance Corporation and
more than a dozen other corporations were established.
Under the state governments, Transport and Finance Corporations have also been established.
The idea gained ground and gradually entered even in the field of international administration. Such as- The
International Industrial Investment and Credit Corporation and International Finance Corporations were
established.
These corporations have been formed in order to provide loans and finances for the development of backward
countries.
Definitions ​– ​Prof Dimock​ – “Public corporation is a publicly owned enterprise that has been characterised under
federal, state and local law for a particular business relating to finance.”
Prof M.C. Shukla ​– “Public corporation is a corporate body created by the legislature with defined powers and
functions and financially independent having a clear jurisdiction over commercial activity.”
Corporation is a corporate and judicial person capable of acting in its own name. It is an adoption of the joint-stock
company system for public purpose. Its place in the administrative set up can best be understood if we take all
human activities into consideration.
The public corporation system resembles a joint-stock company in matters of business. But it differs from the
latter in many respects. For example
a. A joint-stock company is a body of private members incorporated under a General Companies Act while public
corporation is a body f government incorporated under a special statute.
b. Joint-stock company is organized for private profit while public corporation is organized for public profit.
Features of Public Corporation System ​–
1. No Political Interference​ – Public corporation is free from political interference. The interference of ministers
in the day today business of the corporation has been prevented.
2. Child of Legislature​ – Public corporation is created by the Act of Parliament or the state legislature. It
incorporates the aims, duties, powers and jurisdiction.
3. Financial Autonomy​ – the public corporation has its own finances separate from the national finance. It holds
funds in its own name which are granted to it by the parliament and are accumulated by it through its
earnings. It enjoys complete autonomy in the management of these funds and is accountable to the
government. Of course, in order to safeguard the interest of tax payers, corporations are not exempted from
audit control.
In India audit is conducted by private auditors which is to be approved by the Comptroller and Auditor General.
Further if AG is not satisfied with the private audit, he can order for re-audit by the Commercial Audit
Department.
4. Administrative Autonomy ​– It enjoys sufficient administrative autonomy from the control of the chief
executive. The government has only the power to of laying down general policy. The day-to-day administration
is the exclusive responsibility of Managing Director of the c0rporatio.
5. Independent Personnel ​– Its personnel are recruited independently and do not form a part of civil service. In
fact, the personnel of public corporation have their own conditions of service, management and control. In
India there is a separate management pool from which officers are drawn.
6. Judicial Character ​– Corporation is established by an Act of Parliament. It is a judicial person or a legal person
capable of suing and being sued, entering into contracts, acquiring and owning property in its own name.
Working of Public Corporations - ​The following are the factors by which public corporation system works.
1. Board of Directors​ – The first important step in the establishment of public corporation is the appointment of
the Board of Directors. This board consists of the members who can play a role of a manager and a
superintendent. The they are specialists from their experience and capability. Generally, the board of directors
can be divided into two types. They are – a] policy board b] functional board.
It concentrates in the formation of policies alone and not in other specific functions. The members of policy
board are part-timers and that of functional board are full-timers.
2. Personnel​– Every corporation is autonomous to decide the terms of appointment and service conditions of the
personnel and officials. It is free to recruit the required number of personnel. The chairman of the Indian
Airlines is appointed from the retired Air Force officer.
3. Internal Organization​ – Every corporation may be established to perform similar and individual functions. It
aims at specific organization which is suited to its aims and activities.
4. Financial Organization​ – Efficient financial organization is essential for the successful working of a corporation.
It acts freely from the government control. In 1957 the central government took a decision that a finance
officer would be appointed in every corporation and his duty is to send reports to the government periodically.
Control over Public Corporations​–
1. Ministerial Control​ – The public corporations cannot be made immune from ministerial control. The success of
corporation system depends upon the achievement of national objectives. Hence, ministerial control over
public corporations is necessary and desirable.
But the intervention of ministers cripples the corporation’s freedom of action. This is harmful in the national
interest.
Public corporations must be protected from excessive intervention of the government. It would be fair to lay
down ministerial intervention in the affairs of the public corporations should be in the written directives.
Further the parliamentary control over public corporations should be coextensive with the ministerial control.
Public corporations must not be thrown into the ministerial arms unless parliamentary mother is available to
restrain paternal discipline. Ministerial control over public corporations is as under.
a. Appointment, removal and fixation of service conditions of the Board of Directors and General Managers.
b. To issue general policy directions on the development programmes, capital investment and personnel
problems.
c. Right to obtain information and report from the public corporations.
2. Parliamentary Control​– Public corporations are accountable to the parliament. Because it is the custodian of
state’s finance. It represents the share-holders [tax payers]. The parliament exercise its control through
debates and discussions, resolutions, motion for adjournment on matters of urgent public importance, debate
on budget and audit reports.
Members of parliament have numerous opportunities to express their views and obtain general information
about public corporations. Ministers have the power to direct public corporations in the public interest.
Parliament has the power to control public corporations in two ways.
a. It can change or repeal old laws relating to public corporations.
b. It can pass, amend or reject the Bills introduced by the government.
3. Independent Regulatory Commissions - ​After the Industrial Revolution in the 20​th​ century the commission
system was established by the US government.
The commissions and boards are called as line agencies. This type of organization is prevalent in almost all
countries of the world. For our reference the example of USA and Indian commission system is given here.
Following are the commissions and boards in the US.
a. Inter-state Commerce Commission- 1887.
b. Board of Governors of Federal Reserve System-1913.
c. Federal Trade Commission – 1914.
d. Federal Power Commission- 1930.
e. Federal Communication Comissin-1934.
f. Security and Exchange Commission -1934
g. National Labour Relations Board-1935.
h. US Marine Communication Commission-1936.
Indian commission type is quite different from American model. In the US commissions are independent from the
Congress and the President. But in India they are not independent from the Parliament and the Executive.
Following are some of the Commissions of India –
a. Election Commission
b. Flood Control Board
c. Finance Commission
d. Planning Commission
e. Union & State Public Service Commissions.
Features of Commissions and Boards​ – The Independent Regulatory Commissions and Boards enjoy the status of
independence from the executive. They can formulate their own policies and control their own finances. They are
established to regulate certain activities to safeguard the public interest. Following are the formal features of
commissions and boards.
1. Organization​– The commissions and boards are based on the organization pattern. They act as regulatory
agencies.
2. Staggered Term​– the commissions and boards are based on staggered term arrangement. The members of the
commissions and boards are appointed by the chief executive but are not removed by him. Their term is
staggered one. This is a safeguard against the interference or influence of the chief executive.
3. Financial Independence​– The commissions and boards have their own finance. They have the right to own
property and hold accounts in the Banks in their names. Their expenditure is charged on the consolidated fund
of the country. This type of stability gives them financial independence.
In addition to these formal safeguards there are also informal devices to ensure the independence of these
agencies. For example, the Working Men’s Compensation Board may secure the sympathy of the Trade Union.
4. Mixed Type of Functions-​ The functions of these agencies are of a mixed type. They are administrative,
quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial. These agencies will frame their own regulations, enforces and adjudicate
them on petitions.
5. Created by Law​– The commissions and boards are created by the laws of the legislature. For example- The US
Congress has the power to amend the organization, functions and powers of these agencies. Thus, the
Congress in US can control these agencies.
Working of Commissions and Boards​ – The functions of these agencies are mixed in nature. They have the
administrative, quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial types of functions. Due to the concept of welfare state the
functions of these agencies have been devolved on the shoulders of the government. Therefore, these functions
have been assigned to the commissions. For example- Inter-State Commerce Commission in the US is charged with
National Transportation. Most of their work involves a mixture of legislation, administrative and judicial. Following
are the functions of the Commissions and Boards.
a. The commissions and boards determine the rules and regulations. Promulgation of regulations is
quasi-legislative function.
b. They enforce these rules and regulations. It is administrative function.
c. They also decide about the rules and regulations on the basis of a complaint by interested party. This is
quasi-judicial function.
d. They formulate policies in technical matters free from political consideration. Technical activities need experts
which are placed in the hands of boards of experts.
Staff Agency – ​Literally, staff means a stick which is carried for support. In public administration, the staff refers to
such activities in an organisation which assist the head of the department in the performance of his duties. In the
words of ​Alwin Brown, ​“There are two modes in most organisation: line agency executes and staff agency plans
and renders many services”.
L.D. White, ​“A staff is an agency advisory to a high ranking official, but without operating responsibilities”.
Mooney, ​“A staff is an expansion of the personality of the executive. It means more eyes, more ears and more
hands to aid him in forming and carrying out his plans”.
Thus, it can be said that the function of staff is to aid and advise, while the line agency is to perform the primary
functions of the organisation man=y be described as a deliberate organisation for thought, just as the line
organisation is the organisation for extension.
Functions of Staff Agencies – ​Staff agencies are created for the sake of institutional or house-keeping activities.
They help line agency to plan, advise and tender all sort of help, but do not formulate policy. ​Mooney ​has stated
three stages of staff agencies –
1. Informative Function – ​It is to collect for its chief all relevant information on which, his decision should be
based. This may include research, study and enquiry. The information so collected has to be digested,
summarised and presented to the chief in a convenient form.
2. Advisory Function – ​It means that the staff in addition to supplying the relevant data for decision, also advices
the chief executive as to what the decision should be. It is for the chief to accept or reject his
recommendations, but the staff has to place it before him.
3. Supervisory Function – ​It is to see that the decision taken by the line agency is properly communicated to, and
implemented by the line agencies concerned. Its implementation may have to be explained to tire line
departments. The staff saves time of the Chief Executive over petty matters.
According to L.D. White, ​“The function of a civil staff is to study administrative problems, to plan, to advise, to
observe but not to direct”.
Kinds of Staff Agencies – ​According to ​Pfiffner, ​there are three kinds of staff agencies, namely –
1. General Staff – ​The general staff is there to help the chief executive in the performance of his administrative
duties. It advises, collects facts and places before the cabinet important matters for decision.​ ​it hereby saves
time and energy to the chief executive by sorting out the relevant matters and thereby rejecting the
unnecessary details. Most of the time is rendered to planning and deliberations on high policy matters. In
India, the general staff to the chief executive consists of the following agencies, namely –
A. The Cabinet Secretariat
B. The Prime Minister’s Secretariat
C. The Cabinet Committee
D. The Planning Commission
General staff include British Treasury and the Bureau of Budget of U.S.A. the other examples of the staff
agencies are Cabinet Secretariat of U.K., White House, Office of the USA.
2. Technical Staff – ​The Chief executive has also to deal with many technical problems in the administration. The
chief executive, keeps certain technical staff officers, like engineers, financial experts, etc. who give all sorts to
technical advice. The chief executive is assisted by technical experts and their advice is invaluable in the fields
of their specialization.
3. Auxiliary Staff – ​They are separate agencies created to accomplish the common activities of all government
departments. We shall further discuss them in detail.
Each department undertakes certain activities to accomplish the primary purpose. The railways have to tun the
trains to transport goods and passengers. For this it has to construct rail lines, stations and bridges. For this
purpose, many men and materials are required. These are termed as house-keeping or auxiliary services.
Every department has house-keeping activities which are performed by auxiliary services. In India, the auxiliary
units are UPSC, Press, Public Accounts & Audit Department, etc. Auxiliary staff is non-operating agencies. They
have to help & assist the line agencies. There functions are buying goods making supplies, contacting people,
printing & purchasing.
Merits –
1. It reduces the burden of the agencies.
2. It stops duplication of work.
3. Inexpensive
Demerits –
1. It makes the department unstable.
2. The work of line agency depends an auxiliary work.
3. It may think that everything is done by it only which leads to conflicts.
Difference Between Line and Staff Units – ​Staff units within an organisation do not run parallel to or
independently of the line hierarchy, but closely adhere to it like sidings at a railway station to the main rail-track.
The organisation remains a single and unified unit.
The staff units are its partners attached to the various levels of the line hierarchy as required.
“The staff units stand with relationship or dependence on the line organisation and its functions. Gradations of the
structure follow the line gradations to which they closely stick”.
The staff and line are two hands of an organisation. For the success of an organisation, it is essential that both
must work in cooperation and coordination.
Sometimes they may clash, but it should not be a regular feature. In the words of ​Prof. Lapa-Wasky, ​“Staff and line
are complementary rather than antagonistic features of any organisation. Keeping the delicacy of their
relationship”.
Prof. Bemock has remarked, ​“The right adjustment between line and staff constitutes one of the most difficult
areas of management”.
Differences Between General Staff and Auxiliary Staff – According to Simon, ​“In most cases it is impossible to
draw any line between auxiliary and staff functions”. For ex, it is difficult to say whether a Public Service
Commission is either a staff or an auxiliary agency. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between general
and auxiliary staff agencies.
Some writers refuse to accept the separate existence of auxiliary staff; and take it to be a part of general staff. But
general staff and auxiliary staff are not one and the same. There is sufficient difference between the two. Some
writers declare the auxiliary staff as third agency of administration. The distinction between the two can be
described as under as –
1. Auxiliary staff units are more operating and the general staff are only advisory. Auxiliary staff assists the line
agencies in the performance of primary duties; help in recruitment of personnel, procurement of materials,
information, stores, supplies, etc. on the contrary, staff is non-operating, its duty is only to think, plan and
advise.
2. The auxiliary staff has nothing to do with the basic policies of administration, while the staff is not only
concerned with formulation of policies, but helps the line in many important matters. The staff helps
government in improving the policies and renders valuable advice for future policies. The auxiliary units have
nothing to do with it.
3. Prof. Simon said that, ​“the usual distinction made between auxiliary and staff units is that the auxiliary units
are supposed to assist the line organisations by performing certain common tasks. While the staff units are to
assist the chief executive by performing certain tasks for him that he could not otherwise delegate to line
units”.
The Chief Executive – ​The chief executive is at the head of the administration system of a country. He occupies a
central position in public administration. Administrative system is like a pyramid and he is at the apex. He is
considered as General Manager in a corporate undertaking. He acts as a filter and funnel. Chief executive is the
trouble shooter, a supervisor and promoter of future programmes. He is subject to direction, supervision and
control over administration. He can be equated to driver of an automobile. As a driver it is his duty to see whether
the tank is filled in with fuel and them to reach the destiny safely.
Types of Executive –
1. Parliamentary Executive – ​Under this system there is a distinction between nominal and real executive. This
system prevails in India and U.K. Queen of England and President of India are nominal executives. PM and
Council of ministers in both the countries are real executives. President and Queen heads the country and
Cabinet heads the government. The essence of Parliamentary government is the responsibility of the executive
to the legislature. Cabinet remains in power so long as it enjoys the confidence of the majority.
2. Presidential Executive – ​Under this system, there is a separation of powers. The President and his secretaries
are not responsible to the congress. Legislature and executive are independent branches.
The President of USA play an important role in the administration. He is the head of the state and head of the
government. There is no question of majority and motion of no confidence.
3. Plural Executive – ​Under this system executive is plural which means more than two. For instance, the swiss
executive is a plural body of seven members of equal status. It is elected for fixed term of four years during
which it cannot be ousted from office. The President of the Federal Council is elected for one year and he is the
President of the country.
Powers and Functions of Executive – ​The Chief Executive, under Public Administration performs the following
administrative functions –
1. Political Functions –
A. The Chief Executive, in parliamentary system, obtains his office by the majority support. The leader of the
majority party becomes the chief executive or head of the government.
B. The chief executive has to keep support of the legislature because he needs necessary legislation and funds to
run the administration.
C. The chief executive leads the legislature by putting before the people.
D. The fingers of the executive are always on the pulse of the popular chamber. Because, the life of the
government depends on the support of the legislature.
E. The political character of the chief executive is responsible to the administration.
2. Administrative Functions – ​L.D. White has given the administrative functions of the Chief Executive –
A. Formulation of Administrative Policy – ​The legislature enacts laws in general terms, but the formulation of
policies is the responsibility of the executive. This is done in several stages and at the various levels of
hierarchy. Legislation does not cover the whole range of administrative activities. Therefore, much is left to the
 discretion of the chief executive. It is necessary on the part of the executive to provide necessary details to
make the laws fit for application.
B. To Decide the Structure of the Organisation – ​The Chief Executive decides the structure of an organisation
through which administration functions. New activities necessitate the creation of new departments, bureaus
and divisions. He can create or abolish departments and bureaus and may transfer them from one department
to another. Generally internal structure of the department is determined by him.
C. To Appoint the Public Officials – ​The Chief Executive wields power in personnel administration. He appoints
and dismisses the public officials; he derives this power from the constitution. Thus, the scope of this power is
not same in all the countries. However, even in countries where the merit system of recruitment normally
prevails, key-appointments are made by him at the discretion. In India, for instance, Governors, Ambassadors,
Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the Chief Executive. But the Public Service
Commission selects for personnel various posts. In the Presidential form of government, the President wields
greater power in appointing personnel, though, in some cases, subject to senatorial confirmation.
D. To issue Directions, Orders, etc – ​The Chief Executive is empowered to issue orders a d directions to make the
administration active. Directives and orders provide necessary instructions and guidance. Indeed, the tone of
administration largely depends upon the quality and quantity of the directives and orders issued by the
executive.
E. To Order for Investigations and Enquiries – ​The Chief Executive orders for investigations and enquiries
whenever necessary. He can appoint investigation committees to collect information or dispose of complaints
against the public officials. Malpractices and defects of administration are brought to light by these enquiries
and investigations. Further the collection of information is vital to policy formulation.
