The Persian

Army
of the Napoleonic Era
Qajar Dynasty 1779 - 1857

David F Brown
Contents Special Regular Infantry Units, p.52
Light Infantry, Guard, Reserve Regulars - Uniformed Toffungchees,
Higher Organisation, Training, Morale, Head Hunting
Historical Context Sarbaz Uniforms, Officers, Standard Bearers, Musicians
Persian Rulers and Dynasties, p.2 Drums and Trumpets
Timeline of Events concerning Persia or Neighbours, p.3
Russian Bagaderan - Great Warriors, p.60
Shahs, Princes, Court, p.6
Royal or Guard forces, Militia, Tribal or Irregular Troops, p.6 Regular Cavalry, p.62
Royal Forces, Cavalry, Gholam-shah, Gholam-Tofangchis, Joushan-pushan
Regular Artillery, p.64
Infantry, p.12 Artillery Uniforms, Guns and Battery Organisation, Gun Furniture Colour,
Tofangchis, Keshikchis, Palace Guard Madras Native Horse Artillery, Swivel Guns, Shumkhals, Russian Deserter
Artillery, Mountain-Train Amusettes, Mountain Howitzers, Mortars, Rockets,
Converted Ships Carronades, Improvised Guns, Zamburaks,
Artillery, p.14
Colonel F Colombari’s Treatise on Zemboureks, p.76
Zamburaks, Rockets
European Engineers, p.76
Logistics, p.18
Encampment, Pioneers, Pageantry,
Estafellas or Shotters, Hot Air Balloon
Logistics, p.78
Transport, Military Provision Wagons, Tents, Medical Service, Dervishes,
Elephants, p.20
Hunting
Mercenaries, p.20
Jihadists, p.22
Armed mobs, p.22 Naval, p.82

Militia Troops, p24 Flags, p.82

Militia Cavalry Weapons and Tactics
Friends, Allies and Fringe Dwellers, p.86
Infantry, p.26 Russia, Britain, Ottoman Turks,
Tofangchis, Mounted Tofangchi, Jazairchis, Shamkhalchis, Mounted Georgia, p.114
Shamkhalchis, Sherbacha, Kazbin Militia, and Obsolete Weapons Georgian Khevsur Highlanders, 300 Aragvian Martyrs, European Training
Infantry Weapons, p.28 and Morige Lashkari National Militia, Russian Deserter Guards,
Infantry Tactics, p.28 Border Guards and Garrisons, Russian Allies, Artillery, Mercenaries,
Irregular Allies and Subjects
Imeretia, Mingrelia, Svaneti, Guria, Abkhazia
Organisation and Higher Command, p.30
Georgian Battles and Campaigns, p.120
Caucasus States and Peoples, p.128
Tribal Troops, p.30 Avar Khanate, Caucasian Imamate, Caucasus Khanates, Kurdish Khanates,
Bakhtiyari, Turcomans, Kurds, Ashfars, Lurs, Uzbeks, Circassians, Yezidi, Assyrian Nestorian Christians
Mazanderan, Talish of Ghilan, Gereilee, Kazvins, Kruta, Elaeuts / Iliats Central Asia, p.133
/ Illayuts, Georgians, Lesghis, Chechins, Ossetians (Alans), Daghistani, Khiva, Bokhara, Khulum City- Khanate
Arabs, Afghans, Baloochis, Hazara Afghanistan, Durrani Khanates, Khorassan
Wahabist Arabs, Joasamy Pirates - Al Qasimi Arabs, Muskat - Oman
Army Reforms, p.46
European influence Persian Armies and Civil Wars, p.156
French Mission of 1807-09, British Mission 1810-15, Persian Mission to
Austria 1829, Polish Diplomats 1830s, British Mission 1833-38,
Religion and Superstition, p.161
French Mission 1840-44, Austrian / Italian Mission 1852
Babist Revolt
Military Training Establishments

Notes on Pictures
Regular Infantry Sarbaz, p.50
Numbers of Sarbaz, p.50 Notes on Names and Spelling

Preface Iran has been used as it was the name used by contemporary Westerners
and it sounds more exotic for a modern reader. I have included many
This volume must be considered an introductory work on the subject. illustrations or photographs of troops, sometimes including multiples of
I make no claims to this being comprehensive or complete when the same topic. The dates provided for illustrations might be the original
there are many sources in Farsi, Turkish, Arabic, Russian, Armenian publication date or that of a new colourised edition. Some dates may
or Georgian unavailable to me. represent the intended date of the incident or production of the picture.

This project started as notes for me to sculpt or collect a range Those after greater accuracy can sometimes deduce the date of a
of miniature figurines representing the soldiers described. The picture’s genesis by checking the years of travel for European authors
information on the Persian army and its enemies may be of interest visiting the region. The colours in hand-tinted prints should be viewed
to wargamers and military history enthusiasts; perhaps inspiring with caution, some appear to have been chosen for no particular reason
somebody to undertake a more thorough study. and variants are included to illustrate the point.

I have made no attempt to harmonise spelling between different Special Thanks

sources that use different schemes, similarly I have mostly left out the To Mark Conrad who sent me copies of the colour Russian plates
Arabic or Farsi diacritical marks. Some of the technical terms used accompanying the articles he translated (see references 47, 49). These
here look like Turkic or Arabic loan-words, I leave it to the experts proved the spur to get this project underway, even if it took me some
to decide which, if any, is more correct or original. Persia rather than time to complete after various stops and starts.
Introduction Historical Context
This book covers the Persian military from 1779 to 1857. The first In the three centuries preceding the period under study there were
date is death of Karim Khan Zand and the escape from Shiraz by the several attempts by the Persians to modernise their army by introducing
hostage Aga Mohammed Khan, founder of the Qajar dynasty. The last Western gunpowder weapons and training.
date is the Anglo-Persian War.
In the 15th century, Venice sent (or promised to send) firearms, artillery
Calling the period Napoleonic is probably a western conceit. An and instructors to Persia, presumably to aid against their common foe,
Iranian might describe the period as early Qajar. The name was the Ottoman Turks.
chosen to reflect that the diplomacy and wars in Europe echoed both
politically and militarily in nations far removed from Paris, London or It is not clear how many of the promised arms, if any, made it to Persia
Moscow. By way of example, note the French diplomatic moves to - and the Ottomans were famously using massed gunpowder weapons to
have the Ottomans and Persians both attack Russia as distractions for score victories over them into the 16th century.
the main French invasion through Poland in 1812 and Britain’s efforts
to stop those diplomatic moves. The first Safavid ruler, Shah Esmail, some time after 1514 formed a
force of tofangcis ‘musketeers’ using either matchlocks or flintlocks (1)
Similarly, dispossessed princes from Georgia and Imereti in the first and instituted the office of tofangci-basi, ‘musketeer commander’.
decades of the 19th century appealed to Napoleon to expel Russians
from their lands and restore them to power. The Safavids used bombs and hand grenades (kompāra). The latter
were made of a clay pear-shaped jar with a hole and a fuse. Rockets
From 1804 to 1810 Persia asked Great Britain to force the Russians (mūšak) were used as well.
out of Georgia to allow them to resume control of the area. Many
British leaders were convinced Napoleon, perhaps in league with By 1517, Esmāīl’s army is said to have included 8,000 musketeers, and
Russia, was plotting to invade British India overland through Persia Venetian reports from 1521 and 1522 speak of 12,000 and 15,000 to
to be joined by any Asiatic allies they could attract on the way. After 20,000 arquebusiers. (1)
Napoleon’s defeat, British fears remained about Russia’s intentions.
Persian artillery of this period was either captured or locally produced.
The end date chosen is of course well beyond the Napoleonic era. Those produced locally were reported by Europeans as being of modest
It recognises that the Persian military remained in a backwater with quality and sometimes supported by only scanty supplies of ammunition.
only gradual reform, and some periods of decay, up to the disastrous
Anglo-Persian War. Toward the end of the 16th century and into the 17th, Shah Abbas also
undertook a period of modernisation of his military. He was aided
The rise of European nation states powered by the first rumblings of in 1598 by Englishmen Anthony and Robert Sherley with 14 (or 26)
the industrial revolution saw a phase of colonisation where non- advisors who helped reform all branches of the army. The reunification
European powers were exposed as possessing an inadequate military of Persia and a victorious war in Afghanistan suggest the reforms were
capacity to resist such expansion. The non-European nations were successful.
sooner or later mindful of the ‘western secret’ even if they could not
exactly quantify it. From the 1720s to mid-century Frenchmen and other Europeans could
be found in charge of Persian artillery.
Non-Europeans recognised their often feudal, part-time and
ramshackle armies were outclassed and responded by building The next significant Persian effort at modernising their military was by
‘regular’ standing armies with new weapons and tactics in imitation of Nadir Shah, of the Afsharid Dynasty, the man sometimes called Persia’s
Western forces. Napoleon.

The non-European process of modernisation was widespread; Europeans contemporary with Napoleon described him to Persians as
imitation forces were developed, perhaps with freelance or foreign- being a man like Nadir Shah.
government supplied European military advisors, in Ottoman Turkey,
Egypt, Maghreb states, Persia, Caucasian Imamate, Afghanistan, Nadir Shah campaigned with success in Afghanistan, Pakistan, North
Bokara, Khiva, the smaller Central Asian states, Afghanistan, Mysore, India, and against Ottoman Turks or Russians in the Caucasus. His army
Manipur and other Indian or Southeast Asian nations. included new modern artillery and infantry units wearing red uniforms.
The men were armed with muskets and trained by Europeans.
One Kurdish tribal chieftain was quite proud of his 200-man
‘regiment’ of imitation regular musketeers. On Nadir’s death the nation declined and his army was not maintained.

The Saudi - Wahhabist conquest of Arabian holy sites in the early That a stable and energetic Shah modernises and strengthens his army
1800s and their destruction of tombs only to have it degraded thereafter looks
shocked the Islamic world. The defeat the pattern. The lack of underlying
of fanatic Wahhabist warriors by the permanent institutions meant the next able
Egyptian-Ottoman new style regular ruler has to rebuild almost from scratch.
forces did not go unnoticed.

1
 Persian Rulers and Dynasties

Safavid
Esmail, 1501 - 1524
Tahmasb, 1524 - 1576
Esmail II, 1576 - 1577
Sultan Mohammad, 1577 - 1587
Shah Abbas I, 1587 - 1629
Safi I, 1629 - 1642
Abbas II, 1642 - 1666
Safi II, 1666 - 1694
Shah Soltan Hosseyn, 1694 - 1722 Aga Mohammad Shah,
1796 - 1797

Ghalzay
Mahmud, 1722 - 1725
Ashraf, 1725 - 1729
Fath Ali Shah,
1797 - 1834
Safavid
Tahmasb II, 1722 - 1732
Abbas III, 1732 - 1736

Afsharid
Nader Shah, 1737 - 1747
Ali-Qoli (Adil), 1747 - 1748
Ebrahim, 1748 - 1749 Abbas Mirza,
Shahrokh, 1748 - 1749 (Crown Prince)
1797 - 1833

Safavid
Shah Soleyman II
(Mir Sayyed Mohammad),
1749 - 1750
Esmail III, 1750 - 1773
Mohammad Shah,
1834 - 1848
Afsharid
Shahrokh, 1748 - 1795

Zand (Western Iran)

Mohammad Karim Khan Zand, Ali Mirza, reigned in
1751 - 1779 Tehran as Adel Shah for
40 days in 1834

Qajar
Aga Mohammad Shah, 1796 - 1797
Fath Ali Shah, 1797 - 1834
Mohammad Shah, 1834 - 1848
Nasser ed-Din Shah, 1848 - 1896
Mozaffar ed-Din Shah, 1896 - 1907 ?
Mohammad Ali Shah, 1907 - 1909
Soltan Ahmad Shah, 1909 - 1925

Hossein Ali Shah - Nasser ed-Din Shah,

Pahlavi claimed title of Shah for 1848 - 1896
Reza Shah, 1926 - 1941 three months in 1834
Mohammad Reza Shah, 1941 – 1979(2)

2
Timeline of Major events concerning Georgia, Avar Khanate, 1800
Avars invade Georgia accompanied by refugee Georgian Prince Alexander
Persia or Neighbours who had local and Persian support. The Avars and confederates are
defeated in battle by the Russians and their Georgian factional allies.
Persia, 1779
Death of Karim Zand Khan, Aga Mohammed Khan flees captivity Russia, Georgia, 1800, December
and begins uniting Qajar tribes. Russians under Tsar Paul invade and annex Georgia.

Persia, Mazanderan, 1779, Aga Mohammed Khan defeats two Russia, 1801, March 11
brothers in battle. Tsar Paul assassinated, to be succeeded by Alexander I.

Georgia, 1779, Georgian defeat of Erivan Khanate. Britain, 1801 Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1801.

Russia, Georgia, 1783 Avar Khanate, 1801

Treaty of Georgievski, alliance between Catherine II (the Great) of Death of the Avar Khanate’s successful ruler Umma Khan.
Russia and Heraclius II of Georgia.
Russia, India, 1801, January - March
Persian, Sari, Astarabad, 1784, Mohamad Zahir Khan A force of Cossacks sent to invade India makes it only to the Volga when
(Zand) defeats Aga Mohammed Khan near Sari, he stands siege in news of Emperor Paul’s death ends the dubious venture.
Astarabad and later sallies to defeat the Zand army.
Afghanistan, 1802, day of five battles, against internal rebels.
Persia, Kashan, 1785, Aga Mohammed Khan defeats Jafar Khan
Zand and Taqi Khan. Avar Khanate, c.1803
The Khanate was under Russian control by 1803. In the Russians
Russia, Caucasus, 1791, June 22 abolished the Khanate in 1822.
Russians defeat cleric-combatant Shaykh-Mansour at Anapa.
Russia, Khanate of Ganja, 1803-04
Persia, Shiraz, 1871-92, Luft Ali Khan (Zand) defeats Haji Russians (under general Tsiatsianov) from their base in Georgia invade
Ibrahim, a general of Aga Mohammed Khan. Ganja in the eastern Caucuses / Azerbaijan. The Khanate was a Persian
subject semi-independent state, it fell on January 3rd (or 15th), 1804, after
Russia, Baku, 1795 a two month siege and bombardment, Javad Khan Qajar and his sons were
Persians under Aga Mohammed Khan capture the city / Khanate of killed in the defence. Ganja wass formally ceded to Russia as part of the
Baku on the west coast of the Caspian Sea. Treaty of Gulestan in 1813.

Khanate of Karabakh, 1795, Summer Russo-Persian War, 1804-13

Aga Mohammed Khan attacks the Karabakh Khanate and its
fortified capital city of Shusha. The Persian army, reportedly Russia, Khanate of Karabakh, 1805, May 14
60-80,000 strong, was unable to capture the city and maintained a Treaty of Kurkachay, Tsiatsianov secures the submission of Ibrahim Khalil
siege for 33 days. Khan of Karabakh.

Georgia, 1795, September 8-11 Herat, Afghanistan, 1805

Battle of Krtsanisi near Tbilisi - Persians under Aga Mohammed Firuz Mirza of Herat attacks the Persian fortress of Ghorian where he is
Khan defeat Georgians of King Heraclius II. defeated and pursued back to Herat. Persians defeat Soofee Islam in battle.

Afghanistan, 1795-96, Afghan invasion of the Punjab. Russia, Persia, Gilan province, 1805
A Russian force in Gilan is defeated by a provincial Persian army.
Russia, Baku, 1796 Spring
Catherine II of Russia invades Transcaucasia. Baku surrenders Russia, Baku, 1806, February 8
on 13 June without contest to General Zubov’s 6000 troops and a General Tsiatsianov is killed outside the walls of Baku when accompanied
flotilla. General Count Pavel Tsitsianov governs Baku. only by a few aides to demand the city’s submission. He was shot by the
defending troops of Huseyngulu Khan. One report said Tsiatsianov’s head
Russia, 1796, November 17 and hands were sent to Fath Ali Shah in Tehran. In an earlier incident
Catherine II of Russia dies, to be succeeded by Paul I. an Islamic scholar, Mirza Mohammad Akhbari, reportedly promised to
kill Tsitsianov by magic (beheading a wax ‘voodoo’ doll is mentioned).
Khanate of Karabakh, 1797 Uneasy about possible supernatural power, the Shah exiled Mirza
Aga Mohammad Shah’s second attack on Karabakh proves Mohammad Akhbari to Iraq.
successful; Ibrahim Khalil Khan goes into exile in Dagestan. Aga
Mohammed Shah was assassinated a few days after his success and Turkey, Persia, 1806
the new King, Fath Ali Shah, allows Ibrahim-Khalil Khan to return An Ottoman army from Baghdad and Persians clash in supporting rival
as part of a general settlement. semi-independent provincial leaders of the border region. The Ottoman
armies are defeated in two clashes.
Russia, Baku, 1797, March
Czar Paul I withdraws Russian forces from the Caucuses, troops Russia, Turkey,
leave Baku in March. 1806-12, Russia and Ottoman Turks at war.

3
Russia, Baku, 1806, September Turco-Persian War, 1822-23
General Bulgakov occupies Baku. Huseyngulu Khan goes into exile.
Turkey, 1822, May
France, 1807, May 4 Battle of Toprah Kaleh - Persians defeat Mohamad Amin Rauf Pasha.
Treaty of Finkelstein between France and Persia. France recognised Persian advance to the Turk provincial capital of Erzerum is cancelled
Persia’s claim to Georgia and parts of the Caucasus. France agrees after an outbreak of cholera decimates their army.
to send arms and instructors. In return Persia announces hostility to
Britain and agrees to help any French action against British India. Turkey, 1823, July 23
Treaty of Erzerum ends the Turco-Persian War.
Russia, Nakhichevan Khanate, 1808
General Gudovich occupies Nakhichevan. The troops are withdrawn Russo-Persian War, 1826-28
and the Khanate returned to Persian rule in 1818 under the Treaty of
Gulistan. Russia, Ganja Khanate, 1826, September 3
Russians defeat Persians in a battle near the Shamkir minaret.
Persia, Zargos highlands, 1809, Spring
Fath Ali Shah campaigns against a rebel Bakhtyari tribe led by Asad Russia, Persia, 1826, September 13-14
Khan Bakhtyarvan ‘the lion killer’. Battle of Yelizavetopol / Ganja, Russia defeats Persia.

Persia, 1810. Religious leaders declare jihad against Russia. Russia, Nakhichevan Khanate, 1827, July 14-22
Russian forces under General Paskevich attack the fortress of
Khiva, Bokhara, 1810-13. Failed Khivan invasion of Bokhara. Abbasabad on July-14 where they are repulsed with heavy loss and then
mount a siege. The defender Ehsan Khan Kangarlu negotiates the fort’s
Turkey, Georgia, Imereti, Russia, 1810 surrender on 22 July – he is later made governor of the area and given a
Combined Persian-Ottoman invasion of Russian-controlled Georgia, Russian military rank when the Khanate becomes a Russian possession
aided by Solomon II the exiled King of Imereti and Leon, nephew in 1828 under the Treaty of Turkmanchy.
of Alexander the Georgian King. The poorly-co-ordinated invasion
fails. Avar Khanate / Muslim Imamate, 1828-64
Uprising of Avars against Russians inspired by misrule and / or
Britain, Persia, 1810 enthusiasm for hard line Islamic fundamentalist religious leaders Ghazi
British military mission replaces the French in training local troops. Mohammed (1828–32), Gamzat-bek (1832–34) and Imam Shamil
(1834–59) who perpetuate a guerrilla war.
Persia, Azerbaijan, 1812, February
Persians defeat Russians at the Battle of Sultanabad. Eastern Kurdistan, 1830-32
Kurds of Khorasan and Turkmenia rebel – Persian forces sent to quell
Persian Gulf, 1812 them. Siege of Kurds at Kuchana, 1832.
Persian and Muskat allied forces defeat a Wahhabist army in
battle, before losing a second battle to them. Herat, 1833. Persians unsuccessfully siege the city.

Russia, 1812, October 19-20 Persia, 1834-35

A series of battles sees Mohammed Shah secure his succession on the
Battle at Aslanduz, Russians defeat the Persian army of Abbas Mirza.
death of Fath Ali Shah. Contenders, Zel el Sultan, Hider Koolee Mirza
and the Firman Firman are defeated.
Russia, 1813
Treaty of Gulistan ends Russo-Persian War, most of the Caucasus
Khorasan, 1835
ceded to Russia.
Persians campaign against rebel Uzbeks, Turkomen, and Kurds.

Russia, Georgia, 1813, Spring

Kurdistan, 1835(?)
Russians defeat the Khevsour Georgian highlanders at their fort of
Kurds ambush Persians in the mountains. Some Persian units rout but
Shatil.
the Russian Bagaderan forms a square to repel Kurdish cavalry.
Khiva, Turkistan, 1814-18
Mohamed Raheem Khan of Khiva invades, the Turkomans supported Turkmenistan, 1836. Persians campaigning in the area.
by Persia force them to retreat.
Herat, 1837-38. Persians unsuccessfully besiege the city.
Herat, Afghanistan, 1817-18
Hasan Ali Mirza, son of Fath Ali Shah, defeats Herat in punishment Persia, Kerman, Khorassan, 1840-41
for their attacks on the fort of Ghorian. Unsuccessful rebellion of Aga Khan, he is defeated and goes to exile in
India.
Khorasan and Khiva, 1817
Revolt in Khorasan and the Khan of Khiva invades in support of Persia, 1844-1853
Afghan leaders. Babist religious movement violently suppressed.

Afghanistan, 1818 Anglo-Persian War, 1856-57

Hasan Ali Mirza of Persia defeats Afghan leader Fatteh Khan at the Persians attack Herat, British victories at the Battles of Bushire,
Battle of Kafer-Qal’a. Khoosh-Aub and Mohumra.

4
 Lankeran
Bokhara
Tabriz
Azerbeijan Resht

Astarabad Merv
Gilan
Zenjan
Ardelan
kazvin Mazanderan Meshed
Tehran
Herat
Hamadan • •
Kermansah
PERSIA afghanistan
Luristan ••
Baghdad
Ispahan

Yezd
Khuzistan

Fars
Mohammarah Kerman
Shiraz

Bushir
bam

Baluchistan

 Cities
Provinces or regions

Adapted from Alden’s Handy Atlas of the World, 1888 Oman

Shahs, Princes, Court expressing no intention of ruining his forces in a frontal charge into
Russian infantry and artillery. He would instead surround and degrade
them with a scorched-earth strategy until their logistics failed.
Persian Shahs and nobility were often described as wearing or
depicted in ornate and costly dress, they were rarely depicted without The European sources for this tactical stance appear to derive from a
weapons, even in court scenes. conversation with Ibrahim Hajji, a commander and governor of the Shah.
Later Persian rulers are quoted reflecting on the wisdom of the tactic.
Costume and equipment, including arm bands, was decorated
with gold and precious jewels. Pictures of royalty in battle scenes
usually show them in less ornate clothing and sometimes armed and Royal Forces
armoured with traditional-style weapons such as bows.
The following described troops were associated with the Shah, however
The Crown Prince Abbas Mirza set off to campaign against the princes and provincial governors might command equivalent formations
Russians in 1803 wearing famous armour; such as a personal guard, musicians and lackeys, albeit smaller in
number and less well presented for provincial leaders.
‘ ... coat of mail in close links, which had been handed down to the
region-conquering sovereign, through successive generations, from Europeans often referred to a range of troops as ‘guard’ and such a
Tuly Khan, son of Jengheiz Khan.’ designation may suggest elite experienced soldiers. While many of these
troops were of higher quality, the term was also used by these authors to
‘[He was] ... attended by the insignia of royal pomp, the tent, the mean soldiers raised and maintained by the central authority and mostly
pavilion, the royal chamber, the audience chamber, the fort- found accompanying the Shah, princes or provincial governors.
demolishing zambooraks, the joy-announcing drums and the
hoarse-sounding trumpets.’ (143)
Cavalry
In contrast with his antique armour, the Prince could be seen
observing the enemy with his favourite modern telescope. Gholam-Shah
The Shah’s personal troops included guard units of gholams, 2000-4000
cavalry that were an elite of highly paid cavalry of two types.
Royal or Guard Forces, Militia, Tribal
or Irregular Troops The gholam-shah ‘Shah’s servants or retainers’ were the highest paid
elite riders typically armed with carbine, pistols and sabre. They were
clad in expensive clothing by the state. A later unit’s firearms were
In addition to the European-style troops raised from the early 1800s, slung over shoulders and protected in scarlet cloth cases.(129)
Persian forces consisted of the Shah’s or a senior potentate’s guard or
personal troops, provincial or city-based militia, mercenaries, tribal A painting of the military review held in July 1813 for Fath Ali Shah
troops and subject or allied states’ forces.(5) and Prince Abbas Mirza shows men, perhaps officers, in magnificently
decorated clothing, in front of the other troopers. A pair of riders ahead
Armies before the regular reforms placed great importance on their of the main units hold axes. August von Kotzebue who travelled with
cavalry arm and less on their infantry or artillery. The tactics of the the 1817 Russian diplomatic
Qajar cavalry reflected their Turco-Persian heritage of fluid advances mission described the Sardar of
and retirements. Sir Harford Brydges in 1807-11(3) and James Fraser Erivan’s parade including:
writing in 1827 (4) (among others), recount Aga Mohammad Shah
‘[an] ... officer carrying on his
shoulder a silver axe, the emblem
of the Sardar’s power over life
and death.’ (6)

A parade watched by James Morier

in 1808-09 included one or two
princes riding white horses that
were dyed on the legs, belly and
lower parts of the buttocks in a rich

Right and Far Right, nobles and princes in ornate clothing from a
court scene attending the Shah (detail).
Top Right, Fath Ali Shah, from Drouville.(16)
Above Left, Fath Ali Shah’s mace and shieldbearer, detail from a
Persian illustration, 1806-1810.
Above Right, Governor of Oroomiah, from Perkins.(68)
6
 Above, detail from Battle of Sultanabad,
1812. The rider to the right is Abbas Mirza,
armed with a lance. Behind him are two
groups of riders, apparently armed with
firearms, they may thus be the gholam-shah.
Many of the riders wear mustard-coloured
coats; a few have white, blue, black or red.
The ornate pointed saddle-cloth ‘zeen-push
or ghaseeya’ of the horse at the bottom is
typically for high-ranking persons.
Left, perhaps the same cavalry formations
shown at a military review in July 1813 for
Fath Ali Shah and Abbas Mirza.
Right, Fath Ali Shah in ornate costume.

Above Left, a prince accompanied by an armed man in undecorated clothes who could be a retainer or soldier of one of the units discussed later.