F. Budgetary Responsibility – ​The Chief Executive in parliamentary government prepares and submits the annual
budget before the legislature and after its approval, executes and implements are same. In the presidential
government the formal budgetary authority is vested in the congress. However, it is the president who submits
budgetary proposals to the congress through Bureau of the budget and has quite an effective veto power over
the budget.
G. Co-ordination – ​Co-ordination is the most important function of the chief executive. In administration conflicts
and differences are usual occurrences. There is also possibility of duplication and overlapping of work. Some of
the problems are tackled and settled by the chief executive. It is he who see that numerous activities of
objectives. Co-ordination is indeed the heart and soul of the administration.
H. Control and Supervision – ​The Chief Executive is empowered to supervise and control the entire
administration. This can be done by periodical inspections and surprise visits. The purpose of supervision and
control is necessary in administration for which the public servants do their work according to the policies laid
down.
I. Determination of Planning – ​The Chief Executive has the power to determine the planning. Planning is a
preparation for action. It develops national resources on which the self-sufficiency of the state can be achieved
and raise the standard of life of the people. If the chief executive wants to achieve something during his term
of office must necessarily plan the new ventures he proposed to undertake.
Role of Executive – ​The role of the Chief Executive can be measured by all the above said administrative functions.
Generally, no single individual can perform such functions. He has to rely upon his subordinates to carry the
functions. These subordinates, acts as filter and funnel.
It is to be remembered that though he delegates his power to his subordinates, he never abdicates them. The chief
executive is always the chief executive, he is the administrator-in-chief. He has to take vital decisions on various
problems and issues. Only the person of extra-ordinary ability can make good Chief Executive.
Delegated Legislation – ​Delegated legislation refers to the law-making power vested with the executive. This is
known as executive legislation. Law-making power of the executive is called subordinate legislation. The executive
makes use of this power through the rules. The rules made by the executive have the force of laws and are
enforceable by the courts of laws. This rule making power is termed as delegated legislation.
Thus, delegated legislation means the exercise of rule-making power by the executive. For example – Parliament
passes the Bill in a skeleton form and delegates the authority of rule-making to the minister concerned. Delegated
legislation refers to the powers delegated to the executive to fill in the gap through rules.it means the output of
the exercise of that power rules, regulations, orders, etc. delegated legislation is strictly subordinate one.
Growth of Delegated legislation – ​The delegated legislation has become almost a universal phenomenon. It has
certain factors which have contributed great deal towards this development. They are as under –
1. Pressure on the Functions of Legislature – ​The legislature has no time to solve the problems pertaining to the
people of various constituencies. The legislature has the responsibility of regulating the affairs through
legislations. But due to the pressure on the functions of the legislature, it cannot make rules and regulations.
So that it makes laws in a skeleton form and leaves the power of filling remaining part to the executive. Hence,
there is a growth of delegated legislation.
2. Science and Technology – ​Due to the impact of science and technology the functions of the state have got
multiplied. This has led to the growth of the legislature which cannot cope up with it. This has compelled to
delegate some of its powers to the executive. The pressure of work and lack of time induce the legislature to
delegate legislative authority to the executive.
3. To Face Unforeseen Contingency – ​Unforeseen contingencies like famine, economic crisis, natural calamities
or epidemics require prompt action. It is not desirable to want for the session of parliament to meet such
emergencies. Hence the authority is delegated to the executive which is always prepared to take action.
4. Flexibility of Law – ​The administrator must be well aware of the requirements of the situation. He can draft
rules in the light of what is administratively feasible. The laws passed by the legislature are not concerned with
administrative flexibility. Many a times even the administrator himself will be in a dilemma. For ex – the
legislature will pass motor vehicle act, but the traffic rules are made by the regional transport officer. Hence
there is a growth of delegated legislation.
5. New Experiments – ​Delegated legislation needs setting up of new experiments in the social interest. It ensures
the national minimum of health, education, housing and sanitation. A right decision on such matters
necessitates the application of rules which can be made by the experts of the concerned departments.
6. Legislator – A Laymen – ​The average legislator is a laymen. He is not competent to deal with matters. He lays
down only general principles and leaves the technical details to be filled up by the departmental heads. For ex
– the parliament may place restrictions on the scale of poisonous substances but may leave this to the experts
of medical and health department to complete it.
Merits –
1. Experts Help – ​The legislators are just laymen who lays down broad principles and objectives. The details are
worked by experts. Delegated legislation helps in making use of expert knowledge.
2. Changes and Flexibility – ​Delegated legislation makes flexibility. It is adaptable to the changing circumstances
and time.
3. Helps to Face Natural Calamities – ​Parliament can hardly foresee the contingencies like flood, famine,
epidemics, earthquakes, etc. but, the officials are equipped with discretionary powers to deal with such
situations.
4. Reduce the Legislative Burden – ​The legislature has no time to make laws for regulation. Hence, it delegates
some of its powers to the executive. It saves the time of the legislature and makes free from burden.
5. People’s Interest is Protected – ​Delegated legislation protects the interests of the people. It acts according to
the pulse of the people.
6. New Experimentation – ​Delegated legislation makes new experimentation. It affords an opportunity to ensure
experience. For ex – town-planning.
7. Discussion with the People – ​Administrative organ has delegated legislation. Therefore, it will discuss directly
about the demands of the people which becomes easy to make the laws.
Demerits – ​Despite its popularity, delegated legislation has been vehemently criticised by writers like Lord Hewart
and C.K. Allen. Following are the points of criticism -
1. Confusion – ​The advantage of flexibility in delegated legislation may bring about instability and chaos by
frequent changes in the rules and regulations. It leads to confusion.
2. Against Democracy – ​The power of taxation is delegated one. Such a delegation undermines democratic
principles. It endangers the rights and liberties of the people.
3. Way to Despotism – ​Delegated legislation leads to despotism. There may be possibility of arbitrary rule. Some
English and American Jurists have alarmed the development of the new form of despotism. ​Lord Hewart ​in his
book “New Despotism” argued that “the growth of delegated legislation and administrative adjudication have
combined the three powers into the hands of administration would lead to despotism”.
4. Way to Corruption – ​Rule making by administrators may overlook what is politically feasible. The officials may
be addicted with corrupt practice.
5. Decline of Legislature – ​Through law making power is vested in the legislature, it sits in session only twice in a
year. So, that it has no time to make laws regularly. Hence by delegating law making power to the executive
there is decline of legislature.
6. Insecurity – ​Though the power of delegated legislation is given to the executive, it can be cancelled by the
legislature. Hence, it suffers from insecurity.
The arrangement for publication of rules may be inadequate and unsatisfactory. Generally, people will suffer
from this. The interest of the people is adversely affected.
Safeguards of Delegated legislation – Lord Hewart ​said that delegated legislation is dangerous one as it gives
priority to despotism. Therefore, for the removal of such despotic tendency it is necessary to adopt the following
safeguards –
1. Limit on the Executive – ​Executive should be subject to well defined limits. This can stop the misuse of power
by the delegated legislation.
2. Legislature has to Make the Rules – ​Rule making power should be with the legislature. It should not be given
to the executive.
3. Jurisdiction of the Courts – ​The courts must have the jurisdiction to see that the exercise of delegated
legislation is not in excess of the terms of delegation. If it exceeds them it shall be declared null and void.
4. Scrutiny by the Committees – ​To stop the misuse of the power of the delegated legislation. It shall be
discussed in the parliamentary committees and are to be scrutinised. For ex – the parliament of England
carefully scrutinises the executive acts.
5. Publicity and Publication – ​To bring the delegated legislation to the notice of the people. The matters should
have wide publicity and also it should be published in the Gazette and newspapers.
6. Special Officer – ​The power of delegated legislation should be given by appointing a special officer to deal with
the problems. He must be qualified and believable.
Administrative Adjudication – Meaning – ​Modern public administration has taken a leaf not only from the
legislature’s book but also from that of the judiciary. Administrative adjudication is the latest addition to the
administrative techniques. It means the determination of questions of legislative and quasi-judicial nature by
administrative departments. Administrative and bodies hear the parties, shift, evidence, pronounce a decision in
cases where legal rights and duties are involved.
Definitions – Prof. L.D. White, ​“Administrative adjudication means the investigation and setting of disputes
involving private party on the basis of law and fact by administrative agency”.
Prof. Dimock, ​“Administrative adjudication is the process by which administrative agencies settle issues arising in
the course of their work when legal rights are the question”.
There is a difference between administrative adjudication and administration of justice by courts. Administrative
justice is administered by administrative agencies and not by regular courts. The administrative courts follow the
principles of natural justice. But the courts of law follow the settled principles of law and evidence. The
administrative courts are managed by officers of the executive branch whereas the judges are the members of the
judiciary independent of executive control.
Administrative adjudication stands for determination of matters of judicial nature by administrative departments.
The power to make rules and regulations is quasi-legislative and the power to settle the disputes by the
administrative agencies is a quasi-judicial. Such powers may be vested in the executive department or officials or
the tribunals.
In India departmental heads are given the power of admin2qaistrative adjudication. For this purpose, some
administrative tribunals have been established. For ex – Income Tax, Appellate Jurisdiction and Land Tribunals.
These tribunals hear complaints, take evidences, find facts and give decisions.
Growth of Administrative Adjudication – ​Following causes have led to the growth of administrative adjudication -
Administrative Tribunals in India –
1. Departmental Proceedings against Civil Servants – ​The power of administration adjudication is vested in the
superior officer. For ex – Central Investigation Commission, State Administrative Tribunal.
2. Adjudication of Revenue Authorities – ​Central Board of Direct taxes and commissions have the power of
adjudication. Recently Income Tax Appellate Tribunal. The Tax payers can approach this tribunal against the
officer who orders for tax. Revenue Board is there in the state level. Revenue officers are in the District Level.
3. Election Tribunals – ​The election commissions are appointed to conduct the elections to the parliament and
state legislatures. Under him the election officers are working in the states. Alongside the Election Tribunals
are also inexistence which can accept the appeals against elections and give the decisions.
4. Land Tribunals – ​The Act of 1894 is relating to give compensation to those who had lost their lands. The
Deputy commissioner has the sole power to consider the cases of this kind.
5. Labour Dispute Tribunals – ​To solve the labour problems the Labour Disputes Tribunals have been established.
The working-class people can approach these tribunals and get their disputes solved.
Merits –
1. Inexpensive – ​Administrative adjudication is very cheap compared to law courts. The law courts are
cumbersome and litigation is costly. It involves payment of high court fees and requirement of lawyers. But
administrative adjudication required no stamp fees and no lawyers. Hence its procedure is simple and cheap.
2. Quick Decisions – ​Administrative adjudication gives speedy justice. Quick decisions are possible.
3. Relief to Courts – ​It gives relief to law courts. The courts cannot accept such cases.
4. Transformation – ​The administrative tribunals can be used as sources of transformation. They can hold
enquires and arrive at good decisions.
5. Experts Decision – ​The panel of experts are the members of Tribunals who can give quick decisions.
Demerits –
1. Rule of Law – ​It is negation of the rule of law. Rule of law ensures equality before law for everyone. But
administrative tribunals put a serious limitation upon the principle of rule of law with their policy and
procedure.
2. Against Law – ​There is no uniformity in the procedure. In certain cases, tribunals are arbitrary and inconsistent
in their decisions.
3. Danger to Individual Liberty – ​It has no set procedures. It violates the principle of natural justice. Hence it does
not inspire public confidence. In endangers individual liberty.
4. Confusion – ​It holds summery tribunals and do not follow any precedent. In fact, administrative law is in a
medley of confusion and uncertainty.
5. Unclear Justice – ​It provides poor quality of investigation of facts. There is no cross examination. It is not a
judicial way to arrive at true facts and attendance of witness is lacking.
6. Misuse of Power – ​It leads to miscarriage of justice, because the opportunity for judicial review is restricted.
However, these defects cannot be eliminated from the system of administrative adjudication. Proper
safeguards are to be provided to avoid these defects.
Safeguards of Administrative Adjudication – ​There are three important safeguards of administrative adjudication
1. Organization – ​The first safeguard of administrative adjudication is that of organisation. There should by
adjudication boards or tribunals rather than a single officer. The tribunal should be comprising of judges,
eminent lawyers, academicians and persons reputed in different walks of public life.
2. Procedure – ​There should be rules of procedure normally –
A. No man shall be a judge in his own case.
B. No man should be condemned and unheard.
C. A party should know the reasons for the decisions.
3. Judicial Protection – ​There should be judicial protection over the action of administrators and tribunals. The
right to judicial review on points of law should remain unimpaired.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIT – 3
1. Personnel – Bureaucracy – meaning, merits & demerits (Max Weber); functions, kinds of bureaucracy.
Neutrality and anonymity as special features.
2. Problems - recruitment, training, promotion, retirement morale & discipline (principles, merits, limitations)
Recruitment agencies- public service Commissions & other selection agencies, A special reference – UPSC &
SPSC (India)
3. Authority & responsibility - meaning, relationship, limitations; kind of authority (Max Weber’s kind of
domination); kinds of responsibility.
Personnel – Bureaucracy - Meaning - ​The term personnel stand for civil service or which means the body of
officials or employees or servants who are working in various positions. Thus, personnel administration is the
administration of human beings in an organisation. Personnel administration is that branch of administration
which fulfils the objectives of an organisation systematically and scientifically. The task of public personnel
administration is to manage the human resources in the government undertakings.
Bureaucracy ​– ​Meaning​ – The word bureaucracy has come from French word bureau which means desk
government. The French economist Vincent Gorne was the first to use this word. Later Max Weber gave a scientific
shape to it. Generally, bureaucracy is called disciplined, corrupt, autocratic, and inefficient.
Technically the term bureaucracy is used in two senses. In its broader sense, it is used to describe any personnel
system where the employees are classified in a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments. In
narrower sense, it is the body of public servants organised outside the sphere of effective public control. In other
words, it means a body of top to bottom officials working under government.
Definitions ​– ​Max Weber​ – “Bureaucracy is a system in which administration characterized by expertness,
impartiality and the absence of humanity.”
Gladden ​– “Bureaucracy means the government by officials.”
Thus, bureaucracy is defined with rigid, mechanical, wooden, inhuman, formal and soulless approach. It is a system
of administration in which professional class of expert civil servants administer the affairs of the state on the basis
of rules and regulations.
Merits ​–
1. Hierarchical Organization​– Bureaucracy is the body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system. It is
graded organisation in which authority descends from top to bottom and step by step. Each officer occupies a
definite place with specific duties and privileges.
2. Career Service​– Bureaucracy is a career service in which public servants are selected on the basis of
examinations, qualifications, and specialization. They are recruited on permanent basis and continue till the
age of retirement. Herman Finer aptly said that “Civil service is a professional body of officials permanent, paid
and highly skilled.”
3. Political Neutrality​– Public servants serve the government and not a particular party. The fortune of civil
service is not connected with the rise and fall of political party. Neutrality in politics maintains integrity and
efficiency of administration. Political neutrality is the hallmark of Indian administrative service. A civil servant is
debarred from indulging political activities.
4. Anonymity ​– Bureaucracy is apolitical organ of the government. Civil servants give free and frank advice to the
ministers without any political considerations.
5. Professional Class of Officials​– Bureaucracy runs the administrative machinery with its professional zeal.
6. Legal Frame-work​ – Bureaucracy is tied in a legal frame-work. All functions and activities follow defined
procedural codes, rules and regulations. After all they are rule-minded.
Demerits ​–
1. Circumlocution​– It means a lengthy and round about the way of doing the work. Officials care for routine than
for result. Every file has to move the full course of going up and coming down. All documents have to move
from higher to lower officials.
2. Red-tape ​– It means following the rules and regulations blindly. It puts too much importance to procedure
trough proper channel and precedents. It tends to multiply the red tape and kills the efficiency of work.
3. Self-Aggrandisement​– it means power hungry. Bureaucracy has lust of power. It is becoming impatient of the
sham façade of democracy beyond which it works.
4. Departmentalism​ - Bureaucracy encourages the evil of splitting government work into a number of isolated
sections. There develops a tendency on the part of units to consider as independent units.
5. Unresponsiveness​– Bureaucracy tends to regard itself as the self-appointed guardian and interpreter of public
interest. The officials follow the rules and procedures rigidly. The administrative machinery becomes so rigid.
Hence the urgent needs of the people cannot be met within time.
6. Despotism ​– The civil servants are becoming more and more powerful under the bureaucratic system of
government. As a result of this they develop despotic tendency. It suffers from arrogance, obsession with rules,
parochial attitude, rigidity in outlook and indifference to democratic institutions and processes.
7. Formality ​– There is too much use of forms and formalities in bureaucracy. It makes the officer loose his sense
of judgement and initiative.
8. Corruption​– Corruption has become the foremost defect of bureaucracy. As a result of this day-to-day
administration is losing its importance. The government work is getting done by money.
Herbert Morrison said that bureaucracy is the price of parliamentary democracy. It has to be kept under constant
control. In brief it is like a fire, invaluable as a servant, ruinous when it becomes the master.
Functions of Bureaucracy -​ The main function of bureaucracy is to operate the administrative machinery in
accordance with the policy established by the political executive. Many policy decisions are approved by the
political command are practically formulated by the bureaucrats. It is a large body of men and women that
translates laws into action. Its functions are as under.