Above Center, and

Above Right, grandee
and helper with the
typical hat of black
lambs wool with red
cloth section at the
indent. The ‘caleoon’
water-pipe, was
housed in a saddle
holster. (16)

Right, soldiers at a
court scene (detail)
those at right represent
guards holding the
Shah’s shield - ‘siper’
and mace - ‘gurz’.
Left, a Queen and
attendant.
7
orange colour ‘terminated at the top by little flowers’.(7) Some Shahs been Georgian boys, purchased and brought up in the household, the
also rode painted horses. greater number are adventurers, or cadets of good families, who are
content to serve for pay, and in the hope of promotion or lucrative
Edward Waring, who visited Persia in 1802, describes the gholam-shah employment.... the gholums form, in truth, a corps d’elite, distinct from
as 20,000 strong but recognised an inner elite of 4000.(8) He admitted the other troops like the household troops or mousquetaires of France
trouble getting definitive information on the military and it seems the in the time before the revolution.’ (111)
4000 were the gholam-shah and the remainder must be some other units.
In 1825-26 James Alexander described a welcoming delegation of nobles
‘The flower of this corps is formed into a body of about 4000, who and a ‘parti-colored and motley’ group of ghoolams as 600-strong and
are distinguished by the excessive richness of their dress, and the bearing in their centre the royal standard with the lion-and-sun device.
insolence of their behavior.’ He gave the full complement of ghoolam-i-Shah, the King’s bodyguard
cavalry, as 3000 men.(11) His picture of such a trooper is included on the
When in Shiraz, Waring observed a small number of troops at next page.
‘undisciplined’ exercise where they could charge in a ‘promiscuous
heap’ and then break into widely spaced groups of four or five men to The ghulam chaperoning Austen Layard in his travels during 1840 was
commence skirmishing with carbine shooting. As he has not clearly described as:
differentiated guard from other units he may have observed a militia,
tribal or other formation. ‘...mounted on a good horse, and in his traveling costume - his robes
thrust into a pair of baggy trousers of brown cloth - armed with a
Circassians, among others, were enlisted into the gholams. They long gun, a huge pistol and the usual curved dagger, and various
were noted as renowned fighting men and prized as recruits by the contrivances for holding powder and balls hanging from his belt.’ (12)
Mameluk ruling military caste in Egypt. Napoleon inserted an Article
into the draft Treaty of Finkelstien, 1807, that should Persia regain This ghulam was equipped for travel rather than a military action but his
control of Georgia he would be furnished with ‘Mameluks’ from the long firearm may mark him as the next described troop type.
area to resupply his guard unit of such soldiers.(58)
The force was noted by Sir Justin Sheil, who served in Persia in military
British author Sir John Malcolm noted the Shah’s guards as 3500 and diplomatic roles from 1833 to 1854; he described them as an elite
strong including Georgian ‘slaves’.(9) Military slaves had a long unit.
history in Islamic states. The exact social and legal status of Qajar
military ‘slaves’ will not be considered here. ‘The Shah’s body-guard of irregular cavalry consists of 2500 men.
They are well mounted and armed, and excellent horsemen.’ (13)
Sir Robert Porter, travelling from 1817-20, described the Goolams as
2000 men, mostly sons of good families or the proteges and agents In the Anglo-Persian War of 1856-57, Capt. G.H. Hunt saw the possibly
of powerful people, but also noted their present officer was a former uniformed cavalry escorting the Prince - Governor of Booroojid, Khanlar
Georgian slave and personal favourite of the Shah.(10) Mirza and retreating forces:

Recorded pay rates for these gholams range up to 12 times that of a ‘They certainly exceeded two thousand in number, appeared well
standard militiaman, triple being a rough average. Waring said they mounted, and were dressed in long blue frocks, with trousers of a
were paid regularly and well. They were not kept long in arrears lighter colour, a white belt, and the high black lambskin hat that is
peculiar to the Persians. A sabre and long matchlock slung across
- a policy adopted by most prudent emperors when rewarding their
their back appeared to be their only arms as (unusual for Asiatics) no
Praetorians.
lances were visible among them.’ (14)
Fraser, travelling in 1821-22, detailed the gholums’ origin;
Hunt described the
men with three furled
‘They are not, as their name imparts, all purchased as slaves;
standards and thought
for though some of them, like the Mameluks of Egypt, may have
they included an elite
formation of Bactdyari
tribesmen. One of the
Below, a man with the Shah’s horse, from Drouville, 1818-21 the riders dismounted
horse’s lower parts are coloured with henna. Other descriptions have
behind a wall to shoot
the tail and mane of a Shah or Princes’ horse also dyed orange.(16)
his musket. Other
eye-witnesses of the
above mention ‘clouds
of Bakhtyari’ and Lt.
General Sir James
Outram’s detailed order
of battle lists the Shah’s

Right, a detail from

a military review of
Abbas Mirza in 1817.
The red-uniformed riders do not appear to be the regular lancer unit
(discussed later) unless it is somehow depicting all the officers of such a
unit grouped together. Infantry in the same painting are shown with red-
clad officers out in front of blue clad men. The riders have what looks a
red standard [top-right of the image] topped with either a hand-of-Ali
or similar decoration. It is tempting to speculate this might represent a
‘guard’ unit given uniforms.
8
 Above, a cavalryman of the Shah’s guard,
1825-26, from James Alexander.

Above Right, a gholam from Drouville, 1818-21.

Right and Below Right, the gholam-tofangchis

- the Shah’s specialist guard unit shown
dismounted to engage in sharpshooting, a
combat style common in parts of the
Middle East and Central Asia.

The top gholam-tofangchi illustration is from

Drouville’s ‘Voyage En Perse’, 2nd edition, and
below from the 3rd edition, both are included
to show variations in colouring chosen by the
artists or publisher.

Above, weapons described as, (a) blunderbuss

pistol, early 19th century, (b) flintlock rifle
with English lock, c. 1835. English pistols
were desirable in Persia due to their superior
workmanship, double and even four-barrelled
versions are described by travellers to Persia.
From the Cyclopaedia Iranica.

Right, a matchlock with bipod - many such

stands in the 19th century have an angled
A-shape form.
9
cavalry as 300 and 1200 Bucktiara cavalry.(15) It is possible Hunt has retiring from raiding Russian-held territory in the Caucasus while
conflated a ‘uniformed’ gholam formation of the Prince or Shah with pursued by their enemy. The Russians then:
the entirety of the cavalry he saw.
‘... followed them some little distance, but on the Gholam Tufungchees
A small group of riders in dark blue clothing escorting Mahomed turning around and discharging their field pieces, the range of which
Hassan Khan of Shiraz were mentioned by Morier in 1808. The men exceeds that of the camel-guns, several of the Russians were slain and
impressed as no-nonsense fighters armed with musket, sword and a others wounded, so that the remainder turned back.’ (145)
brace of pistols.
It is not clear what word was translated to ‘field pieces’ above. It might
William Holmes in 1843 described the cavalry of Prince Suleiman imply they were accompanied by artillery or simply refer to their long,
Khan at Asterabad as wearing fancy uniforms, no two alike, and accurate and possibly rifled firearms which might plausibly out-range
trumpeters in red coats.(80) The musicians’ coat colour might be a zamburaks in the hands of skilled marksmen.
personal choice rather than copying European-style distinctive coats
for such men. European writers rarely differentiate the gholam-tofangchis from the
gholam-shah. However, Alexander in 1825-26, provided a snippet when
Toward the end of the period under study, Robert Binning, in 1850, describing how the gholam-tofangchis and a unit of Karabaugh cavalry
described the cavalry as two types; gholam-rikabee who are the successfully chased down, delayed and degraded an isolated Russian
bodyguard or attendant on the Shah or prince and the gholam-suvar.(85) infantry regiment of 1200 men and four guns, before the rest of the army
The first term ‘rikabee’ or rekabi might also used for the traditional arrived to destroy the Russians near the town of Kunjeruk.
tribal force. This unit was 400 strong, paid six to four times the rate
of other riders and the men were expected to provide a servant and The gholam formations had a terrifying affect on the local peasantry as
three horses. It was composed of: they had free rein to commandeer food or property. The senior officers
were often minor nobility or well-connected people for whom laws need
groups of ten men commanded by a dehbashee not necessarily apply.
groups of one hundred men commanded by a yoozbashee.
Joushan-pushan
The gholam-survar comprised 12 ‘troops’ and a composition was The joushan-pushan, ‘dressed in armour’, were cavalry supplied with
given as 50 men commanded by: arms and horses by the state and paid in cash and fodder. Service was
hereditary but vacancies unable to be filled by a son or relative would be
1 x sooltan - captain chosen from the best horsemen of settled and wealthy districts.
2 x naibs - lieutenants
2 x vakals At one point during 1812-14 we hear of the Shah accompanied by 4000
2 x serjoukas such cavalry. In 1801 a reported 10,000 of them were part of an army
and Frenchman Drouville estimated there were 20,000 throughout the
A group of 1000 was commanded by a serkerda, ‘colonel of cavalry’. kingdom. He called them irregular cuirassiers.(16)

If Binning’s reference to ‘12 troops’ means the 50-man formation, the The joushan-pushan were armed with 13-14 foot lances and sabres
total body of horsemen, at 3400, is similar to other numbers shown (possibly some with no firearms) and they were clad with an iron helmet,
here for the gholams. The gholam-rikabee might be an inner elite mail coat, round shield and vambrace for the right arm.
within the whole.
A body of Mohamed Ally Meerza’s ‘irregular’ cavalry seen by Brydges
The tactical use of the gholams, besides being a bodyguard elite in 1807-11 was:
formation, was described by Persian writer Abd Al-Razzaq Maftun
Dunfufi in the Dynasty of the Kajars; where they are found in an ‘..warlike in appearance, armed in general with a steel head cap,
army’s advance guard, scouting in small numbers and forming a breast plates or chain armour, swords, pistols, mace, lance, poigniard
reliable army rear-guard when the enemy is nearby and threatening. and musquets or carbines.’

Gholam-tofangchis Porter, visiting from 1817-20, described cavalry that were probably the
The gholam-tofangchis, ‘musket-servants’, were armed with long- same formation as a permanent body, separate from the gholams, and
barrelled firearms fitted with rests. These men were expected to attached to the king.
dismount to shoot but there is no reason to suggest they were not also
good horsemen. ‘These are armed in various ways, and many coats of mail.
But even during peace he has them in small musters, brought in
Porter provided comment on their dual tactical roles. rotation to pass in review before the window of his palace. When all
together, they exceed 10,000 men.’
‘A minor division of this body, [the Goolams] is called the Goolam
Toffanchis, or musketeers. They act either on foot or horseback, and
are celebrated as almost unerring marksmen. Detachments from Right, axes are not
these people are often sent for two years at a time, into a garrison, commonly shown
wherever his majesty deems such lasting service necessary.’ in illustrations,
however a pair of
This unit was a lesser status than the ghulam-shah but still paid at a riders side-by-side
hold them in the
higher rate than non-guards and was supplied by the state with wheat
military review
fodder. Recorded pay rates for these range up to three times that of shown earlier.
standard militiamen with 2½ times being a rough average. The weapons also
represent the symbol
The Dynasty of the Kajars described the formation led, in about 1810, of a ruler’s power of
by Kasim Beg, and with some ghoolams, sarbaz and musketeers life and death over
his subjects.
10
 Left, an armoured
rider depcted by
Drouville. It thus
represents the
joushan-pushan
cavalry.

Far Left, a rider

from a picture dated
1816-20. It is not
clear if the grey
jacket represents
mail, such colourised
engravings need
to be viewed with
caution.

Below Left, a hunter

twisting in his saddle
to shoot - shown on
a Qajar era box in
the British Museum,
from Haider
Mustaq’s website.

Above and Above Right, various ornately decorated and presumably expensive armour items from the Qajar period. Below, an illustration
from Morier called ‘The Key Kaj Exercise’ - involving Parthian shots by riders.(18) The rider at left could well be an armoured joushan-pushan.

11
These troops declined in numbers throughout the 19th century. By the keshikchis might be further divided into those guarding the city and
later 1820s there were fewer than 10,000 and they disappear at some those guarding the palace itself.
point in the 1830s to 1840s.
Frenchman Tancoigne, in 1808, described an elite formation, armed with
matchlock and dagger, within other infantry.(70)
Infantry
‘Some tufencktchis or fusileers, better armed and clothed than the rest
Tofangchis of the infantry, also form part of the King’s guards which are several
A central corps of tofangchis, ‘musketeers’, of 12,000-14,000 men thousands in number.’
was maintained. These troops were noted as being recruited by
preference from the Mazandaran province and from the Qajar tribe.(5) The leader of such men when acting as the night watch was known as
Loyal and efficient infantry might also be recruited from the city a daroga. When on these duties clubs and lanterns could be carried in
of Astarabad where 3000-4000 could be found in the 1840s. It is addition to their firearms. The ‘daroga’ title was also for the principle
probable that at the start of the Qajar era a proportion of these troops magistrate in a city or large town, he may have had a range of civil,
would have been armed with matchlocks. commercial or law-and-order and administrative responsibilities.

Alexander on a number of occasions described troops accompanying Palace Guard

royal persons, in 1825-26, as specifically both musketeers and William Ouseley, in 1812, noted the elaborate dress of a Shah’s personal
matchlockmen. guard at Tehran as:(19)

It is not clear if weapons were always centrally provided or if ‘..soldiers and attendants dressed in an extraordinary manner, their
uniforms were still issued as per the red ones supplied by former clothes being spotted over with golden pieces of money, sequins and
dynasties. However, Drouville described the djanbas as red- ducats; and many wore helmets of uncommon appearance.’
uniformed ‘irregular’ soldiers of the Shah, as depicted below, with
distinctive sash holding cartridges.(16) The name ‘djanbas’ is later It is not clear if these exotically-dressed soldiers had a role outside
seen applied to the European-style infantry raised by the Shah. As the city or if they were an infantry or cavalry body, they may be some
Drouville’s illustration does not show clothing or equipment in keshikchis wearing ceremonial kit.
European form it is possible the djanbas name pre-dates the reforms.
Tancoigne described ‘guards of the interior’ known as nasaktchis, 300-
As with other infantry, a sword would be worn and a dagger tucked 400 strong detailed to keep order in the palace areas where entrance was
into belt or sash - either a curved dagger or perhaps by personal permitted and to protect the Shah’s person. They were armed with axe,
preference a straight dagger if from Georgia or the Caucasus. Aga sabre, dagger and large club terminating in the shape of a mace. They
Mohammad Shah referred to his Mazanderan tofangchi as Pirahan e could be recognised immediately by their caps which were bound round
Jan e Shah ‘the shirt that protects the life of the Shah’.(17) with Cashmire shawls. A second body, of nearly the same numbers, was
dressed similarly but carried an iron mace instead of club. A description
Morier, in 1808-09, described the Shah’s guard infantry as: of what may be the same unit, in 1837, had them wearing scarlet cloaks.

‘...dressed differently in black or crimson-velvet jackets, in loose In 1819-20 Lt.

breeches of crimson or yellow silk, black sheep-skin caps on their Thomas Lumsden
heads, and light boots.’ visited the city of
Shiraz where soldiers
He described the guard as 12,000 men half of whom were the new
at court were armed
model regular ‘Jan-baz’ as detailed later. Alexander, having noted
with ‘swords, pistols,
guard cavalry and zambureks then mentioned further troops in the
match-lock pieces and
Shah’s camp dressed in scarlet jackets.
a kind of hatchet.’ (20)
The soldiers could
Keshikchis equally be a palace
Within the above formation was a group of 3000 keshikchis, ‘watch- guard, militia or other
men’, armed with flintlocks who were a palace guard for the Shah. unit. Brydges visiting
A role in battle was to protect the Shah’s tent. the same city in 1809-
1810 described Prince
These men were also noted as from Mazandaran but the ethnicity Hasan Aly’s guard
of individuals also included Afghans, Baluchis or Georgians. The formation as the;
‘... Prince’s battle-axe

Left, detail from a court

scene of Fath Ali Shah, the
larger illustration shows
lines of various officials
or foreign diplomats,
including Europeans in
bicornes. Troops attending
the gathering, as shown
here, may thus represent
the Keshikchis.
Right, a ‘djanbas soldier’
depicted by Drouvlle, 1821.
12
 Left, Alberto Pasini,
1826-99, ‘Horse guards’.

Surrounding, works
of Henry Alken, from
1820-28.

Bottom, ‘eastern’
riders, most wear the
Qajar hat, the archer’s
ethnic group is not
clear, he could be a
part-armoured rider
in‘traditional’ kit.

The rider at Right

has a similar mix of
traditional weapons
and pistols.

Henry Alken 1821

13
guard - and other troops drawn up in a line.’(4) that even modest accuracy (by his standards) was considered excellent
gunnery.
The Crown Prince when at Tabriz, in 1828-29, was attended by 20
servants in ‘handsome scarlet cloaks’. The tendency for Europeans to denigrate the efficiency and
manoeuvrability of non-European artillery is so pervasive it may well be
The guard of Prince Sultan Mahomed Mirza of Ispahan seen in 1825- a trope that deserves further investigation.
1826 included musketeers, matclockmen and a group armed with iron
maces.(11) Other provincial palace guards may have lacked the style At the Battle of Krtsanisi, 1795, the Persians and their defeated Georgian
of the Shah’s. Those seen by Robert Cotton Money accompanying opponents conducted an artillery duel. Prince Teimuraz of Georgia later
Prince Hoossein Ali Mirza of Khorsan in 1825-26 were;(78) became commander of the Persian artillery during the Russo-Persian War
of 1804-13, at least until 1806 when he came to terms with the Russians.
‘...some squalid ragged musqueteers dressed after the English The Persians at Krtsanisi were possibly supported by their Ganja Khanate
fashion some centuries ago, and headed by a drummer and fifer.’ allies and new Erivan subjects who had access to guns from various
sources. The Caucasus Khantes supporting Persia in the 1803-14 War
The Shah’s harem was guarded internally by black eunuchs and the with Russia also possessed artillery - possibly supplied by the Qajar
externally by white eunuchs. If the women travelled, these men, authorities.
armed with carbines, would shoot to scare off anybody bold enough
to attempt an illicit glimpse of the ladies. Nadir Shah’s women were William Monteith said Persians at the Battle of Etchmaidzden, 20 June
once described as riding white horses. 1804, had only six ‘badly-mounted and inefficient’ guns.(16)

Artillery Frenchman General Gardine reported the artillery complement was

2500 men, which presumably included tupchis, ‘gunners’, and other
The standard of artillery, ‘tupkaneh’, before the European reforms support staff.(22) Another European account, by Adrien Dupre, numbered
was described by European visitors as of dubious quality. The guns the artillerymen as 840 men in about 1800. These were described
(23)

were often associated with fortress defences or besieging forces as Georgians but some caution needs to be observed as contemporary
and those accompanying a field army were probably not overly Persians might use ‘Georgian’ to mean Caucasus peoples or even
manoeuvrable. Christian Europeans generally. The Persians referred to Europeans as
Ferengee, ‘Franks’, and Vincenzo Maurizi, an Italian artillery expert
Not all European reports denigrated the artillery. George Forster, in engaged by the Sultan of
1783, described Aga Mohammad Khan’s ordnance at the town of Sari Muskat, said Arabs thought
in Mazanderan province as; all Franks were naturally
artillerymen.(144)
‘...small esplanade, on which are mounted three pieces of cannon,
with carriages of good workmanship fixed on three wheels’.(31) Fortress cities could be well
armed with guns, for example
The third wheel is a mystery, presumably it is in the gun trail to aid we learn that Baku, in 1806,
mobility. In 1785 Aga Mohammad Khan destroyed the fort of Qom after the slaying of Russian
with his guns. Field artillery was captured in some of the battles General Tsitsianov, drove
during his war with rival Zand dynasty and other claimants before he off the Russian flotilla. At
secured the throne. William Francklin, in 1786-87, noted foreign- Teheran, in 1812, 40 pieces of
made guns of a variety of weights in the inventory at Shiraz; artillery were found mounted
on carriages that did not build
‘...the Tope Khana, or park of the Artillery: it consists of several confidence of the European
pieces of cannon mounted on bad carriages, most of the guns observer to their robustness.
(which are Spanish and Portuguese, excepting two English twenty- Guns would mostly be brass
four pounders) are dreadfully honeycombed, and that would but records suggest a few iron
certainly burst on the first discharge.’ (21) ones existed.

The Portuguese guns were apparently acquired when they were Fraser noted Aga Muhammad
forced to evacuate ‘Ormusz’.(70) Khan’s artillery as;

Waring related a story of several people’s death during a gun salute, ‘..some unwieldy cannon and
fired without projectiles, as they crowded too close to the guns, and a number of swivel-artillery,

Below, a ‘Persian’ by Henry Thomas Alken (1785 – 1851). Below Right, ‘A lion hunt’, by Alberto Pasini (1826-99). Above, a rider by Drouville.

14
 Above, various persons at court showing details of costume - at far left is Muhhamad Shah,. Irregular troops wore what was essentially civilian clothing.

Above, Fath Ali Shah in a hunting scene. In addition to costume detail note that most have holstered pistols and the riders appear to have a
quiver of arrows at hip - only one rider is shown using a bow. It appears that bows were part of traditional court costume (princes at new-year
parades wear bows) or the bow was also a sporting hunting weapon not seen in war beyond the early period, it was also used in combat by some
of the tribal peoples on the Qajar periphery. Above Right, a Persian in ‘traditional’ costume, from 1841 - this is an often recycled illustration.

Above Left, a Persian hose-archer by Drouville, who travelled from 1812. Bows
were in decreasing use from the early 1800s but still seen on the
fringes of Qajar lands.

Above Centre, a youthful Persian rider. The ‘bazoo bunds’ arm-bands or

decoration on his jacket indicate a costly garment.

Above Right, a man of the Kazabin militia with long-handeled spiked mace,
depicted in 1857 (Illustrated London News). Right, is a picture from the later 1800s
showing costumes of Asiatic peoples, it looks inspired by the illustration above it.

Far Right, a soldier identified in a Russian source, 1810, as a militia man.(49) His
costume differs from regular troops in the same source by the unusual colour of his
shirt, which also lacks cuffs of a distinctive facing colour and any collar.
15
 mounted on camels called zumboorucks (little wasps), - a name recorded as 100 men strong.
very expressive of their sharp mischievous effect.’
‘The zomboorek is a small gun mounted on the back of a camel. The
Long-barrelled light ‘jingal’- style swivel guns, not unlike the larger conductor from his seat behind guides the animal by a long bridle,
zamburak weapons, could also be mounted on forts. and loads and fires the little cannon without difficulty. He wears a
coat of orange-coloured cloth, and a cap with a brass front; and his
Fredika Freygan and Wilhelm von Freygan, travelling in 1812, camel carries a triangular green and red flag.’
suggest zamburaks somehow superseded other guns in popularity or
perceived usefulness by generals.(24) The Shāhinshāhnāmah of 1806-1810 shows lines, once illustrated two-
deep, of kneeling zamburaks engaging Russian artillery in a shooting
‘Under Nadir Shah, the Persians made use of heavy artillery, which dual, firing at Russian squares fronted by artillery or routing Russian
they afterwards gave up for falconets carried upon camels.’ infantry.

One reason for the unpopularity of wheeled artillery was the terrible Ouseley, in 1812, watched a parade led by the Shah’s colourful 500
state of Persian roads and bridges making their transport difficult cameleers:
- Colonel Colombari made this point several times.(25) He also
noted that early heavy siege guns might be moved by buffalo or ‘...each camel carrying a man, gaudily dressed, who managed a
teams of ‘prisoners retained for this painful labour’. In a further Zemburek or swivel-gun, placed immediately before him whilst the
observation he related that the earlier Shah Abbas thought his guns so saddle was decorated with a small flag of different colours.’
unmanoeuvrable that it would be better to transport metal ingots on
The ‘gaudy dress’ might equally imply a showy uniform or no uniform
camels to a siege and cast guns on the spot.
at all. William Price, who travelled with Ouseley, mentioned several
troops of zamboracchies, some of which bore ‘flags, spears etc’ and
One reference to smaller guns was provided by John Kinneir (political
another ‘swivels, flags etc.’(99) The remainder were of the standard
agent to Sir John Malcolm), who said besides ‘zamberooks’ the
camel-swivel gunners. His wording might mean each troop had a mix
only artillery was the ‘small field pieces’ as attached to the army. (138)
of these items or perhaps a colour party of camel-riders was grouped
Ouseley, in 1812, described the ‘Jebbeh Khaneh’, an armory or
with them. In a later section, lance-bearing zambourak sergeants will be
arsenal in Tehran, where:
described.
‘...persons are constantly employed in cleaning and repairing
muskets, pistols, zembureks or swivel-guns ... here are also kept In a Russian report we learn of 400 zamburaks as part of the Shah’s
some ‘tup’, pieces of heavy cannon.’ guard formation and 200 for other generals.(49) The decimal organisation
may pre-date the army’s reform to include regulars, but there is nothing
Zamburaks to assert this with confidence - Uzbek and other Central Asian forces
The camel mounted-guns, zamburaks, ‘wasp’ or ‘hornet’, were used also contained zamburaks so these weapons may have been organised in
in Middle Eastern and other Asian armies for two centuries before a system similar to pre-regular cavalry.
the period under study, such as those used by the Mameluks of Egypt
from the early 1500s. Zamburaks were part of Persian armies in the Many European authors did not rate zamburaks highly. On what basis
1720s if not earlier. they made the judgement, other than on their exoticism, is not always
clear. In the period before that under study Afghan armies scored battle
European illustrations of the gunners show men in traditional costume victories where zamburaks played a role - against Moghuls by massing
and others in Western-inspired uniforms, the latter presumably as part them in great numbers and against Safavid Persians by staging a false-
of the trend to reform the army on European lines. rout of cavalry to have the Persian pursuers ride into range of a prepared
zamburak cannonade, at the Battle of Gulnabad, 1722.
Persian illustrations of zamburaks appearing in a Shāhinshāhnāmah
prepared in 1806-10, during the reign of Fath Alī Shāh, mostly show Von Kotzebue, who had seen 500 Persian zamburaks manoeuvring in
men in a variety of colours, but one depiction has all the men in light 1817, thought them outlandish and despite not taking care in aiming;
purple coats. The artist cycles through his available palette for all
figures so no great weight should be placed on the actual colour of ‘They are never discharged but in volleys, which are very powerful
depiction. Some men appear to wear the Qajar hats in black or brown, and may do much execution, from their number.’
which could even be helmets, while others have fur-edged caps.
‘...with some improvements, they might be used to good advantage by
the advanced guard of an army.’
Frenchman Dupre said the nation could field 1500 zamburaks in about
the year 1800 and remarked that they could shoot at the trot or via the The Persians described their zamburaks using a variety of colourful or
camel kneeling. A number of reports and illustrations tell of the gun belligerent-sounding metaphors:(145)
being detached from the saddle and fired from the ground, presumably
for greater accuracy. ‘... the din of the fire-scattering camel guns hurled confusion into
the celestial sphere ...
The unusual clothing of the Shah’s troop was noted throughout the The thunders of the foe-
period. Tancoigne, in 1808, described them as decorated with two destroying zambooraks ...
flags on the animal and ‘dressed in fantastic manner’ while wearing ‘a swivels, with pestilential
cap more like that of a rope dancer than an artilleryman’. Although breath, and flame-exciting
blasts, like the iron
critical of the unit he provided a helpful hint to their mode of use in
founder’s furnace burned
action. The description underlined the importance of their mobility up the field of battle ...
and circulating forward as if skirmishing from a fixed rallying point. camel-guns as dreadful as
serpents ...’
‘When they have loaded their guns, they advance at a quick trot,
confusedly, and return when they have discharged them.’
Left, resting zambuarchi, by
The Shah’s zamburak guard unit observed by Morier, in 1808-09, was Col. F Colombari, who was in
Persia 1833-48.
16
 Left, artillery depicted on the walls of the Shaki Khan palace. The
event depicted is a battle between Safavid Persians and Ottoman
Turks but portrayed with costume of contemporary Azeris as at the
time of the palace’s construction in 1797. The style of the guns may
thus be an indication of what late 18th century to early 19th century
pre-European reform Qajar artillery may have looked like. The artist
was intrigued by telescopes and depicted several men using them.

This page, zamburaks where the men are not uniformed. The guns
are mostly located on the rear of the saddle while many uniformed
zamburaks shown later locate it on the front, presumably as is needed
for mounted shooting. The purpose of the small flag is not clear.

Above, Drouville’s
‘Zombarek Artillerie
irreguliere legere’.

Below, from Amedee

Jaubert’s ‘Voyage en
Armenie Et En Perse’,
1821.

Above Centre, two zamburaks depicted by Drouville. Above Left, illustration by Pascal Coste, Canonnier Persan.(153 and 64) Coste travelled in
Persia from 1840 to 1842-43, the picture was first published in 1851.

17
The European depictions of non-uniformed zamburaks mostly show Logistics
them being fired from a mount at the saddle’s rear, while uniformed
examples are shown at the front. Presumably front-mounting is Encampment
needed for shooting on the trot. The rate at which European authors The pishkhaneh were a specialist transport-logistics formation that
in the 19th century recycle information and copy illustrations from would advance before a force to secure a camp area, supply water,
each other means the differentiation in gun positions on the saddle establish accommodation tents and, where necessary, build temporary
may not be accurate or significant - it can be challenged by other fortifications.
observations such as Dupre and Tancoigne above.

Maurizi’s description of a zamburak formation in the Persian Gulf Pioneers

expedition against Wahhabists Arabs, in 1811-12, was; Waring reported that a body of bildars, ‘pioneers’, would accompany
infantry and artillery when undertaking siege works against cities.
‘ ... zumbelek, a sort of swivels mounted on camels and fired from After the period of study, a report in the 1870s, said engineers wore red
their backs, and of which each animal carries two.’ (144) uniforms while infantry were in blue.

This looks a unique reference to two-gun camels. It is not clear how Pageantry
they were constructed; either two guns at an end, or one at each end of Parades could include the nokareh kaneh, the royal military band,
the saddle, or simply that a spare gun was carried. It could also mean usually on camel-back and wearing red pointed caps while playing
two guns and two gunners rode the camel. Colombari’s sketch of a instruments including kettle-drums and long trumpets.
resting zamburachi shows him armed with a shield and not wearing a
European-style uniform, which suggests not all Persian zambuarchi The defenders of Erivan city facing Russian attack reportedly gained
adopted this dress style at later dates. The Shah’s guard zamburaks heart hearing the band, part of a relief force, play a song of victory.
were once recorded marching in a parade dismounted with the heavy
swivel-guns over their shoulders. The band might be accompanied in peacetime by a ‘troop of looties
and their monkeys’ (lootie is a word that might generally mean persons
Rockets of dubious character, rioters, plunderers - so carney folk in this case).
Rocket batteries were used in a siege by the Qajars in the late 1830s. Provincial governors might have their own smaller band of cameleer-
It is possible rockets may have been used before this, presumably musicians such as the group of six seen at Tabriz in 1836.
of a form like those used by Afghan, Maratha or other Indian sub-
continental forces. These were hand-launched and transported on pack One mention of a royal parade included a body of mounted singers near
camels. Evidence for their use in Persia is not available. the royal band. The singers were led by a man wearing a green turban.

Fireworks and rockets were mentioned as part of New Year’s Other parade elements could be stilt-walkers, acrobats, jugglers, ram
celebration festivals. More discussion of rockets will be presented in a fights and children slack-rope walkers 40-80 foot in the air. These last
later section. also known as djanbaz, ‘riskers of their souls.’

Above, chief of the Shah’s ‘shotters’, by Drouville.

Above Right, the Shah’s master of ceremonies, from Shoberl,

1828.

Left Top and Middle Left, zamburaks depicted in a Persian

Shāhinshāhnāmah of 1806-1810 (details) engaging Russian
squares and artillery.

Bottom Left, Zamburaks routing Russian infantry.

18
 Surrounding, Persians
costume detail including
from Racinet.(146)

Left, three versions of

‘A high-ranking Persian,
originally from Shoberl,
1828.

Below, an irregular
cavalryman from 1857
London Illustrated News.

Above, a picture from

Drouville - sometimes
described as a Persian
fighting Kurd and
re-worked by many other
artists and given different combatants.

Far Left, Qajar era weapons. Left, riders skirmishing.

Below, participants at a court scene of Fath Ali Shah.

Note the Europeans bottom right; the other people may
be Persian dignitaries, foreign or tribal leaders.

19
Other entertainments include wrestlers, naked club-men performing howdah, followed by horse riders magnificently dressed and armed in
sham fights, armoured cavalrymen sham-fighting, bearers of the Took, antique style.
a three-pronged fork decorated with silks and jewels and followed
by streamers, and processions of men carrying ‘several flags highly Ouseley, in 1812, noted a parade of five or six elephants, of the seven or
ornamented’. eight the Shah owned; ‘with splendid seats or thrones, fastened on their
back, but empty.’
Estafellas, Shotters and Executioners
A travelling Shah would be accompanied by a body of stick-wielding Price, in 1811, added the further detail that the elephants’ crimson
men dressed in sumptuous robes and ornate crowns. Their role was to housing was decorated with embroidered flowers, and that their forehead
beat back crowds from his majesty. Princes and potentates might also and trunks were painted to resemble the other parts of the dress. On one
have a small body of such men, the Shah was mentioned as having occasion three elephants carried curtained howdahs reportedly containing
six, eight, ten and once 40. royal wives.

Tancoigne divided the group into chatirs as runners wearing a Von Kotzebue described the Shah’s parade with one elephant (not ridden
‘helmet of striped stuff surmounted with plumes of various colours’. by Fath Ali Shah) ‘carrying a splendid palanquin’ and later notes three
Such men were only employed if they could run an improbable 30 other elephants owned by the Shah.
leagues in 10 or 12 hours. The second part of the group were ferrachs
armed with long poles for crowd control. There is no record of such elephants in battle or indeed if these beasts
were considered a military asset, but their position in the parade between
A group of farashees, who were probably the same as the above, were other combatant units suggests the possibility, if never acted upon.
mounted men clearing the way for the Shah and were also his tent-
pitchers. A British traveller also had an employee with a similar title Louis Ferrieres-Sauveboeuf, travelling in 1784-85, described an elephant
pitch his tent, so the name need not attach to the royal servants alone. as part of Ali Murad Khan’s (Zand) 50,000 strong army marching to
oppose the ‘Prince of Mazanderan’ during the civil war at that time. It
The Shah’s men who administered the bastinado, corporal looks to have had a command and control function.(81)
punishment, were called felekchi. In the early 1840s Baron De
Bode described the Shah as proceeded by a troop of nasakchi, ‘An elephant bore on its back, two great cymbals, and several
executioners, dressed in red clothes. (87) trumpets, the sound of which served to direct the march of the army.’

Tancoigne commented on elephant use as he saw it, in addition to the

Hot Air Balloons reported trampling of convicted robbers.
In 1817 Von Kotzebue noted an attempt to launch a hot air balloon,
as part of a spectacle, failed for lack of available skillful operators. ‘This custom [use of elephants in war] no longer exists, the invention
Sadly the report did not clarify in the balloon was a novelty toy of firearms, and the cannon especially, would render it too dangerous;
or a larger crewed military observation device as used by some elephants are at present,
contemporary European powers. at least in Persia, merely
objects of parade.’

Elephants Aga Mohammed Khan

Several European visitors noted elephants in the Shah’s parades. lacking elephants at hand
Three of Fath Ali Shah’s elephants were a coronation gift from resorted to the trampling
Tippoo Sultan of India. Tancoigne, a member of Gardane’s 1808 execution of 100 Armenian
French mission, described four elephants in a parade as clad in long prisoners of war by horses
red cloth trappings and carrying towers or pavilions gilded with fitted with special spiky
looking glass. Acrobats occasionally jumped from the beasts. The horse-shoes.
elephants were:
One Persian enemy, the
‘ ...richly caparisoned, and mounted by Indians. Their bodies were commander of Afghan Prince
painted with various colours while their trunks, tails and tusks were Feeroz’ army, was killed in
gilded.’
his gold howdah during a
battle in 1805 near the fort /
Morier, in 1808-09, described the Shah riding to watch a horse race
city of Ghorian in the Herat
‘seated in a very elegant howdah’ on his largest ‘state’ elephant and
region.
preceded by his guard of 100 zamburaks. A New-Year celebration
by Fath Ali Shah included a military parade led by zamburaks, then
four elephants in red housing, each sporting a gilded and mirrored

Above Right, a photo described as ‘Balloon landing in Mashgh square, Iran, at the time
of Nasser al-Din Shah, about 1850.’ Below, royal estafellas or shotters of Fath Ali Shah.
Right, a Persian noble. Far Right, the Master of Ceremonies.

20
Above, two versions of the same engraving from Rene Demoraine, showing the different options chosen by colourist in the 1850s. The two figures
at left are cavalry, the other is perhaps a jazairchi or shamkhalchi.

Above Left, painting by Russian diplomat Prince Alexis Soltykoff of a parade by Persian Ambassador Abool Hassan Khan at Petersburg after
the peace settlement for the 1804-13 War. Soltykoff travelled to Persia in the late 1820s to 1830s. The elephants wore boots to protect against
the Russian snow. Above Right, a later colour copy of the scene.
Below, an illustration ‘Tehiran Races’ accompanying William Price’s work of 1825 and based on sketches made by him of the Shah’s parade
in 1810-11. The elephants appear way over scale and their coverings do not show the embroidered flower-design decoration he observed. To
the left of the elephants are some of the Shah’s zamburaks or royal band on camels. Inset, execution by elephant, an anachronistic picture of a
classical-era beast included in an 18th century commentary. (81)

21
The empty seats mentioned earlier perhaps signify beasts still being During the Anglo Persian War, Outram listed the Persian army at the
trained. As Nadir Shah also possessed elephants the later rulers may Battle of Mohammerah, 27 March 1857, as containing 400 Belooch
have obtained them to inspire reflected glory from the great man - he mercenaries among the irregular troops. These were happy to change
is reported to have used them at least as military baggage animals.(127) paymasters to the British after the Persian defeat. Outram said the men
Robert Lyall described the parade of Persian Ambassador Abool would be engaged as cameleers - perhaps they served as form of mounted
Hassan Khan in Petersburgh where the elephants wore red and black infantry or irregular camel-mounted cavalry. Arab asgailee mercenary
leather boots as protection against the Russian snow.(128) musketeers might be hired in the Persian Gulf or by Ottomans.

The elephants were noted in most cases as being well trained,

including being accustomed to the fire of zamburak guns. However,
Jihadists
Religious authorities with or without the urging or leave of the Shah
during a ceremony, one sucked up a trunk-full of water and sprayed it
might pronounce a jihad against infidels or nations of other Islamic sects.
all over a poet mid-performance in his gushing praise for the Shah.
We hear of enthusiasm for such a call to arms with thousands of
An English visitor in 1850 commented that elephants were then rare
volunteers presenting themselves for military service. It is not clear if
in Persia.
they volunteered as individuals or as tribal groups or indeed if they were
enrolled into the regular units.
Mercenaries
In the mid 18th century Georgia asked Russia for money to hire Jihadist volunteers could be a double-edged sword as discovered by Fath
Circassian mercenaries to fight Persia, suggesting the loyalty of Ali Shah. In the 1820s he was propelled into action against Russia when
individual men need not mirror their present tribal ethnic allegiance. his finances and military preparation were not adequate to prosecute
Similarly, one of the minor Georgian princelings in the late 18th a war. However religious - political pressure and swelling ranks of
century staged an attempted coup backed by Dagistanian mercenaries. enthusiastic if untrained men forced his hand.

The Georgian forces during the 1795 war against Persia included The Dynasty of the Kajars described the efforts of Husain Kuly
what Monteith described as 8000 ‘subsidised’ Lesghi tribesmen. Khan to seize power in the succession crisis following the death of
Kinneir described the ‘brave and turbulent Leshgees’ as commonly Aga Mohammed Shah. His campaign was aided by a ‘false’ Mahdi,
available as mercenaries to their neighbours, when they had nobody Muhammed Kasim, who claimed to be a miracle-worker possessing a
else to fight. For twelve roubles a man could be hired for a three philosopher’s stone. The (opposing) Persian sources described him as a
month contract and Leshgees could be found fighting on both sides of false prophet deluding restless people and soldiers.
a conflict.
‘By degrees, crowds of these base people collected round them, the
‘Lezghees’ being Avar and Jarotulla ethnic groups were paid with flame of insurrection ascended on high.’
cash from the Persian royal treasury to fight for the Qajar ally, Selim
Khan of Shakaki, in the war with Russia. In 1806-09 the tribesmen The soldiers and volunteers of the pair, mostly of the Biralwand tribe,
helped in two battle victories before suffering a crushing defeat - appear to have defeated a royal army near Silakhur and killed the enemy
reportedly as the Avars were routed by Russian artillery. C-in-C, they also captured Ispahan but were later defeated in battle and
thus eliminated as a threat.
Monetary inducements could help a tribal group serve beyond
their usual requirement. However it seems the group would serve Armed Mobs
the Persians as a formation under its clan leaders rather than as Men able to afford weapons generally did so, especially in rural areas.
individuals. However, armed urban mobs might also rise up in support of a favourite
in a succession crisis. F and W Freygang described the armed populace.
Homeless Kurd refugees from Ottoman incursions could also be hired
with cash by Persian leaders. ‘There is no Persian who cannot ride, and does not understand the use
of arms, their want of discipline alone prevents them being formidable’.

Such mobs were more of a nuisance than a serious threat to armed forces,
but could signal the likely claimant to be backed by local potentates.
The governor of Shiraz, Feridoon Mirza, was saved from the mob by a
regiment of sarbaz and some artillery. The mob was a general uprising of
the city intent on murder in response to his misrule.

Kurd civilians in their mud-walled village were noted by one traveller as

warding off unwanted armed visitors with a hail of thrown rocks. Other
villagers near Hamudan rose up against excessive compulsory hospitality
provision for a party of notable visitors ‘even the women becoming
active in providing large stakes and weapons for the men.’(83)

Club-armed street gangs could be found fighting for turf in major cities.

After the assassination of Aga Mohammed Shah the Kurd leader Sadek
Khan, in Azerbaijan, raised forces in a grab for power. The combatants
raised included; ‘a mixed force including artizans and craftsmen pressed
from the bazars of Tabriz’.(17a)

Left, a Qajar-era tile depicting armoured riders - perhaps

representing heroes from myth.
22
Above, Persian cavalry 1816-20, by Henry Alkin. Below Left, two more equestrians from ‘1820’ all these
riders look a bit neater than tribal troops but lack the contrasting cuffs and collars of the Europeanised
cavalry uniforms - perhaps they represent a guard unit. The lancer’s red headgear, at below left, is not
the Qajar hat, it could mark him as an Armenian or even a Kurd from Turkish-influenced areas.

Above, a cavalryman from 1830.

Right, an irregular cavalryman
from a Russian source. He could
be one of a number of ethnic groups
and his jacket may depict mail.(49)

Above Left, a scene from Frederika von Freygang, ‘Lettres sur le Caucase et la Géorgie. Suivies d’une relation’, 1816, showing Persian riders.
Above Right, examples of civilian clothing from Drouville. Irregular or tribal troops may wear such colours as part of their military kit.

Left, Persian cavalry

fighting Russians at the
Battle of Elisabethpol,
1826, painting by
V. Mashkov.
23
Militia Troops in war they could be found serving outside their home province or city.
Road safety and custom house duties were maintained by a body known
as rapdars, which may mean some of the militia were acting in this
Militia here will mean any troops not of the guards or reformed
specific role.
European-style regular soldiers. It will also not mean those ‘tribal’
troops serving out of strong kinship or feudal obligation and retaining
The Persians referred to their non-regular forces by various names
a separate political identity and autonomy. Such troops were often
including lashkar (a word that can mean army generally), qoshun, sepah
called ‘irregulars’ by European writers, which is true in the sense they
and charik. Savareh denoted cavalry, pyadeh infantry and sakhlu were
were not full-time professional soldiers.
garrison troops.
These troops were in the majority infantry but could also be cavalry
Estimates for numbers available under the militia system early in the
in vast numbers. They were recruited at a city or provincial level
19th century vary widely, including up to 150,000 infantry and 80,000
and also among semi-nomads or nomads. Service could be via
‘irregular or tribal’ cavalry. Throughout the century militia numbers
conscription. Cavalry service could also be a hereditary obligation as
declined, presumably as more men served in the growing regular army
we learn in the second half of the 19th century that men were sending
with its slowly improving reputation and prestige.
substitutes when the arm had lost prestige.
Militia appear to have had no particular uniforms. The men wore their
The distinction between ‘militia’ cavalry and those serving under
usual civilian costume of baggy pants, vests and cloak over shirts, and
‘tribal’ ties was likely far from clear-cut. Persia had a significant non-
the Qajar hat. Wearing the hat was a mark of loyalty to the dynasty,
urban aspect, with about half the population nomads in the early 19th
although different ethnic groups within the kingdom might keep their
century.(27)
traditional costume and head wear.
The men were in theory paid for their service in cash or food and / or
Clothes would be a variety of colours; brown and mustard were
fodder and they could pillage when on campaign. As in other 19th
common, while blue, grey, green, orange, white, black and red-pink
century armies, pay was often in arrears and military administrators
were also shown. Morier said popular civilian Qajar era fashion was for
made payroll fraud an art form. Outbreaks of ill discipline and even
darker colours whereas brighter was traditional during the Zand era.(18)
open rebellion by soldiers of all types, including regulars, demanding
Brown, dark olive, bottle-green and dark blue were noted for coats,
overdue pay were recorded. Pay could be years in arrears and on
along with trousers of red silk or blue cotton. Morier also said red was
occasion troops could be discharged from their service obligation
out of favour but this might have been a short-lived fashion.
in exchange for waiving pay owed. Entire garrison regiments could
desert to become a more or less organised crime syndicate, shararat
Tancoigne, who was contemptuous of almost all indigenous Persian
talah, ‘seekers of mischief’ or refuse to re-deploy to a new garrison
institutions, and needs to be read with caution, said the infantry was the
city.(28) Some soldiers went on strike until an unreasonably corrupt
‘most miserable that can be imagined.’
commanding officer of their unit was replaced.
‘I have seen some of them who have no other dress than a pair of blue
The equipment, morale and competency of militia units was varied. linen pantaloons, and a pelisse of sheeps’ skin. They are armed with
Provinces near the turbulent Caucasus or bordering the wilder regions a matchlock, dagger and sabre.’
of Central Asia produced resilient troops and the former had better
access to good firearms via European trade. Then, as now, Kurds had a Shoes might be black, brown, grey, white, green or red. Jackets or
reputation for resolve. cloaks could also have a decorative coloured trim. Depictions of
the Qajar hats, ‘telpek’ (a word which might denote sheep-skin hats
Morier recorded that wandering tribes would furnish soldiers based on generally rather than the Qajar style specifically) on civilians might
households: show a red-and white striped or plain white cloth patch, as opposed to
solid red patch shown on most soldiers. If this means anything other
‘...each ten Khaneh or houses provides one horseman mounted and than local fashion or availability of cloth patches is unclear.
armed; and each five one footman or Tufenkchi.’ (105)
Eeljauree and Cavalry Levy
The men were paid in rations or fodder by the Shah. If called up for Lt. Arthur Conolly, travelling in 1829, used the name eeljauree for the
their active service, of six months per year, they were paid in cash. unpaid militia infantry that could be called up at need - this formation
Morier noted the pay was given to the khan who then distributed it to and name was also used in Afghanistan.(29) In both cases it appears to
clan and unit leaders who next distributed it to the men, each taking a cover an infantry levy when manpower was needed in an emergency.
cut before it got to the militiamen.
The military difference between militia men raised without a theoretical
Mountainous and remoter tribal areas were noted as producing good right to receive pay, and those who were unpaid by neglect, is probably
cavalry. Foot might be more common from areas near the Caspian minimal. The former were presumably embodied for a limited period
Sea. Militia were tasked as ‘police’ or security forces in peacetime, and to serve near where they were recruited. How often this levy

Far Left, a civilian hunter

from William Price who
visited in 1810-11.(80)

Centre and Right, infantry

from Persian illustrations,
1806-10. The man in a red
coat, at left, is holding the
Shah’s horse. The artist
cycled through his palette
for almost all figures.
24
Above, Safavid or Qajar horseman painted Surrounding, pictures of Persians 1807-1815, by James Morier. The rider Above Right is armed
by Eugène Delacroix b.1798-1863. with pistols and bow, the armoured man Below with spear is a Charoush ‘caravan leader’.

Right and Below Right, the

bastinardo - belting feet with
rods or whips was a civil and
military corporal punishment.
The artists show a variety of
civilian clothing colours.

Below, a picture from

Drouville titled ‘Musique
Militare’ which may mean the
royal band.

25
was called out for action, in Persia, is not well documented. Holmes ‘several thousand’ cavalry accompanying the Persian ambassador;
noted the whole male population of Taulish, on the Caspian, could be
made available in a ‘case of necessity’ to support the garrison of 600 ‘The Persians performed, according to custom, various evolutions of
Toofenkchees, a company of 100 Asterabad regular infantry and 150 cavalry, which consisted in skirmishing, pursuing, and attacking each
artillerymen present in the area. other with the lance.’

Morrier described an emergency levy system whereby every owner of Infantry

a mill with a waterwheel would be tasked to provide a horseman, and
his arms, to raise a nominal 100,000 men. Tofangchis
In addition to the tofangchis, ‘musketeers’, there were other combatants
Militia Cavalry Weapons and Tactics described by weapon type. The term tofangchi seems to cover any
The weapons carried by militia or tribal cavalry included; lance, infantry with firearms; fatila, ‘matchlocks’ declined in use throughout
sword, spear, club, axe, musket, carbine and pistols. Pistols might be the century, being replaced with cakmaq, ‘flintlock’, but could be found
held in saddle holsters or tucked into a waist belt or sash, at front or as the favoured weapon in a few areas even past mid-century. Backward
back, or both. Early in the period under study some riders might use militia were still armed with matchlocks in 1903. Descriptions of some
bow and arrow instead of or in addition to firearms, shield, vambrace, militia described them as owning weapons of different lengths.
helmet and mail armour. Some men might be armed with a jerid,
‘throwing spear’. Cavalry seen by Tancoigne, in 1808, were: Forster, writing of his 1783 travels, mentioned differences between
matchlock and flintlock adoption.
‘...dressed completely in antique style, a steel helmet, a cuirass,
or a coat of mail, a lance and shield ... Some of them also carry a ‘The matchlock-piece is the common weapon of the Persian foot
bow in their hand and a quiver on the shoulder: in short were it not soldier, except in the province of Auderbeijan, and some parts of
for the pistol and carbine, which several of them add to the above Shirvan and Dhaghistan, where the use of the springlock musquet has
equipment, they might be mistaken for the Persians of the time of
been adopted from the Turks, but the ridicule which has been thrown
Xerxes and Darius.’
on this practice by the body of the people will probably long prevent
its general introduction.’
He thought they would struggle against European shock cavalry and
be unable to break infantry:
The provincial militia of Gilan numbered 6,800 tofangchis. At the town
‘...but they are excellent for turning flanks of an army, and in of Enzellee 600 ‘shabby’ toofenkchees were, in 1843, armed with ‘a long
skirmishing; the swords they use, much superior to ours in temper, flint and steel gun, a thick stick and a kummer’. The latter was a pointed
make deep and wide wounds, which are generally mortal.’ straight sword 2½ feet (75cm) long and three inches (8-9cm) wide, ‘like
a Roman sword.’(80) The blade was also favoured by the wild clansmen
However, the Dynasty of the Kajars described Persian cavalry mountaineers of Gilan.
defeating a ‘column’ of Russian infantry. In another incident they
charged through ‘dreadful fire’ to break the ‘series of their compact Mounted Tofangchi
arrangement’ of a body of Russian Yagers, capturing or killing 4000 The militia of Mazandaran and Astarabad was 14,000 strong and
of them and seizing one gun and their standard. The same source also included both foot and mounted tofangchi. The latter were perhaps
described how a false-rout, plotted by the Sardar of Erivan, against similar to the gholam-tofangchis.(51) The Central Asian Bokharans,
Russians, came unstuck on a dusty confused battlefield. Much of his among others, also gave horses, asses or camels to militia infantry to
army thought the retreat was now genuine and ran away. match their strategic mobility to cavalry.

Price, in 1811, discovered a bow-seller in Tehran and was astonished Jazairchis

to find the weapon he bought could penetrate a wall at 200 yards. The These were men armed with jazair. The name seems related to the
two types of bow on sale were: Afghan weapon, jezail, which would make it a long-barreled accurate
and possibly rifled matchlock. C. Stone suggests it might specifically
‘... one manufactured in Ispahan, beautifully painted and
mean such a matchlock converted to a flintlock. Surviving examples of
ornamented the other manufactured by the Turkomen and
Khorasans, the latter were not so highly finished but had better the weapons range from six to eight feet (1.8m to 2.4m) in length.(51)
spring than the former. Jazairchis have a long history in Persia, with Nadir Shah, in the mid 18th
century, fielding 12,000 of them. The weapons of these men were noted
This instrument of war is still in use in many parts of Persia, and as fitted with heavy stands.
Turkomans and Khorasans excel in the use of it and prefer it to the
musquet, they generally discharge a shower of arrows at the enemy The garrison at Tehran, in 1834, included 2000 serbaz, four guns, ‘a
and close with the spear.’ large body of zumboorukchees, yessawuls and toffunchees’.(130) Few
other uses of the term yessawul can be found, one being a ‘Yesawal-
Frederic Shoberl noted cavalry might also use a kemend, ‘lasso’ of a Bashy’ (commander of Yesawal? 145). In context the above could be
noose on a long rope, further illustrating a nomad or herding origin.(30) related to the preceding zamburaks or the toffunchees that follow it.
F and W Freygan reported that Ismael Bay, commander of the Shah’s However, the word looks like a another construction for jezail but it
bodyguard cavalry, was an expert user of the kummand, or noose. could also be a name for a formation of militia, or levies, as used in
some neighbouring Central Asian lands.
The Dynasty of the Kajars described a battle against Russians where
many enemy were made prisoners by ‘the dragon-binding lassos of Shamkhalchis
the victorious champions of the Faith.’ A Russian description of these men included a high hat, a long rifle on
back, and sabre and two pistols in their belt. The shamkhal was another
An irregular cavalry unit observed at mock combat by Alexander, at heavy long-barrelled and rifled weapon, it was also used with a rest.(57)
Hamadan in 1825-26, appears to have been exactly half spearmen and
half matchlockmen - unless the men were armed with both weapons These troops seem local to, or popular in, the Khorassan region, where a
and taking turns at training with each. Von Kotzebue described the unit of 700 men was mentioned.

26
 Above, ‘cha-aina’ armour that would traditionally be worn with mail body
armour, the plates form extra torso protection. Such armour was rare and less
likely to be used from the start of the 19th century. Right, a picture described as
officer of the Guard, 1845. Far Right, Shoberl’s 1828 original.(30)

Above, a reconstruction of infantry militia by Westfalia Miniatures (www.westfaliaminiatures.com).

Below, painting by Col. Columbari, review of troops, published in 1854, showing blue, red, black and blue-grey as a popular colours.