1. Co-operation with the Ministers ​– The government undertakes various functions. So, the bureaucrats have to
extend co-operation with the ministers for the implementation of those functions. If there is a harmonious
relation between the ministers and officers the administration will be effective and efficient if no
administration itself will collapse.
2. Formulation of Planning​ – Bureaucrats will help the political executive to chalk out the programme. Plan is
prepared by the bureaucrats. Success of the government depends upon proper planning. Hence, they
formulate the policy and draw frame work of plan.
3. Advisory Function​– The primary function of civil service is to offer advice to the political executive. Ministers
rely upon the advice of their senior officers who are the reservoirs of information and knowledge. In the course
of administration many problems arise which are worked out by the civil servants.
4. Use of Resources​– How to make use of resources that are necessary for the departmental work, what are
those resources, how to make use of them and get profit out of it. For all this the bureaucrats gives proper
guidelines.
5. Delegated Legislation​– Due to the emergence of modern welfare state system, the activities of the state have
got multiplied. The legislature is neither competent nor has the time to come up with complex legislation. It
passes the bills in skeleton form by leaving the details to be filled in by the executive. The heads of the
departments do this job of filling rules and regulations.
6. Implementation of Policies ​– Generally, policies are formulated by the political executive and the same are
implemented by the bureaucrats. The laws passed by the legislature will be effective only by the officers. In
fact, the civil servants are the enforcing wing of the executive branch. Similarly, the programmes and projects
are launched by the government are drafted by the officers.
7. Preparation of Bills​– The Bills presented in the legislature by the political executive are prepared and drafted
by bureaucrats.
8. Supervision​– Bureaucracy is regarded as the backbone of administration. It is the function of the civil service to
supervise the work of their subordinates. It gives proper guidance and instructions to the employees working
under them.
9. Public Relations​– Public relation has become an important function of bureaucrats. Officers are expected to
explain the government policy to the people and win their confidence and cooperation. The civil servant is
accountable to the executive and through him to the legislature and the people. Ramsey Muir said that
“parliament is a tool in the hands of ministers and the ministers are tools in the hands of bureaucrats.”
Kinds of Bureaucracy ​[Max Weber] – Max Weber has constructed ideal type of bureaucracy in administration. He
has discussed and classified the authority on the basis of legitimacy. They are traditional authority, charismatic
authority and legal-rational authority.
1. Traditional Authority​– The authority of ruler’s rests on tradition. This is based on clearly defined competence,
impersonal rules and rational relation between the superior-subordinates.
2. Charismatic Authority​– It rests on the devotion of followers to the leader. Charisma of a person leads to enjoy
authority. No special procedure is followed in conducting administration. If the followers decline the qualities
of the leader, they may desert them. It leads to break down of a system.
3. Rational-Legal Authority​– It rests on the belief of legacy of rules to issue commands. It is based on obligations
to perform functions, principle of hierarchy, rules and decisions are recorded in writing, free relationship, fixed
salary, pension, carer, promotion, discipline etc.
Neutrality ​- ​Meaning ​– Neutrality means that civil service should give free and frank advice to the government
impartially and without any political consideration.
Political neutrality means not only the absence of political activities but also to serve the government irrespective
of party affiliations. It is the obligation of every public servant to implement faithfully all policies and decisions of
the ministers even those are contrary to the advice tendered by him.
Neutrality in politics is necessary for maintaining the integrity and efficiency of administration. Political neutrality is
the hall-mark of Indian administrative service.
If an officer engages himself in partisan politics his role as an important advisor and administrator would be
seriously impaired in the eyes of the public.
If the administration is to be proper, effective, smooth and the objectives of the government are to be achieved
satisfactorily, there should be mutual trust, faith and harmony between the minister and his subordinate
The concept of neutrality was first developed by Max Weber. According to him bureaucracy is supposed to be
apolitical and neutral. It is committed only to the work and is meant to perform.
The concept of neutrality developed mostly in Great Britain. Master man Committee observed “Its virtue is
impartiality and loyalty to service irrespective of the party in power.” The American concept of neutrality as
described by the Hoover Commission is that the bureaucrats keep clear of all political activities and preserve their
neutrality in matters of policies.
Rules pertaining to Political Neutrality -
1. No member of the civil service shall be a member of any political party, nor shall he take part in it, subscribe in
aid of, or assist in any other manner, any political movement or activity.
2. No member of the civil service shall canvass or otherwise interfere or use his influence or take part in election
to legislature or local authority.
3. No member of civil service shall, in any radio broadcast or in any document published in his name or in any
other person or any communication to the press nor make statement of fact which has the effect of an adverse
criticism of any policy or action of the central or state government.
4. No government servant shall communicate directly or indirectly any official document or information to any
government servant or any other person.
Anonymity - Meaning​ – The principle of anonymity flows directly from the doctrine of ministerial responsibility.
The doctrine of ministerial responsibility means the minister in charge of the department is responsible for the
actions of his subordinate officers to him. He has to defend their actions in the parliament and before the general
public. In case a minister who cannot defend them has to resign. This means they have to act according to the
policy of the minister impersonally and impartially. This impersonal exercise of power means his name should not
be involved in any of the decision. The decision is to be taken strictly according to the rules, regulations and
policies laid down by the political executive. Every civil servant is supposed to take the same action in similar
circumstances. His actions are the actions of the government for which the minister is responsible.
The doctrine of anonymity fits well with the doctrine of neutrality. The civil servant who is neutral is to act
according to the impersonal application of rules and regulations and hence to act anonymously.
Problems of Personnel –
Recruitment – Meaning - ​It is necessary to arrange an adequate supply of qualified personnel to take up various
governmental tasks for the realisation of its goals. Recruitment is one of the functions of an organisation. It is the
key to a strong public service. Recruitment also goes with selection process. The terms recruitment and selection
are often used in organisations. Recruitment procures a group of applicants who are job seekers. The task of
selection is to list only the eligible candidates.
Both, recruitment and selection are of vital importance to the administrative system. It determines the tone and
calibre of public services. The usefulness and relevance of the machinery of government rests on it.
A faulty recruitment policy inflicts weakness upon the administration. Recruitment policy must be reconciled with
constitutional requirements.
The administration requires the services of thousands of officials. Public administration has become so complex in
the modern world. If capable, competent and qualified persons are recruited, the administrative machinery would
function smoothly and effectively.
If incompetent and incapable persons are recruited, the entire administration is bound to fail or collapse. Hence, it
is necessary for the government to recruit persons for the right jobs. In simple words, recruitment means
procurement or to find out suitable candidates for government jobs.
Definitions - Prof. Waldo -​ “Recruitment is the process through which suitable candidates compete for
appointment to the public services”.
Dr. LD White -​ “Recruitment is a step taken to attract suitable candidates to apply for competitive examinations.
The sound recruitment policy was first realised by China. Prussia was the first country to have modern recruitment
system. In India merit principle was adopted in 1853. Britain adapted in 1857. USA introduced merit principle in
1883. France adopted merit principle through competitive examinations in 1847.
Principles of Recruitment - ​There are two principles of recruitment. The first is called direct recruitment and the
second promotion. Both these principles are followed and adopted by the modern democratic governments.
1. Direct Recruitment - ​This method is also called recruitment from without. When the posts are to be-filled in,
there should be advertisement inviting applications from the suitable candidates. The competition is open to
all the qualified persons. No distinction is made between outsiders and those who are in service. The selection
is made on the basis of merit and efficiency by holding competitive examinations.
Merits -
a. Democratic - ​The first merit of this principle is democratic one. All qualified persons get an opportunity for
public offices.
b. Selection of Talents - ​It helps for the selection of talents for the various posts.
c. Opportunity to youngsters - ​It results in constant inclusion of new blood into service by giving young men and
women an opportunity to enter the services. It keeps them adopted to the new ideas and outlooks the society.
d. Ensures quality - ​It attracts youngsters of good quality and calibre from universities and colleges to public
service. It ensures a regular induction of young minds into the government jobs.
Limitations -
a. No Experience - ​It brings men and women into service without previous administrative experience.
b. Expensive - ​Training must be given to new recruits for a certain period of time which is a costly affair.
c. No Incentive to Work - ​It reduces incentive to good work among the lower employees because they feel that
they have no change of getting higher posts.
d. Jealousy - ​Young officers may be placed over the old and experienced persons of lower services. It causes
jealousy and heart burning among them. It damages the morale of civil servants who fail to get promotion.
2. Indirect Recruitment - Meaning - ​Recruitment from within is called promotion from lower to higher position. It
is obvious that for the lowest post’s recruitment must be from within i.e. Promotion. For promotion purpose
the competition is open to the persons who are already in service. But outsiders are not eligible to apply for
the posts. Selection from lower to higher grade is made through promotion to the persons of lower grade by
holding departmental examination. Promotions are based on the principle of seniority cum merit and
efficiency.
Merits -
a. Experience - ​It provides experienced and trained persons to higher positions to discharge more responsibilities.
b. Incentive for Hard Work - ​It is a kind of incentive for hard work to the persons of lower grades as it gives scope
for advancement in their position.
c. Efficiency - ​The personnel are already trained. It gives efficiency to the administration. There is no question of
placing the young candidates above the old persons.
d. Morale - ​It raises the morale of the civil servants. The personnel perform their job honestly and effectively on
the guarantee that they will have promotion.
e. Recruitment is Simple - ​It simplifies the problem of recruitment. Seniority is the main criteria for promotion. It
leads to simple recruitment.
Limitations –
a. Narrow Scope - ​It narrows down the area of selection because recruitment is confined to those already in
service. The area of selection is limited. It is against the principle of democracy.
b. Conservative Outlook-​Under this system the higher posts are filled in by old personnel. They are conservative
by nature. The administration becomes static. They will follow out-dated procedures. It does not give scope
for new blood into administration.
c. Negligence of duty-​When promotion is sure the employees may neglect their duties.
d. No Chance to youngsters-​Promotion is limited to the old persons. Young and energetic persons have no
chance in this system.
Training - Meaning - ​The dictionary meaning of the term training is practical education in any profession, art or
handicraft. “In public administration it means” conscious effort made to improve or increase an employee’s skill,
power or intelligence and to develop his attitude and sense of values in a desired direction”.
Training is the systematic imposition of skill for the advancement and efficiency of employees in their service.
Training has assumed special significance in the context of recruitment policy. It means to test the general abilities
of employees for the rest of their career. To meet the challenges of socio-economic change, the administrators of
today and tomorrow have to know the latest developments and techniques to deal with all kinds of situations. An
indication of the growing importance of training is the gradual proliferation of programmes.
Training helps the candidates to acquire skill and knowledge to contribute his best. Training moulds and shapes the
organisational skill and character and helps them to adapt to new environments.
Training enhances competence and ability of the civil servants and contributes efficiency of the organisation. It
fosters the spirit and sense of duty among the employees. Training helps to build integrity and morale in the public
servants.
Definitions​ - ​William G. Torpy​- “Training is the process of developing skills, habits, knowledge and attitudes for the
purpose of effective administration”.
Mandel ​– “Training is the conscious effort of the management to give assistance and direction to the employees in
their jobs”.
Through proper training the government employers learn and develop the tactics of administration”.
Types of Training​– Broadly speaking, training is of two types. -formal and informal training.
1. Informal Training ​– Informal training occurs in the day-to-day relationship of employees and superiors in
conferences and staff meetings, employee newspaper publications, professional associations and
reading-study that the employee undertakes. This type of training is connected with the regular tasks of the
employee with his experience.
Informal training is training by doing the work, learning by trial and error, and acquiring administrative skill
through practice. Informal training was adopted by the British in India. Personal contacts between the senior
officials and the newly entrants helped them to learn the details about the job. Informal training stimulated
qualities of administrative leadership and developed the capacity of fresh recruits to know their responsibility.
The success of this type of training depends upon certain factors, namely, experience and seniority of the
superior officers. It has been rightly suggested by A.D. Gorawala that ‘suitable senior officers should be posted
to some districts with a view to make these districts training –ground for the young and newly recruited
personnel.’
2. Formal Training​ – Formal type of training is conducted under the guidance of experts. Formal training is
imparted to inculcate administrative skill by well-defined courses. The following are the formal types of
training. They are pre-entry training, post-entry training, orientation training and in-service training.
a. Pre-entry Training ​– Pre-entry training means the training imparted to the aspirants to public services before
entering to such services. In this sense, education imparted in schools and colleges or universities is a sort of
pre-entry training. Pre-entry training may take the shape of vocational or professional training at technical
schools and colleges. The products of such technical institutions can be given jobs immediately after they come
out of these institutions. Rajasthan government provided pre-entry training in 1960. The candidates securing
65 and above per cent of marks in the Junior Diploma Course
The USA has made a comprehensive scheme of pre-entry training for administrative and managerial positions
in the form of internship and apprenticeship. This type of training consists in the apprentice being permitted to
see the papers and the cases that reach the desk of his boss and to watch and study order passed by him. The
Bureau of Municipal Research in New York did have such an apprenticeship scheme for many years. The
American universities and colleges have provided such apprenticeship schemes for preparing students to serve
in the municipalities.
b. Post-entry Training​ – Post-entry training is imparted to the employee during the course of his services. This
type of training aims at better performance of work and preparation for advancement [higher position]. There
is a growing realisation of the need for post-entry training in India. In 1961 the central government decided to
grant study leave for the employees to improve their ability. In India those who are selected for All-India
Services such as IAS, IPS and IFS are sent to respective training colleges situated in different places. For
example- National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie, Central Police Training College Hyderabad,
Departmental Training School at Simla [IAAS], Income Tax Training School, Nagpur.
c. Orientation Training​ – This type of training introduces employee to know about his job, work environment,
organisation and its goal. It helps to keep bureaucrats attuned to the new tasks. In 1956 Union Home Ministry
 suggested to all the state governments to start Refresher Courses for officers of the All-India and Central
Services. A Refresher Course at the IAS Staff College, Simla was started in 1957. Even the University Grants
Commission has introduced Orientation and Refresher Courses for the Degree College Lecturers for promotion
purpose.
d. In-service Training -​ In-service training is imparted to the candidates after their selection to the public service.
It stimulates the employees to make best efforts and to improve their performance. It also boosts their morale
and makes them attuned to the new tasks.
It may also be called as short-term and long-term training. Those who are in-service have to undergo either for
short-time or for long-term training. Short-term training means the training that is given for short time. It may
vary from 10 days to one-month duration. Example Orientation and Refresher Courses] Long-term training
means the training that is given for long time. It may vary from one year to 3 years. [Example - IAS, IPS and IFS]
Merits of Training​ -
a. Training endeavours to produce precision and clarity among the civil servants.
b. It helps the civil servants to perform the work according to the changing environment and changing needs of
new times.
c. It saves the civil servant from becoming a robot-like perfect. He is made aware of his work and service required
to render to the society.
d. It enables the employees to perform their work properly, effectively and efficiently.
e. It develops in civil servant the capacity for higher work and greater responsibilities.
f. It increases the morale of the employees to become people-oriented and inculcates in them respect and
regard for the general public.
g. Lastly, it broadens the vision and widens the outlook of the employees for the realisation of national
objectives.
Limitations of Training​ - In spite of many advantages training system also suffers from some limitations. They are-
a. General education should be imparted at pre-entry training level.
b. Present day public administration necessitates the services of technicians like engineers, doctors, scientists etc.
These persons are apt to be technical training.
c. The training may impair efficiency of administration. Lot of risk is involved in expecting the employee to learn
by trial and error.
d. Administration has become more complex and specialised. As such, an employee will not be in a position to
equip himself the requisite administrative skill even he is trained.
Promotion - Meaning - ​Promotion is a reward to an employee which entails a change in his position and status.
Adequate promotional opportunities help to achieve the objective. Promotion serves as a source of inspiration for
hard work among the employees.
The term Promotion is derived from the Latin word promovere. Promotion means rise to a higher grade or a
progress from a lower class to a higher class leading to the change of duties and responsibilities. For example - a
Tahasildar can be promoted as Assistant Commissioner after eight years. When an employee is promoted, it leads
to an increase in his salary and position. It is a kind of incentive to him.
Definitions - Dr. LD White -​ “Promotion is an appointment from a lower grade to a higher grade, involving a
change and greater responsibility, accompanied by change of title and an increase in pay”.
W. Torphy ​- “Promotion is a movement of an employee from one to another having a higher grade with increased
salary, duties and responsibilities.”
Principles of promotion​ - Generally there are two main principles of promotion. They are
1. Principle of Seniority - Meaning - ​The Principle of Seniority is historical one and is prevalent till today.
Governments and large-scale organisations follow this principle. It determines the order of precedence in
making promotion. Determination of seniority is not a simple affair. In accordance to this principle, the
employee who has longer service to his credit would be entitled to promotion. A public servant of a higher
grade is senior to those who are in lower grade.
According to this principle, promotion is based on the length of service of an employee. The senior most
employee gets promotion automatically. There is no scope for personal favouritism. This principle is incentive
to the employee.
Merits -
a. Objectivity ​-It is an objective test. Seniority is a matter of fact which cannot be denied.
b. Fair and Just ​-It is fair and just basis of promotion, as everyone by turn gets an opportunity for promotion.
c. Experience ​- A senior employee is more experienced. Greater the experience, greater is the qualification for
promotion.
d. No Political Interference ​-There is no interference of the politicians in the promotion system.
e. High Morale ​-It keeps the morale of the employees high.
f. Promotion Certain​ - Better employees may be attracted to the jobs because promotion is certain.