27
The British traveller, Binning, in 1850 described a shikarchee Layard, travelling through Khuzistan in 1840-42, noted the Arabs, either
‘huntsman’ shooting an antelope with his long-barreled weapon. independent tribes or those as Persian allies and clients as sometimes
lacking firearms. He described both infantry and cavalry in some
‘[a] shamkhal or rifle of great length and weight, which is fired instances without firearms. He also witnessed a night assault on a
from a rest, like a fork, attached to it near the muzzle.’ Persian camp where Arab infantry swordsmen indiscriminately attacked
men in the dark while their matchlockmen comrades shot at tents and any
This weapon is also called jezair or jezail, is much used by the moving men.
mountaineers of Persia and Afghanistan. Of its fatal effects, our
Indian troops in the disastrous campaign of 1842, had sufficient
experience.’ Other Arabs in the area used spears and some particularly backward clans
were clad in rags and fought with clubs in defence of their flocks or when
robbing travellers. Arab horsemen with or without firearms might use a
Mounted Shamkhalchis
long tufted spear.
Both foot and mounted shamkhalchis were recorded.
Kurds, in the late 1820s, were seen armed with a five or six foot (up to
Sherbacha 2m) long ‘tremendous club at the end, of such weight and strength that a
The sherbacha, ‘blunderbuss’, was used by foot or mounted, perhaps blow would knock a man off his horse’. The item in context sounds like
meaning a pistol or musketoon version. An entire (non-Persian) unit a weapon for tribal footmen who may not own other or better arms.(83)
armed with such weapons was noted in Pakistan in the late 1700s.
The semi-independent Bakhtyiari ruler, Mohamed Taki Khan, paraded
Morier, in 1808, recorded a possible similar unit in Persia being part his forces in 1845 that comprised several ethnic groups including ‘wild
of the new program of regular army formation. Bakhmei’ clans brandishing naked swords and small shields.(87)
‘The Jezaerachi also, the men who use blunderbusses, were to If other militia infantry or tribes in other places lacked firearms and relied
wear the new Russian dress.’ in part or whole on obsolete weapons is not clear. Civilian defenders were
mentioned for fortress cities (including women fighters at Karabakh in
It looks as if Morier has made some error; if he was reporting from 1795) under attack and many may have resorted to improvised weapons.
personal experience the more likely mistake would be to attach the
wrong technical Persian word for a weapon type than to misidentify
a blunderbuss. The information shows that troops could be grouped Infantry Weapons
by weapon type as both regular and pre-reform soldiers. Further In addition to their firearm infantry would own a sword and or a dagger
confusing matters, the Georgian word jeazair meant a long styled to cultural taste; a khanjer, curved dagger, or kârd, straight blade.
bell-mouthed rifle.(5) Such a firearm might suggest itself as a Sword scabbards were typically black except for those rich enough to
blunderbuss - no depiction of this weapon has been found. afford gold decoration. As per one of the troop types mentioned earlier,
tapanchehs, ‘pistols’, might be carried and some men were depicted with
Zaki Khan, a contender to take the Zand crown at the failing of that a shield.(59) Shields could be iron or black buffalo hide strengthened with
dynasty, unsuccessfully reached for his blunderbuss to defend against four, or less commonly six, brass or iron studs. The Shah’s shield was
assassins who had invaded his tent. The weapon was loaded with six decorated with the lion-and-sun motif and a giant ruby.
or seven balls.(82)
A bodyguard to a khan’s travelling wife had ‘a long Persian musket,
dagger, shield, and seven or eight powder horns and shot pouches’. The
Kazbin Militia, Obsolete Weapons chief of police in a parade at Tabriz, in the 1830s, held a shield.
Kaveh Farrokh, referencing Rezā Qoli Khān Hedayat’s 1851
writings, says of infantry that traditional equipment such as mail,
daggers, swords and bows continued to appear in early Qajar armies, Infantry Tactics
especially those from tribal and outlying provinces.(32, 33) A picture in It is not clear if tofangchi had a system of shooting by rank rotation and
the London Illustrated Times of April 1857 shows a militiaman from countermarch, or salvo fire by several ranks. It seems likely that many
Kazbin, a city west of Tehran, armed with long-handled spiked mace, tribal or non-urban groups fought as a loose swarm of skirmishers.
sword, shield and wearing what is perhaps a shaggy overcoat or a
chain mail coat (see page-15). Tofanghcis were retained in armies after the introduction of European-
style regulars and fought alongside them, often even when there was no
In 1812 Ouseley described the governor of ‘Kazvin or Cazvin’ local shortage of the regulars. This suggests the tofangchis of such armies
accompanied by a troop of 40 horsemen and: may have had a complementary or different role, perhaps as additional
specialist infantry skirmishers.
‘[A] ... body of 400 militia soldiers, irregularly armed with
matchlock muskets, spear and shields.’ Montstuart Eliphinstone mentioned Persian infantry from Nadir Shah
to his time (he visits in 1808, published in 1815) as prepared to defeat
The city and surrounds were in economic doldrums (it may have Afghan cavalry charges with massed infantry musketry.(76) The date of
lacked a reliable water supply) and suffering depopulation following
its destruction in the 1780s. Presumably poverty precluded a better
show of modern or firearm weapons.

Right, foot archers helping Abbas Mirza defeat Russian general

Ashanjdar, from a manuscript of 1806-1810. These are the only
foot archers in the illustrations. The artist shows care in depicting
weaponry such as bayonets on Russian infantry and a scattering of
lances, shields and vambraces on Persian riders. The foot archers
are not shown with the Qajar hat, as foot musketeers are, they may
thus represent a different ethnic group. The grey headgear might even
be helmets - perhaps marking them as dismounted riders.
28
Above, a group of Persians accompanying a caravan, by Buckingham.(86) Above Right, a Persian noble.

Above, a race rider by Henry Alken. Above Right, Persian horse, lithograph by Brodtmann. Published by
Heinrich Rudolf, 1827.

Above, a Persian noble from

Ferrier.(118)
Above, Abbas Mirza reviewing troops - by Frenchman Joseph Louis Hippolyte Bellangé (b.1800–1866).

Left, a Persian playing card

from the ‘mid 19th century’
sometimes described as a
sarbaz. His clothing style looks
a mix of European and local
elements, he might therefore
represent a Shah’s or similar
tofangchi, or a militia soldier.

Right, drawing of a rider by

William Price, 1811.(99)

Far Right, a noble depicted by

Shoberl.(30)
29
his observations could mean the pre-reform infantry, or regulars, either Beglarbegi - provincial or city civilian governor, who
of Nadir Shah or Fath Ali Shah. might also have a dual military title and role
Qullar-aqasi - commander of the Shah’s bodyguard
In the early part of the period of study, Ferriers-Sauveboeuf described
infantry as marching in front of their cavalry and deploying in a mass: Other European reports give different names for tribal offices (note
another system given later):
‘The infantry form into large battalions, not in rank and file yet
pressing thick around their standards.’ Khan - commander of 8,000-10,000 men
Soltan - commander of 100 men
The Dynasty of the Kajars described infantry in 1804-05 as; Eli-bashi - commander of 50 men
Bashi - commander of 10 men
‘ ...Ismail Beg, the champion of the ever-victorious army, and Pir
Kuly Khan Kajar were appointed to command the infantry, the
model of rapid evolutions.’ Tribal Troops
During the Battle of Khoosh-aub, in the Anglo-Persian War, we hear The distinction between troops serving as semi-paid part-time standing
of thick lines of infantry skirmishers deployed into nullahs on the ‘militia’ and those serving as part of a tribal obligation and perhaps
flank and partly in front of formed infantry. These skirmishers could nominally paid in cash or supplies is far from clear-cut. The men’s
be from the irregulars present or detached from the regulars. loyalty could be divided between the paymaster Shah and tribal ties.

That the shamkhalchis and jazairchis can be described separately Tribal troops could make up a significant proportion of a field army
from, and not mixed with men using other firearms, suggests they may including the famous ‘great raid’ of Prince Mohammad Ali Mirza,
have had a distinct tactical role. Perhaps they are also specialist sharp- (accompanied by Mahommad Pasha, Kurdish governor of Sulymaniyah)
shooter or skirmisher units. in 1809, where a force of 25,000 mostly of tribal cavalry ravaged
through the Caucasus during the Russo-Persian War.
Monteith described Fath Ali Shah deploying ‘a body of irregular
infantry’ in the Talisch forests, in late December 1812 or early January The effectiveness of the raid is debatable, but it did force the enemy to
1813, to unsuccessfully stall advancing Russians in the Caucasus mostly hole up in fortified cities and generally avoid battle. The raid was
campaign. The irregulars were led by a non-military court official who unable to coordinate strategically with another Persian army, containing
lost his nerve during the action and fled. However, ‘riflemen’ deployed regulars, due to enemy intervention.
in forests repulsed a Russian force attempting to use the road to
Resht, capital of Gilan, during the 1826-28 War. They ‘compelled the Frenchman Tancoigne said the tribal troops were formed into four
Russians to retreat with considerable loss’.(80) great divisions based on language groups; Turk, Kurd, Arab and Lurs.
A footnote to the English translation of his work quotes M Jouanne
Colonel C. Stuart, in 1835, described militia with a mix of arms, at suggesting following numbers of troops could be raised.
a review in Tabriz, forming up by city mohullems, ‘wards’. This
suggests weapons may not always be a guide to tactics or that the city Baktians, 30,000
militia was expected to do nothing more than defend the walls.(34) Tailis, 30,000-40,000
Efchars (Afshars), 88,000
‘Each man leaned on his long gun, to which many of them had rests, Kadjars (Qajars), 40,000
like hay forks affixed; these rests, if made of steel, would not for
irregular troops be a bad substitute for a bayonet.’
F and W Freygan, in 1812, described the potential multi-ethnic nature of
the Persian military.
Organisation and Command
‘Besides the Persians the army is composed of various tribes
When marshalling an army the Shah would issue a firman, an edict to throughout the country; such as Curds, Turkomans, Usbegs, Afghans
assemble, where provincial leaders would present themselves at the and Lesgees.’
appointed place and date with troops as recorded on a recognised list.

These militia troops were organised on a decimal system, with some

half intervals, and various offices were named. The decimal system
was traditional for the Turco-Mongol nations for centuries. Qajar
armies, before the regular reforms, could be organised into 10,000-
man toumans - a term also used since the days of Gengiz Khan.

Sardar - army commander or theatre supreme military head

Sepahsalar - commander-in-chief / field marshal
Sarkyardeh - commander perhaps leading a jama’at ‘a crowd’
Min-bashi - commander of 1000 men
Yuz-bashi - commander of 100 men
Dah-bashi - leader of 10 men
Dasteh - a ‘group’ perhaps with a specific role, an advance
guard was mentioned as an example (5)
Lashkarnevis-bashi - military paymaster general
Vazir-e lashkar - minister of defence
Nassakchi-bashi - director of criminal punishment

Far Right, a ‘Jaf Tribesman’ from Claudius Rich, 1836.(139)

Right, Portrait of an Armenian, by Richard Cosway, 1771.
30
Above and Right, Turkomen riders attacking
Persian outpost forts, 1885.

Above and Above Left,

Turkoman from a book of
descriptions of Russian
army elements, c.1814, from
Paul-André Basset, active
1785-1830 (publisher).

The Above Centre, picture

shows Uzbeks, the left most
seated figure represents a
Turkoman in his striped
coat.

Above, three coloured representations of Azeri costume, c.1840 by Russian artist Grigory Gagarin (b.1810-1893). Above Middle, is a
Bey from Karabagh (Azerbaijan) the others are described as men from Shamakhi.
31
Fath Ali Shah, in 1819, instituted a post of ‘Ilkhan’ that had a role of History of Iran for discussion of what ‘tribe’ might mean.(74)
mediator or ombudsman for tribal grievances.(35)
Other peoples are also covered in a later section on allied states.
While tribal troops were an important part of the military they could
be the target of some creative blamestorming, such as by the poet- Bakhtiyari
statesman Mirza Abdul-qasim Qa’im-maqam Farahani who directed The Bakhtiyari tribal group was at times turbulent, such as during the
to them blame for the loss of the Battle of Hashtardak / Ashtarak in ‘War of Kulangchi’, 1809-1813, where Asad Khan ‘the lion killer’
July 1827: refused to pay a tax or undertake coal mining to supply Fath Ali Shah’s
foundries. The action was largely suppression of guerrilla fighters but
‘Alas for this honourless and faithless people, some artillery was noted among the government troops.
The Kurds of Ray, the Turks of Khamsa, the Lurs of Qazvin.
Helpless and miserable people before the wicked enemy,
In 1820 the Shah ordered Amir Muhammad Qasim Khan Qavanlu to
Hostile and wicked before the helpless and weak.’ (36)
form the Bakhtiyari tribes into the Nizam i Bakhtiyari ‘Bakhtiyari Order’
and we learn of 2000 men recruited into the regular sarbaz.
Tribal leaders could be known by a title related to the size of their
authority.(35)
In 1827 a force of 1000 men fought in the Persian army at the Battle of
Permanent chief of confederation - ‘ilkhan or ilbayg’ Ganja where they captured a hill from Russians in the lost battle.
Hereditary tribal chief - ‘khan’
Sub-tribe or clan leader - ‘kadkhuda or kalantar’ Bakhtiyari fighters were, also in 1827, part of Hisam al-Sultana’s clash
White-beards or camp elders - ‘risha safid’ with 12,000 Lur tribesmen under Mahmud Mirza - the governor of
Luristan. In 1830 Bakhtiyari under the same leader skirmished with
Aga Mohammed Shah came to power following his successful Kurdish Kalhur and Zangana cavalry of Muhammad Husayn Mirza
campaigns, finally against his main rival Lutf Ali Khan - last of Hishmat al-Dawa - the governor of Kermanshah.
the Zand dynasty - by uniting his own Qajar tribe and enlisting the
support of the ‘related’ Turkoman and unrelated Kurds. During the chaos at the end of Fath Ali Shah’s reign, 1834-35, we learn
of two Bakhtiyari groups helping the claim of Haydar Quli Mirza and
Different tribal groups could be housed separately within an army their sack of the major city of Isfahan. Khusaw Khan of the Chahar Lang
encampment, both to keep the men out of mischief and to reinforce Bakhtiyari turned up with 4000 cavalry and 1000 foot, while Baram
tribal or clan loyalty. Khan Busak of the Haft Lang Bakhtiyari arrived with 3000 cavalry and
1000 infantry. A report said more troops arrived at the city each day
An estimate of some areas’ recruitment potential include: before the two groups fell out during looting. This prompted general
conflict led to blood feuds. The Bakhtiyari people were mainly from two
Azerbaijan, 22 dastehs ‘groups / units’ from 12 named tribes or tribal divisions, Chahar lang, ‘four legs’ and Haft lang, ‘seven legs’.
clans,
Khorasan, 32 dastehs from four nomad tribes or clans and two Layard, travelling in 1840, met semi-independent Bakhtyiari chieftains
sedentary tribes, and warlords in their cities and forts in the mountains of Khuzistan.
Iraqi-Ajam, 31 dastehs from 19 tribes or clans. These forces included significant numbers of matchlock infantry,
perhaps in equal numbers to their cavalry. One fort was defended by
Colombari noted that by the time of Mohammad Shah the army several long-barreled swivel matchlock guns.
was theoretically able to raise 190,000 tribal cavalry. Each tribe
was expected to provide a cavalry contingent at times of war. The Turcomans
cavalrymen provided their own mounts. However, salaries were During the residency of British ambassador Sir Gore Ouseley, 1810
provided to these men when engaged in government service. -1815, Zemur Khan the governor of Asterabad revolted with the help of
Turkoman warriors.
In peacetime, cavalry units
would be generally available A body of 1000 Turkoman horsemen were, in 1812, part of a small army
for full-time service of about group, including Persian regulars, operating in the Caucasus.
two months of the year. They
would retire to their homes in Persia conducted several campaigns into Turkmenia to either repress the
winter.(37) slave-raiding tribesmen or to seize territory. Campaigns variously against
Yomud, Tekke and Goklen Turkoman tribes were undertaken in 1796,
Information below is included 1809, 1813, 1832, 1836 and 1856-58.(38)
for some important tribal
groups, tracking data provided The Saryk Turkoman aided Persia in the 1856 attack on Herat, while
by Europeans is tricky as the Tekke helped the other side. In 1858 an alliance of Turkoman tribes
diverse spellings of names defeated Persia at the Battle of Manchuk-Tepe.
were used and groups were
sometimes described by Turkoman warriors would fight under clan and tribal leaders, sirdars,
ethnicity or geography of being battle experienced commanders. The tribal khans might elect
origin. from among their number a leader to direct a larger military campaign.
The broad tribal groups could be further divided into sections lead by a
Some ‘tribes’ mentioned are kethkoda, while these in turn could be divided into yaps, ‘clans’.
probably clans within a broader
group. See the Cambridge In the later part of the 19th century mention was made of a semi-regular
force of paid ‘yasawals’, of up to 2000 men, who had a security role as
directed by a tribal council.
Left, Sir Henry Layard,
in Bakhtiyari costume. Military forces would generally be a mustering of all able-bodied men.
32
Top, Kurds and Tartars trick riding, by Grigory Gagaran 1841-47. Above Left, photograph of Kurdish Agha of Senneh Oghli Beyg and two
tribesmen in traditional costumes, 1861. Above Centre, a drawing of the same man. Above Right, a Kurd from 1857.

Above Left, a Kurd horseman with spear fighting a Persian horseman

with firearm.

Above, Kurds or Armenians.

Left, a Kurd musketeer wearing and unusual distinctive hat.

Far Left, tribesmen from the Caucuses.
33
An estimate for the Tekkes, in the 1870s, suggests they could field description of the hostages noted them, or at least their families, as
15,000 horsemen and 10,000 infantry. A further 15,000 slaves and ‘dressed for most part in scarlet.’(78)
dependent clans could be raised if needed in an emergency. The
Yomuds could raise 5000 cavalry and 5000-7000 infantry. The Kurds
infantry were mostly used as city and fort defenders. However, well- Kurds could be nomad, semi nomads or part of one of the several small
regarded matchlockmen might be deployed to hold strategic positions Kurdish principalities / emirates that formed a buffer region between
in support of raiding horsemen. Persia and Turkey. These included; Ardalan, Baban, Soran, Hakkâri,
Bahdina, Bitlis, Bohtan and Mukriya. These polities could, from the 19th
Horsemen fought in traditional steppe style as swarming skirmishers century, be at times independent, semi-independent, in open revolt or
attacking the flanks of infantry and raiding baggage. They were firmly under the thumb of either the Qajar or Ottomans.
confident of defeating enemy cavalry via superior numbers, weapons
skill or false flights and envelopment. Riders would have a Aga Mohammed Khan forged close relationships with Kurd leaders in
pack-horse to travel on before switching to a favoured war-horse for Azerbaijan, these were often cemented by diplomatic marriages. In 1796
battle. he campaigned with Sadeq Khan of the Shakak Kurds.

Ferrier described how a Turkomen chief would place his ‘colours’ Traveller George Fowler journeyed among, and stayed with, various
on a lance outside his tent. He gave a frank opinion of their qualities. western Kurd groups in the 1820s.(39)
‘The Turkomen are the best mounted robbers in the world; but will
never make good soldiers.’(118) ‘The tribes differ much in clothing and equipment. Those at Maliz
Ghirid ... were very fond of gaudy, showy colours, Their ‘Aba’ or
Infantry might be mounted on camels or asses to aid mobility. cloak, was of striped camel-hair cloth, white and black, thrown loosely
Kneeling camels could be formed into a ring as an improvised fort for over the shoulders, and flowing down to the heels. Some of the chiefs
infantry and flocks, in which case skirmishing foot were sent out in wore red bad caps hanging over the neck. The lower orders wore the
front and cavalry formed up on its flanks. felted cloth cap, bound around with a spotted kerchief, of a pattern
particular to themselves. The remainder of their dress was precisely
Mounted weapons included a lance used with both hands, sword, that of the Turks, - with their large ‘shalwars’ or trousers, their red
dagger, some pistols and matchlocks. Bows were still used boots or slippers. This, however, depends much on what they take from
throughout the century, being noted in the 1820s and 1830s, however their neighbours.
they were almost superseded when Russians, in 1870, came under
mixed arrow and bullet fire. Holmes reported that Tucckee and The Koords are heavily armed with their pistols, the ataghan, and
Yahmot Turkoman clans always clad their horses, to the nose, in a carbine slung across their shoulders; they have also a long lance
heavy felt clothing. ... and some of them carry a small shield, curiously studded with
brass buttons, or other such material. They have also a steel corslet
Infantry weapons could be supplemented with an improvised polearm ... I have seen some Koords of Sulimania having long streaming silk
of scythes fixed on poles. Women were noted in defence of a fort tassels, below the felt cap, flowing over the shoulders, giving them a
loading weapons and hurling boiling water at the enemy. striking appearance, but these were only the very elite, the Pasha and
his grand vizier, &c.’
Artillery was not common and seems limited during our period to
heavy matchlock swivel-guns in forts, later some captured Persian A group of 100 Kurds seen by Stuart in 1835 included ten men armoured
field pieces were used. The Turkoman were noted as nervous of and helmeted. Thomas Alcock, in 1828-29, described the excellent
enemy artillery with Russian rockets, in the 1870s, particularly horses and skills of Kurds with a rare reference to horse protection.(83)
panicking their horses. Fraser described how one Turkoman chieftain
defended a city against Persian artillery by placing Persian hostages ‘The horses clad in armour, and would have been worth 300 guineas
on the walls as a human shield. The tactic worked, for some time, each in England.’
until the enemy commander lost patience and
assaulted anyway.

Costume was a voluminous sheep-skin hat or

sometimes a skull-cap for Tekkes and long
chakman, robe, of yellow, brown, grey or back
camel hair. The chakman could be vibrantly
coloured in stripes; pink and black, green and
red, black and yellow, while blues and purples
were also mentioned. Waist sashes were often
white. Footmen might wear Persian-style
slippers, sandals or brown - red boots. Riders
wore red or brown leather boots.

In 1829 Conolly reported the Persian Shah kept

300-400 Turkoman soldier - hostages and their
families in Tehran. These were mostly Gokhans,
and the rest Yimouts, serving for a year before
being relieved by a new complement. An earlier

Right, ‘Courdish Soldiers of Avroman’, C.J.

Rich,(139) note the bipod on the firearm in
the background. Far Right, ‘Koords of the
mountains’, Dwight Marsh.(140)
34
 ‘Top Left, Kordish chiefs’ sketched by James Morier, 1812. (7)

This page, Kurds. Above Right, a group of

Kurd riders, 1856. Right, Kurdish riders,
kindly supplied by Wesfalia Miniatures.
35
Fowler mentioned the large Kurdish cities of ‘Van or Ardelan &’ ‘tushmals’ sub-chiefs and also possessed, in 1840-42, a ‘vast black tent
were ruled by powerful chiefs, the Waly, (or walli, vvali) ‘Prince’, or supported by innumerable poles.’ As with other tribes mentioned here,
‘viceroy’. The ruler of Van could command a force of 10,000 riders. the Persians could nominate a supreme chief of an ethnic group within
the realm and expect reasonable compliance by rivals.
William Ouseley, brother of the British Ambassador, described
‘Curds’ met during 1812 as wearing a costume similar to the above Tradition has it that women, perhaps of nomad clans, fought alongside
and noted lances could be 9-10 foot (2.74m - 3.05m) long, and were their men as sharpshooters when part of the Luristanian-based Zand
sometimes thrown. The men might have two, three or four pistols. Dynasty force in the 18th century campaigning in Afghanistan. Exactly
Fraser said some Kurd riders had, among their weapons, three slender who these women were and the context in which they fought is unclear.
javelins held in a case.(130) The incidence of women fighters does not seem to be general or repeated,
albeit modern re-enactors are mounted rifle-women wearing a bright red
The ‘Prince of Van’ was mentioned supporting the Persian invasion vest as they ride and shoot.
of Georgia (in 1795-96?). This Prince, his land and politics are a
mystery, it could refer to Sadek Khan as mentioned earlier. One source mentioned that compared with Bakhtiyari, the Lurs were
more likely when attacking travellers to be on foot, and in smaller
In dodging Kurd bandits Fowler mentioned an attack on the outpost groups, perhaps including robbers and mountaineers. Some robbers were
fort of Maliz-Gharid planned by 50 musketeers and 50 riders. Other armed with muskets and others with clubs.
local Kurdish chiefs had somehow acquired two guns of undescribed
type or calibre. Uzbeks
Uzbek warriors had weaponry and costume broadly similar to their
The Ahl-e Haqq Kurds were noted as source of infantry and 12,000 Turkoman neighbours, albeit their sheepskin hats look larger and
men could be raised by Suliman Khan. They were possibly the best flare at top conically. Uzbeks were more likely to have firearms rather
of the irregular infantry.(40) than obsolete bows and arrows, presumably acquired through wealth
generated in the urban centres or via silk-road trade.
Kurds in the east threatened Turkomans with artillery in their
war-song, an excerpt reads.(75) The Khanates of Khiva and Bokhara will be covered later. Each
intrigued with Persian ventures to expand into Afghanistan or to support
‘Our brave warriors, clad in armour, shall gallop over your plains,
a rival claimant to the throne. Both states and other Central Asian states
Our soldiers will charge beyond your fort, Begler,
formed sarbaz infantry in imitation of the Persians.
The walls of Akkul* will tremble at the report of our artillery,
I shall bring a powerful army with me.
Circassians
*Places on the River Gorjan. Circassians of the Adyghe or Kabardian sub-groups were likely to be
enemies of Russian expansion and allies or enemies of the Georgians.
Capt. Richard Wilbraham described some costume differences among Like other peoples of the Caucasus they might appear as fighters for the
Kurd communities; those at Sultaniah wore gay costume, ‘unlike small Khanates of the region.
the Koords of Sennah, they did not wear either the helmet or chain
armour.’(73) Montieth thought their only effective troops were the noble cavalry
and their retainers, whom he estimated as theoretically 25,000 strong.
Kurds were mostly noted with pack animals but Ida Pfeifer, in 1850, Infantry were supplied by serfs who were possibly originally slaves.
mentioned crude wagons with board wheels.(84)
Von Klaproth, in 1807-08, described five classes in Circassian society;
princes, nobles, freedmen, freedmen of new nobles and vassals with the
Afshars
last group divided further into agricultural and menial servants.(106) He
Afshar Turkoman-related peoples retained regional influence, after
described the warriors as fastidiously cleaning their weapons and armour.
the fall of the Afsharid dynasty, as rulers of small Khanates in the
Their mail armour was worn over padding (white or red shirts being
Caucasus. The Khanates included Karabah and Shusha. The latter,
popular) and was reportedly pistol proof, albeit some skilful Cossacks
in 1795, mustered 15,000 city defenders in successful opposition to
had learnt the trick of getting their lance up and under the armour. Other
Aga Mohammed Khan. As with the other regional Khanates, loyalty
clothing mentioned included red boots, waist coats, and embroidered
could flip between Russia, Persia and independence.

Other Afshar tribes, perhaps nomads,

could be called up by the Qajars to provide
irregular or militia troops.

Lurs
The costume and weapons of Lur tribes
were broadly similar to the Bakhtiyari. Men
attending Ali Khan, the ‘Wali of Luirstan’
of the Faili Lurs, were ‘armed to the teeth’.
Lur horsemen had at least pistols and
musket, while pistol and daggers were also
mentioned as one man’s arms.

Ali Khan believed the Qajar recent

interlopers and thought his own lineage
more prestigious, he commanded various

Right, a Kurd rider, from Drouville. (16)

36
 Left, Khourds
drawn by Lt. Col.
John Johnson in
1817. (41)

According to
Capt. Kotzebue,
the number of
feathers on a
helmet might
signify numbers
of enemy slain in
combat.

Above, Kurdish warriors, by James Balille Fraser, 1822. Below, Kurds trick-riding in the late 1800s.

37
jackets with cartridge pockets on the chest. An equipment list with Charles Tausch, in 1829, described the Circassians as also using
some names in the local language was: the sword and dagger they are ‘Albanian’ muskets fitted with four-foot long bipods and Turkish-
never without, musket and pistols, mail coat - affeh, small helmet - supplied or old ‘Venician-made’ cannon.(133)
kip’ha, larger helmet - tasch, gauntlets - aschteld, brassets (vambrace
or other arm-protection) - abchumbuch. We are told explicitly that Mazanderan
shields were not used. The Mazanderan province was largely a Qajar ethnic area. People in the
wilder regions could be riders with muskets and spears. A small city
Bows and quivers of arrows would be worn when riding out in state guard was 80 foot soldiers; ‘clothed without any regards to uniformity
or visiting. This might suggest the archaic weaponry was considered and having a musket of various sizes.’ People in the rustic southern
part of traditional formal dress and not necessarily for serious combat, areas, and perhaps others, wore cloaks checkered or cross-barred with
however, it was depicted on armed men into the 1850s. stripes of red, blue or green, resembling Scottish plaid.

Lt. Col. John Johnson, in 1817, met Circassians accompanying the In the 1850s the province could produce 12,000 musketeers of whom
Russian General Yermoloff in the Caucasus. One man donned his 2000 served with the Shah. A body of 5000 cavalry was recruited from
armour on horseback for Johnson to sketch, which appears to not have recently settled nomad tribes. People from the north, near the Caspian
been published.(41) Lyall, travelling in 1822, described a Circassian Sea, might wear back clothes and some might own a felt hat rather than
Prince as clad in a leather-and-fur cap; dark striped coat, white tunic the sheep-skin Qajar hat.
over mail, blue pantaloons bound by red leather gaiters and pointy
boots of red and yellow leather. His arms were a bow, sabre and Talish of Ghilan
pistols in saddle holsters. Other guns were carried over the shoulder in The ‘wild’ Talish tribes of the
goat-skin cases with hair on the outside. Ghilan region, on the south west of
the Caspian Sea, were described by
Another observation of Circassians, by Alcock in 1828-29, suggested Fraser as expert matchlockmen. They
Cossacks were no match for them in combat. wore loose trousers of coarse brown
or grey material, shoes like leather
‘The Circassian ... is
socks, a long-tailed vest tucked
frequently equipped with
a complete set of armour, into trousers a sheepskin cap of red
defying balls or sabre - an or black wool and a leather girdle
active horse, and above all a housing the ‘formidable cumeh’
brave independent spirit’ - Gheelanee dagger. Their main
weapon was the ‘taffung’ slung over
‘[Their dress was] ... the shoulder with the ammunition
particularly elegant ... a full carried in ‘numberless rows of loops
frock coat with cartouches for cartridges on the breast of his
at the breast, a belt round vest, and other parts of his person, or
the waist, in which is a large in small gourds called cuddoos’. The
two-edged knife (a dreadful men might also carry a small grass
weapon) and trousers
basket for plunder.
frequently of the same
colour as the coat.’