Limitations -
a. Unjust - ​There is no guarantee that the senior man will be in competent than his junior one. It leads to in
justice.
b. No Improvement in Work - ​If seniority alone is the basis of promotion, employee would not make any effort
for self-improvement.
c. Unjust to the youngsters - ​It discourages the ambitious and meritorious youngsters. They cannot be promoted
before the seniors. Thus, it is unjust to the young employees.
d. Dangerous to Organisation - ​It badly affects the working of the organisation. It spoils the whole organisation.
2. Principle of Merit - Meaning ​– Principle of merit is opposite to that of principle of seniority. According to this
principle, promotion is made on the basis of qualifications and achievements of the employee. Under this
system the qualified and the meritorious persons are selected for promotion. It provides due incentive to the
efficient and hard-working employees. It helps in building up the morale and efficiency of public services.
Merits ​–
a. Promotion is made on the basis of qualifications and achievements of the employee irrespective of his length
of service.
b. The best qualified person would be promoted.
c. It provides good incentive to the efficient and hard-working employees.
d. It boosts the general morale of the employees and increases the efficiency of work.
Limitations - ​It gives priority for favouritism and political interference. Therefore, this cannot be considered as a
perfect method for promotion. But the writers on public administration have suggested the following ways to give
promotions:
a. The head of the department is given too much discretion to recommend the name on which selection is made.
b. The government has no clear-cut policy about the promotion.
c. It is difficult to evolve satisfactory promotion system. But merit or seniority cannot be accepted to all the posts.
Retirement - Meaning - ​Public officials can work effectively and efficiently up to a certain age after which they
grow too old and weak which needs rest and relaxation. With the creation of public service, it is desirable that the
government should ensure its employees an easy and care free life in their old age. Edmond Burke has justified a
system of pensions as rewards of the public service. Therefore, a retirement system is a necessary part of
building up a public personnel system.
Definitions - Torphy – “​The basic objective of a sound retirement plan is to promote efficiency and economy of
administration.’’
Dr L. D. White – “​A retirement system for civil servants is primarily designed to facilitate the termination of
employment of men and women to provide benefits to dependents in case of death and to improve the morale of
service.”
Principles of Retirement​ – The governments have adopted various principles of retirement. They are as under –
1. Fixed age of Retirement​ – Retirement is made compulsory at a fixed age. The age of retirement is fixed by
statute. The employees have to retire at the age irrespective of whether they are capable or incapable of
performing public duty. The age of retirement varies from country to country. For example – In India, Central
Government employees retire at the age of 60 while some State government’s employees retire at 60 and 58.
In UK the age of retirement is 60 to 65 years and in the USA, it is 65 to 70 years.
2. Provision of Pension​ – Retirement system provides pension scheme to retired persons. The government
usually prefer the pension system on account of its financial stability. The pension is paid on monthly basis​.
3. Insurance and Provident Fund​ – These are given to the employees after their retirement. Provident fund
system is partly contributory. The government and the employees contribute half and half every month.
Insurance system is wholly contributory, the government incurring only the establishment charges and
employees have to contribute in the form of instalments. This scheme may be compulsory or optional.
4. Family Pension​ – If an employee dies while in service, but after the completion of 25 years of service, half the
superannuation pension is admissible to him, is payable for 5 years to his family. In the event of death after his
retirement half of the pension is payable to his family.
Merits of Retirement –
a. Retirement aims at increasing the efficiency of public services by eliminating those who are unable to perform
their duties adequately.
b. Retirement of employees from their positions maintains proper personnel system.
c. Retirement creates room for young and capable candidates to public services.
d. It helps to inject new blood and fresh ideas in public services.
e. Retirement keeps employees satisfied and contented and thus helps aged persons to lead comfortable and
balanced life.
f. Retirement system depends on humanitarian ground.
Limitations of Retirement –
a. Retirement eliminates the employee who is unable to discharge his duties.
b. When a particular employee comes to know that he is going to be retired from his service shortly. He may not
work properly because he may have mental agony. There will be a big question mark before him that is what to
do after retirement.
c. After retirement an employee’s pension will be lesser than what salary he was drawing.
d. Retirement results in hardship to the family of an employee.
Apart from these limitations after retirement public servant is eligible to enjoy all the benefits of pension. Even
after death his family is also eligible to get the benefit of pension. Hence, there are no problems or limitations
pertaining to retirement.
Recruitment Agencies [UPSC & SPSC] -
Union & State Public Service Commissions – ​Article number 315[1] of the Constitution of India provides for the
establishment of Public Service Commission for the Union and for each State. Article 315[2] provides that two or
more States may agree to have common Public Service Commission.
Appointment of Members – ​The Chairman and Members of the UPSC shall be appointed by the President of India
and in the case of a State Commission by the Governor [Article-316[1]. One half of the members of every Public
Service Commission must be persons who have held office for at least ten years under the Government of India or
State Government.
A Member of Union Public Service Commission shall hold office for a period of 6 years or until he attains the age of
65 years whichever is earlier. A Member of State Public Service Commission also hold office for the period of 6
years or until he attains the age of 62 years.
A member may himself resign from office or he may be removed by order of the president on the ground of
misbehaviour after enquiry by the Supreme Court. A member of State Commission may resign himself or may be
removed from office by the Governor of the State on the ground of misbehaviour after enquiry by the High Court.
The Members of both the Commissions are debarred from reappointment after the expiry of their term of office.
They are also ineligible for any other employment under the Central or State Governments.
Functions of Public Service Commission – ​Article 320​ ​of the Constitution provides that it shall be the duty of the
Union and the State Public Service Commissions
a. To conduct examinations for the recruitment of All-India and Central services and state services respectively.
b. To follow the principles in making promotions, training and transfers.
c. To take up disciplinary matters affecting a person in service under the Central or State Government.
d. Any claim for compensation in respect of injuries sustained by a person while in service of the Government.
The functions of both the Public Service Commissions are only advisory. There is no provision in the Constitution to
make it obligatory upon the government to act on the advice of the Commission.
Additional functions may be assigned to the Union and State Public Service Commission by an Act of Parliament
and State Legislatures.
The expenses of the Union or a State Public Commission, salaries, allowances of the members are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India or State as the case may be.
The Commissions shall submit an annual report on the work done by them to the President of India and or
Governor. The reports are to be laid before Parliament and the State Legislatures.
Authority & Responsibility -
Authority - Meaning – ​The word authority is derived from the old Roman notion of Auctor or Auctorito which
generally means counsel or advice. Roman’s custom was to get the service made up of elders with experience to
approve or reject the decisions of the popular assembly.
Authority is essential right to make announcements and decisions.
Definitions – MacIver – “​Authority is the power to command obedience.’’
Max Weber – “​Authority is the power to make decisions.”
Authority is always legitimate and backed by laws. Therefore, legitimate power means authority.
Kinds of Authority [Max Weber]
1. Traditional Authority – ​Authority comes from traditional approach. For example, Queen of England. It is
derived from customs, beliefs and traditions. The legitimate power or authority comes through ancient
customs are existing in the state. The appeal to tradition is common and people obey traditional authority.
People obey the King or The Queen because custom says that he or she is superior authority. Authority of the
ruler is found in unwritten laws, customs, traditions and conventions. Monarch in England is always relayed on
traditional authority. From historical point of view, it has been regarded as the most common source of
authority. Traditional authority tends to be more common in organization which depends on continuity with
the past and share values and beliefs.
2. Rational-Legal Authority – ​It comes according to the laws or constitution. For example, NDA government at
the centre is legitimated by clear rules and procedures. It defines the rights and obligations of the rulers. Such
rules are formed in written constitution and set of laws. Officials can exercise authority only within legally
defined limits that have been set in advance. This kind of authority is common in most of the political systems
of modern society.
Max Weber described such authority with reference to bureaucracy. It is best represented by bureaucracy.
Authority is based on contract and also on the consent of the people. Weber writes that legal authority rests
on enactments.
3. Charismatic Authority – ​Charismatic authority is legitimated by supernatural, exceptional or universal qualities
of a person. Max Weber called it extra-ordinary quality. This type of authority comes to the leader with the
quality of charisma. Example- M. K. Gandhi, Nehru, Indira Gandhi, A. B. Vajpayee, MGR, NTR and Narendra
Modi. The charismatic leader is seen as a person of destiny who is inspired by unusual vision with lofty
principles. The charisma makes the authority legitimate by their followers. Max Weber is of the opinion that
charisma comprises magical ability or power of mind and speech. Charismatic authority is not a magical but
believed to do so through various devices and tactics. The leader creates an army of believers to get the
support of the people. It has no rules or traditions to guide its conduct. It is based on the unique qualities of an
individual. It undermines if the leader fails or dies. Hence charismatic authority is short-lived.
Limitations of Authority –
a. Under the umbrella of authority, a person accepts the communication or directives of his senior without any
discussion, deliberation or reasoning, making his decision as his own.
b. Authority operates through established procedure but it is not much effective.
c. If there is a lack of required knowledge in the delegation of authority there is every chance of failure in
administration.
d. If there is a lack of support and motivation from the superior the delegation of authority suffers.
Responsibility - Meaning- ​Responsibility is the quality or state of being responsible. Responsibility is the duty or
task that you are required or expected to do something.
Responsibility is a duty or obligation to perform or complete a task assigned by someone. Responsibility means a
duty to take care of something. Parents have to assume responsibility for their children. As the professor it is his
responsibility to make sure that every student has the task of listening lecture. Likewise, it is the responsibility of
every student to be punctual in attending the classes. Parents need to encourage a sense of responsibility in their
children.
In the study of public administration there are three types of responsibility, namely, political, institutional and
professional.
Cambridge Dictionary​ – “Responsibility is something that is one’s own job or duty to deal with properly.”
Kinds of Responsibility –
1. Political Responsibility – ​Politicians are public officials whose charge is to act in the public interest. Their
decisions should be to support the course of action for which there is reason. The values should govern policies
which must not be personal. Politicians should set aside their personal values and moralities and follow a
publicly defensible reason while choosing policies.
2. Institutional Responsibility – ​Institutional responsibility is implemented in every institution to ensure its
honour. These responsibilities include research, teaching, training, projects and administration. This is to
impose rules or laws that prevent illegal and unethical behaviour of the individuals and institutions.
Committees and authorities review these laws, rules and policies. This ensures the best of institutional
competence. These standards are meant to ensure smooth running of all the operations across various
departments.
3. Professional Responsibility – ​Administration is accountable and takes responsibility for nursing the actions. But
professional conduct takes action to promote the provision of safe, appropriate and ethical care. Advocates of
this type of responsibility are consistent with the standards of the profession. Assess and to undertake
activities to improve practice and meet identified learning goals on an ongoing basis. Those who are involved in
running administration are required to think that administration as profession and not personal.
Limitations of Responsibility –
1. Corruption - ​In administration corruption is influenced by the existing possibilities for public servant to benefit
from them. Corruption has become a negative impact on social, political, economic and administrative aspects
of the society. As such civil servants will become irresponsible in the day-to-day functions.
2. Red-tape – ​It is also regarded as one of the limitations of responsibility as for as administrative aspect is
concerned. It means blindly to follow the formal rules and regulations. It is true that bureaucracy puts too
much emphasis on files, procedures and precedents which tends to multiply the red-tape and kills efficiency of
work responsibility.
3. Unresponsiveness – ​In public administration responsibility of civil servants has become unresponsive. They
follow the rules and regulations rigidly and hence the urgent problems of the people cannot be met within
time.
4. Formalism – ​Too much use of forms and formalities makes the officials lose judgment and initiative. With this
tendency they will forget their responsibilities.
Relation between Authority and Responsibility –
1. Authority is the right of a superior to give orders and instructions to his subordinates to get the things done.
Responsibility means the duties assigned to a person at the time of delegation of authority.
2. Authority normally arises because of position of the boss in the organisation. Responsibility arises out of
superior subordinate relationship whereby the subordinate agrees to perform such duties as are assigned to
him.
3. Authority can be delegated by a senior to his subordinates. Responsibility cannot be delegated by the
subordinate.
4. Authority flows from superior to subordinate. Responsibility moves in the upward direction from subordinate
to superior.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIT – 4
1. Management – meaning, principles, test of good management; values of management; tasks (POSDCORB)
2. Leadership – meaning; qualities desired; policy formulation & decision-making tasks & problems.
3. Morale & discipline – meaning & implications, relationship; conditions.
Management – Meaning – ​Management is significant to both public and private organisations. The complexity of
modern government has made the study of public management imperative.
The term ‘management’ is used in many ways. It is a process made up of definite functions. The persons who
perform these tasks and managers. Management is sometimes confused with administration and sometimes with
organisation. Some writers equate the term administration and management. To some writer administration is
subordinate to management. But organisation is the structure where management is the process.
Management is regarded as the collective utilization of human and material resources to reach the goals.
Organisation is the framework of administration, while management is the running of it. Management is the group
of persons and the process by which organisation is animated to accomplish the ends. Thus, management is a
process of achieving a desired goal. However, management is not doing things, but getting them done.
The success and failure of administration can be found in the management. ​Appleby ​said that management is the
heart of administration.
Management is the process of directing and facilitating the work of the people to achieve a desired goal. In
democracy, management observes the traditions and basic trends of the society. In a large-scale organisations, the
structure is formed into hierarchy. At the top level, management is called top management. For example,
Manager, Director, etc.
Definitions - Terry, ​“Management is the accomplishing of predetermined objectives through the efforts of other
people”.
J.D. Millet, ​“The main objective of good management is economic and efficient operation”.
Principles of Management - ​Henry Fayal has given 14 principles of management which are based on truth. These
principles of management serve as a guide line for decision-making and management actions. They are drawn up
by means of observations and analyses of events that managers encounter in practice. Following are the principles
of management.
1. Division of Work – ​In practice, employees are specialised in different areas and they have different skills.
According to Henry Fayal, ‘specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce, increases the productivity,
accuracy and speed. it is both technical and managerial.
2. Authority and Responsibility – ​In order to get the things done in an organisation, management has the
authority to give orders to the employees. Along with this responsibility also comes. Fayal said that authority
gives the management right to give orders to the subordinates. Authority and responsibility go together and
they are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline –​This principle is about obedience. It is often a part of the core values of mission and vision in the
form of good conduct. It is just like oil to make the engine of an organisation run smoothly.
4. Unity of Command – ​Unity of command means that an individual employee should receive orders from one
manager and he is answerable to that manager only. If the tasks are given to the employee by more than one
manager, may lead to confusion.
5. Unity of Direction – ​Principle of management is all about focus and unity. All employees deliver the same
activities. All activities must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be described
in a plan of action.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest – ​Always there are all kinds of interests in an organisation. Henry Fayal
indicated that personal interests are subordinate to the interests of an organisation. The primary focus should
not be on those of the individual but on entire organisation.
7. Remuneration – ​Remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive. Ultimately it
is about rewarding the efforts that have been made.
8. Centralization – C​entralization implies concentration of decision-making authority at the top management.
Principle of centralisation should strive for a balance in this.
9. Scalar Chain – ​Principles of hierarchy means scalar process. Henry Fayal said that there should be clear line in
the area of authority. Each employee can contact a superior without challenging hierarchy.
10. Order – ​According to this principle employees must have the right resources at their disposal. If so, they can
function properly in an organization. The work environment must be safe, clean and tidy.
11. Equity – ​The principle of equity occurs in the core values of an organisation. According to Fayal, ‘employees
must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be in the right place to do the right work. Managers
should supervise and monitor this process and employees should be treated fairly and impartially.
12. Stability of Tenure and Personnel – ​This principle represents deployment and managing of personnel. There
should be balance in the service that is provided by the organisation.
13. Initiative – ​Henry Fayal argued that with this principle of management employees should be allowed to express
new ideas. It encourages interest and involvement and creates added value for the company. Initiatives of the
employees are a source of strength for the organisation.
14. Esprit de Corps – I​t stands for striving for the involvement and unity of the employees. Managers are
responsible for the development of morale in the workplace. It contributes to the development of culture and
creates an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
Test of Good Management - ​Millett has postulated three tests of good management. They are as under.
1. Satisfactory Service ​–
a. By satisfactory service he means equitable service that is equal treatment to all citizens. No discrimination in
service can be tolerated because of citizen’s race, colour and previous condition of servitude. Economic and
social status, party affiliation, ability to reward the administrator should be considered.
b. Satisfactory service means timely service that is service performed in time. If the fire-fighting equipment
arrives after the fire has wrecked its havoc, the service has not been satisfactory. The college expected to hold
its first class at 8 o’clock in the morning must not begin to operate at noon.
c. Satisfactory service also means sufficient service for all citizens. It means the supply of right quantity at the
right time. Equity or timeliness cannot be realised unless the required amount of service is available.
d. Satisfactory service means a continuous service that is always available to the citizens who need it assistance.
e. Satisfactory service also means progressive service which can improve its quality and performance.
2. Responsible Performance​ – Woodrow Wilson proclaimed a fundamental value of the administrative process
largely depends upon value of responsible performance. To him development of a science of administration
should be based on duties with dutifulness. According to Millett, “Responsible performance of the public
service means that management has to give direction for administrative effort by working with and through
institutional devices of a democratic society.
3. Good Government ​– Millett said that good government means a limited constitutional government. The
concept of good management has a very real meaning for management. Millett said that the value places
certain responsibilities and obligations upon the management. So, an effective management in the public
service is dedicated to good government.
Guillick has made the good tests of effective management more comprehensive. To him the goals of
management are to make the conduct of affairs technically sound, politically responsible, publicly acceptable,
professionally approved and socially constructive.
Values of Management - ​The main concern of management is effectiveness and efficiency. Luther Guillick said that
efficiency is a single ultimate value in administration. Waldo said that economy and efficiency have been the twin
beacons of administration. Efficiency is measured in terms of output in proportion to input. Input in management
is the quantity of men, money and material applied in the working of an organization. If these factors are put
together in right proportions, efficiency of an organization is ensured. Therefore, management aims at fixing the
right proportions of these factors for better production.
But can we regard efficiency is the only basic value of management? Waldo said that “we hold that efficiency
cannot itself be a value. To him efficiency is concerned only with relationships which has some purposes or ends.
Emmette Redford has written that importance of values needs to pervade the study of administration. Therefore,
it is essential that management should be value-oriented and not goal-oriented. The justification of a management
lies in public service and values should be determined within this broad end.
Tasks of Management - ​It is very difficult to exactly to say about the tasks of management. Guillick has summed up
the tasks of management in his self-coined and meaningless word POSDCORB – planning, organising, staffing,
directing, co-ordinating, reporting and budgeting. Seckler Hudson broadens the tasks of management which
include policy formulation, securing, locating, utilising authority, organising, budgeting, staffing, operating,
reporting, leading, directing and controlling.
Millett has distinguished between peculiar and technical problems of management.
The peculiar problems differ from department to department depending upon the nature of their functions. The
nature of police department is different from army and health departments. Hence the management should give
careful attention to the peculiar problems for carrying out its service.
The technical problems are common to all types of large-scale organisations. In this category problem of work
direction which includes the problem of leadership, planning, communication, supervision, public relations. The
problem of operation includes the organisation, personnel, budget and legal advice. The problems of internal
services include house-keeping functions.
Leadership, Policy formulation, Decision-making, Planning, Co-ordination, Communication, Delegation, Supervision
and Public relations are included as most important tasks of management.
Leadership – ​Leadership occurs in all walks of life where group activity is involved. Here we are concerned with the
managerial or administrative leadership in government.
The Present-Day crisis in India is the crisis od administrative leadership. Modern states are welfare states.
Therefore, the task of management is to provide leadership, that is to direct, control and co-ordinate the activities
of a group of persons with a view to achieving the desired goals of organisation.
Meaning – ​The dictionary meaning of leadership is to ‘lead’, ‘to excel’, ‘to be in advance’, ‘to hold command’.
If management is the tool of Public Administration, Leadership is the chief tool of management. It may be defined
as the form of process. It consists in the act to discover, encourage, develop and persuade the individuals in the
organization. It is the gift of being able to inspire and lead others and to co-operate for the attainment of the
objectives and purposes of the organisation. It is the complex phenomenon which pervades the entire group
activity.
Definitions – Terry, ​“Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objective”.
Prof. Earl Latham, ​“Leadership is essentially guidance and not command”.
Administrative leadership arises when the authority has been settled in a governmental organisation. One who is
charged with the function of directing the activities of his subordinates to the organisation may use one of the four
alternative courses.
Qualities of Leadership - ​Administrative leadership must have the following qualities -
1. Personal Qualities –
a. Good health, energy, physical endurance, a sense of purpose, enthusiasm, humble, clarity of vision and
self-confidence.
b. Friendliness, helping nature, concern for others, intelligent, decisive, understanding capacity and knowledge of
details,
c. Integrity, moral duty, fairness, persuasiveness and judgement.
2. Political Qualities –
a. The leadership must reflect the political attitudes and traditions of the country. He should not ignore social,
economic and political ideas of the people.
b. No personal or party considerations should interfere in the performance of his public duties.
c. He must have the government and political sense-capacity to expose public policy.
3. Institutional Qualities –
a. Administrative leadership must fulfil the conditions necessary for well-being of the institution. Develop the
team spirit.
b. He must create sense of security in the minds of the employees.
c. He has to provide fair salary, sound promotion, retirement plans, health insurance, removal of grievances,
arbitration procedure etc.
d. The leader should be generalist administrator rather than expert in any branch. He must be acquainted with
the machinery and functioning of the organisation as a whole.
e. He has to create in the employees a sense of belongingness.
f. He has to maintain the discipline in the organisation - He must support for right actions and punishment for
wrong actions.
Earl Latham said “Leadership is essentially guidance and not command.”
Policy Formulation - Meaning ​- Policy formulation is a dynamic process, a continuing activity taking place within
the structure. One of the essential functions of the government is policy-making. Without policy government and
administration have no meaning. Policy is prior to every action. It is a prerequisite to all management concerns. It
is the policy which sets the task for administration. It provides the frame-work within which all actions are
activated. In fact, policy is planning for action. It is getting ready for setting the sails to reach the desired
destination.
Tasks and Problems of Policy Formulation - ​Administrators participate in the making of policy for the future. They
formulate recommendations for legislation, and this is part of the function of policy-formulation. Public officials
are associated with the policy formulation in three important tasks.
1. Officials have to supply facts and data to the ministers or to the legislature if the initiative for policy-making
comes from them. The members of the legislature or the ministers are amateurs who have risen to the
positions because of popular will and not because of administrative talent and as such they have to give due
weight to the suggestions of the officials.
2. Policy initiative or legislation emanates from the administration. This is because the administration is in
constant touch with the general public.
3. On account of lack of time and knowledge, the legislature passes the law in a skeleton form and leaves the
details to the administration. so, administration is most supreme in policy-making. In order to execute these
Acts, the administration frames the rules, regulations and bylaws.
Policy is not made in a vacuum, that is to say that policy-makers must take cognizance of various factors in
formulating policies. They cannot act arbitrarily especially in democratic countries. The tasks and problems of
policy formulating process are as under.
1. Every policy must be in consonance with the provisions of the constitution as interpreted by the law courts and
the laws made by the legislature.
2. Every policy must take into account the prevailing customs, traditions and conventions of the people. the
policy must not be against established ways of life of the people.
3. The policy must consider the international law and the world opinion. International law is constantly becoming
important and every member living in the family of nations must play the game according to rules.
4. If a policy of one department affects the policy of other department it will affect the entire policy.
5. A policy must be framed after due consideration with the persons, or group of persons, their unions and other
interests likely to be affected by policy. The policy maker has to analyse the difficulties likely to be faced in the
execution of the policy.
Decision-Making - ​Of all the problems in management, the problem of decision-making is the most difficult.​ ​Even
in our daily life, to do or not to do is one of the most important riddles that an individual faces before leaping to
action. He runs about for advice and guidance, consultations and suggestions and ultimately when he comes to
take a decision, he gets too late and changes his mind. But can any organisation take decisions the way we take? In
public administration decision-making is not easy as in business.
Meaning ​– The word decision is derived from the Latin word de-ciso which means a cutting away or a cutting off or
to come to a conclusion. Decision means commitment to action. Decision is a conclusion to long deliberations. The
policy is the product of a decision. Decision is a means and not an end in itself. Decisions have to be made and
re-made in the light of the ends to be achieved. Decisions are not permanent as they can be changed according to
the times and situations.
Definitions ​- ​Dictionary ​– “The term decision is an act of determining one’s own mind upon an opinion or course of
action.”
Terry ​– “Decision is the selection of one behaviour alternative from two or more possible alternatives.”
Haynes Massie​ – “Decision-making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action which fulfils
the objectives satisfactorily.”
Tasks and Problems in Decision-making –
1. Much Time for Routine Work - ​Decision-making in administration routine work takes more time. As a result,
the decisions are either avoided or postponed. They want to make least risky choices. Very often
decision-makers act as if their and their organisation’s fate hangs in balance. Many decisions are suppressed
because of the fear of failure.
2. Fear of Failure​ – Fear of failure can stalemate the decision-making process. Worry about the unknown results
of a decision can be paralysing. As Rao and Rao comment, “As long as no decision is made no judgement can be
reached as to whether the decision is a good or bad.”
3. Personal Biases​ – Personal biases in decision-making cannot be ruled out. It is impossible to find out neutral
principles to determine the rationality of reasons. Each system has its own reason. Rao and Rao said that all
logic is biased by personal as well as official feelings and affinities.”
4. Problem of Priority​ – The third problem of decision-making is that of which problem is to be solved first. It is
usually seen that in large-scale organisation, there are several problems, each looking more urgent than the
other. The administrator finds it extremely difficult to determine the priority of these problems. There are so
many problems which not only take much of their time but also create a constant worry in them​.
5. Lengthy Procedure​ – Fourthly, decisions are delayed because of lengthy procedures and formalities. The whole
procedure is circumlocutory and dilatory and it checks quick decisions. Even if all formalities are completed
there may be no certainty in arriving at a right decision.
6. Advice​ – While taking a decision some may seek advice from others which may lead to some wrong signals. But
at the same time those who do not consult others in decision-making take greater risk because they are
isolated from the feedback.
Morale & Discipline –
Morale - Meaning - ​The Morale of public officials is recognised to be one of the most important factors conducive
to efficiency in administration. To sustain high morale among all ranks of public personnel over a period of time is
not an easy task in any country at any time. It is management’s responsibility to appreciate the significance of
morale and to discover ways of fostering and maintaining it.
Morale refers to the state of mind or attitude that the civil servants entertain towards their work. An employee’s
morale is said to be high when he does his work not merely for the sake of emoluments but because he feels a
sense of self-fulfilment and satisfaction in his work.
In army services morale implies a consciousness of strength, freedom from fear and belief in victory over the
enemy.
Morale relates to the totality of motive and attitude of the employees. It is a moral and mental condition with
respect to cheerfulness, confidence, zeal etc. It denotes the state of mind. Enthusiasm may be an index of good
morale.
Definitions - Mooney –​ ‘’Morale is the sum total of psychic qualities which include courage, fortitude and above all
confidence.’’
Dr L D White​ – ‘’Morale is both an index of a sound employment situation and a positive means of building up an
efficient organisation.’’
Whiten and Whiten​- “Morale is the capacity to work together with loyalty to achieve the common purpose.”
Morale refers to a socio-psychological situation, a state of mind in which men and women apply their full powers
to the intellectual and moral satisfaction and their pride in service.”
Conditions for Building up high Morale –
1. Purpose & Objective -​The public employees should have the knowledge of purpose and objectives which the
organisation seeks to achieve. They should also take keen interest in realising the objectives for which the
organisation works.
2. Loyalty-​Loyalty to the nation and devotion to work are important qualities of public administration. Successful
officers inspire loyalty and devotion among their subordinates. These factors help to build a good morale in the
services.
3. Good Leadership - ​To bring co-operation in public administration there must be stimulating leadership. The
leader must generate interest and energy among the workers. He should use persuasion and not authority. He
must be a friend, philosopher and guide of his subordinates. A good leader makes the workers feel two inches
taller in his presence. He should infuse confidence among the employees and generate initiative in them.
4. Working Conditions - ​It is important for an employee to work satisfactorily. He should be given good salary,
security of service, adequate opportunities for promotion, leave facility and retirement benefits. If an
employee is living in a miserable condition he cannot work efficiently and effectively. So, to build a high morale
all opportunities should be given to them.
5. Group Inspiration - ​All the employees working in the organisation must have inspiration. The officers may be
either higher or lower, must have the feeling of oneness among them, and have the sense that the department
is mine, work is ours. This will increase social responsibility among the employees.
6. Provision of Development - ​The employee may be interested in art, literature, education, sports. The provision
should be made available relating to these areas and also provided with promotion to continue in their service.
7. Protection of Health - ​The health condition of an employee is so important. Efficient administration is possible
only by healthy employees. If the employees have physical and mental problems the public administration will
collapse. Therefore, priority should be given to the health condition i.e. medical facility by which they can
improve morale.
8. Employee Participation-​Public Servants should be given a chance to participate in the formulation of policies
and programmes of the government. They should not be dubbed as bureaucrats but co-operate with them in
the progress and prosperity of a nation.
Implications of Morale -
1. Insufficient Work - ​Absence of good quality of work lowers the morale of the person and he starts loosing
interests in the work assigned to him/her.
2. Disparity in the Salary-​Favouritism in the organization affects salary. This has a negative effect on the person
and he no longer feel like continuing in the organization. Disparity is one of the reasons why an employee loses
interests in his work and it leads to low morale.
3. No Promotion - ​A worker would be willing to work hard only when he knows that he would be compensated
adequately for his work, either in monetary terms or promotion. If promotion to his job is not there, he would
lower his interest in his job which lowers his morale.
4. Appreciation - ​It is the cheap and best method, or to say, best “mantra” to motivate the workforce.
Appreciation and motivation are required to get the work done by the workforce with full efficiency. If
superiors are not supporting their subordinates, then the motive of doing good work from the subordinate’s
part would be lost.
Discipline - Meaning ​– Discipline means orderliness. It refers to orderly behaviour in accordance with the rules and
procedures of an organisation. Disciplinary action means taking action against an employee when he departs from
the code of conduct. But the object of disciplinary action is not to inflict punishment.
Discipline is a system of rules to exercise control over conduct and to inculcate a sense of devotion to duty among
the employees. Human nature needs to be tied up under a prescribed code of conduct and discipline.
Implications of Discipline ​–
1. Maintenance of good behaviour towards superiors.
2. Protection of integrity.
3. Observation of certain code of ethics in the private life of the officials.
In India, these implications aim at maintaining integrity in service, discipline in service and neutrality in politics. If
an employee fails to observe the rules of conduct and discipline, disciplinary action may be taken against them
such as, ​a] ​Inattention to duty, laziness, carelessness ​b] ​Inefficiency ​c] ​Insubordination ​d] ​Intoxication ​e]
Immorality ​f] ​Lack of Integrity, failure to pay debts, accepting a bribe.
Conditions required for Discipline –
1. Knowledge of Rules - ​The Employee must be informed clearly about what constituting good behaviour. All
instructions should be clear and understandable. Superior must know all the rules. He must have the
knowledge to answer several questions from the employees. A superior’s knowledge of rules should be greater
than his employees. If not, they will lose personal prestige.
2. Fair Action - ​All individuals, big or small, should receive equal punishment. If a rule is applied to one individual
but not to another the management is bound to be accused of favouritism.
3. Well Defined Procedure - ​The well-defined procedure should be followed to reach to a penalty. The authority
should be careful in taking the decision properly. It should include the following actions.
a. The Appropriateness of a disciplinary action should be taken in terms of correcting the employee. The purpose
of disciplinary action is to mend an employee and not to punish him, to help him and not to harm him.
b. The accused employee should have the right to appeal to higher authorities.
c. After the disciplinary action has been taken, the superior must assume a normal attitude towards the
employee. He should revert to his role of a helping hand as if nothing has happened. He should not engage in
personal ridicule, insult or even criticism.
In all the serious cases of offences, judicial proceedings must be launched against the offenders. Some experts of
public administration have advocated that the power of disciplinary action should be vested in an independent
agency like Public Service Commission. There should be impartiality and fairness on the part of the employees. But
experienced administrators said that it undermines the authority of the Head of the Department.
Administrative Reforms Commission had recommended the setting up of Civil Service Tribunals to act as final
appellate authorities regarding orders inflicting the major punishments of dismissals, withholding of increments
and reduction in rank. The tribunals should give prompt justice to the aggrieved employees.
Relationship b/w Morale & Discipline – ​In a perfect word, employees would always perform well on the job and
managers would never need to impose discipline. Unfortunately, managers have to bring discipline among the
employees. The kind of discipline and the manner in which it is administered affects the morale of the employee
who is subject to discipline. The right kind of discipline ensures better employees’ performance. Even it can raise
morale of an employee.
Employees who know better and feel more secure in their work perform well. Written rules will address various
aspects of the job such as dress code, working hours, breaks, personal phone calls and use of emails and other
common disciplinary situations.
It is important to have rules and regulations in the work place but at the same time too many restrictions would
affect the morale and discipline. If so, employees may feel that their every move is scrutinised. This level of control
backfires and lowers the morale. Researchers like Jean-Francois Manzoni and Jean Luis Barsoux
called it as ‘set-up to-fail syndrome’. A supervisor may supervise the employee more closely and
disciplines him more often. The intention is to guide the employee to better performance but if
the employee feels that he has no control and is overly scrutinised the employee’s morale drops
and job performance suffers. Employees who are given more autonomy often see this as a sign of
management’s confidence. Then their morale soars and they perform even better. Discipline
works best if it is progressive. Managers should speak to employees about their problems even if
the problem is minor. If the problem continues moderate disciplinary measures are taken. If the
problem continues to worsen, discipline escalates. In this approach discipline serves first to teach
and correct problems, before it becomes a means of punishment.
To keep discipline from lowering morale, employees need to perceive that discipline is meted out
equally. Even handed discipline keeps up employee’s morale and it protects the organisation.
So, morale of an employee will increase when it is followed with discipline. Hence there is close
relation between morale and discipline.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIT – 5
1. Planning – need for and importance; principles and features, kinds, program planning (a special note) problems
planning in India – a brief history latest 5​th​ year plan (brief highlights) Pub Administration (Contd)
2. Budgeting – meaning; importance, principles kinds; a special reference to program budgeting; the latest Indian
budget (an overview and comment)
3. Communication – meaning principles; what when – who & how”, necessary conditions and limitations, media
(their advantages and limitations)
4. Direction & Supervision – meaning need for methods & limitations; reporting – a special instrument- problems
5. Control – meaning, measures, problems.
Planning - Meaning - ​Planning is a preparation for action and as such it is a first step to every human activity.