Right, a ‘Lur Tufungchi’ from Gordon, 1906. His weapon looks a

breach-loader of some type but his costume is consistent with 19th
century descriptions.(147) Left, a Circassian, 1850s.

Below Left, Kurds, Georgian and Armenians by Tancredi Scarpelli.

Below Centre, a Nestorian Christian tuffangchi from Drouville. Below Right, a Nestorian family from Hakkari.(139)

38
 Above Left, an Armenian. Above Centre, a
Nestorian Christian.

Above Right, a Yezidi, these people were often

independent and hostile to Turks, Kurds and others in
lands west and south of Azerbeijan.

Right, an Illyaut drawn by

Lt. Col. John Johnson, 1817.

Below Right, a Kurd rider taken from

Rev. Justin Perkins, 1843.

Below Left, Selim, Koordish Pasha of Amadiah,

also from Perkins.(68)

39
Such irregular troops numbered 1500 men as part of the garrison that city of Tiflis, ‘Georgians’ bridling under Russian repression took up
included two regular Persian battalions and five 12-pounder guns. arms to support the Persian forces. They were noted as surrounding and
These unsuccessfully defended Lankeran against Russians, in January massacring with great cruelty detached Russian forces. Some caution
1813. The assaulting Russians; 2000 infantry, 1000 Cossacks and is needed here as European writers might use ‘Georgian’ to mean the
three war ships suffered 1200 killed or wounded in capturing the area. broader Caucasus region rather than just the Christian principalities.

Gereilee F and W Freygan travelled in 1812; their history of Persia included a

The Gereilee tribe, of Turkish extraction, lived in the Kalpoosh - note that King Heraclius II of Georgia, in 1795, sent troops to aid his
Gaugaun region east of Astarabad. In exchange for a small ‘militia’ Erivan ally. After a battlefield defeat, by Persia, these troops gained
payment they provided the Shah with 1000 horsemen armed with refuge in the fortress city. Following the conquest of Georgia, troops
spear and sword. They furnished a horse partly at their own expense (not further defined) in Erivan city were mentioned joining the forces of
as the militia pay did not cover the full cost. Aga Mohammed Khan.

Kazvins It seems improbable many of the distinct Georgian military institutions

The Georgian Prince Teimuraz noted the exceptional weapons- would have survived Russian control of the area following their
handling skills of the Kazvin nomads who were armed with a lance, occupation from the early 1800s. Partizans or irregulars fighting for
rifle and jarid, a spear. Persia could equally be foot or mounted troops. Irregulars fighting for
Russia in the 1810s were cavalry while both foot and mounted fought
for Russia against the Turks in the 1820s.
Kruta
Kruta nomads were described by a Russian, in 1817, as agile lancers
Georgians, or at least unhappy factions of them, revolted against
who might fire pistols as they skirmish and ride away;
Russian rule (particularly the compulsory billeting of soldiers) many
‘... they fire their pistols, of which they carry three. These pistols are times - including in 1802, 1804, 1810, 1811-13, 1818-20, 1824, 1829,
tied by the butt and kept in the waistband; as soon as one is fired, 1830, 1834-40, 1850 and 1856-57. A detailed description of the earlier
it is tossed back over the shoulder and another is drawn out in a independent Georgian military system is included in a later section.
trice.’ (49)

Lesghis (of Daghistan)

Elaeuts / Iliats / Illayuts During the Persian-Georgian War of 1795 we learn of up to 8000
Several European writers mentioned these people. The name appears ‘subsidised’ Lesghis serving with Georgia. Monteith mentioned 600
to cover a number of Turkic-speaking or ‘Tartar’ nomadic tribal Lesghi ‘auxiliaries’ fighting as part of the 2000 man garrison of the
groups, including Buctiaris and Loors. Sheil said that ‘eel’ was a Persian subject Khanate - city of Ganja in 1803. A person known as the
Turkic word meaning nomad tribes generally. Shumkhal of Tarki was once described as chief of all the Lesghees. In
1835 the Lesghis were described by Stuart:
Fowler noted the Eleauts tribe, on meeting a group of these he
described them as Turkoman or Koords wearing ‘miscellaneous ‘They wore the close round caps bound with fur, and yellow surtouts
costumes and equipment’ provided at their expense. Ouseley described girt light round the waist, with cartouche cases on the breast (which
the Iliats tribes as 12,000 families of wanderers. are peculiar to the Caucasian tribes) and were armed with their
national weapon - the deadly kuma.’
In 1817 Johnson met, in Shiraz, Jauny Khaun who was reportedly a
descendant of Gengiz Khan. He claimed to be chief of the Illyauts and The ‘chief of the Lesghis’ along with governors of Koobeh, Derband
able to raise 10,000 horsemen in a month. These people were clad in and Bakoo helped the Persian force sent to protect Bakoo from Russian
blue trousers, blue chemise and a white head cloth. attack in 1804.

Robert Mingan reported, in the 1826-28 War, that 30,000 Lesguys of

Georgians several independent tribes opposed Russia and he nominated Ummia
During the first phase of the Russo-Persian War, 1826-28, when Abbas Khan as one of their famous warlike chiefs.(104)
Mirza’s army advanced into the Caucasus and threatened to take the

Below Left, an Armenian volunteer fighting for Russia in the Russo-Persian War 1826-28. Below, Khevsur Georgian highlanders.

40
This page, Circassian
or Georgian warriors.
Many Khevsur
highlanders are shown
in mail armour and
holding shields.

The photos could range

up to the 1910s, note
the man below at left
with bow and arrows.

41
Chechins, Ossetians (Alans), Daghistani Arabs
F and W Freygan, travelling in the region during 1812, provided The Dynasty of Kajars described Ibrahim Khan Arab, of Bastam, as a
descriptions of these people. The Tchetchinitz were career robbers loyal general of Fath Ali Khan. He was sent to Khorasan ‘with the Arab
and hunters armed with ‘fusil, sabre, dagger and sometimes lance and and Ajam musketeers’ which could mean ethnic tribal or militia troops
shield’. Another weapon was the toppus, an iron-headed staff, with within the Qajar military system.
three triangular points.
While adventuring through Khuzistan, in 1840-42, and when not being
‘The Ossetians differ little from the Tchetchinitz; they use bows robbed or observing the ancient ruins, Layard described the local Arabs
and arrows, although their usual arm is a fusil. ...threatening each in their struggle against the Persian governor of Luristan and also
other continually, either with a gun, or a dagger, or the bow:’ fighting as tribal irregulars for the Persians. The Arabs opposed Persia
in concert with their close Bakhtiyari allies. Mirza Koma was a local
‘The mountains of Daghistan are inhabited by the Tawlinzi and
potentate in the marshlands and ruled cities. He could command the
Lesgees...Tagaouzouri and Inguishis.
loyalty of other tribes, including the Cha’b Arabs.
They use firearms but the sabre is their principle weapon, and many
among them wear coats of mail. From their infancy they are inured Arab tribes fighting for Persia during the above conflict include the
to the use of arms, and to manage their excellent horses. Their plan Sheikh of the large Bowit tribe and other unnamed tribes or groups of
in battle is to fire their weapons but once, and then to fall upon their warriors.
enemy with their swords.’
Arab forces included numerous horsemen with matchlock, sword and
The Ossetians were also noted as many wearers of mail, expert spear. Infantry were matchlockmen, at least once described as tofangchi.
weapons-producers and users of the kumand, a ‘noose’. Lyall reports Mirza Koma was seen accompanied by 500 cavalry, some of these
Ossetians might dismount to shoot in a slowly withdrawing open line. possessed hawks and hounds. By virtue of being a descendent of the
prophet, he owned a large green silk flag with gold lettering of Koranic
text. The flag was accompanied by drummers and men with oboes.

Layard noted other Arabs of Khuzistan carried flags but provided no

further detail about them. Arab black flags were mentioned by other
writers. Military assets included ‘rusty guns’ at cities, of which Mirza
Koma attempted to seize more from surrounding towns.

During a night assault on a Persian army camp, by Sheikh Thamer

and his Bakhtiyari allies of Mehemet Taki Khan, the Arab guns in the
confused fighting shot at their own men as well as the enemy. In the
same action we learn, via Layard, that not all of his forces had firearms;

‘Arabs who were not armed with guns, cutting down with their swords
indiscriminately all whom they met.’

Left, a Circassian from a painting by Prince Alexis Soltykoff. (141)

Below Left, Georgian Prince in war dress, Georgian lady, behind her is
a man of Kahatia.
Below Centre, militiaman of Anapa. Below Right, an Armenian, 1836.

42
Top Left, Georgian irregular or huntsman. Top Centre, a Circassian soldier, c.1860s. Top Right, a Georgian, later 19th century.
Below Left, Khevsur swordsmen. Below Right, the armoured man is a Khevsur - eastern Georgian highlander, the other man is from Goori,
[city or district] central Georgia. The picture is from Clive Phillip-Wolley.(148)

Left, Arab bag-piper and soldier with

long firearm, drawn by Lt. Col. John
Johnson, 1817. Below, a Georgian,
from the 1850s?

43
A mixed group of Arab foot and mounted was also described as having turbans. Musketeers were among the infantry. The neighbouring Arab
only some with firearms with long spears being the other weapons. princelings maintained a navy of eight-gun brigs.
Spears were often noted as tufted with ostrich feathers. Some Arabs
were accompanied by black slaves, possibly also combatants. Montieth, in 1817, described garrisons in Azerbaijan of Arab irregular
Pastoralist and impoverished Arabs were armed only with clubs foot whom he believed as dubious at manoeuvring and field actions but
and wore a knee-length shirt. The major Beni Lam Arab tribes also fierce defenders of fortified places. One garrison was 1000 men and one
traditionally carried a heavy club, presumably with other weapons. of a mix of both Arabs and Mazandarian irregular foot was 2000 strong.

Costume could be a keffiyeh held on the head with rope, a long robe The Omani Arabs as Persian allies will be covered later.
and an Abba, goat-hair cloak, of white and broad black bands. A group
of sedentary Arabs wore ‘long black cloaks to the ankles, keffiyehs of Afghans
bright colours, red and yellow, and fringes’. Some marsh Arabs wore Afghans fighting for Persia were mostly cavalry. The small Afghan
a red tarboosh hat with a twisted shawl at its base, all sounding quite tribe of Gellikai were settled in Mazandaran and provided 200 cavalry
Ottoman. militia in return for tax exemptions. When Conolly traveled through the
Herat-Meshed area, in 1829, it was not under Persian rule. He described
Layard was once chased by camel-riding bandit tribesmen. Their the rear-guard of the Afghan army met on he road as; 4000 Afghan
weaponry was not mentioned. Arab robbers near Khanakee, in the cavalry, 1000 Suni Hazara cavalry, 500 Kurds (foot and mounted were
1820, rode two men per camel, they were spearmen but may have had generally described), four light guns and 20 zamburaks.
other weapons as well. Similar Arab cameleers met in modern Syria,
by Ferrieres-Sauveboeuf in 1784-1785, were hired as reliable guards The shifting fortunes of Persian and Afghan potentates in contesting
for travellers: control of the city of Herat will be covered later. During these struggles
Persia could find allies among the local tribes and factions.
‘ ... these ride, two and two, upon a camel, are always well armed,
and exert themselves with sufficient honesty and courage.’ ( 81)
Baloochis
When expecting action the men above striped off their turbans and The Baloochi mercenaries fighting for Persia in the Anglo-Persian War
shirts to fight. They formed camels into a kneeling square as some were considered by the British as potential recruits for new a camel-
men lit matchlocks and others waved sabres while creating a racket. riding unit.

Mobader Khan, Prince of Chab, southwest Persia on the rivers, could Travelling through the region, in 1810, Lt. Henry Pottinger recorded the
muster 6000-7000 cavalry, 15,000 infantry and nomads.(56) His city at local dress as a coarse white or blue calico knee-length shirt, ‘trowsers’
Fellahi was protected by a battery of eight brass long nine-pounders, made of the same cloth or striped, a checked or blue turband and similar
and two iron howitzers. All the guns were Portuguese-made and more style kummerbund.(123)
than a century old, but in a ‘very serviceable’ condition. His people
wore a green tunic, loose trousers, crimson dresses and lilac cloth ‘He carries a matchlock, sword, spear, dagger and shield, besides a
multiplicity of powder flasks, priming horns, and pouches, the latter
crammed with balls, slugs, flints, tinder boxes and other warlike
apparatus.’

‘They are all capital marksmen, and on that account in battle they

Left, Baloochi Khan of Kalat, photographed in 1870. Below Left, a

firearm made in 1805-08 and used by the Baloochi people of Dhadar-Kach
against the British in 1857. Below, a Bedouin sheik and his wife.(141)

44
Above Left, a picture of James Silk Buckingham, a traveller in the east during the 19th century, dressed and armed as an Arab.
Above Centre, an Arab rider. Above Right, Bedouin Arabs, musketeer and horseman (from Egypt).

Above, Umer Dost Mohhamad Khan and attendants. Above Right, a Chabean Arab sheik from 1831-32.
Below Left and Below Right, Afghan tribesmen with jezzails.

45
 avoid as much as possible coming to close combat, but when they One Hazara group subject to Persia was obliged to keep 1000 cavalry
have no alternative, they either throw away their firearms or sling ready for service. As per some other peoples in the area they were
them by the side of the camel or horse on which they are mounted.’ required to pay an annual tax of horses. Revered Joseph Wolff recorded
two broad Hazara groups / tribes of the Dai-Konti and Dai-Zangi. He
Lt. William Heude, in 1817, described the Beloochee soldiers of the suggested they claimed descent from Gengiz Khan.(94) Ferrier said
Inam of Muskat as: ‘... naked to the waist, with crooked toffung, a they were of the Eimak sub-group of Tajiks and noted one chief, Serdar
knife and a straight two-handed sword.’ (42) Kerim-dad Khan, who could command 5000 ‘excellent’ horsemen, 3000
foot and a reserve of a further 10,000 cavalry if needed.
Colombari described the Beloutchi as pairs of camel-riding nomads.
They were always at war and plundering into the Kerman and Yezd The chief was an enthusiastic raider into Persian areas, at least until
areas of Persia. If cornered, the raiders would fight to the death. the Shah threatened to send an army to eliminate him. He then created
mischief for the Afghan ruler Yah Mohamed Khan who defeated him in
‘Each dromedary is ridden by two men, who ride back to back on a battle and made him a vassal.
wooden saddle. The front one guides the camel by a rope fastened
to a headstall. He is armed with a bow and arrows [a footnote here
reads; within a few years some of them have been seen armed with Cossacks
long match-locks] a sword hangs by his side; and a shield, covered Joseph Emin described some ‘Cossacks’ fighting for Heraclius of
with leather, is thrown over his shoulder. The other, facing the tail Georgia but it is not clear if he had misidentified a Karbadian tribe.
of the animal, has no projectiles, he is there to cover the retreat,
and, in consequence, is armed only with a long kama (poniard) or Persian sources, perhaps on firmer ground, describe ‘Kazzak’ and
sabre, and with a long lance. Shams Uddeeen-Lu tribes driven out of Teflis and joining Abbas
Mirza’s army in about 1808-10. The ‘faithless Kazzaks’ and others
Their provisions consist of barley bread for fifteen days, curdled showed little enthusiasm when the Russians attacked and in a panicked
milk in a skin bag, and a leather bottle of water suspended under retreat indulged in indiscriminate looting of friend or foe.
their animal’s belly.’

Other descriptions of Baloochis described them as single riders of

camels or horses, perhaps leading a string of baggage camels ready Army Reforms
to load booty. The various groups falling under the ‘Baloochi’ name
could appear quite different and include Afghan, Arab or Turkic elements.
European Influence
Frenchmen Ferrier, travelling in 1845 among the Baloochee, described Napoleon’s letter to Crown Prince Abbas Mirza, 29 March, 1805, reads:
them in detail. He noted that when raiding into southern Afghanistan
or Persia they would kill all prisoners they could not carry away. ‘Today, an army of twenty-five thousand well-disciplined foreigners
might ravage and even subjugate Persia. But when your subjects
‘In summer they wear a cotton tunic drawn in at the waist, and know how to manufacture arms, when your soldiers have been taught
large pantaloons; the turban is twisted and tied like that of the how to split up and reassemble in a series of rapid and well-ordered
movements, when they will have learnt how to back up a vigorous
Arabs.’
attack with the fire of a moving artillery; when your frontiers are
secured by numerous fortresses and the Caspian Sea has the flags of a
He believed Seistan province could field 30,000-35,000 ‘all excellent’ Persian flotilla fluttering on its waves, you will have an unassailable
infantry, riding back-to-back on camels, but no horses. empire and invincible subjects.’ (77)
‘The Baloochees are armed with lance and sabre, firearms are
European training for Persian troops appears to have started in a small
rarely seen - a few matchlocks and some bad pistols. They carry the
Indian buckler covered with a thin plate of copper, or elephant or way by Aga Mohammad Khan who engaged captured Russians to
rhinoceros skin. ... They remain firm under the fire of the enemy, and instruct soldiers.
are bold in their advance. They attack in small parties of 10 or 12,
and tie their tunics together - to stop one from running away or to The Dynasty of the Kajars suggested the inspiration for the army
recover wounded.’ reforms came from an Islamic pre-modern book on the science of war
composed by Muhammed Mansur Said. Brydges, in his translator’s
Hazara note, said he had never heard this theory before and found no evidence
The Hazara peoples living in the Persia - Afghanistan border areas of such a military science book when in Persia.
were found fighting for or against the local powers. The tribesmen
were described by Ferrier as great horsemen and ‘brave to rashness’. Some time between 1803 and 1807 Prince Abbas Mirza sought the
They wore undyed camel-hair robes and kept sheep, goats, buffaloes
and camels.

Ferrier recorded that the women folk

could also be combatants at times of
need.

‘The women are proud of being able,

when necessity requires, to mount a
horse and use a fire-lock or sword
with intrepidity equal to that of their
war-like brothers and husbands.’

Right, Persian riders and a

visiting Russian diplomat.(141)
46
Far Left, an Afghan
chief and deputy
executioner.

Left, Mahomed Naib

Shurreef, ‘a celebrated
Kuzzilbash chief of
Caubul and his head
attendant.’

Below Left, Afghan

mountain men warriors
with muskets.

Below Right,
Jellalabad Sirdar
- Mahomed Ukbar Khan
as an armoured rider, by
James Atkinson.

Bottom, the court of

Shuja Shah Durrani of
Afghanistan.

47
assistance of Russian deserters, perhaps the same men mentioned As well as knowledge, the British bought money to maintain Abbas
above, to drill infantry in Tabriz. Mirza’s growing regular army. In 1811 the Prince had six battalions and
13 artillery pieces. By 1812 this had grown to 13,000 infantry, cavalry
Russian prisoners of war were used in Shiraz to help train at least one and artillery. With the fall of Napoleon, in 1815, the British had no
body of 700 uniformed regular infantry in 1808 (a second or third unit continuing interest in Persia and so withdrew its mission. However,
is implied by Morier), a date after the establishment of the foreign some individual officers remained in a variety of military posts until
military missions described below. When European instructors could 1819. Some served in a private capacity beyond then. The end of the
not be found, those locals who had received training from them might Napoleonic wars produced a wave of unemployed men with military
in turn be used to train other soldiers. experience, many as individuals found employment in Persia.

There was significant cultural resistance to the initial attempts to train Persian Mission to Austria 1829
soldiers in the European method. Abbas Mirza was forced to drill This was a mission sent by the Persians to Austria to inspect armies and
troops in private and in small groups of perhaps 20-30 men at a time. gather militarily useful information.
He also personally undertook training as an example to others.(30) A
few battalions were thus created and trained.
Polish Diplomats 1830s
Once the sarbaz system became well established there was a stream The Persians attacking Herat in the 1836-38s were accompanied by a
of volunteers from all parts of the country hoping to join the ranks, Monsieur Beroffsky who hoped to get both the Ottomans and Persians
at least during the first British mission, as word got out that pay was to attack Russia, in support of the Polish insurrection, in 1830-1831. It is
regular and not defrauded by the officers. not clear what the Polish leaders were offering in return for such action
and it was not acted upon. Persian sources said a faction at court thought
the plan was a good one.
French Mission of 1807-09
As part of Persia’s Treaty of Finkelstein with France, Napoleon sent
General Gardane and a 70-strong military and civil delegation to British Mission 1833-38
modernise the Persian army. Gardane sent two officers to Isfahan to This mission was sent in the context of bolstering the British position in
construct a cannon factory where 20 guns were produced by year’s India by improving their political leverage with Persia over the Russians.
end. Two officers and three NCOs went to Tabriz to train Abbas
Mirza’s army while other French officers travelled the land to survey The 20 or so British / East India Company personnel of the mission
any realistic potential for a French overland invasion of British India. raised and trained some troops but were stymied by local jealousies,
resistance from Persian military officers and foreign interference. The
The officers in Tabriz helped organise, on European lines, three Persian attack by Mohammad Shah on the city of Herat in Afghanistan
infantry regiments to a total of 3000-4000 men. The artillery was caused the British to withdraw their men.
modernized with a foundry established and engineer training
commenced. French Mission 1840-44
Mohammad Shah asked for French military assistance to avoid Russian
British Mission 1810-1815 - British rivalry. A small delegation of junior officers were sent and they
With French-Russian hostilities ceasing after the Treaty of Tilsit, had little impact as the Persians had neither the money or inclination to
1807, the French lost reason to maintain a presence in Persia and support their efforts.
under British diplomatic manoeuvring their military mission was
removed. The British carrot of military improvement was added to Austrian / Italian Mission 1852
the stick of a veiled threat to back a Zand dynasty pretender to the Seeking a new European partner, Nasser ed-Din Shah’s prime minister
Persian throne. Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir (1848-51), invited the Austrians to send a
military mission. By the time they arrived a new less-enthusiastic prime
The British delegation of 1810 was initially about 50 men including minster was in office and gave only lukewarm support to the Austrians.
Indian sepoy instructors and ‘sepoy dragoons’ with trumpeters as a Present in Iran at the time were various Italian refugee officers who were
colour party. Other officers also arrived thereafter and continued the given military instructor roles. The Austrians and Italians were on bad
modernizing work of the French, albeit with British weapons and terms following European events and they refused to cooperate. An
techniques. accommodation was made to have the Italians mentor the infantry and
Austrians the artillery and cavalry. A third French mission was sent in
1858, presumably the Austrians had been withdrawn at some time before
then.

Military Training Establishments

Abbas Mirza established a translations office to copy European military
and engineering manuals into the local language. Such translations and
commentaries on training, drill, artillery theory etc were also produced
under later Shahs.

Nasser ed-Din Shah’s prime minister Mirza Taqi Khan, among his
many modernising reforms, instituted the Dal al-Fonun, an academy
of military study where cadet officers could learn military theory,
engineering, science, cartography and medicine.

Left, retinue of Shah Shoojan-ool-Moolk 1843, painted by

James Atkinson.
48
 This page, various
Afghan warriors.

Below Right,
‘Hazzarah’ shooting
their long-barrelled
jezzail weapon on its
rest.

Below Left, Bedouin by Heude. Next, an Afghan in Tehran, 1848; armoured men by James Rattray. Below Right, men of Shah Shoojan-ool-Moolk 1843.

Below, Afghan warriors, Kaukers of the Bolan Range, 1834. Below Right, Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad.

49
Regular Infantry - Sarbaz Aleksander Kibovski gave the sarbaz unit organisation and ranks’ names
as follows, it looks like he is quoting Abbas Mirza’s new nomenclature
The Europeanised infantry of Prince Abbas Mirza became known for the troops; (43)
as sarbaz, ‘those who risk their heads’, or as Ouseley translated it:
‘those who consider it as sport to suffer or inflict decapitation’. The Battalion
infantry trained by Fath Ali Shah were called djambazy, ‘those who Serheng - colonel
risk their souls’, as a more belligerent-sounding name. Yaver - major
Yassaul - senior battalion adjutant among the officers
In time the sarbaz name became standard and was also used for Vekil-bashi - sergeant, junior battalion adjutant
Sultan-alyamdar-bashi and naibs - standard bearer and two assistants.
similar imitation troops raised in Central Asian states.
Tabelzan-bashi - chief musician
Hakim - doctor
The name sarbaz seems to have been coined by the poet-statesman Djara - surgeon
Mirza Abdul-qasim Qa’im-maqam Farahani. The infantry might also Vekil-bashi - NCO in charge of the infirmary
be called nezim / nizam after the new European-inspired nizam-i cedid
‘new order’ army of the Ottoman Sultan Selim-III, as first established
Company
in 1792. A few British authors called them sepoys. Sultan - captain
Naib-oval - lieutenant
Abbas Mirza’s original plan, as described by Morier, was to have half Naib-duyum - sub-lieutenant
his army as the new regular troops, perhaps meaning half the infantry. Bek-zade - ensign x 3
Vekil - sergeant x 2
The men were armed in European style with musket, bayonet, sword Mubashir - supply sergeant
and perhaps a dagger. The style of weapons initially followed the Dahbashi - corporal x 10
French or British muskets of the then current military instructors. Sarbaz - private x 100
Weapons could be imports or locally-made copies of European Drummer x1
muskets. In 1810-11 sarbaz attacking the village of Shaikhaweez Fifer x 1
threw English-supplied grenades into buildings to clear out Russian
infantry and their Armenian auxiliaries.(145) Some reports noted The organisation above could suggest either an eight or ten-company
poor maintenance of firearms if new supplies were not available. structure to the notional 1000-strong battalion, no reference has been
However, Ouseley, in 1812, thought the weapons were in good repair found to specialist named grenadier or light companies.
as there was a system of fines for damaging them.
A later source, Binning in 1850, gave a similar composition. He noted
Some of the original units, notably those recruited from men of each fowj, ‘regiment’, was 1000 men, being 800 sarbaz (privates) and
Mazanderan, were experienced with the matchlock and their training 200 others comprising 159 sahebi mansb, ‘officers’, and 41 bandsmen.
included familiarisation with firelocks.
He described regiments as 10 dusteh, ‘companies’, strong and included
Acquiring adequate firearms proved problematical, Abbas Mirza the following positions; some of which sound like they belong at the
was reported to have personally inspected and tested a batch of 2000 regiment rather than company level.
muskets and rejected 10% as sub-standard.
1 x Sooltan - captain
2 x Naibs - lieutenant
Finding weapons in volume was not easy. Morier noted an order for 2 x Begzabeh - ‘men who ride at the rear of the regiment and look
5000 muskets was fulfilled by calling to various provinces for 3000 after the men,’ so scouts or military police?
and engaging the workshops of Shiraz to convert
2000 matchlocks to firelocks.

There appears to have been no systematic adoption

of improved minie-ball or percussion cap firearms
as were being introduced into western armies
toward the end of the period of study. Binning, in
1850, commented that ‘percussion systems were
little known except by a few of the upper classes who
are fond of English guns when they can get them.’

Locally-produced swords were of better quality

than European imports - especially those made in
the north Caucuses or in Iran with ‘Damascus steel’
techniques. British pistols were prized for their
excellence with one official described as owning a
four-barrel pistol of possibly British origin.

Units were organised into 1000-man fuadji

‘regiment / battalions’. Ouseley called the
regiments keshuns or keshans.

Right, Drouville’s paintings of serbas, at Far-

Right is the first uniform of the units, these
pictures provided the inspiration for many copies.
50
 Left, Sarbaz, 1808.(49)
Above and right, soldiers
from the 1810s.

Above, sarbaz 1810s, the man in green

is an adjutant of the Shah’s guards, to
his right in red is an officer of the Shah’s
guard. The musicians with trumpets
have unusual hats of a type also seen on
zamburachi.