Planning means an act after proper thinking and cool deliberation. It means to determine what is to be done and
how to be done. Without planning it is difficult to achieve any target. In administrative and economic levels
planning has become so important and significant. In brief, it has acquired respectability and has become
fashionable.
In particular, planning is of immense significance to the under- developed countries. It is perhaps the best way to
pull up the economy to a self-sustaining and self-generating stage. All organisations must plan if they are to
achieve their ends.
Definitions - Seckler Hudson-​ “Planning is the process of devising for a course of future action”.
Pfiffner, “​Planning is a rational process of all human activity”.
John. Millet, ​“Planning is the process of determining the objectives of administrative effort and of devising the
means to achieve them”.
In short, planning is the conscious process of selecting and developing the best course of action to accomplish a
defined objectives. It is not only rational activity but also a dynamic one. For it aims at improving its techniques
and course of action in the light of one’s experience.
Need for Planning –
1. Sound Administrative System – ​Planning needs efficient and adequate administrative infrastructure. It
requires devoted personnel able to provide initiative and support. Unless there are trustworthy, upright,
selfless men with nationalist outlook at the top personnel machinery, planning may not be successful. As a
matter of fact, it is the top-level officials responsible for success or failure.
2. Sound Information System – ​The availability of adequate, accurate, reliable and up to date statistical data is
important need for effective planning. Any manipulation of data and information will lead to faulty planning.
3. Objectives and Concrete Targets – A ​Plan must be very specific about its objectives and targets to be achieved
within a time frame-work. The priorities should be clearly defined and the targets should not be too ambitious.
The objectives should be realistic, limited and feasible. Similarly, the targets fixed for various sectors should be
concrete.
4. Stable and Efficient Government – ​If planning is to be effective there should be stable and efficient
government. The National Front Government in India could not finalise the Eighth Five Year Plan. The Rao
Government took more than a year to produce the final draft of the Eighth Five Year Plan. But its
implementation was not certain due to the minority character of the government.
5. Good International Relations – A​n underdeveloped country depends to a great extent on foreign countries for
the flow of foreign capital, technical know-how and assistance. Hence a developing country committed to
planning must maintain friendly and harmonious relations with other countries. The foreign trade relations
must be maintained on non-political grounds.
6. Participation – ​People’s participation is very essential for effective planning. Prof. Lewis said, ‘Popular
enthusiasm is both the lubricating oil of planning and the petrol of economic development -a dynamic force
that makes all things possible.’ The people can be urged to make sacrifices by foregoing immediate satisfaction
of their needs in order to build up a strong base for national development.
7. Attention – ​For effective planning attention must be paid to adequate mobilisation of financial resources,
effective system of economic and administrative controls and proper communication of various planning
elements.
Importance of Planning – ​Planning has become a major and primary function of management. No organisation can
operate without planning. It is a preparatory step for action. It determines a course of action to achieve desired
result. It is essentially a process of deciding in advance what is to be done, when and where is to done, and how it
is to be done, and by whom it is to be done. To plan means to look ahead and chalk out the future course of
operations of an organisation. Following points help us to understand how and why planning is important one.
1. Increases Efficiency –​ planning makes optimum utilization of available resources. It helps to reduce wastage of
valuable resources and avoids their duplication. It aims to give the highest returns at the lowest possible cost.
It increases the overall efficiency.
2. It Reduces Risks – ​There are many risks involved in any modern business. Planning helps to forecast business
related risks. It also helps to take the necessary precautions to avoid the risks.
3. Facilitates Co-ordination –​ Plans of all the departments are well coordinated with each other. Similarly,
short-term, long-term and medium-term plans are well coordinated with each other.
4. Right Direction – ​Planning gives proper information, accurate instructions and useful guidance to the
subordinates. Without planning it is impossible to do or not to do. Therefore, it gives right direction.
5. Control – P​lanning is a necessary tool to keep a good control. It is impossible to achieve such a control without
right planning. It avoids doing some random activities.
6. Helps to Achieve Objectives – ​Every organisation has certain targets or objectives. It keeps working hard to
fulfil these goals. Planning helps an organisation to achieve these goals.
7. Motivates Personnel –​A good plan provides various financial and non-financial incentives to both managers
and employees.
Thus, planning has assumed high importance in all types of organizations whether business or non-business,
public or private, small or large.
Principles of Planning - ​There are several basic principles of planning that have been devised to guide the
managers when they are engaged in the process of planning. These principles are—
1. Contribution of Objectives – ​The plans are made for the purpose of achieving the organisational goals. The
process of planning has to be used as a tool to achieve the goals.
2. Primacy of Planning – ​According to this principle, the process of planning is the primary function of all the
managers. They are required to plan all their actions and then proceed with other functions.
3. Planning Premises – ​for the purpose of making the process of planning effective, there are certain premises
that have to be made. Generally, plans are not properly structured. The reason behind this is that the premises
are not developed properly.
4. Principle of Alternatives –​The process of planning involves the development of several alternatives. The
planners have to select the most appropriate alternatives for achieving the goals.
5. Principle of Timing – ​The plans have the capability of contributing significantly in the achievements of goals if
the plans are properly timed. If the plan is not made timely it becomes meaningless.
6. Principle of Flexibility – ​According to this principle there should be flexibility in the plans. This is very important
because flexibility allows the plans to deal with the contingencies that may develop later. The managers have
to compare the cost of making changes against the benefits provided by flexibility.
7. Principle of Commitment – ​According to this principle a time frame should be provided by the plan during
which the commitments made in the plan have to be fulfilled. The commitments will allow the managers to
achieve the targets in time.
Features of Planning –
1. Contributes Objectives – ​Planning starts with the determination of objectives. Planning decides the methods,
procedures and steps to be taken for achievement of objectives.
2. Function of Management – ​Planning is the first and foremost function of the management. Functions depends
upon the objectives only.
3. Pervasive – ​Planning is required at all levels of management. It is not a function restricted to top level
managers. Formulation of major plan and framing of overall policies is the task of top-level managers, whereas
departmental managers form plan for their respective departments. Lower level managers make plans to
support the overall objectives and to carry on day to day activities.
4. Forward Looking – ​Planning always futuristic function which looks ahead of future. Managers try to make
predictions and assumptions for future.
5. Continuous – ​Planning is a never ending it is always a continuous process. While making plans one has to touch
with the changes in changing environment.
6. Decision-making – ​We cannot imagine planning in the absence of decision-making planning is the function of
managers to evaluate various alternatives and select the most appropriate.
7. Mental Exercise – ​Planning is a mental exercise and mental process which requires higher thinking. In planning
assumptions and predictions are made by scanning the environment properly. This activity requires higher
level of intelligence. So, it is right to call planning as an intellectual process.
Kinds of Planning –
1. Total Planning -​This is commonly called socio-economic planning. It makes effort to achieve all-round
development of the country. This planning is possible only in a totalitarian state. This was first adopted by
Stalin [USSR] in 1928.
2. Limited Planning -​Under this system all the socio-economic activities are not centralised at one point. Only the
main objectives are selected and activities are regulated to a limited extent. India has adopted this planning.
3. Administrative Planning -​It is concerned with administrative programmes. It is also concerned with the means
by which ends can be brought to function. Prof. Pfiffner says “Administrative planning is a routine level of
operation at which value questions seldom arise.” Administrative Planning is divided into following three types.
a. Departmental Planning -​The second step in Administrative planning is to provide a broad frame-work for
action by defining major objectives and establishing linking departmental policies and programmes with
related departments. Thus, the five-year plans are divided into the yearly plans of the central, state and local
governments. In all these levels the respective governments prepare plans.
b. Programme Planning -​It has been called the consolidation of all other types of planning. It is the detailed plan
for carrying out the programmes in particular department. This is the function of the middle management.
[Bureau chief/section heads] These officials along with their staff seek to determine how they can achieve the
objectives within the limits of the higher policy.
c. Operational Planning -​It is also called as work planning. It is concerned with the systematic analysis of
authorised programme and determination of the detailed means of carrying it out. Thus, planning is
concerned with the how of management and how each part should be assigned to various functional units.
d. Program Planning ​[a special note] - Programme planning is the consolidation of all types of planning. It is
concerned with over-all review of the proposed programme to determine the volume of services involved, the
resources and money needed, the general procedures required and necessary organisational structure. Thus, it
is a detailed plan for implementing the programme in particular departments.
In the words of Millett, ‘program planning is concerned with the preparation of the specific purposes to be
realized and the procedures to be employed by administrative agencies within the frame-work of existing
public policy. Programme planning is the function of the middle management such as division, branches and
sectional heads.
Programme planning attempts to draw together policy plans and operational plans to make a concrete scheme
of action. There is a field work wherein civil servants perform the function of planning means the field of
programme planning. Legislature passes an Act in general terms to execute and implement certain rules and
regulations. The civil servants who put that law into action determine the specific steps to be taken to bring a
policy already agreed upon. Programme planning involves a detailed study of the work to be done. It is the
visualization of the whole operation. The success of new policy depends upon good programme planning.
Problems of Planning in India –
1. Lack of Accurate Information – ​The first problem of planning in India is lack of accurate information and facts
relating to future. Planning is the concern for future activity and events. No one can predict the future events
accurately. Therefore, the planning may face problems in operation. An unexpected drought or flood may
upset production targets. A communal riot or external aggression may destroy costly structures. This problem
is further accentuated by lack of formulating accurate data. Targets may be unreal and information collected
may be manipulative. Many a time, the planners are not even aware of the socio-economic realities and if
aware of them they may tend to ignore them to formulate ambitious plan.
2. Problem of Change – ​The rapidly changing environment in the country often makes planning difficult. The
problem of change is more complex in long-range planning. Present conditions tend to weigh heavily in
planning and by overshadowing future needs may result in error of judgement. Such factors like technology,
economic conditions, social environment, people’s tastes and desires, political and international uncertainty
change rapidly and often leads to problem in planning. Example-8​th​ Five Year Plan in India was delayed by two
years because of disintegration of USSR and Gulf War.
3. Failure of People – ​There are many reasons why people fail in the formulation and implementation levels. Lack
of commitment to goals, failure to develop sound strategies, lack of experience, lack of clear and meaningful
objectives, failure to see the scope of the plan, excessive reliance on procedures, rules and regulations, lack of
 top management support, lack of delegation of authority and political compulsions are the important reasons
for all this.
4. Variables – ​The planners have to act in a set of given variables. These variables may be internal or external.
Among the internal variables some are relating to human psychology, organisational policies and procedures
and long-term investment. The external variables are social, legal, economical, geographical, constitutional and
technological. The planners have to formulate their plans keeping in view these variables which limit their
plans keeping in view these variables which limit their scope of action making plan in many ways.
5. Time and Cost Factor – ​Sometimes planning in India suffers from time cost factors. Time is a limiting factor for
plan-makers. Excessive time spent in securing information and data. In India the 8​th​ plan was delayed by two
years. The planning also becomes costly if it is delayed. The planning commission in India was a white elephant.
6. Rigidity – ​We have adopted rigid planning which hinders the working of economy. It brings forth the rule of
bureaucracy breeding red-tape, corruption and favouritism. Rigidity leads to delay in work performance, lack of
initiative and lack of adjustments with changing conditions.
The above factors act as limiting factors in making planning ineffective. The shortcomings of planning in India is
caused by its limitations can be overcome through careful and sincere efforts.
Brief history of 12​th​ Five Year Plan ​[2012-2017] - In October 2012, the Union Cabinet accorded its approval to the
12​th​ Five Year Plan.
The highlights of this plan are as follows –
1. The average growth target has been at 8.2 per cent instead of 9 percent in view of slowdown in the economy
and adverse international situations.
2. The areas of main thrust are health, education and infrastructure. Hence the outlays on these have been
raised. The outlay in health is inclusive of expenses on drinking water and sanitation.
3. It seeks to achieve 4 per cent growth in the agriculture sector during the five-year period.
4. The growth target for manufacturing sector has been pegged at 10 per cent.
5. Poverty alleviation has been emphasised by lowering down the poverty ratio by 10 per cent.
6. Stress has been laid on the infrastructural development, especially on power sector.
7. Targets have been fixed for various socio-economic sectors relating to infant mortality, enrolment of ratio and
poverty alleviation.
8. There was direct cash transfer of subsidies in food, fertilizers and petroleum by the end of 12​th​ plan period.
The Finance Minister had pushed had pushed up the direct transfer of cash subsidy in food, fertilizer and
petroleum. The then Dy. Chairman of Planning Commission asked for raising -funds for major thrust areas like
education and health.
Budgeting​ - ​Meaning ​- Etymologically speaking, the term budget has been derived from the French word
`Bougette’ which means a leather bag, used for carrying the official papers. This word came to be used in England
in 1733. The Chancellor of Exchequer (Finance Minister) in England used to carry his papers containing the
financial plans in order to place them before the House of Commons for approval. A Budget is British origin and
has been adopted by other countries also. In simple budget is a financial statement which contains estimates of
revenue and expenditure for a year.
The Budget is regarded as the master financial plan of the government. The entire policy of the government is
reflected in the Budget. The budget speech of the Finance Minister unveils the social, economic and fiscal
programmes of the government. The administrative set up has to work and fit in the programmes as laid down in
the Budget.
Definitions - Dimock -​ “Budget is a financial plan summarising the financial experience of the past stating current
plan and projecting it over a specified period of time in future”.
Munro -​ “Budget is an annual statement of accounts for the next fiscal year includes an estimate of revenues and
expenditure.”
Constitution of India –​ ‘’Budget means the annual financial statement containing estimation of all anticipated
revenue and expenditure of the government for the coming financial year which starts from 1st April and ends on
31st March every year”.
Importance of Budget - ​Budget has become so important tool for the governments without which no government
can run smoothly. Budget is not merely a preliminary proposal, but it is a scheme for action. The proposals of
budget originate from the Government are accepted by the legislature. It is an attempt to allocate financial
resources through political process. The real significance of the budget lies in providing orderly administration of
the financial affairs of a government.
Budget has become the tool of financial administration. A number of other management tools depend upon it.
Budget is a planned programme framed on the basis of past experience. This planned programme is prepared in
financial terms. Budget represents the whole problem of financing the government on the basis of total
expenditure. It is prepared on behalf of the executive. Budget is central to administration. The nature of the entire
governmental operation is determined by the allocation of appropriations to the various big programmes.
The budget is vital because it is the device by which plans and policies are put into action. It is an operational
document and as such, it serves as a valuable tool for administration. It functions as an instrument in the
execution of public policy. An approved budget gives the administrator a summary of financial outlook within
which he has to work. It is as a guide to various departmental heads for what they have to do during the budget
year.
Budget gives a clear picture of the government’s effort in each field. The budget contains a lot of data on various
economic indicators such as national income, expenditure, capital investment, deficit financing etc.
The common people will be waiting for a budget. Everyone wants to know what benefit he is going to get,
whether consumer goods are going to become cheap, whether tax is more or less? How much he can save in a
better way and so on.
Principles of Budgeting –
1. Planning -​Proper planning of the resources and activities of the government is regarded as important principle
of budget. Budgeting and programming are two sides of the same coin. Lack of planning leads to effect
budget.
2. Research -​Budget planning must be based on research. A slight change in the economy of one country has far
reaching repercussions in other parts of the world. Hence budget panning will flow from research and
statistical data.
3. Balanced Budget -​The budget should be balanced one. It means the expenditure should not exceed the
anticipated revenue or income. When the amount of expenditure and income are equal, it becomes balanced
budget.
If the expenditure is less than anticipated revenue, it is a surplus budget. If the expenditure is more than the
estimated revenue, it is called deficit budget. In the words of Vattal - “Balanced budget is the pre-requisite of
financial stability and it occupies the important place in the financial administration.
4. Treasury Control -​Treasury control is one of the principles of budget. The legislature authorises the
government to spend money, but it cannot direct them how to spend it. The treasury department is
responsible for preparing the budget and it also exercises supervision over the flow of finance. (UK)
5. Executive Discretion -​To exercise supervision over the activities of spending departments, the executive must
have sufficient discretion in allotting appropriation. The executive should have the discretion to determine the
means of operation. It should have the power to make re-appropriations from one head to another. The
executive should also have the power to meet emergency expenditure. The Contingency Fund of India in the
name of the president is a fine method in meeting the needs of natural calamities.
6. Annuality of Budget - ​Annuality is one of the most important principles of budget. Budget must be prepared
for a year. It means that the legislature should grant money to the executive for one year and that money be
spent for the year. Money left unspent during the year for which it was sanctioned lapses and the government
cannot spend it unless re-sanctioned in the next year’s budget. The system of biennial budgets or
supplementary budget is wrong. The important rule in budget making is that it must reflect the complete and
true picture of the country for a particular year.
7. Executive Responsibility - ​Executive responsibility is one of the well-established principles of budget. It means
no demands for grant is made except on the recommendation of the Executive. Parliament can decrease or
refuse demands, but it cannot increase them. The Executive is responsible for running the administration and
hence he is in a better position to ask what funds are required for it. It shall be the responsibility of the
Executive to prepare that budget with the help of specialists. For example –a) The Finance Department – India,
b) The Treasury – UK, c) The Bureau of Budget – USA
8. Cash Basis of Budget Estimates -​The experts said that the budget estimates must be on cash basis. This
principle explains that the budget should be prepared on the basis of what is expected to be received or paid
under the sanction of the legislature. It means demands falling due within the year are not to be considered.
This principle of that the budget is considered as an estimate of cash receipts and cash payments during the
financial year.
9. The Rule of Lapse -​The money allotted by the legislature expires at the end of financial year and as such no
portion of money may be reserved or transferred to any other head. It means if the money is not spent during
 the year for which it was sanctioned will be lapsed and the government cannot spend it unless it is
re-sanctioned. This is called the rule of lapse.
10. Classification - ​Budget is classified according to the requirement. Budget classification provides a clear picture
of the activities and priorities of the government. Budget data should be easy to understand. The economic
classification of budget helps to determine the economic situation, growth of national income, capital
formation. etc.
11. Gross Income - ​The gross transactions of receipts and expenditures should be entered separately. Estimating
the receipts on the receipt side of the budget and the expenditure on the expenditure side should be shown in
the budget, but not on net position. Gross income budgeting is necessary to ensure financial control by the
legislature.
12. Unity -​Unity means all government revenue should be created as a general fund from which all expenditures
should be met. The budget is to contain both short-term expenses and long-term expenditures. In fact, the
Consolidated Fund of India represents the unity of the budget. It is a reservoir of all revenues, taxes and
collections raised by the government.
Kinds of Budgeting –
1. Annual or Long-term Budget – ​Generally, the government budget is annual budget. It is prepared for one year.
In India, England and other commonwealth countries the financial year begins on 1​st​ of April and ends on 31​st
March. Every year national budget will include the expenditure on the plan for that year which will be
approved by the parliament.
2. Single or Plural Budget – ​When the estimates of all the government undertakings find place in the budget, it is
known as single budget. It reveals the overall financial position of the government. But separate
department-wise budgets are passed separately by the legislature. It is called plural budgeting. In India we
have two budgets-one for the Railways and the other for all the remaining departments.
3. Surplus, Deficit or Balanced Budget – ​A budget is surplus if the estimated revenues are in excess of the
estimated expenditure. But if the anticipated revenues fall short of the anticipated expenditure, it is a deficit
budget. According to the economists, a deficit budget is a sign of the country’s progress. A balanced budget is
one where the anticipated revenues equal to the anticipated expenditure. The budgets are generally deficit
budgets.
4. Cash or Revenue Budget – ​A cash budget is one wherein the estimates of the various items of income and
expenditure include the amounts actually to be received or spent in one year. In revenue budget the revenue
and expenditure, accruing in one financial year, are budgeted in that financial year irrespective of the fact
whether the revenues are realized or the expenditure is incurred in that financial year. In India, Britain and USA
there is cash budgeting, in France and other continental countries there is revenue budgeting.
5. Departmental or Performance Budget – ​The present practice is departmental budget, that is the revenue and
expenditure of one department are grouped under it. It does not give any information as to the activity or
performance for which money is budgeted. The performance budget is one where the total expenditure of a
particular project is grouped under the head of a particular programme. It is prepared in terms of functions,
programmes, activities and projects. For example- Department of Education is divided into programmes like
primary education, secondary education and higher education. Each programme will be divided into activities.
For example- training of teachers is an activity. Project is the last unit of functional classification. It signifies
such an activity as is of a capital nature, construction of school building.
6. Program Budgeting – a special reference - ​Program budgeting was developed by US President Johnson. It is
contrary to conventional budgeting. It describes and gives the detailed costs of every program that is to be
carried out with a given budget. Programming consists of developing detailed resource requirements and the
actions needed to implement plans. Budgeting is the activity concerned with the preparation and justification
of the organisation’s annual budget. The function of this budgeting is to secure sufficient funds to put the
program into operation.
The program budget is a budget that is prepared specifically for a project or program. This type of budget
includes expenses and revenues relating to a specific project only. No revenues or expenses of any other
project are mixed with this particular project. The program budget allocates resources to a project that helps in
monitoring the performance of the project and brings accountability.
Advantages of Program Budgeting –
a. It helps in determining the priority of the project
b. It helps in planning and managing the delivery of services in the future.
c. It monitors the allocation of resources to a project and how they are used to meet the goals of the
organization.
d. It helps in identifying areas where cost reduction can be done and savings can be made.
e. It helps in spotting the areas where higher funds are required.
f. It brings accountability to the organization. Since each project has its respective budget, performance
measurement can be done and accountability can be set.
Disadvantages of Program Budgeting ​–
a. Program budgeting requires a lot of information and it can take ample time to find out exact financial
resources required. It becomes very difficult to make a balanced budget.
b. Sometimes, overlapping causes several changes to the budget. Like for example, the municipality department
may include the electricity repair expenses in the budget, which may or may not incur. This leads ​to dual
expenses.
c. If the program budget​ is incorrect, it can lead to increase in costs.
d. The program budget sometimes makes it difficult to evaluate the performance of the project. Multiple layers of
administrators govern a project. Finding out the actual performance of any level of administrator can become a
daunting task.
Latest Indian Budget [overview and comment] -
Major Highlights –
● Budget guided by mission to strengthen agriculture, rural development, health, education, employment and
infrastructure sectors
● Government says, a series of structural reforms will propel India among the fastest growing economies of the
world. The nation is firmly on course to achieve over 8 % growth as manufacturing, services and exports back
on good growth path.
● Institutional Farm Credit raised to 11 lakh crore in 2018-19 from 8.5 lakh crore in 2014-15.
● Gramin Agricultural Markets to protect the interests of 86% small and marginal farmers.
● “Operation Green” launched to address price fluctuations in potato, tomato and onion for benefit of farmers
and Bamboo Mission gets Rs 1290 crore.
● Loans to Women Self Help Groups will increase to Rs.75,000 crore in 2019 from 42,500 crore last year.
● Higher targets for Ujjwala, Saubhagya and Swachh Mission to cater to lower and middle class in providing free
LPG connections, electricity and toilets.
● Outlay on health, education and social protection will be 1.38 lakh crore. Tribal students to get Ekalavya
Residential School in each tribal block by 2022. Welfare fund for SCs gets a boost.
● World's largest Health Protection Scheme covering over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families launched with a
family limit up to 5 lakh rupees for secondary and tertiary treatment.
● Fiscal Deficit pegged at 3.5%, projected at 3.3% for 2018-19.
● Rs 5.97 lakh crore allocation for infrastructure.
● Ten prominent sites to be developed as Iconic tourist destinations.
● NITI Aayog to initiate a national programme on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and centres of excellence will be set
up on robotics, AI, Internet of things etc.
● Disinvestment crossed target of Rs 72,500 crore to reach Rs 1,00,000 crore.
● Comprehensive Gold Policy on the anvil to develop yellow metal as an asset class.
● 100% deduction proposed to companies registered as Farmer Producer Companies with an annual turnover up
to Rs 100 crore on profit derived from such activities, for five years from 2018-19.
● Deduction of 30% on emoluments paid to new employees Under Section 80-JJAA to be relaxed to 150 days for
footwear and leather industry, to create more employment.
● No adjustment in respect of transactions in immovable property where Circle Rate value does not exceed 5% of
consideration.
● Proposal to extend reduced rate of 25% currently available for companies with turnover of less than 50 crore
(in Financial Year 2015-16), to companies reporting turnover up to Rs. 250 crore in Financial Year 2016-17, to
benefit micro, small and medium enterprises.
● Standard Deduction of Rs 40,000 in place of present exemption for transport allowance and reimbursement of
miscellaneous medical expenses. 2.5 crore salaried employees and pensioners to benefit.
R​elief to Senior Citizens proposed –
● Exemption of interest income on deposits with banks and Post Offices to be increased from Rs 10,000 to Rs
50,000.
● TDS not required to be deducted under section 194A. Benefit also available for interest from all fixed deposit
schemes and recurring deposit schemes.
● Hike in deduction limit for health insurance premium and/or medical expenditure from Rs 30,000 to Rs 50,000
under section 80D.
● Increase in deduction limit for medical expenditure for certain critical illness from Rs 60,000 (in case of senior
citizens) and from Rs 80,000 (in case of very senior citizens) to Rs 1 lac for all senior citizens, under section
80DDB.
● Proposed to extend Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana up to March, 2020.
● Current investment limit proposed to be increased to Rs 15 lac from the existing limit of Rs 7.5 lac per senior
citizen.
Tax Highlights​ –
● More concessions for International Financial Services Centre (IFSC), to promote trade in stock exchanges
located in IFSC.
● To control cash economy, payments exceeding Rs 10,000 in cash made by trusts and institutions to be
disallowed and would be subject to tax.
● Tax on Long Term Capital Gains exceeding Rs 1 lakh at the rate of 10%, without allowing any indexation
benefit. However, all gains up to 31st January, 2018 will be grandfathered.
● Proposal to introduce tax on distributed income by equity oriented mutual funds at the rate of 10%.
● Proposal to increase cess on personal income tax and corporation tax to 4% from present 3%.
● Proposal to roll out E-assessment across the country to almost eliminate person to person contact leading to
greater efficiency and transparency in direct tax collection.
● Proposed changes in customs duty to promote creation of more jobs in the country and also to incentivise
domestic value addition and 'Make in India' in sectors such as food processing, electronics, auto components,
footwear and furniture.
Comments on Budget 2018 - ​Here are some comments on 2018 budget proposals from the people belonging to
various sectors. They have expressed mixed comments to the corporate taxes levied.
1. The impact of 2018 budget is positive for agriculture and food processing sector, affordable housing sector,
health insurance and the textile sector.
2. Demand for agriculture-related products such as fertilizers, crop protection chemicals, micro irrigation
equipment will go up. Since the focus will be on technology and modernization, warehousing and logistics
industry will get benefitted. Financing for these sectors will increase.
3. The housing sector will continue to grow in the coming years. We can see increasing growth in low
income/small budget houses in 1, 2 and 3 tier cities. In the supply of steel, iron, cement, construction materials
and transportation will witness growth.
4. This budget will boost health insurance sector, health service providers and pharmaceutical sector. Share
prices of Pharma Companies like GSK, Glenmark, Divis etc. went up when this announcement was made by the
Finance Minister.
5. This budget demonstrates the Finance Minister’s intent to boost investments in rural development, education,
healthcare and social sectors. The budget recognises the role of infrastructure sector as growth driver of the
economy. The Finance Minister has shown interest to develop smart cities and bullet trains, but more action is
expected at the ground level. Provision for realising linkage of coal power to railways has been made to make it
more efficient.
6. On the direct tax front, the infrastructure sector did not get any relief on its long-term standing demand of
abolishing MAT or introducing group taxation provisions.
Abhijeet Biswas, Managing Director, 7iAdvisors LLP says, as part of the rural push, the government has
addressed the crop burning issue and made allocations to help the former. This will have a twin benefit on
rural India and environmental changes.
Dipankar Chatterjee, Ex-chairman, L. B. Jha and Company said, Finance Minister has gone beyond hand-outs
and doles for agriculture sector, by laying base for a stronger agriculture sector.
Communication -​ ​Meaning - ​Communication has been recognised as an important principle of administration. For
the successful working of administration, effective communication is of vital importance. We cannot think of
co-operation in public administration unless -continuous communication reaches the head Quarters. The
authorities cannot take proper decisions unless information is easily and properly communicated to them.
Communication is a two-way traffic. It means interchange of thoughts, partaking of ideas and a sense of
participation and sharing. It is a process which involves the elements of a person who intends to make contact.
The word communication has come from the Latin word ‘commune’ means common. Therefore, communication is
applicable to ideas, factors, opinions, awareness etc. It is one of the most important managerial activities.
It needs to convey facts, ideas and experiences and enhances managerial competency. Competent manager is a
good communicator as well.
Definitions - JD Millet-​ “Communication is the blood stream of administrative organisation”.
Pfiffner-​ “Communication is the heart of management”.
Millet- “​Communication is a shared understanding of a shared purpose”.
Principles of Communication –
1. Principle of Clarity​ – The message to be communicated should be clearly spelt out. It should be worded in such
a way that the receiver understands the same thing which the sender wants to convey. There should be no
ambiguity in the message. It should be kept in mind the words should not speak themselves but the speaker
gives them the meaning. A clear message will evoke the same response from the other party.
2. Principle of Attention​ – In order to make communication effective the receiver’s attention should be drawn
towards message. People are different in their behaviour so they may respond differently to the message. The
acts of the superior draw the attention of subordinates and they may follow what they observe. It is said that
actions speak louder than words.
3. Principle of Feedback​ – This is very important to make the communication effective. There should be feedback
information from the recipient to know whether he has understood the message in the same sense in which
the sender has meant it.
4. Principle of Informality​ – Formal communication is generally used for transmitting messages and other
information. Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the desired results. Informal communication
may prove effective in such situations. Management should use informal communication for assessing the
reaction of the employees.
5. Principle of Consistency​– This principle states that communication should always be consistent with the
policies, plans, programmes and objectives of the organisation. If the communication is in conflict with the
policies and programmes then there will be confusion in the minds of the subordinates.
6. Principle of Timeliness​– This principle states that communication should be done at a proper time so that it
helps in implementing plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any purpose.
7. Principle of Adequacy​– The information communicated should be adequate and complete in all respects.
Inadequate information may delay action and create confusion. Adequate information is essential for taking
proper decisions.
Who & How, What & When of Communication - ​If you ask any journalist, he can tell you about the five Was
[​Who’s] and one H [How]. Any solid news story covers those six basic ingredients. The same is true for
communicating inside the organisation. It relates to sharing a compelling vision or guiding decisions about the
future. If you want to ensure that you don’t forget a critical detail in your communications. Who is and How is
helps you to capture important perspective, sharing all-important context and making it relevant for your
audience?
Adult learners who want to know about what & when, who & how the rest can follow logically.
Who ​includes - 1] Who has made the decision 2] Who is in charge 3] Who does it impact 4] Who can get more
information?
How ​includes - 1] How was the decision made 2] How it will be implemented 3] How communication will flow
internally and externally 4] How does it impact me
What ​includes​ - ​1] What is the decision 2] What does it mean 3] What should I know 4] What is in it for me
When ​includes ​–​ When is this happening
Conditions Necessary for Communication ​–
1. Clarity​– Addressing the questions like what the message is and why it is being sent, the receiver and his
reactions and responses, the possible range of reactions and responses, what is to be achieved and what are
the barriers to its achievement must be understood clearly.
2. Integrity of Purpose​ – The relation between what is said and what is meant. This means using clear and concise
terms. So, there will be no doubt about the impact on the receiver. The message should be honest and as little
as possible.
3. Use of Language and Media​– The language and media used for communication purpose should be suitable to
the receiver. Priority should be given for simpler and more direct use of language.
4. Volume of Quality​ – There should be a balance between the volume of communication and delivering in
inacceptable format. The purpose is to ensure that everything received is of value and capable of being
understood.
5. Visibility​– People will respond positively when they know who is issuing information. Face-to-face relation is
based on mutual respect and understanding.
6. Flexibility​ – A good communication system should be flexible enough to adjust itself to the changing
requirements. It should not only be able to carry extra load without much strain but also absorb new
techniques without resistance.
7. Feedback​ – Feedback refers to the transmission of information back to the sender’s reaction which has been
generated. Its purpose is to reinforce or correct the action.
8. Timing​– An effective communication system should ensure sending of messages at the right time. The
communication must take this factor into account if it is to create a desired effect and response from the
receivers. A delayed communication will prove to be a waste.
9. Good Relations​ – Mode of communication should be chosen in such a manner that the feelings of the receiver
should not be hurt. The communication should create proper understanding in the mind of a receiver and it
maintains good relations in the organisation.
Limitations of Communication –
1. Language Difficulty - ​Language is an important vehicle for expression of ideas. But it is an imperfect vehicle
because people speak and understand different languages. The people of a state may not understand the
language of other states. The administrative language is still more difficult to be understood by the common
man. Though the state adopts a national language for the purpose of official communication, yet it makes
difficult for a layman to understand.
2. Frame of Mind - ​Every man has his own approach and mind to understand the communication. The same
communication may create different impressions according to the nature and bent of mind of the individual, if
it is not clear. Therefore, the frame of mind of those giving or receiving information may prove a barrier in the
way of effective communication.
3. Size of the Organisation - ​Size of the organisation is a hurdle for communication. If an organisation is big it
suffers. When communication flows from top to bottom the employees may understand it differently. By this it
may lose its original meaning.
4. Shortage of Authentic Means - ​The authentic means of communication are not available in plenty. So that it
becomes hurdle in the way of communication.
5. Status or Rank - ​Rank also sometimes proves to be a great hindrance to an effective communication. Every
department is organised in a hierarchical system. Every order passed by the superior authority to his
subordinate officers. The communication is not entertained unless passed through proper channel. This may
create delay and unnecessary embarrassment.
6. Geographical Distance - ​Geographical distance is also one of the hindrances in the way of proper
communication. Although the problem of distance has been considerably reduced by invention of mechanical
devices, yet it does hinder the effective and speedy communication of information. It happens in rural areas.
Media - Meaning​ – Media is categorised as an extension of communication process. Mass communication is
identified by the modern mass media including press, cinema, radio, television, video etc. recent technologies have
termed the new media such as cellular phones, mobiles, satellites, computers, electronic media and the internet as
mass media.