Right, troops of Abbas Mirza, these

can represent soldiers from 1807, the
illustrations are probably from a guide
to the Iranian 2500 year parade held in
Persepolis during October 1971.

Below, possibly a ‘koorna’ a long very

large trumpet.

51
 4 x Vakeels - sergeant was transferred from the Shah’s tofangchis, or that the new troops were
4 x Serjoukas - corporal recruited from the former formations.
1 x Serkang - lieutenant colonel
1 x Moshiff - head accountant 1820-23 - Abbas Mirza, ten regiments, 10,400 men, which included
4 x clerks the 1000-man Russian deserter and 1000-man Erivan regiments.

Every two regiments were commanded by a serteep, ‘full colonel’, 1831 - Abbas Mirza - 12,000 infantry.
which suggests a two-fowj, ‘brigade’, structure was now in place. A
note said sooltans and naibs would normally ride. 1837 - at Tabriz 18 regiments.

The actual as opposed to theoretical size of battalions differed, an ‘late 1830s’ - the army was 50 regiments, 54,850 men.
army return from the 1820s had units ranging from 500 to 1200
1848 - Nasser ed-Din Shah forms 16 new regiments.
strong.
Early 1850s - 50 regiments with conscription underway to attempt to
Porter produced an army list for the native regular infantry, in raise a further 40-50 regiments.
Azerbaijan, as supervised ‘for the past five years’ by Captain Hart (see
page-65). The army also included a ‘Grenadier’ battalion of Russian
deserters at 800 men strong.
Special Regular Infantry Units
The unit numbering appears only a guide and probably not used by
Persians until the later 1830s at earliest. Note that some battalions are Light Infantry
described by place of origin and some by ethnicity. The army list provided by Porter detailing the forces in Azerbaijan, in
1822-23, included a formation of 898 men of the Shaggogies tribe as
Numbers of Sarbaz ‘Light infantry’, in addition to the 6th regular unit, also of that tribe
The numbers of sarbaz soldiers and units increased steadily ‘raised by Captain Hart’.
throughout the 19th century, some data includes;
That the formation was not numbered as per the other regular units may
1807 - Abbas Mirza in Azerbaijan, three infantry regiments, 3000- be significant. An earlier section detailed how a specialist unit with
4000 men or noted as 4000-6000 in one source. different weapons, jezaerachi, were also converting into uniformed
troops - perhaps these men parallel European jaegar or riflemen
1811 - Abbas Mirza in Azerbaijan, six battalions. companies who might be parcelled out to support other troops.

1812 - Abbas Mirza in Azerbaijan, 13,000 infantry - the numbers In an action on the Arras River during October 1812, the Battle of
may include regular cavalry and artillery crews. Aslanduz, the British Major Christie led ‘some light infantry’ to cover
friends - perhaps significantly the attacking enemy was two companies
1813 - Fath Ali Shah creates his djambazy, orders other sons as of Russian ‘Yagers’ and they fought for possession of a patch of jungle.
provincial governors to also create similar units - which is noted as
not being energetically obeyed with. The designation ‘light infantry’ might correspond to European units of
that name in that they were typically of good morale and expected to
Morier described Fath Ali Shah, in 1809, as having a 12,000-strong do the brunt of skirmishing. They specialised in bad terrain fighting
infantry ‘guard’ formation of janbaz. If this is accurate and janbaz but were also able to perform the duties of line battalions. Of note is the
equals the djambazy, as mentioned earlier, it might mean the name Shegaghees unit, in 1835, including buglers as traditionally did many
European light infantry units.
Below, Persians fighting British at Bushire 1856-57.

52
 Surrounding, infantry from the Battle of Sultanabad 1812, or the 1813 army review.

Above, a possibly unique picture,

plausibly of a Europeanised soldier
painted by an Islamic artist (or at
least in a middle-eastern style). It is
described as ‘an officer’ and dated
only to the ‘1800s’.

Above, soldier and officer, dated

1808-1810.
Right and Below, reconstructions of
sarbaz, kindly supplied by Wesfalia
Miniatures.

Above, ‘Abbas Mirza reviewing troops’ (detail)

- by Frenchman Joseph Louis Hippolyte Bellangé
(b.1800–1866) showing infantry.

53
In the order of battle for 1822-23 a unit of 1200 regulars from the Where several ethnic or regional units were combined they might take
Shaghogges tribe was also described as ‘Light Infantry’. This could a name like the ‘Bakhtyiari Order’ mentioned earlier. The lushkur-e-
mean the last unit on the army list shown at page-56, or the 6th Arab’o, (‘army of Arabs?’) was a part-Persian part-Arab force of 4000
battalion on that list, or both. regular foot. Some other groups were given a similar designation, which
might mean a convenient logistic group rather than a permanent structure.
Stuart described the unit in 1835 with some companies lacking
bayonets and in a training exercise.
Training, Morale, Recruitment
‘The Shegaghees marched past very loosely ... Shegaghees in line Enrolment in the sarbaz was notionally not available for very old or
... partly covered by light infantry ... Who made a terrible row with young men and 15 years seems to be the lower age limit. Retired soldiers
their bugles and whistling ... some men fired lying on their backs might be given a land grant or modest pension.
and bellies ...’
In the economically depressed late 1830s it looks as if low pay reduced
A British officer also described his infantry unit as Light Infantry and recruitment standards. Wilbraham painted the picture of recruiting
trained to a high degree of confidence. problems but maintained praise for the toughness of the locals. The
‘scanty population’ may reflect the devastating plague of 1830-31.
In 1836 the British sent Captain Richard Wilbraham and a contingent
of Rifle Corps sergeants to Persia as instructors. ‘Scanty population renders the recruiting of the army a matter of
difficulty, and its ranks contain many unfit to wield the musket, either
from extreme youth or from the causes of sickness and decrepitude.
Guard
A few regular units were described as the Shah’s or prince’s guard Below the usual standard of European nations these hardy tribesmen
units. The Persian senior guard unit was sometimes called the are athletic and well knit together, and possess a power of endurance
Veli Ahed - ‘Crown Prince or Heir Apparent’ unit. The Russian which I have never seen equalled.’
Bagaderan deserter unit also acquired ‘guard’ status due to their
fearsome reputation and demonstrated efficiency. This Russian The quality of the sarbaz compared with the European troops they were
formation will be covered in more detail separately. modelled on is hard to gauge, some commentators thought they might
be a match, others that they were a hopeless rabble. Both could be right
Observing a parade, in 1835, Stuart described a guard unit. depending on date or particular units being compared. Abbas Mirza
was happy to boast that his sarbaz were invincible. Then again he also
‘The Kossars, or guards followed [the Bagaderan regiment in the believed kangaroo meat unsuitable for kebabs.(104)
parade] ... This regiment was under the immediate command of the
late Major Hart... The present Surteep, or Colonel of the Khossars, The Dynasty of the Kajars described the ‘troops from Ferahan and
Hajee Cossm Khan, had been a good officer but is now old and idle.’ Guzaz, which had not perfectly learned the New System’, campaigning
in the Caucasus, in 1808-09. The wording of the English translation leads
He added the intriguing note that; ‘Abbas Mirza was indebted to his to the idea that at least some existing units, perhaps tofungchis or janbaz,
firm and judicious disobedience of orders for his victory at [the Battle were re-trained in European methods.
of] Topra Kaleh’, against the Ottoman Turks.
The initial sarbaz units after the French withdrawal were happy to be
Colombari describing his second tour to Persia, in 1838, mentioned commanded by English officers but would refuse to accept the authority
marching to Tehran at the head of a regiment of behaderan khassa of Iranians not of their tribal or ethnic group. A number of commentators
- ‘grenadiers of the guard’. described how troops were let down by woeful senior command where
too many positions were filled by court appointees of the Shah’s relatives.
Reserve Regulars - Uniformed Toffungchees
Fraser published a list of Abbas Mirza’s troops, in 1822, including Stuart said that: ‘in the war of 1826-28 some regiments behaved with
those at Erivan under the command of the Sardar, Hossein Khan, firmness, others with the most ridiculous cowardice.’
which had among the regular troops:
Alexander writing during the 1826-28 War, without the benefit of
‘1 corps of the reserve, little better than common toffungchees, but hindsight, considered the armies in total.
wearing uniform, 2000.’
‘The successes of the Persians at the commencement of the present
This sounds like a localised innovation by Abbas Mirza to improve war shew that there is less inequality than might be expected between
the discipline and training of the tofangchi militia or perhaps to the two forces; and the result of
create two battalions of part-time sarbaz battalions. The Sardar could the last war, in which after ten or
also call up a further 3500 ‘irregular’ militia infantry of lesser quality. twelve years’ exertion, Russia was
unable to push her boundaries to
Determining how much training, what quality these troops might the Araxes affords a strong proof of
posses or details of their uniforms would be speculation. If these the same fact.’
soldiers wore a jacket of European cut they would look little different
to the other sarbaz. In the years surrounding this War the
quality of the army generally appears
Higher Organisation to have fallen with the reduced state
The regular units do not seem to have been formed, as per European of the national finances. In the 1830s
practice, into one or more battalions within a regiment. The units Muhammad Shah’s administrators
themselves were known by their ethnic name or region of origin, at conceived the regular infantry as
least until after the 1840s where a major reforms under Nasser-ed reserve force. Columbari even called
Din give them a more formalised system of naming and possibly
numbering.
Right, an ornate uniform, perhaps
of a later guards formation.
54
Above, detail from a military review by Abbas Mirza, 1817, showing infantry drill. Above Right and Above Far Right, undated sketches of a
sarbaz. Below, details of sarbaz uniform colours taken from the Battle of Sultanabad painting.

Unit Jacket Collar Cuffs Trousers Notes

Unit-A
Mid Blue Straw White waist sash
Privates
Red
Officer Long coat
Light Red / Pink Dark Blue
Musician White waist sash

Unit-B
Dark Blue / Greeny-blue Red ? Grey? /dark blue waist sash
Privates ?
Light Blue
Officer Straw ?
Musician Red Red White / yellow? White waist sash

Unit-C
Brownish Red
Privates
Red Light Blue
Officer Dark Blue / Olive? ? Yellow / gold braid on chest
Musician Very Dark Blue Red White waist sash

Unit-D
Light Blue Red Grey / Beige
Privates ?
Officer White / Pink ? Dark Blue Red waist sash
Musician Yellow / Straw Red Brown

Unit-E
Mid Blue White ? Grey / Beige White waist sash
Privates ?
Officers Dark Blue ? White

Above, Persians fighting British cavalry during the Anglo-Persian War, 1856-57. Above Centre, guards / officers at Nasser-ed Din Shah’s
funeral. The conical hats resemble those of ceremonial musicians of earlier decades. Above Right, detail from Colombari’s 1839 painting.
55
them lanhwer that would train and be called for service for only so European troops.’ Kotzebue described the sarbaz, in 1817, drilling and
many months of the year. They would be supported by a few units of possibly practicing firing by platoon or company.
permanently embodied guards.
‘The whole of the infantry were also manoeuvred several times, and
This structure was supported by the bonicheh system of military performed the running fire particularly well.’
tax and conscription. The system was introduced into Azerbaijan by
The Persians also described techniques for sarbaz training;(145)
Abbas Mirza and nominally extended nation-wide during the 1830s-
50s. Binning recorded an additional occasional tax, the sadir awariz,
‘... set over them instructors well versed in the manual exercise, to
might be levied by the Shah whenever he wanted money to fit out an
teach the management of those arms which are employed in battle.’
army for any other emergency.
Stuart described infantry, in 1835, using the Napoleonic British two-deep
From the later 1840’s Christian subjects were recruited into their own
deployment formation.
unit. It was rare for contemporary Islamic nations to allow Christian
citizens to serve in the military in significant numbers. In 1850 an ‘The Persian army is formed in two ranks ... and the system of drill,
infantry regiment of Armenian Christians was about to be raised, by supposed to be enforced is copied from our own infantry of 1812.’
conscription, in the Julfa region.
Sir Justin Sheil was not impressed by the army’s quality in the 1850s.
In the Anglo-Persian War a black African was found among the
Persian casualties. He was a fort defender and could have been an ‘Internal discipline may be said to have no existence in the Persian
infantryman or artillery crewman. army; parade discipline does not extend much beyond the knowledge
of getting from column into line, and the reverse, with some awkward
Further periods of military decline occurred in the later 1830s to attempts at the formation of a square.’
1840s when the state had limited finances to properly maintain its
armed forces. Horatio Southgate, in 1837-38, mentioned that a severe American Maj-Gen. Emory Upton writing after our period (in 1878, the
army pay cut triggered three entire regiments to desert from Tabriz troops use percussion weapons) noted the out-of-date drill of Persia. The
and claim refuge near Tehran. One regiment in Ourmiah dispursed training may have been adopted during one of the later military missions.
causing the Shah to demand the regional governor impose a range of At manoeuvres before the Shah:
harsh punishments on any men caught.(72) Some unfortunate deserters
were daubed with naptha and burnt alive. ‘The tactics employed resemble the French of 1831. ... One movement
consisted of a line of battle in double-rank, from which skirmishers
appeared to advance, as in our deployment by numbers. Behind the
The original sarbaz appear to have been trained by the French to the
line of battle, in imitation of the German system, companies were
same standards as their contemporary infantry. Tancoigne commented posted at intervals in double rank, at a signal, the skirmishers fell
that Abbas Mirza’s Russian deserters would be ‘subject to the same back, the companies advanced, and, joining in the line of battle, all
discipline, and adopt the French tactics, like the Persians.’ opened fire, the line of battle kneeling.’ (102)

F and W Feygan described a unit of serbaz demonstrating their skill The manoeuvres included irregular cavalry operating on the left and
for them, they: ‘... performed all the military evolutions practiced by artillery on the right.

Azerbaijan army returns of Captain Hart, via Porter, 1822-23

Above, a soldier
from 1852.
56
Above row of figs, sarbaz from Russian sources, 1817. (49) Below Far Left, coloured pic from 1817. Next a sketch from 1827.
Below Right, a sarbaz from 1827. Below Far Right, a picture from 1830.

Below, a review of soldiers, 1839, painted by Col. Colombari.

57
Quality of Sarbaz, Jan-baz, raised by other Princes Sarbaz Uniforms
Abbas Mirza’s nine brothers (among his others), as provincial Numerous pictures of Sarbaz uniforms have been provided. The Qajar
governors, maintained military forces. Some examples of regionally hat was almost universal for regular infantry of the period as they
based sarbaz have been given. A semi-independent Kurdish ruler, in refused to change it when suggested by European advisors. Russian
1828, was accompanied by a guard dressed as regular infantry, we do and British reports suggested the roughly conical hat was 12 inches
not learn if these were central government troops or his own people. (30cm) tall but some reconstructions look taller reflecting one British
estimate of 1½ foot (45cm). The fashion was for a slightly smaller hats
Prince Mohammed Ali Mirza was a later convert to the regular by the 1830s. The cloth patch at the top front of the hat was usually
reforms. Between the wars with Russia and Ottomans he engaged shown red, other patches were white, and one reference from 1828
Frenchmen and Spaniards, unemployed after Napoleon’s defeat in recorded a blue patch. The first sarbaz units included some men with
1814, to train infantry. Opinions on the quality of these troops ranged a feather decorating their hat to personal taste but such ornamentation
from much worse, to better, than other sarbaz. was not recorded later.

The Khan of Nakshivan raised his own body of serbaz, noted in 1812 A Prince at court, in the late-1840s to early 1850s, showed off his hat of
as; ‘No troops are more absurdly awkward than this description of almost a yard high.(84)
infantry.’ (24)
Sheil described a possible head wear exception for uniformed troops.
One unexpected downside to European drill, for the trainers, occurred
during the Anglo-Persian War where a Persian bugler knew the codes ‘The ... soldier wears on his head the ordinary lambskin cap; the
and blew ‘cease fire’ and manoeuvre orders near British infantry Leks wear brown nemed or felt caps.’
causing temporary confusion among them.
The baggy pants were mostly white but light blue, straw, beige or
Head Hunting mustard was shown. Some officers in the Sultanabad picture,
Persian soldiers were rewarded in cash for captured enemy severed page-53, appear to wear grey trousers while later infantry post the
heads - presumably to inspire personal bravery - and soldiers claiming 1840s certainly could.
their prize are depicted on the Sultanabad painting. The reward was
recorded at five or ten tumans. The higher number represents roughly Belt straps are shown white in almost all representations and black in
a years’ pay for a militia foot soldier. Presumably the reward was open the other examples. Waist sashes were mostly white for privates and
to all arms but infantry were best placed to make use of it. Conolly red in the other examples. Officers’ sashes were more likely to be red.
described a horseman dismounting to hack off with a dagger the head Unlike contemporary European soldiers, the infantry did not wear back-
of a man he killed and presenting to the heir apparent. packs, they instead used horses, camels or mules to transport a group of
soldiers’ belongings. Ammunition pouches and scabbards were black.
After success in the early phase of the 1826-28 War, a train of 50 Boots are mostly shown black in colour, and brown or tan when not.
camels bearing the grim luggage of bags of severed Russian heads,
was sent to Tabriz. Each camel was ridden by a Russian prisoner. Jackets are depicted or described in blue of a variety of shades, green,
red or brown. When uniforms were not available troops might wear a
European advisors attempted to stamp out head-hunting in Persia and variety of miss-matched clothes of more or less the same colour.
Afghanistan not just for the barbarity but because it might inspire
enemy to fight harder, and not surrender, as prisoners were sometimes Uniforms could be made by civilian contractors who might be based in
executed for their heads. Head-hunting also distracted men from their a city near an army camp, such as by the ‘Frank tailors’ of Tabriz, in the
battlefield roles. This last problem was millennia old with ancient late 1830s.
Romans identifying the same issue with their auxiliary troops.
In one of the earliest descriptions of the new regular troops,
One grim episode noted a head cashed in after the Battle of Sultanabad Tancoigne noted a body of 2500 men as trained by M. Verdier of the
was later found to be that of a British sergeant, a military advisor, the French mission, in Abbas Mirza’s camp, in 1808.
circumstances of his death and decapitation are not known. A different
‘The soldiers are called in Persian serbaz armed with muskets
report said two sergeants suffered the fate.
manufactured at Tauris [Tabriz] on the model of ours, in a most
perfect degree of imitation. The uniform of these new troops is a
Morier, in his comical historical novel Adventures of Hajji Baba brown jacket, nearly the same cut as our military dress, with a row
of Ispahan, noted heads were salted for preservation. The fear and of white metal buttons in front. The serbaz wear pantaloons of blue
loathing held for Turkomans might result in the further insult of their linen and half boots, their head dress... is a cap of Astracan black
captured heads being skinned, stuffed with straw and dried in the sun sheep-skin, some ornament it with a feather’.
to become a permanent trophy.

Left, Col. F.
Colombari’s
sketch of the
Bagaderan
returning to
Russia.
58
Above Left, a sarbaz from Sir Robert Porter’s sketch, 1817-20. Next a picture described as ‘A Persian soldier, disciplined after the
European system’ ,dated to 1814-20. Above Right and Far Right, illustrations from 1841, by Vernier - clearly related to the first pictures.
Below Right, a soldier 1850. Below Left, three versions of a picture 1850s,

Left, a square during

the Anglo-Persian
War, 1856-57.

Below drummer of
the guard.

Right, guardsman
and infantry
officer, all from the
Illustrated London
News, 1857.

59
The men trained in Shiraz in 1808 by Russian deserters were one ‘These were dressed in the usual costume of the country, but they each
body of 700 and perhaps two other units. They were clad in ‘Russian had an English musket, with the East India Company’s mark - and
uniform’ which might refer to a general European uniform style.(7) wore a double cross-belt with a large black cartouch-box on the right,
and a bayonet on the left side, as by English soldiers.’ (86)
In the economically constrained 1830s, when the nation teetered on
insolvency, equipment replacement was neglected. A regiment in Soldiers seen in Tabriz, in 1849-50, by Pfeiffer were also not in uniform.
Tabriz had only one of its companies uniformed. Stuart described
‘The soldiers wear the usual Persian dress, with the single exception
troops at a review having returned from campaigning in 1835.
that the officers on duty had a sword, and soldiers a musket. They
appear in uniform on the most rare occasions, and then they are, in
‘Two skeleton battalions of the Asshar tribe, just returned from
Khorasan, were dressed in patched coats of all colours, but they some respects, like European soldiers.’
marched well and looked like soldiers.’
The last point may explain why later reports mention troops out of
uniform; when they were undertaking mundane or dirty tasks their
The coat had cuffs and collars of a contrasting colour, red was
uniforms were stored for protection.
common but examples provided also include yellow. Where the
jacket was red, the facings colour could be blue or green. Epaulets or
The report of the London Illustrated News, in 1857, included guards in
jacket ‘wings’ might be white, red, yellow, silver or gold.
red coats with blue facings and provincial units of various colours.
Yermolov in 1817 reported uniform detail:
Officers, Standard Bearers, Musicians
‘Persian infantry is clothed in cloth jackets, of different colours for Standard bearer uniforms as they appear in illustrations do not differ
each battalion (many are clothed in red), the collar and cuffs are from privates. Flag poles are depicted as red, blue or yellow - it may be
of a different colour than the coats ... The infantry does not have that they match the unit’s facing colour.
greatcoats ... but in cold and rainy weather, anyone can wear what
they want over the coats.’ (44) Musicians; fifers and drummers, could wear red coats or of the facing
(cuff, collar) colour. In the Sultanabad painting one unit’s musicians
Johnson described pay and clothing allowance for the regulars in appear to wear a very dark blue coat when the facing colour is red.
1817 and contradicted the above on great coats.
Officers’ jackets could be the same as privates, or red, some may take a
‘The pay of a Sepoy or native private, is ten tomans per annum; different colour completely, as shown in the pictures. NCOs would have
when called out, he has two pounds of bread per diem, a toman three, two or one yellow (or facing colour?) chevrons on their sleeves to
is allowed yearly to each man for clothing, and a great coat is denote rank.
furnished to him every three years.’
What looks to be senior battalion officers on foot in the Sultanabad
Von Kotzubue, in 1817, described sarbaz in Tabriz wearing ‘blue painting, perhaps Serheng or Yavers, wear long coats of a light colour.
and also red jackets of English cloth’. Troops met closer to Tehran, The exact colours are hard to determine, they look pink, straw or white.
accompanying the Shah, wore red. Porter’s description of the sarbaz
in 1817-20 had them with green coats. The colourised engraving of
his sketch, reproduced on page-59, uses a bluish green. Drums and Trumpets
Uniformed drummers used a standard European cylindrical military
Alexander, in 1825-26, depicted coats in dark green, while drum. The instrument was perhaps made in the unit’s facing colour with
Col. Bartolomei, in 1826, reported red, blue or green coats. (45) red trim. One drum depicted here looks brass with buff bands at top and
Col. Blaramberg, in 1837, reported guards’ red jackets and other units bottom. Those in the Sultanabad picture have a yellow or brass body,
in any colour they could find.(46) Sheil described infantry in blue coats. broad red bands at top and bottom and white cords. Russian prisoners of
war were used to help train local drummers and other musicians.
The sarbaz may have worn civilian clothing when on long campaign
marches to protect their uniforms, ‘their usual dress when marching is Some musicians were depicted with conical coloured hats with brass
a sheepskin coat with the wool turned inside, and over this they wear decoration. Those using two small ‘bongo’ drums and accompanied by
the European pouch and waist-belt, and boots of half-tanned leather similar men with very long straight trumpets might be part of a military
bound round the leg.’ (73) band. Perhaps they were the royal nokareh kaneh and not associated with
any particular battalion.
Observing four sarbaz units marching near Sheeraz, in 1850, Binning
described their untidy look. Russian Bagaderan - Great Warriors
‘They looked more like a gang of gypsies than organised troops. The Russian Bagaderan, ‘great warrior’, deserter formation was
Their uniform (which were not uniform at all) consisted of cloth established in the context of the army’s regular reforms. With increasing
tunics, loose trowsers fastening just below the knee, boots or
numbers of Russian and Georgian deserters or freebooters joining
leathern gaiters, caps of black sheepskin or brown felt. The tunics
were of all shapes and colours; but reduced to a somewhat uniform Persian units in Erivan, a request by the charismatic Russian, Samson
hue, by dirt. Makintsev, to form a separate unit was granted by Abbas Mirza some
time after 1802.(47)
In fact they look like caricatures of grenadiers, yet these men make
excellent soldiers, when properly disciplined, drilled, fed and The unit was not the first Russian deserter formation in the area as King
paid, as they sometimes have been, when superintended by British Heraclius II of Georgia recruited a bodyguard of 300 such men, in 1768,
officers.’ following a Russian battle with the Turks near Abkhiska.

Sarbaz guarding the transport of public money from Shiraz to Changing his name to Samson Khan, the Russian deserter led the unit to
Ispahan, in 1828-30, were described by James Silk Buckingham as become the most proficient infantry in the army and it was soon included
apparently not in uniform. in the guards. Some British writers called the unit guards or grenadiers.

60
 Above, Persian soldiers, described as from the ‘1840s’ and believed Above, museum
published 1850s to 1860s. The style of the uniforms suggests the representation of a
later dates are more likley. No translation of the notes near the soldier, c. 1807-12.
figures has been found.
Right, a picture
representing troops
in 1838.(101)

Below, Battle of Elisabethpol, 13 September 1826. The Persian infantry is at left and the Russians are at far right. Painting by V. Mashkov.

61
The unit was replenished with a trickle of Russian deserters, Mohammed Shah in the conflict, recorded that the entire army was a year
Armenians, Nestorians, Poles and small numbers of other European in pay arrears and that the British and Russian ambassadors loaned the
Christians. Many of the soldiers nominally converted to Islam to future Shah 100,000 toumans to fund his campaign.(107)
avoid extradition to Russia but others retained their faith. In 1828
T.B. Armstrong, near Tabriz, reported that the on-going Russo- A sketch by Colombari depicting the unit and families returning to
Turkish war helped generate deserter recruits. Russia, in 1838-39, shows men in Qajar hats among other head wear.
Not all the men returned. Many rose in the ranks, such as Samson Khan,
‘Their ranks will be greatly increased on their return [from distant who became a general. His last action, a few months before his death in
duties] by the numbers who daily flock here from the [Russian] 1840 aged 73, was taking the city of Meshed in Iranian Khorassan.
army now in Turkey.’ (67)
Maurizi described a Russian deserter artillery unit, in 1811-12, as part
The unit campaigned with distinction in the region’s hot-spots of the Persian contingent allied to Muskat against the Wahhabists. The
fighting Kurds, Afghans, Turkomans, Uzbeks, Ottomans and artillerymen could have been drawn from the ranks of the battalion.
Russians. The Russian government often attempted to force the
Persians to disband the unit which finally succeeded only in 1839. A note by Edward Eastwick recorded an interview with Hisamus
Saltanah describing how Abbas Mirza declined to accept the wholesale
The formation was mostly one battalion with a strength varying from desertion of three Russian battalions at the end of the 1826-28 Russo-
500 to 1400 men. Johnson, in 1817, saw 1000 of them. However, Persian War.(48) The men secretly offered to assassinate general
J.H. Stocqueler, in 1831-32, noted 700 men in the citadel in Tabriz. Paskewitch and change sides. The Czar suspected them of having
He recorded two battalions of them among the 12 regular army units sympathies for the 1825 Decembrist revolt and had ordered the general to
at Azerbaijan. A British traveller in the 1820s-30s saw the unit near always deploy them in positions of danger during the Persian War.
Turkish Kurdistan and incorrectly guessed that a formation of so
many men must be serving with the leave of the Russian government.

The unit appears to have been organised as per other sarbaz Regular Cavalry
Individual companies were composed of all Russians, or all Poles,
where numbers allowed. In addition to the regular sarbaz infantry a small formation of uniformed
Nizam-Atli, regular cavalry, was raised at the same time. It looks as if the
The unit’s uniform was noted initially as green coats with red facings, original plan was to build a force of 1200 regular uniformed cavalry but
this being the costume of the Erivan regiment they had joined. A that number may never have been reached or maintained. Price, in 1811,
further description had the new separate unit in ‘Russian’ uniform, observed in Tabriz ‘several troops of cavalry commanded by British
which if it means a Russian line infantry unit, would also be green officers’. The garb of the troopers was not mentioned so they may not
with red facings. As a guard unit they appear to have sometimes worn have been the regulars.
red uniforms. Stuart described them, in 1835, noting the use of shakos:
According to Aleksander Kibovski and Vadim Yegorov, the original
‘...wearing heavy shakos with high green plumes, red coates with composition was four squadrons of lancers and one squadron armed with
wings of blue cloth and white lace, loose white trousers and high carbines, all had pistols and swords of English make.(49)
boots.’
Kotzebue at Tabriz, in 1817, detailed
He said they were critical in securing Mohammed Shah’s claim on Abbas Mirza’s army containing eight
the throne following the death of Fath Ali Shah - albeit only after squadrons of ‘organised cavalry’
their demand for 7000 toumans in back-pay was scraped together. which might represent their maximum
The Persian Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza, an opponent commander of historical strength - assuming he is not

Right, a Russian soldier in Persian service in Shiraz from Brydges and ‘sketched from life by
Sir J. Sutherland’.(4) Below, Persian infantry, from Russian Prince Alexis Soltykoff, who travelled
to Persia in 1830s.(141) Below Right and Bottom Right, Persians from a French illustration of
Asian costumes, 1850s. Many of the details in the series appear conjectural.

62
 Above, a
Qajar- era
ornate dagger.

Top Left, a soldier by James Alexander, 1825-26. He described three regiments of 1000 accompanying the Shah. Top Centre, a Persian soldier
from Rev Justin Perkins, 1834-43, wearing a dark blue jacket without a collar shown in the red facing colour. Top Right, a playing card ‘from
the mid-1800s’. Center Row, first three, troops from the later 1800s, Next, from a military manuscript, probably 1851, sourced from From
M. Manouchehr (60a). Centre Row Right, a row of sarbaz attacking Herat in Afghanistan, 1856-57. Below Left, Persian infantry and British
cavalry at the Battle of Khusab, 1856-7. Below Right, Nasser ud din reviews troops before the Anglo-Persian War.

63
referring to ghulams. In 1820s the regular cavalry was noted as a 500- regular cavalry compared with the irregular or tribal troops.
strong unit of ethnic Afghan troopers.
‘Why are the Government cavalry in Persia so ragged and their poor
If there was grudging local acceptance of regular infantry, the nags but skin and bone? Simply because they generally get neither pay,
disciplined and regimented fighting techniques were considered by forage nor rations.’ (129)
many locals as beneath the dignity and contra to the traditions of
proper equestrians. Regular Artillery
It may be no coincidence that ethnic non-Iranians were prominent in When Abbas Mirza started reform of his artillery arm we learn that he
the ranks of the regular cavalry. This may reflect cultural opposition directed only horse artillery to be constituted or that it was to be given
to joining the units or because the best resident horsemen were priority. However, regular foot artillery units were also formed. Johnson,
already happily serving under accepted feudal / militia / tribal terms. visiting in 1817, described the pay for artillerymen.

In 1835 the British mission revived the unit. It was now perhaps just ‘The foot artillery have the same pay [as native infantry privates, 10
one squadron, of 100 men, drilled and disciplined by Colonel Farrant. tomuan per year]; but the horse artillery have 15 tomauns yearly.’
Stuart described them:
From this we learn two things, firstly that there was regular foot artillery
‘They wore red jackets, loose blue trousers and Persian caps and and secondly confirmation of the high status of the horse artillery that
were armed with sword, holster pistols and lances with red and was designed to attract the best men.
blue pennons.’

‘The Lancers were in excellent order, not withstanding their ill Guns of the regular artillery were mostly 6, 9 or 12-pounders, with
usage. They moved remarkably well, their wheels in close order examples of the former being cast in 1806. This date precedes both
column were admirable and even called forth the praise of Count the British and French military missions. The weapons, two surviving
Simonich. The Shah was in ecstasies, and is going to immediately examples are pictured here, page-67, are described in their Russian
form his 900 Gholams into a regular cavalry regiment dressed in museum.
the same way.’
‘These two cannons are worth seeing. They are brass field
A further note said there might be only 100 gholams transformed. In 6-pounders produced by the Bengal East Indian Company (Fort
any case it seems to have not happened and the lancer unit was later William at Calcutta) in 1806. There is no marks of the British Army
property. The pieces are beautiful and rich in decoration. There is
disbanded due to cost.
a horse head on the chase; a flag with the Lion and Sun around the
muzzle; Another Lion and Sun motif can be seen in the lower side of
Colombari described the regular cavalry as limited to formations each cannon.’ (50)
under Drouville, in 1821, and Col. Jarrant, in 1837. He noted that
neither ‘now’ exists, presumably meaning in 1853, when he wrote, The date of manufacture suggests they result from the trade clauses of
or 1848 when he left Persia. Southgate, who travelled in 1837-38, the 1801 Anglo-Persian Treaty.
described 400 cavalry at Tabriz and 200 as part of the Shah’s invasion
force sent to Herat. He never mentions irregulars of any type, The French and British missions began a comprehensive system of
suggesting these horsemen were the regular cavalry. cannon manufacture. The British were producing 30 cannon per year and
the French made 20 in their first year.
Sheil reported regular cavalry and was also contemptuous of their
quality. His description of ‘Hungarians’ may represent the influence European freelance advisors; French, Spanish and Italian were found,
of the Austrian military mission, of 1852, that had responsibility for from about 1810, helping improve the quality of Persian artillery.
the cavalry.
One report of the Battle of Aslanduz, 1812, said the Russians captured
‘The regular cavalry consists of 500 hussars, supposed to be like
100 Persian guns in their victory. The unusually high number might mean
the Hungarian troops of the same kind. They are an absurd useless
captures on the battlefield and from nearby surrendered forts thereafter
body.’
as was supported by other accounts. A British report from Tabriz, in
1835, recorded an arsenal of 12 Russian 18-pounders. These were a
The original regular cavalry uniform was a blue coat with red
gift from 1829. The arsenal also included two locally made 6-pounders
facings, white crossbelts and the Qajar hat. The lance was decorated
with more under construction. An estimate, for 1837, had 2000 artillery
with a red pennon. Blue standards, similar to the infantry pattern,
crew serving 60 guns of various calibres. In the 1840s the foundry at
were issued to the cavalry in 1813. Kotzebue viewing the cavalry
Allisherood reportedly made 100,000 cannon balls per annum.
formation in 1817 described their uniform as:

‘...blue jackets trimmed with cotton lace: the officers have gold or The artillery used by Abbas Mirza to capture the fort of Koochan, near
silver lace, and wear red silk sashes such as are used in the English Meshid, was described by Burnes (who travelled 1831-33) as 35 guns
army. ranging from 4-pounders to 32-pounders. The defender’s guns were
Russian made, in 1784, and captured from the Shah. Steven Ward
The poor quality of the regular cavalry was noted by Russian, estimated that under Muhamad Shah there were 120 guns of 6-pounders
German and British authors. While some Russian reports suggest to 12-pounders. Most were provided by the British but some lacked
unfamiliarity with European kit was to blame, a more plausible limbers.(52) The 12-pounder guns seem an unlikely, but not impossible,
explanation is the modest prestige of such units failing to attract candidate to be horse artillery of the period.
enough of the superb local horsemen. If few local social elites joined
the ranks there was no incentive for rulers to enhance the units. A formation of four 12-pounders were noted as creating havoc among the
Turks at the Battle of Topra Kale, in 1822, where they were positioned
Another reported line of Persian thinking was that forming a light aggressively forward in the battle line. Other 12-pounders were used
cavalry lancer unit locally was akin to taking coals to Newcastle. to defend or assault fortifications on the Caspian, as at the fieldworks of
Writing after our period, C.J. Wills commented on the poor quality of Lankeran, near Sari.

64
Above, Europeanised lancer cavalry from Drouville, 2nd Edition. Above Right, a version of the same rider from a Russian source that looks
like it uses an illustration from Drouville’s 3rd Edition. Below Left, a reconstruction, perhaps representing the same troops. Below Center,
Persians in Russian pay 1854, in Crimea. Below Right, Persian and Russian riders in the 1830s from Prince Alexis Soltykoff.

Above, regular cavalry

reconstructed by Westfalia
games.

Above Right, an illustration by

James Morier, 1816, described
as ‘Captain L— —’ a French
cavalry officer who deserted to
the Persian army’. He appears
to have kept his French uniform,
at least when drawn.

Right, Nasser Al-Din, showing

detail of horse furniture.

Far Right, what looks like a

uniformed rider.

65
Guns captured during the Anglo-Persian War included 12-pounders, Ouseley, in June 1812, met Captain Lindsay and 200 of his horse
one apparently a gift from the Russian Czar, in 1828. Also included artillerymen, all Persians, with four guns; ‘ ...they were uniformly
in the haul were 9-pounders and lighter guns. Hunt was impressed by clothed in blue jackets, with red caps and yellow lace.’
the quality of the captured tubes.
He noted they were very precise in their manoeuvres. The red caps are
Reports reaching the British ambassador in Tehran of a battle near unusual, no depiction of what was meant has been found. In the 1830s
Erivan, in the 1804-13 War, said the Russians suffered greatly from a Persian officer of artillery made up a uniform for his young son and
the Persian artillery commanded by Captain Lindsay, an English sought a British dragoon helmet for him. There is no evidence such
officer. One mention was of 300 casualties from grapeshot. helmets were part of the uniform being copied but it might have been
permissible head-gear for senior officers.
Even their Russian enemies noted the efficiency of the Persian horse
artillery.(44) When Holmes in 1834 visited the city of Enzellee in Gilan, on the
Caspian, the artillerymen serving two 18-pounders, two 14-pounders,
‘The structure of the regular artillery is completely like that of the two 12-pounders, two 8-pounders and four 3-pounders were led by an
English...and that which is with the Shah as well as that with Abbas officer in a plum-coloured threadbare coat with red cuffs and collars.
Mirza is all horse artillery... Abbas Mirza’s horse artillery fires His men were clad in ‘jackets of colour left to the fancy of the men, red,
exceptionally well.’ blue, brown and almost every other colour,’ all had white pants. The
guns were in a bad state with most having ruined carriages undergoing
A Persian source said their English-trained artillery could load and a re-fit. The fort was also stockpiling newly-cast ‘long six pounders’. It
discharge guns an impressive seven times a minute.(145) Contemporary sounds like the unit had been overlooked for maintenance while doing
British guns could reach that rate of fire only in short controlled trials extended duty near the restive Turkoman front.
and actual battlefield firing might be about once or twice per minute
on average - reflecting distractions and time spent aiming at targets. Guns and Battery Organisation
Batteries were comprised of three sections of two guns each. The
Artillery Uniforms battery contained roughly 70 crew and ideally one ammunition cart,
Uniforms examples are shown illustrated as dark blue coats with a British introduction, per gun. The formation would have four spare
yellow braid looking like contemporary British horse artillery jackets. horses and 24 baggage mules.
The men wore the Qajar hat. Trousers could be white or perhaps light
blue for officers. One depiction of gunners, in the 1850s, shows them The Sultanabad picture shows gun crews, in addition to limber divers of,
in red coats and blue or grey trousers. 11, 11, 10, 10 and 9 men, albeit it is not easy to accurately complete the

Above, detail from a military review of Abbas Mirza, 1817. The riders behind the limber are presumably the horse-artillery crew provided with
separate horses. Top, artillery reconstructed by Wesfalia Miniatures, the men at right are irregular zamberouchi.
66
Top Left, illustrations from a Russian source, 1810.(49) Top Centre, Top Right, artillerymen from Drouville.(16)
Above, a gun crew from the Battle of Sultanabad, 1812. Right, Nasser al Din shah. Note the dark blue gun wheel.
Below Left, tile from a city gate, 1884. Below Right, commander of artillery, 1857. Bottom, Ardashir Mirza and
Solayman Khan Saham-Al-Doleh review artillery, 1850-51. Surrounding, various pictures of Qajar guns. Those at
Bottom Right, are six-pounders produced by the Bengal East Indian Company in 1806.

67
head count and 11 crew men may be intended for all the guns. described the arsenal, at Tabriz, in 1822: ‘in the chief room there were a
few hundred rounds of cannister-shot, with some English shrapnel and
The painting of Abbas Mirza’s 1817 review shows three limber-riders other shells’.
on the right hand horses (they are on the left in the Sultanabad picture)
and five riders behind, with swords drawn, presumably these are the Ammunition could be carried in limber boxes or on additional pack
remaining gunners. mules. A pair of captured 9-pounders in the Anglo-Persian War were
each accompanied by four mules. In preparation for the attack on Herat,
A drawing by Colombari, 1833-48, shows two to four men riding on in 1837, camels were used to transport supplies including; ‘... large
the limber box and ridden camels substituting for horses to draw the stores of ammunition, carried on the backs of camels, and long strings of
machinery. Both the French and British used camels in this way in heavily-laden baggage cattle’.(73)
Egypt when facing a shortage of horses during Napoleon’s campaign
there. British forces in Afghanistan, in the 1830-40s, also employed Gun Furniture Colour
camels to draw their guns. The illustrations of gun woodwork and limbers is often shown as light
blue-grey, suggesting the contemporary British style was copied. Some
Colombari said the Persian experiment was not successful as the depictions, including the Sultanabad, picture show a dark colour perhaps
limber poles of 8-pounders would hit the camels’ legs during turns. a black or very dark blue, with a lighter blue limber box with a grey top,
However, he also mentioned a campaign in Khorassan, 1846, where as is also shown on other examples.
camels were used as draft animals on the road to not fatigue the horses
who were reserved for action. Variations seem to depict dark blue wheels or spokes and a lighter blue
bed for the tube. One picture shows a white limber box.
The pictures do not clearly illustrate if howitzers were included
in regular batteries. Examples of shorter-barrelled guns have been Madras Native Horse Artillery
provided. In 1836 the British sent some howitzers as part of a load Montieth described the small formation of Madras Native Horse
of arms. Porter, who visited in 1817-20, recorded the composition of Artillery cooperating with the Persians, in the Caucasus, during 1810-11.
Major Lindsay’s horse artillery as follows:
‘He [Abbas Mirza] informed Capt. Christie and
‘Their present force consists of six troops, six guns each, pieces of Lt. Lindseay that everything depended on celerity of movement
sixes [ie 6-pounders], and five inch howitzers.’ ... exertion must be made to bring up the two horse artillery guns
(3-pounders) manned by a detachment of the Madras Native Horse
This composition looks a copy of the contemporary British horse Artillery.’
artillery troops comprising five 6-pounders and one howitzer. Sheil
provided commentary on the artillery quality and organisation. ‘...they encountered a violent storm of wind and snow, much felt by the
Indian gunners who nevertheless were neither disabled or rendered
‘The artillery amounts to about 6000 men, of whom nearly half inefficient.’
are from Azerbijan. The last-named body is incomparably the best
corps in the service, still preserving the traces of Lindsay Sahib. The Madras formation was not mentioned post 1811. After the incident
They are soldierly, active, workmanlike fellows, who take their guns above, Monteith mentioned the building of two troops of horse artillery,
anywhere. They are all mounted, it being the practice to station of 12 guns, by recruiting existing Persian artillerymen. New equipment
upwards of 30 men to each gun, who are to defend as well as fight and men were brought from India. Perhaps the Madras detachment was
[sic, fire?] it. absorbed into this unit.

I remember on one occasion seeing 30 guns moving out of camp on A consignment of 10 (or 12) Indian-made guns was sent to the British
some expedition, accompanied by a battalion of 800 men. A Russian mission in 1811. It is tempting, but speculation, to add the two 3-pounders
general looking on expressed his amazement that so many pieces of to the 10 imported guns to constitute the new 12-gun unit. However,
artillery should have so few infantry for their defence. He was not 3-pounders are an unusual calibre and may not have been continued as
aware that in Persia it is the artillery that is expected to defend the
horse artillery in India, from roughly 1810-20, used 6-pounders. The
infantry.’
Madras Native Horse Artillery was disbanded in India in 1810.
European artillery manuals were translated for local use and the usual
The troop had a good reputation in Persia as Malcolm noted:
rage of shot, shell, canister and similar ammunition was listed. Fraser
‘Shaikh Moheedeen, a subadar of the body guard of Madras,
who was one of the first officers appointed to the corps of
native horse artillery, accompanied me to Persia, and was
left with a detachment of his corps, under the command of
Captain Lindsay, to aid in instructing the Persians in military
tactics. This small body of men and their gallant European
commander were engaged in several campaigns in Georgia,
and his conduct has obtained not only for the Sabadar, but for
all of the men of his party, marked honours and reward, both
from the Persian Government and their own.’ (53)

The uniform detail for this short-lived unit is not certain;

perhaps a blue jacket with red facings, the European and
other officers may have had Tarleton helmets (a figure on the

Far Left, a Madras native horse artilleryman and Left, a

British officer for them. Both illustrations date from after
the formation described above but may provide a guide to
the uniforms they wore.
68
 Left, an illustration
by Col. Colombari
showing camels used
as artillery draft
animals and men
riding on limbers.

Below Left, infantry

and artillerymen. The
gun looks larger than
a six-pounder, and
has a single trail in
English style. Others
illustrated here show a
double trail.

Right, an artilleryman
from James Alexander,
1825-26.

Above Right, an undated photo of a zamburak, from iranian.com. Below, illustrations from the Resalei dar Fesang, a book of translations and
commentary on the military use of rockets, produced by Mohammad Reza Tabrizi, in 1841.(60)

69
Sultanabad Battle picture that probably represents Capt. Lindsay march of their cavalry over mountains and difficult passes.’
wears a Tarleton), other officers red turbans and gunners blue turbans.
Trousers, or perhaps shorts, might be white or light blue. Johnson provided a description of presumably the same artillery as part
of Abbas Mirza’s force, in Tabriz citadel, in 1817.
Russian Deserter Artillery
A unit of ‘four pieces of light artillery worked by Russian deserters’ ‘...a few small six-pounder amusettes, on light and low carriages,
was part of a Persian force sent, in 1811-12, to help their Muskat called the mountain-train so constructed as to be carried by mules,
allies fight Wahhabists Arabs in the Persian Gulf. when taken to pieces; and a few nine or twelve-pounders all of brass,
cast on the spot, mounted with their timbers, ...the brass guns are
pretty well cast and bored; but the iron work of the carriages is very
The allied force was victorious in one field battle but ‘utterly defeated’ inferior to ours of India. ... There are about 24 guns belonging to the
in a second. Maurizi said the Russians were all slain and the guns Prince, beside the mountain train.’
captured. Only a handful of the allied army survived.(144)
Johnson inspected the equipment accompanied by Monteith and Lindsay
No other reference to this artillery formation has been found, it of the horse artillery - so he had experts on hand to provide comment.
may have been constituted specifically for the campaign. The
gunners could have been men from the famous deserter unit or other Several points spring from the report. Firstly, six-pounders, even ‘small’
specialists who found their way to Persia. If the men were from the ones would seem quite large for a European to describe a weapon as an
battalion it might suggest the unit had attached ‘battalion guns’ but no amusette. It is tempting to speculate on any relationship between these
information to support this has been found. The men presumably wore guns and the shamkhalchis type mentioned above, albeit ‘carriages’
the uniform of the deserter battalion. suggest a more standard European style gun.

Swivel Guns Presumably the ‘nine or twelve-pounders’ were the city defence guns
A semi-independent Bakhtyiari chieftain’s fort was defended by and the ‘24 guns belonging to the Prince’ meant the horse artillery of
several long-barrelled swivel matchlock guns. Lindsay, or similar, in the area.
‘On the towers and walls were a few heavy matchlocks, eight or Hunt described some artillery in the Anglo-Persian War making passage
nine feet in length on moveable stands and turning on a swivel. over difficult hills on dragged sledges.
They were loaded with one large bullet, or with a number of
small balls or bits or iron and were formidable enough to the
mountaineers.’ (12) Mountain Howitzers
In 1846 French Marshal Soult sent a mountain howitzer to the Persian
There is no reason to assume such guns were limited to this area as prime minister Haji Mirza Agassi at the request of French diplomats.
similar weapons were mentioned in the east and north east of Persia. Colombari commented that the Persians immediately cast a number like
it. They thought it may be very useful in mountain terrain but were not
as good an all-round weapon as zamburaks.
Shumkhals
Shamkhalchis are described in an earlier section as infantry with long
barrelled firearms on rests. However, Conolly, in 1829, used the word Mortars
to describe part of the forces of Prince Arghoon Meerza in the town of Fowler mentioned being blown from the mouth of a mortar as a method
Subawar. of execution, a fate met by Turkoman robbers and a female harem
attendant found guilty of poisoning one of the ladies, among others.
‘30 Zoombooruks or camel swivels, 50 shumkhals, large guns that Presumably, when not used for punishment, they would help attack
are fired from rests’ [and two other small canon of a standard form cities. A mortar mounted on a platform cart was among the weapons
that were recently sent to the main army]. captured by the British at the Battle of Mohammerah in the Anglo-
Persian War. One estimate for Persian forces at the Battle of Bushire in
That Conolly specifically included them among the artillery suggests that war included 17 guns and one mortar.
he saw them as something larger than a weapon for one man. At
what point a large musket on a stand becomes a light artillery piece When visiting Tehran, in 1808-09, Morier described a part of the
on a stand might depend on the biases of the viewer. It is possible fortifications protected by one mortar and one ‘long gun’. In 1843 the
the shumkhal - shamkhal name might apply generically to weapons small fort near Ardebeel, on the Caspian, had 50 artillerymen serving
on stands. It is also possible the artillery-shumkhals were a form of two 3-pounders, one 9-pounder, two mortars and two howitzers.
weapon known, further east, as a jingal with a crew complement of
perhaps three or four men. Rockets
Fraser observed a test firing of Congreve rockets in Tabriz, in 1834, the
Ian Heath described the Shahins of the Bokaran army as heavy guns weapons were being demonstrated by a hopeful salesman.
that might be used from camel-swivel, forts or carried on carts.(38)
‘...an experiment in rocket-firing, conducted in the presence of
Conolly said some of the Prince Arghoon Meerza’s force were the Prince Royal by a gentleman who had brought out a parcel of
regulars, probably meaning ghulams or tofangchis, mobilised on long Congreve’s rockets in the expectation of disposing of them to His
term basis during or following the Russo-Persian War. It is not clear Royal Highness. ... the effects of this new missile, which though they
how the various artillery described above fit into the militia or regular did not assuredly act with the full precision which their owner had
army organisation. anticipated, and gave reason to expect, proved themselves at least a
formidable, if not always a very manageable weapon in the hands of
skilful artillerists.’ (130)
Mountain-Train Amusettes
When visiting Tabriz, in 1809, Morrier noted the Persians had No mention was made of how many rockets were purchased.
developed a unit of mountain guns.
At the siege of Herat, 1837-38, the Persians deployed rockets, both in
‘...they had invented also a small kind of artillery, which was
batteries and to signal attacks. John Kaye sourcing Eldred Pottinger’s
sufficiently light to be carried by mules, keeping pace with the
Journal described them in action.
70
 Above Left, zamburaks from a Russian 1810 source.(49) Above Centre, from a German 1808-10 source.
Above Right, taken from a German publication from 1845, clearly inspired by that of Below Right, from Shoberl in 1828.

This page, various pictures of

zamburaks from the 1850s.

Below an illustration from Lady Mary

Sheil’s account of Persian travel,
1856.(13)

71
 ‘After a day or two, guns, mortars and rocket batteries were all in Improvised Guns
full play upon Herat. The rockets ranged too widely to work any At the siege of Herat in 1837-38 the Persians found their field artillery
serious mischief to the besieged; but their grand fiery flight as they inadequate to batter the city defences, so they scrounged scrap copper
passed over the city struck terror into the hearts of the people’ (115) and other metal to cast an improvised battery of three 64-pound guns.
One report said, that despite the ingenuity, the guns proved flawed and
A surviving manual, Resālei dar Fešang, ‘A treatise on rockets’, soon failed or exploded when shooting. Kaye described the weapon(s)
written by Mohammad Rezā Tabrizi, in 1840, describes rocket use. It as a 68-pounder firing eight-inch shells comprising 12 to 18-pound
is illustrated with soldiers in the uniform of Qajar regulars shooting ammunition in a outer case of copper. This weapon did not explode but
at Ottoman Turks. Both hand-launched and frame-mounted rockets the inadequate carriage failed. When quitting the siege, months later, the
appear to be depicted. The volume is a translation and commentary Persians destroyed the guns rather than have them fall into enemy hands.
on two of Englishman William Congreve’s manuals on rockets and
includes the author’s notes that he felt Congreve was deliberately not Fowler described a Khan from Tabriz, leader of travellers though
fully explaining the devices. Kurdistan, when under attack from the local tribesmen improvising a
gun to protect their outpost fort. The gun was a 24-pounder hollowed
Kaveh Farrokh said Persian engineers made and tested rockets. No out of a tree and swathed in a horse-skin and mounted on a rude
definitive reference can be found to their use in a field battle. An carriage. The gun fired great stone shot and did the job of driving off
opportunity lost perhaps, as Russian rockets in the second half of the tribesmen. A gun wrapped in skins sounds like it was inspired by the
the 19th century, were recorded as terrifying the horses of Turkoman 17th century leather guns of Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus.
tribesmen.
The revolutionary Babists holding out in the city of Zinjan, in 1850,
Converted Ships Carronades against the Shah’s troops improvised two guns out of iron bars. No
Among ordnance captured by the British after the Battle of detail about these guns can be provided with certainty - they were noted
Mohammerah, 1857, were a number of old ships’ iron guns on naval by Watson as degrading after each shot.(88)
trucks (believed to be constructed on the spot) deployed within the
Persian earth-work forts. The guns were two 9-pounders and four Zamburaks
6-pounders that the British described as ‘unserviceable’ perhaps The zamburak camel-artillery were part of the central forces of the Shah
from poor maintenance or battle damage. A detailed list of captured or regional rulers before the regular reforms. Following the reforms we
weapons and equipment survives. hear of zamburak units wearing red, orange or yellow coats. A Russian
picture from 1810 shows blue jackets and red facings, similar to other
1 x 12-pr, brass, Russian made, requires bouching
artillery. A report from the late 1830s also mentioned blue coats with red
1 x 12-pr, brass, Persian, good order
facings. It is possible that before the reforms centrally-issued clothing
1 x 12-pr, brass, Persian, spiked
may have given them a standardised appearance.
2 x 9-pr, brass, Persian, spiked
1 x 9-pr, brass, Persian, good order
The uniformed men might wear the Qajar lambskin hat, perhaps
2 x 6-pr, brass, Persian
‘ornamented with a cap plate’. Other headgear examples include a
2 x 18-pr (?), brass, Persian, calibre unsure, buried in mud
conical hat decorated with a brass frontal plate and / or red feathers.
1 x 8-inch, brass mortar, Persian, unserviceable, mounted
on a platform cart
Most pictures and descriptions show a small triangular flag attached
2 x 9-pr, iron, Persian, unserviceable, ex-ship carronades
to the rear of the saddle. Such a flag might be red, red and green or of
4 x 6-pr, iron, Persian, as above
‘many colours’. One depiction shows two triangular flags and musician
132 x tents
camel-riders might have three flags fixed on the same pole.
16 x gun wheels (spare)
13 x gun axle trees
Included here are a few depictions of a rider with a pink or red version
100 x cartridges attached, and shot and shell
of the national flag depicting a gold lion inside a white circle. The
300 x boxes containing 36,000 of fixed or gun ammunition,
illustration seems to originate as an accompaniment to Von Kotzebue’s
and 3600 of loose shot or shell, 14,400 lbs of powder
work of 1817.(6, 73) His published work does not mention this design in
4000 x loose shot or shell
detail. The zamburaks were each ‘decked out with flags’ and:
158,000 lbs of powder
‘The men are clothed like Bajazzoes [clown, harlequin], and wear
The city of Bushire visited by Morier, in 1809, was defended by a few caps with red feathers.’
dubious fort guns, one dismounted when fired in a salute. The single
68-pounder was not fired after the mishap. Such a large gun might be Kotzebue quoted the confidence of the colonel of Zamburaks:
a former ship’s weapon or perhaps an antique bombard of some type.
‘The colonel assured us that he would match his
corps against a whole army.’