Mass media are the tools which facilitate dissemination of information and entertainment to a large number of
consumers. This is why mass media is called by Wilbur Schramm as magic multiplier. It means one message gets
multiplied into innumerable messages instantly. It is a common observation that the general exposure to mass
media is increasing day by day. The time spent on watching television, listening to radio, reading newspapers and
magazines is increasing. So much so the students use to spend more time watching television and internet than
attending classes. Adults spend their time on media than taking to family members, friends and relatives.
Advantages of Media​ –
a. Internet and digital information and communication revolution profoundly transformed the way in which
people communicate and share their knowledge and information.
b. Media facilitates opportunities for public participation and enhances good governance and democracy.
c. Media portrays the real picture of functional areas of governance relating to decentralisation, anti-corruption
and citizen participation in the policy process.
d. The media keeps constant check on the legislature, the executive and the judiciary in their functions and
performance.
e. It provides inputs into policy and makes necessary reports. The press and television channels have become
more vigilant.
f. It promotes enabling environment suitable for the freedom of people and compels the government to fulfil its
obligation to conduct public affairs.
Limitations of Media​ –
a. In spite of tremendous advancement in the information technology and other means of media, the citizens are
disenchanted with the administrative institutions.
b. The lack of information gives rise to apathy and distrust and a major mistrust is in the elected representatives.
c. Multiplicity of channels, soaring number of publications, wider internet coverage and mobile telephony have
made the situation more complex. In such a situation it is difficult to understand the media properly.
In spite of its limitations, media has all-powerful and wide-ranging effects on administration and its role can be
to stabilise, reinforce and maintain the consensus in the society. The working of democracy will improve if
administration improves and media can play a vital role in it by creating awareness among the consumers of
media.
Direction & Supervision -
Direction – Meaning – ​Direction is the function of management, which helps in guiding and leading people to work
effectively and efficiently. ​ ​Directing is the process in which the manager to instruct, guide and oversee the
performance of the workers to achieve desired goals. Direction means giving the order to start the operation for
the implementation of a policy or plan. It also means necessary guidance and instruction for carrying out the given
order. Direction involves forethought and planning.
Direction descends to the first line workers engaged in operations through a hierarchy of supervising officers. The
first-line supervisor is immediately responsible for directing the operations. The function of direction is to keep the
administrative wheels oiled and moving.
Need for Methods of Direction -
1. Issuing Orders and Instructions – ​The first and foremost method of direction is to issue orders and instructions
which is considered as an essential step in the process of directing subordinates.
2. Overall Supervision – ​It refers to monitor the progress of routine work of subordinates. It is an important
method of directing function of management. It involves direct personal contact with subordinates.
3. Motivation – ​Motivation is also regarded as an important method of direction. It is a process of exciting the
people to work for the attainment of desired objective.
4. Providing Leadership – ​Providing leadership in such a manner to guide what the leader wants to do.
Leadership plays an important role in directing.
5. Communication – ​It refers to an act of transferring the facts and ideas from a person to person and making
them to understand them. A manager has to monitor his subordinates about what to do and how to do, and
when to do the work.
6. Maintaining Discipline – ​The manager can give directions to his subordinates for maintaining trust and
discipline in the organisation. Subordinates can work effectively and efficiently. This method of direction plays
a very important role in achieving overall objectives of an organisation.
Limitations of Direction –
1. Rules of Procedure​– In old and well-established organisations much routine direction crystallises into formal
rules of procedure embodied into handbooks, codes and manuals. No rules of procedure can be absolutely
complete or free from doubt. But in a large number of cases they offer sufficient guidance for personal
direction by the offices. The rules of procedure may be unwritten but well understood.
2. Red-tape​ – Like habit, procedure may be good and bad. It may help as well as hinder. If it is forgotten that
procedure is a means to an end rather than an end in itself, it degenerates into red tape. It consists of the
procedural rule and unwillingness to exercise discretion. This is a melody from which administration is prone to
suffer.
3. Difficulty in Co-operation – ​Some employees with opposite point of view become hurdle in the attainment of
objectives. Such people do not work themselves, nor can they see others work. It becomes difficult for the
manager to establish co-operation and co-ordination.
4. No Importance to Managers – ​The post of a manager may lose its importance. The subordinates may not
oblige the manager’s directions in their routine work. It leads to inefficiency of the workers.
Supervision – Meaning –​ Supervision means to oversee or superintend. It is defined as the authoritative direction
and superintending the work of others. Supervision is something more than the use of authority. Supervision is a
process by which workers are helped by a designated staff member to learn according to their needs.
It is a necessary concomitant of the hierarchical organisation in which each level is subordinate to the one
immediately above it and subject to its orders. Workers at the intermediate levels of the organisation supervise as
well as are supervised. They supervise the work of those immediately below them and their own work is subject to
the supervision by superior officers above them.
At lowest level of the organisation supervision occurs in its pure form over the first-line workers. Those who
supervise the first line workers example the foreman in industry, the corporal in the army or the superintendent in
the secretariat offices are called the first-line supervisors. Those who supervise the work of these first-line
supervisors constitute the second-line supervisors. This process continues till we reach the head of an organisation
who exercises overall supervision. The official hierarchy of an organisation is the hierarchy of supervision.
Everyone who has subordinate is a supervisor of his work.
Need for Methods Supervision – ​Millett suggests the following six methods of supervision -
1. Prior Approval of Project – P​rior approval or advance review is a very common method of supervision. It
means before taking any initiative outside the framework of policy, the field establishments must get prior
approval of the headquarters. In India, prior approval of the Ministry of Finance is needed.
2. Service Standards – ​service standards mean fixing norms for performance. The top management can lay down
certain standards for the operating agencies. In public administration these standards of performance have an
added importance. Millet said that ‘Service standards are necessary in the government in order to ensure that
work is done promptly and properly.’
3. Work Budget – ​budget allotments are a very powerful means of exercising supervision. Budget allotments fix
the magnitude of work to be done in a given time. The top management’s control becomes effective in
operating the activities. It is a method of delegating authority and encouraging local initiative over the work.
4. Approval of Personnel –​Normally this work is entrusted to the central personnel department known as UPSC.
The central agency can exercise control over subordinate operating units by providing prior approval of
appointments made by them.
5. Reporting System – ​A standard practice in supervision is to submit periodical reports about their activities to
the central office. Such reports provide information on the basis of performance of the operating units can be
evaluated.
6. Inspection – ​It is one of the most accepted methods of supervision. The purpose of supervision is to see
whether the field agencies are doing work in accordance with the established rules and procedures. It is meant
to acquire information and not a fault-finding process.
Limitations of Supervision –
1. Technical ​– It is familiar with the know-how of the work to be supervised.
2. Institutional​ – It is familiar with the policies and procedures governing the work to be supervised.
3. Human ​– It is the ability to deal tactfully with the worker under supervision.
The importance of these factors varies with the level of supervision and the kind of work and workers to be
supervised.
The supervisor’s duty is not merely to notice and point out defects in the work of those working under him but also
to instruct how to do it better. He has to simplify and improve them and not content himself with mere
enforcement of procedures. In dealing with them he should not be lean too heavily on the formal authority of his
position but make a human approach to them.
Reporting a special problem – ​Reporting system has become so complex now-a-days. It has become so
problematic on the part of the supervising authorities to report about the employees of their respective
departments for appraisal or for any other purpose. Following are some of the reporting problems.
1. The qualities required for the evaluation of the officials are not defined nor is there any report on the results of
performance.
2. The reporting yardsticks are not commonly accepted. The different superiors attach different values to these
terms.
3. The reviewing officer and the countersigning officer may or may not have any direct knowledge about the work
of the officers reported upon. Again, as the reports are written at the end of a financial year there may be too
many reports to be written. Therefore, reviewing officers might not do proper justice in reporting.
4. The element of subjectivity has become the strongest problem of reporting. Here is a case of one individual
passing a judgement on the other.
Control -​ ​Meaning - ​Control is one of the important functions of management. Control in management means
setting standards, measuring actual performance and taking coercive action. Control in public administration is the
correction of performance to make the organisation to attain the desired end. Without control it is impossible to
achieve objectives of an organisation. In the words of Robins, the concept of control is defined as the final link in
the function of public administration. It is necessary step to check activities in the public administration process.
The process of control is to check activities to ensure significant deviations in undertaking these activities. Control
is the necessary and appropriate step into correct the action.
Control means the systematic monitoring of all administrative activities at all times and at all levels of public
authority.
Controlling Measures -​ There are certain controlling measures through which administrative responsibility is
enforced. Broadly speaking, there are two main measures of control, namely, internal control and external control.
Internal control is relating to administration and external control is relating to political the external controls
operate upon the administration from outside. They work within the constitutional structure. Thus, administration
in the USA is not responsible to external bodies. Internal controls are those which operate within the
administration itself. If both these controls work satisfactorily the administrative machine will work efficiently and
smoothly.
1. Internal Control Measures ​-
a. Budget – ​The budget is a carefully designed programme of work which the executive institutions intend to
undertake. Parliament approves the budget by specifying the purposes for which money is required.
b. Auditing – ​Auditing is one of the traditional control measures which are always useful. The auditing is done
after the transactions have taken place in order to determine the legal corrections of all financial transactions.
It checks whether the money has been widely used for the intended purposes.
c. Inspections & Investigations – ​Inspections and investigations is one of the most traditional administrative
control measures in public administration. Internal and external auditors make separate inspections and
investigations on the financial performances of the government departments. It prepares and submits reports
on their observations to the Secretary of the Ministry of Finance and the Comptroller and Auditor General.
d. Procedural Arrangements–​Fixed work methods and procedures determine the manner the speed of service
rendered. The procedural arrangements are laid down with codes on the basis of personnel and financial
matters. These arrangements are designed to facilitate the work operations of the executive institutions. The
executive institutions are arranged in accordance with hierarchical structure of officials. One officer reports to
the other in the same way that subordinate officers have to give their superiors.
2. External Control Measures – ​Broadly speaking there are four types of external control over public
administration such as legislative control, executive control, judicial control and citizens control over public
administration.
A. Legislative Control over Administration -
a. Law-making process – ​The legislature’s control through law-making process is very general. But it is impossible
for the legislature to attempt to lay down the details of administrative procedures. Thus, it is left to the
executive to lay down the details of making rules and regulations which is known as delegated legislation.
b. Question –Hour – ​In parliamentary system there is a practice of setting one-hour time for questions is called
question hour. The members may ask the questions of omission of administrative authorities from the highest
to the lowest. The ministers have to reply the questions on the floor of the House. Supplementary question
may also be put. Through question-hour public grievances can be ventilate, administrative lapses may be
brought to notice and information on any matter may be solicited. It is regarded as healthy check on
administration. It keeps the bureaucrats responsive to a body of laymen. It plays an important role in the
mechanism of control over public administration. The question-hour has been described as a search-light on
the activities of administration.
c. Budgetary System – ​A more effective means of control over administration by the legislature is through the
budgetary system. The legislature passes the budget every year and authorises expenditure. No money can be
spent by the administration without proper authorization from the legislature. With its control over national
purse the legislature defines the activities which the departments have to undertake. The members criticise
the policies of the government and bring to light its failures. The budget provides an occasion for the
parliament to review, scrutinise, examine, criticise and influence the functioning of administration.
d. Debates and Discussions – ​Debates and discussions are a very important occasion for the legislature to
examine and scrutinise the activities of administration. The President’s speech, budget speech, introduction of
motions and resolutions provide an occasion for debates and discussions. After the President’s speech vote of
 thanks takes place. The members criticise the administration for its lapses and failures. These are called as
important view-points of parliamentary control over administration.
e. Appointment of Committees – ​The appointment of committees by the parliament from its own members is
another method of exercising control over administration. The ministers make some promises or assurances on
the floor of the House during the course of debates, discussions and questions. The Committee on Assurances
will keep a watch whether promises given by the ministers were being implemented.
B. Executive Control over Administration -
a. Political Direction –​ Minister has the power of direction, control and supervision. He has full authority to
manage and direct his department. He lays down the policy and looks to its implementation. He issues
directives to the departmental officials. He may issue orders to eradicate red-tapism. The officials work under
his direction, control and supervision.
b. Budgetary Control – ​It determines the total financial and personnel resources which no department may
exceed. It is an effective measure of executive control over administration. The civil servant has to work within
the budgetary allocation. He cannot spend even a single penny without the sanction of higher authority.
Proper accounts are to be maintained which are subject to audit.
c. Recruitment System – ​Another important measure of executive control over administration is recruitment
system. Recruitment of civil service is placed in the hands of Public Service Commission. But the general rules
of recruitment are laid down by the government. It has the power to exclude some posts from the purview of
public service commission. Ministers will select their own secretaries. Thus, they exercise full control over
administration.
d. Executive Legislation – ​It is termed as delegated legislation. The legislature passes an Act in a skeleton form
and empowers the executive to fill in the details. The rules framed by the executive have the force of law.
C. Judicial Control over Administration – ​No hard and fast measures can be laid down for judicial intervention,
but courts intervene in administrative cases on the following grounds.
a. Lack of Jurisdiction – ​Every officer has to act within the limits of the authority given to him. If he acts beyond
his authority or outside his area, his acts will be declared by the court as ultra-wires and hence ineffective. This
measure prevails in India, Australia and the USA.
b. Error of Law – ​A​ ​public servant may misinterpret the law and may impose upon the citizen’s duties and
obligations which are not required by law. A citizen who has suffered on account of this has the right to
approach the court for damages.
c. Error of Fact-finding – T​he court can intervene when it finds that the officer who has committed a mistake in
fact-finding matter. The aggrieved person can challenge it in the court. Example- if veterinary inspector
declares some one’s cattle is diseased which has been ordered to be killed. The owner of the cattle may
challenge it and the cattle may be re-examined by the competent authority.
d. Abuse of Authority – ​If public officer goes on to use his authority vindictively to harm some person, the court
can intervene and punish him if he is found guilty of using his authority to make a personal revenge.
e. Error of Procedure – ​Public officer has to act according to the procedure laid down in the rules. If he does not
follow prescribed procedure the court has the power to question the legality of his action on the basis of an
appeal from the affected party.
D. Citizen’s Control over Administration – ​The citizens can control the administration through the following
measures.
a. Election – ​In some countries like Switzerland and France, the officials are elected by the people. This system
ensures direct popular control over administration. So, the officers come under the direct control of the
people.
b. Recall – ​Generally this system is prevailing in Switzerland. The elected representatives and officers who do not
fulfil the aspirations of the people may be recalled by the people.
c. Pressure Groups – ​Pressure groups use political tactics to influence the government and administration at all
levels. These groups bring pressure on the legislature through lobbying and upon the officers through liaison.
d. Public Opinion – ​Public opinion has become most important measure in controlling administration. Eternal
vigilance is the price of liberty. The government or the officer cannot suppress it by any means.
e. Advisory committees – ​The advisory committees and boards consists of persons having knowledge and special
interests. They establish two-way traffic in administration. They initiate public policy on administration and
convey the people regarding their role in administration. Such person’s function as a liaison agency between
the public and officials. They interpret the feelings and interests of the people to officers.
Problems of Control Process –
1. Magnitude of Change – ​When the magnitude of change is too high the corrective action cannot work.
Example, if 90 per cent of employees remain absent to their duties on the day when strike takes place the
management can do something to correct the change. Thus, control system fails when the variables go out of
the range.
2. Change of Time – ​The control system depends upon accurate and timely feedback on the performance. It
comes through written reports. It takes time to write and transmit the control reports. The feedback becomes
outdated by the time when reports reach the higher authorities. ​S​uch time lag in feedback makes the control
process down fall.
3. Faulty Standards – ​When the control standards are erroneous, it becomes difficult to determine proper and
improper performance.
4. Information Overload – ​Too much information is harmful for control. Therefore, the administration must
decide the quantity and the type of information that reach to every manager.
5. Resistance – ​Employees very often consider any control system as a tool to exert pressure on them. They may
complain that the targets are non-feasible, time span of appraisal is too short and control staff lacks objectivity.
16 Marks Questions
1. Define P.A. and explain its scope
2. Explain the meaning, nature and importance of P.A.
3. Explain the differences b/w Public and Private Administration
4. Bring out the relation between Politics and administration
5. Write a note on new public administration
6. What is Hierarchy? Explain its features, merits and demerits
7. Explain the meaning, merits and defects of Hierarchy
8. Explain the meaning, merits, and defects of Unity of Command
9. Explain the meaning and types of delegation of authority
10. Explain the meaning and factors determining Centralization and Decentralization
11. What is Department? Explain the basis of departmental organization
12. Explain the Line, Staff and Auxiliary agencies
13. Explain the administrative powers of the Chief Executive
14. The Chief Executive is a trouble shooter, supervisor and promoter of future programs-examine this statement
15. Explain the meaning and qualities of leadership
16. What is Communication? Explain its types
17. What is Planning? Explain its types
18. Explain the meaning and techniques of Public Relations
19. Explain the meaning and process of recruitment
20. What is recruitment? Explain its methods
21. Define recruitment and explain the qualifications required for recruitment Explain the system of exam for
recruitment to All-India Services
22. What is training? Explain its types
23. What is promotion? Explain its principles
24. Explain the principles of promotion
25. What is morale? Explain the factors building up high morale
26. What is discipline? Explain various disciplinary actions.
27. Explain the meaning and features of retirement
28. Explain the meaning and principles of budget
29. Explain the meaning and kinds of budget with special reference to program budgeting.
30. Explain the meaning and importance of budget
31. Explain the latest Indian Budget with overview and comment.