French depictions from the 1869 seem to show

both a square flag and a triangular one.

Camel housings are mostly shown red. Musician

camel-riders were described accompanying

Left, a mysterious titanic gun depicted by

Colombari. Other Europeans noted a large gun
supposedly used by Nadir Shah, perhaps the same
item, in a public square in Tehran. The gun might
also be the one described as cast by Kureem
Khan at Shiraz and later moved to Teheran. In the
1840s it needed a new carriage.(80)
72
 This page, various depictions of zamburaks. Below, cameleer musicians by Colonel F. Colombari. The men may represent the
Above, from Colonel F. Colombari, 1853. royal band or a musician party from the Shah’s or similar ‘guard’ zamburaks.

Above Right, from 1820-30.

Below, from 1857, the gunner is at left with either a

rammer or musket slung over shoulder.

Bottom, a photo from the Iranian 2500 year parade of

1971 showing zamburaks for the Afsharid dynasty.

Below, a picture of a Sikh zamburak in action

(detail). Right, a portrait by James Morrier of his
fictional chief executioner who was also a zamburak
officer. He was based on a real person the brave and
hard-drinking Feraj Ullah Khan.

73
 Below, Colonel Colombari’s proposed organisation
of a company of zamburaks organised into pairs of
camels in two ranks, the ‘fig-3’ depicts the company
divided into two sections and the position of NCOs
and officers. The rear of the sections shows two
men each with flags, these are the lance-armed file-
closing sergeants. The captain is at the rear of the
formation six metres behind the sergeants.

The formation included;

‘1 captain and two lieutenants on horseback,

4 sergeants on dromedaries, 10 corporals, 2
trumpeters, 1 adjutant, 1 quatermaster, and 50
cannoneers - in all 71; aggregate; 46 dromedaries
and 5 horses.’ (It is not clear who else might ride
the horses to reach the five total, perhaps spare
beasts are provided.)

Bottom, two figs showing the proposed pairs of

camels in action, ‘fig-7’ depicts the gun-camel
retiring behind the two-man camel to re-load,
following mounted firing. The single rider would
otherwise lead the pair. The gun-camel can also
dismount, in the rear position, in which case the
animals would be moved to safety at the rear.

The two ranks of camels would be deployed three

metres apart.
Above, data on camel logistics provided by Colonel F Colombari in his article on the
history of zamburaks and possible improvements in their organisation and weapons. The ‘fig-8’ shows the carriage now dismounted for
more effective fire and one crew detailed to minding
Below, detail of the Colonel’s suggested redesign of the swivel gun and a wheeled the camels.
carriage for dismounted use.

74
Above, pictures by Duhousset, L’Illustration
Journal Universel, Paris, 1860. Below, an odd
zamburak with gun slung at side. Bottom, a
photo described as a camel gun. Bottom Far-
Right, two Mogul zamburaks firing on the trot.

Above, detail of a zamburak gunner taken from James Alexander, 1825-26. He was one
of a 600-strong unit, part of the Shah’s guard formations, observed at a royal camp near
Achar. The full illustration includes cavalry, infantry and artillerymen as shown here on
other pages. Below, a swivel-gun on its frame.

75
zamburaks to make a racket and add to confusion in the enemy. In At a battle near Kahreeze, Herat, in 1818, both the Persians and their
some instances this may be a confusing of the royal band and Shah’s Afghan opponents fielded zamburaks in front of the centre of their
guard zamburaks that you would expect to see together. armies; 200 in the case of Persians, 100 for Afghans. Both sides also
deployed four standard guns centrally and the Persians also deployed
Except for small numbers found in regional garrisons we mostly hear a further two standard guns on each wing. During the action a massed
of zamburak formations in multiples of 100 men. This may reflect Afghan cavalry charge swept away much of the outnumbered Persian
convenient rounding of numbers but also could suggest decimal army to overrun the normal guns. The zamburaks retreated with the
sub-units, of 100, as was traditional for cavalry. The 2500 year parade defeated cavalry but some later rallied and returned to battle.
included a troop of zamburaks marching in four ranks of six, which
with their officer, makes a neat division of 100. It could of course just Alexander, in 1825-26, observed the 600 zamburaks of the Shah’s guard
represent the number of men available to participate in the parade. with striking yellow coats (see page-75).

A unit of zamburaks had spare camels to cart supplies and perhaps ‘Before the first entrance [to the royal tent], the corps of
non-gunners. Some returns from the Sikh ‘topkhana zamburakhana’ zomboorekchees, or camel-artillery men, were drawn up ... their
of 1845 gives example unit formations of: uniform is the most fantastic, consisting of a yellow hussar jacket,
white shulwas [trousers] and boots, a scarlet sugar-loaf cap, edged
52 guns- 76 men with black fur, with a brass plate and feather..’
80 guns - 127 men
105 guns - 146 men The troop could be sent on court tasks. Armstrong, in 1828, described
30 zamburaks accompanying the Shah’s gift of an expensive coat to the
This data suggests unit composition of roughly one non-gunner per Wallee of Koordistan. His wording was not precise and the zamburaks
two gunners.(54) could also have been part of the gift. Another account of this incident,
by Alcock, is equally unclear and could be read that the zamburaks
A picture accompanying Lady Mary Sheil’s book (see page-71) were part of the Kurd forces meeting the gift. Alcock also reinforced the
shows one mounted gunner and three footmen.(13) There is no reason utility of zamburaks in mountainous terrain as ‘necessary’ where other
to suggest foot crew were part of a zamburak formation. Supporting artillery could not be transported.
footmen would counter the weapon’s prime virtue of mobility. Sheil
had visited the zamburak barracks, outside Tehran, and would have One of the last references to zamburaks, in the period of study, was
seen the men in a rage of duties that did not reflect a normal combat by Binning who, in 1850s, described 200 ‘zamboorekchee ... of one
array. She did not mention extra footmen when describing them. pounders and upward’, in the national army total.(85) They were also
mentioned in the force conducting the 1856 attack on Herat. Zamburaks
‘This is a very pretty-looking body of soldiers, and, to all were still part of the army in the 1870s and may have been used later.
appearance, equally formidable. They, however, bear the character
of being merely a pageant, and nearly useless for purposes of Colonel F. Colombari’s Treatise on Zemboureks
war in these days. Their number is upwards of a hundred, each
The Colonel (in Persia 1833-34 and 1838-48) was engaged by
animal having a soldier and a small piece of artillery on its back,
which carries, I hear, a ball half a pound in weight. When about Mohammad Shah’s prime vizier, Hadji Mirza Agassi, to review and
to be fired, the gun is placed on the ground, resting on a swivel, report on possible further improvements to the zamburak corps.
though I believe it can be used from its elevated position. They
accompany the Shah on journeys and on occasions of ceremony, to The vizier had renewed the artillery as part of his general reform of
fire salutes. When preceding the Shah in their red housings, with the army. Colombari’s report is included in his ‘The Zemboureks, or
kettledrums beating and clarinets sounding, their appearance is the Dromedary Field Artillery of the Persian Army’ as published in
quite melodramatic.’ Spectator Militaire, 1853. This report was also included in a Senate
report of the United States Secretary of War (Jeff’n Davis), 1855, on the
Observations by European writers include the following from Fowler. military use of camels.

‘The guns were fired from the backs of camels. These are termed Colombari’s report included descriptions of the vizier’s improvements
‘zambrooks,’ or camel-swivels; and there is one advantage in and a history of zamburaks. It also included his suggestions for further
this sort of moving battery, that the patient animal kneels to improved efficiencies for the force. The report summarised Zamburak
accommodate the gunner to his aim.’ use in Nader Shah’s day and since. It appears the mobile firepower of
zamburaks was somehow combined with the hitting power of larger
Morier, in 1808-09, described the Shah’s zamburaks as: guns. Other uses include enfilading fire on enemy artillery and extending
the infantry firing-line with grapeshot and then retiring behind the
‘Collectively they make a fine military appearance. This species infantry after shooting.
of armament is common to
many Asiatic states, yet the
effect is at best trifling. The
Persians, however, place
great confidence in their
execution; and Mirza Sheffeea
in speaking of them to the
envoy, said, “These are what
the Russians dread.”’

Right, Artillery in a
Persian army camp,
the picture is from The
Illustrated Times, 1857.
76
Top, a camp scene. Above, an Eleaut tent. Below, pilgrims taking Above and Left,
the dead to be buried at the holy city of to Karbala. carriages for
women, from
Drouville.

Below, a
Georgian
peasant cart,
from Friedrich
Parrot’s
‘Journey to
Ararat,’ 1859.

Bottom, a
Persian army
camp, 1857,
from the
Illustrated
Below and Bottom, civilian transport options that might be used ad hoc Times.
for sick or wounded soldiers. The two-mule item is a ‘tack-i-ravan’.

77
The vizier’s contemporary zamburaks formed up in a unit of four European Engineers
deste, ‘companies’, of 50 men, each had 25 spare camels. The Part of Abbas Mirza’s reforms after the second Russo-Persian War
unit included sergeants and corporals. Other officers were soultan, included hiring European military engineers. These were credited with
‘captains’, and naips, ‘lieutenants’, who rode on horses. When taking two rebel cities and some other strongholds. Burnes visited the
describing his theoretical new organisation Colombari included a recently-captured fortress of Koochan which was secured by Persian
footnote that the file-closing sergeants were armed with lance, sword effort allied to the ‘science and skills of European officers’. He noted
and holstered pistols. It looks probable he means this kit was used by fascines, gabions, saps, mines, batteries and covert (sic covered?) ways.
contemporary zamburak-sergeants generally.
Captured in the Persian camp after the Battle of Mohammerah, in the
The formation included a band of 25 men with drums, tom-toms, Anglo-Persian War, were ‘intrenching tools of different descriptions’.
trumpets and brass drums. The spare camels were ridden by spare The Battle itself featured extensive earthwork forts to guard the city.(14)
combatants and also carried tents and baggage. The zamburak The forts included internal water-filled trenches to catch and dowse
companies formed up in a single rank with five feet between the men. incoming artillery shells to protect gunners.
Commands were given by voice or bugle.
Logistics
When lying in ambush the cannoneers would dismount to fire.
Colombari provided examples of combined tactics. Transport
Fath Ali Shah expressed an opinion that the Ottoman Turks campaigned
‘When acting detached from the main body, either to surprise
encampments and to cut off retreat, or to bring back supplies with too much heavy baggage which slowed them down. Persian armies
they are escorted by irregular cavalry, sometimes a foot soldier is with a high proportion of cavalry and pack animals could move quickly.
mounted and rides behind.’ An average of 40 kilometers per day could be expected. Militia or tribal
cavalrymen would often attend an army muster with two horses where
When travelling from Tabriz to Tehran, in 1834, to secure the throne, the second was a remount or pack beast.
Muhammad Shah encountered a body of troops sent to oppose
him. The American Rev. Justin Perkins accompanied the Shah and Infantry were allowed one pack camel, horse, or mule per two men and
described the troops met as 200 zamburaks, a body of cavalry and one servant per five soldiers. Sheil said a slightly less generous 30 pack
12 guns.(68) Like most of the armed forces they came to terms and asses per company were allowed. Colombari noted that each man at the
joined the Shah without conflict. start of a campaign would be given the pay of one toman for baggage;
if the campaign was to be in mountainous areas, five men would pool
The vizier’s zamburak artillerymen were recruited from experienced their money to buy an ass, in other terrain ten men would buy a camel
camel-drivers, in the Irak-Adjemi province, who were then taught to to carry tents, clothes, weapons and provisions. He noted that the
manoeuvre together. The camels were six years old. regimental baggage camels were the property of the colonel and they
carted hard bread or flower. Soldiers were at liberty to use their animals
Uniforms were a blue jacket with red facings, blue pantaloons, high to transport other items for sale on campaign.
boots of black leather, grey cloak with long sleeves, cavalry sabre
with a white belt and a sheepskin cap with cap-plate. Black leather Persian sources described army logistics as including ‘mules and camel-
ammunition bags hung on two sides of the saddle but might be trains of the government.’
obscured by the red cloth housing under the small pennon and flag.
A water bag hung under the camel’s belly and the animals’ headstraps The poor quality of roads meant wheeled vehicles were, in the early part
and fittings were decorated with red, yellow and blue wool fringes. of the period, scarce to non-existent except near the Caucasian border.
The gun itself was a flintlock which Colombari said had superseded
matchlock and pan versions of the swivel gun. Earlier commentators Later in the period of study some important people rode in carriages. In
mentioned the gunner was careful not to let the lit match touch and 1835 Feridoon Meeza, Governor of Aderbijan, rode in ‘an antique and
startle the beast. stately coach’ drawn by four horses that was ‘driven by two postilions
who wear red jackets and loose blue trowsers - the royal livery’.(34)
Columbari’s suggested improvements were to organise the unit as
teams of paired camels; one with the gun and a gunner, while the The governor of Booroojid, the Shahzada, Prince Khanler Mirza, in the
second camel was ridden by two gunners. There is no evidence the Anglo-Persian War accompanied his troops by travelling in a wheeled
formation was ever adopted. green vehicle with glass-windows. The Shah’s carriage, in 1837, was a;

The two crew of the second camel were also armed with carbines ‘... gift of some European ambassador on which is accumulated the
venerable dust of years. Four ragged horses with gun harness, and
but they would help to increase the rate of fire of the gun if it was
ridden by artillerymen, draw this crazy vehicle, which never moves
detached for action. Suggested re-design of the swivel gun included beyond a foot’s pace’.(73)
general strengthening of its housing and adding small wheels to give
it dismounted mobility. Columbari commented that detaching the
existing gun for fire risked damaging the swivel. Military Provision Wagons
The Shah’s army to invade Herat in 1837-38 included ‘several hundred
He also believed the new design could offer increased hitting power military wagons made for the purpose (the invasion) at a cheap rate,’
and a more formal battery. The carbine-armed crew could provide Southgate said many wagons broke down not long after leaving Tehran.
dragoon-like shooting, and cover for a withdrawal, if needed.
A more sober account of these vehicles was provided by Wilbraham,
The disadvantages he did not consider are that he has halved the an English officer in Persian service until the severing of relations with
number of tubes in the company, regardless of any improved rate of the invasion of Herat. He described the ‘large number of clumsy carts’
dismounted fire, and that the wheels on the housing look so small as to met on the way to Tehran. These were manufactured in many cities and
be of little use on uneven ground. were specifically designed for transporting army provisions. The carts
were the invention of Mohammed Shah’s reforming chief vizier, who
sensibly enough tested the vehicles in a day-long trial march out from
Tehran, where a number indeed did break down.

78
 Far Left, a
‘ghorawalas’ or
muleteer by
Rev. J. Perkins,
1823-1843

Left, a mule train

could move at one
pasarang (7 km)
in an hour and a
half.

Below Left, a
baggage horse.

Below, greyhound
handler by
Drouville.

Far Left, a Seyed,

descendant of Mohammed.
These men would wear a
distinctive green turban.
Second Left, a dervish,
mystic beggar. Both
illustrations are from Rev.
Justin Perkins, 1835-43.

Third Left, a dervish from

Bassorsa, by Heude.

Left, a ‘dervise’ from

Eustace De Lorey.(69)

Below, a market scene from

Prince Alexis Soltykoff.

79
Tents Medical Service
White tents were mentioned for the new regular army formations Militia or tribal troops were expected to bring their own medical
and perhaps other central army units. British sources described the supplies when called up for action. The reformed central army provided
Persian tents as two-pole. Alexander, 1826, described a Persian a basic level of medical care.
army’s tents as white with red stripes. Other reports include
multicolored tents for the Sardar of Erivan’s army and a circular camp. Within the structure of the regular sarbaz battalions were the posts of
surgeon and doctor. Stocqueler described some aspects of military
The tents themselves might be ‘bell-shaped’ and if unavailable men medicine.
would fashion improvised huts.
‘Considerable attention is paid to the sick of the Prince Royal’s army,
A band of irregular cavalry accompanying the Shah, and preparing to which is rather a singular circumstance in a country where pharmacy
march on campaign, made improvised tents against the sun by using is so shamefully neglected. In garrison particular quarters are set
horse blankets and muskets. aside for those afflicted with the maladies “flesh is heir to” and are
placed under the care of the native doctors (two of whom are attached
to each battalion,) unless the case is serious, and circumstances
The Shah’s or a senior prince’s encampment would be cordoned off
will admit, when the assistance of the British medical officers are
with a square compound formed by red canvas screens known as called in. In the field, the sick are placed in a hospital tent; and when
‘khonauts’ or ‘perdahs’. The royal tent itself would be supported by marching are carried on cattle levied on the country passed over. The
three huge poles topped with gold balls. native medical men march with the battalions.’

The Persian tent was carried on a pole supported on the shoulders of The two-horse or two-mule palanquins used by upper-class women
two men, presumably before stowing it might also be used to transport sick or wounded men of importance.
on a pack beast.
Persian traditional medical science apparently reflected the doctrines
A number of tribal and nomad people of the ancient Roman physician Galen. The western-looking Abbas
use black tents, including Arabs, Mirza introduced smallpox vaccination in Tabriz. He also sent men to
Baktyiari, Turkoman and Lurs. London to learn surgery and sought to employ European doctors. The
Ferrieres-Sauverboef described the descendants of Mohamed, Seyeds, were seen wielding civil or military
informal nature of camps. ‘In their power while others became holy men of knowledge, which included
encampments, their tents are not set medical skills. In addition to what we might understand as medicine
down with any regularity.’ they dispensed wards and good-luck charms, perhaps in the form of
written sacred verses, to be worn as protection against ailments.

Surrounding, Persian banners captured by Russians at the Battle of Aslanduz, 1812, from A.I. Haeckel. (149)

Above Centre-Right, Royal Flag of King Solomon-I of Imereti, showing Saint George in armour. Above Right, a regimental standard for the
Georgian Mounted Militia, 1854, both are taken from, Мichael Wadbolsky.(150)
Below, a photo showing centenary commemoration of the Battle of Krtsanisi taken in Tiflis, Georgia, 1895. The flags can tentatively be
interpreted with broad borders and an image in the lighter coloured field (compare with the two Georgian flags above) and may thus represent
military, princely or regional flags - they appear to each have different designs.

80
Above, Drouville described the red flag for Above Right, flag of Mohammed Shah, 1834 - 1848. One description of such a flag
infantry and blue for cavalry. has it white with a green border. Above, a flag of a similar form.

Above, an infantryman and flag of the type shown at top left. Above, flag of infantry, 1817. Above Right, flag of the Sardar of Erivan.

Above, flags showing the Qajar lion-and-rising-sun motif within an off-set square. Above Far Left, is described on-line as the coat of arms
of Khanate of Erevan - perhaps it was also the standard of the Erivan regiment. Above Centre and Right, three flags taken from the painting
of the battle of Sultanabad. The background of the flags may show a distinctive colour for each unit. Blaramberg said ‘each Persian regiment
has its own silk flag - red, white, yellow, and so on as desired.’ (49)

Below, a photograph of Nasser ed-Din’s troops. The flags look to be of the same design as those above.

81
Dervishes The Dynasty of the Kajars described standards in quite flowery terms:
Itinerant begger-mystic men known as ‘dervishes’ could be found
among the throng of non-combatants following a slow-moving or ‘... the phoenix standard,.. the Imperial eagle-resembling standard
encamped army. The men were typically dressed in rags or odd ... the Pisciform banner of the king ...his majesty’s fish-like banner.
assorted colours while carrying their emblematic begging-bowl. Unfurling the standard of holy war sacred heroism he [Abbas Mirza]
Some would perform sleight of hand or other entertaining tricks to drew out his line and marshalled his thousands.’
attract donations. Others carried an axe, spear or club weapon to add a
menace to their begging. A fish-form flag might suggest the swallow-tail standards as illustrated
later. Likening a flag to a fish or bird might just mean fluttering or
Hunting swaying above the holder.
The Shah or other grandees might travel with hunting greyhounds or
falcons / hawks and their handlers. One Baktyiari princeling possessed The flags of pre-regular forces are not well known. The pictures of the
a stuffed lion to acclimatise his horses to the animal when hunting them. Shaki Shah palace from Azerbaijan show a number of multicolored
swallow-tail flags featuring sword, lion, hand-of-Ali and crescents.
These may be indicative of the type of flags used before the 1810s.
Naval Flags of the regulars were square or rectangular. However, the
illustration of flags and weapons by Alexander (see opposite), shows
The Qajar neglected naval forces, unlike Nader Shah, who saw both a rectangular and swallow-tail flag with the lion-and-sun motif.
for example the value of a supporting fleet on the Caspian. He had The swallow-tail flag seems more likely as a cavalry flag but this one
Englishman John Elton build him craft as part of a trade deal. has the hand-of-Ali finial and this decoration is usually a distinction for
infantry (this distinction holds good for the Shaki flags too).
In the chaos of the 1780s, before Aga Mohammed Khan’s dominance,
Hydeat Khan, ruler of Ghilan province, allied with Russia who Shoberl, writing in 1828, said each unit of 1000 has its own flag,
detailed a frigate on the Caspian to aid him. Most contemporary perhaps ‘cut to a point’ means triangular or swallow-tail in form like
commentators said there was no Qajar navy, but F and W Freygan, in Shaki examples. It could mean square with a triangular end as shown
1812, said there was an effort to rebuild one. in some of the examples (provided later) for Khanates of the Caucasus.
Parts of Shoberl’s military information sounds like a recycling of
‘Persia has scarcely any remains of the naval forces ... but on the Waring, so this interpretation might also represent pre-regulars.
Caspian they are beginning to build vessels from which their long
civil wars had obliged them to desist.’ ‘These standards are of every colour, and of every sort of rich stuff,
and cut to a point. They bear for a motto either the Mahometan
The British, via the East India Company, provided warships to protect profession of faith, or a passage from the Koran; and many of them
their commercial and diplomatic interests. In the first decades of the display a lion with a rising sun or the dzou’lfecar or two-edged sword
1800s the warships aided security at Basrah or Bushire and for the of Ali. It is a point of honour with them as with our troops to preserve
allied city of Muscat, in the Persian Gulf, against Joasmy ‘pirates’. the standard from falling into the hands of the enemy.’

The Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1814 provided for British naval support Drouville described blue flags for cavalry and red for infantry, both
to Persia in the south, Article XI reads: were decorated with the lion-and-sun symbol. The lion on the cavalry
flag holds a sword. Both types were inscribed with: ‘Sultan, son of the
‘Should His Persian Majesty require assistance from the British Sultan Fatei-Ali, Emperor descended from the Kadjars’ being one of
Government in the Persian Gulf, they shall ... provide him with Abbas Mirza’s titles. Zamburaks may have had a similar flag in red or
ships of war and troops.’ [To be paid for by the Persians.] pink, with the lion in a white circle, as depicted by Von Kozbutue and
also as reconstructed by Peter Abbott.(63)
Russia was, in the 1840s, granted permission to build a naval base
on the island of Ashurada to protect against the attacks of Turkoman A surviving flag, from the Khanate of Erivan, is the lion-and-sun within
pirates on the Caspian. The base was sacked by the Turkomans in a an off-set square on red background. This form is the same as the
surprise attack in 1851. regular infantry battalion flags so this flag might also be the standard of
the Erivan Battalion.
In the 1850s Nasser ed-Din tried to purchase two 25-gun sloops
from the British but they refused the sale. Not having a navy was Pictures of sarbaz uniforms seem to indicate the border to background
no impediment to appointing Aga Meer Sandok as Derrieh Beggee, colour behind the offset square and indeed the flagpoles were of the
‘admiral of the fleet’, to supervise three small merchant vessels on the unit’s facing colour. The Sultanabad Battle painting shows each
Caspian the 1840s.(80) infantry unit with such a flag and a tentative reconstruction suggests red,
pink, yellow or straw background colours. Cavalry in the Sultanabad
painting are shown accompanying large triangular flags of red, yellow
Flags and white with apparently no motif. These triangular all flags have
broad streamers of a distinctive color.
State or military flags have a long history in Persia. The national
epic the Shahnameh describes fictional heroes’ flags as colorfully Other triangular flags, perhaps including a lion or a motto in Arabic
decorated, often with animals, such as bears, lions and elephants.(55) within a red or green border, are recorded or survive. These flags
Pre-regular army units had standards, with groups of 500 cavalry per appear to mark the person of the general or prince which may mean
flag recorded, infantry may have been the same. the triangular flags in the Sultanabad picture also represent individual
princes rather than military unit standards.
The national symbol of the lion-and-rising-sun was popular before the
Qajar dynasty and featured on the standards of the regular units and Brydges, in 1807-11, described the Shah on the march and the
possibly others. positioning of various flags in his entourage (see page-84).

Hunt, in the Anglo-Persian War, described a captured standard with

82
 Above and Below, Naser e-Din
Naser e-Din Shah. Shah’s military flag (1848-96) used at
Above and Right, Mohammed
the siege of Herat. The Arabic reads;
Khan Qajar.
‘with the help of God, victory is near.’

Above and Right, Fath Ali Later flag of Nasser e-Din Shah.
Shah, war flag.

Above and Right, Fath Ali Shah,

personal / diplomatic flag.

Above and Right, flags with

cavalry units or leaders shown at
the military review of 1815 they
are triangular, apparently without
a motif, and have two broad
streamers. The streamers on the
flag Above Left, appear to be of
Above and Right, Fath Ali leopard-skin.
Shah, peace flag.

Above and Below, flag of Above, a flag shown on a

Mohammed Shah. painting by Colombari 1833-
1848 (detail).

Left, a flag and bearer from a training

manual of 1852.

Above Right, Qajar arms and flags

from James Alexander, 1825-26,
showing a swallow-tail standard with
the lion symbol.

Left, two hypothetical sarbaz flag

colours, assuming the scheme reflects
facing uniform colours.

Right, a picture of the Battle of Ganja

- Elizabethpol 1826, showing a Persian
infantry flag.

83
 The Shah on the March The Shah on the March
Taken from Von Kotzebue’s description (6) Taken from Byrdges’ description (3)

Elephant
with splendid
palanquin  Plain green flag

part of 1000 Ghulams

50 wide by 20 deep
Royal band,
50 men riding Green flag with
camels lion and sun
motif

Royal band

Camel artillery
500 zamburaks decked out with
flags
   Eight ‘estafettes’
staff-men

 Shah

‘Flying battery’
part of 1000 Ghulams
of 18 artillery
50 wide by 20 deep

Spare horses (20)  Plain green flag

for the Shah

Running
   foot-men (40) Spare horses (6 to 8)
for the Shah

   Hawkemen
Shah
Possibly riding a
horse with legs,
tail and mane
painted orange
 
Greyhounds and
Royal 50 zamburaks handlers
Sons of the
Princes clad in scarlet
Shah (17)

 Plain crimson flag

Mahmet Ali Mirza

1000 Ghulams,
50 wide by 20 deep
and
 Plain crimson flag

15,000
cavalry
 Plain crimson flag

84
 Right, three details
taken from the
Shaki Shah palace
in Azerbaijan,
constructed in
1797. The flags may
represent the Shaki
Unified Georgia, from 1762 Khanate of Khorazm / Khiva Khanate itself, other
allied khanates
or tribes, note the
distinctive [Kurdish
or Armenian style?]
hats of the
Second Top picture.

The red-flag with

Velayat of Herat Khanate of Mirv sword in the
Second Bottom
picture is topped
with a sliver hand-
of-Ali as per Persian
flags. The white flag
with crescent, in the
second bottom frame,
Emirate of Soran (Kurdish) Avar Khanate is similar to one
shown for their
Ottoman enemy.
The Bottom picture
could be from either
combatant, the
green flag appears
rectangular rather
than swallow-tailed.
Bokhara Emirate

Right, the third flag of

the Caucasian Imamate
used from 1834-1859
during Imam Shamil’s
rule.

Ahmad Shah Durrani of Afghanistan

Right,
A Khevsur Georgian
highland clansman
holding what
Above, Imereti. appears to be a flag
Right, Abkhasia, 1770-1866. of some kind.
Below, a silver
hand-of-Ali; infantry
and perhaps other
flags have such
decoration on the
finials.

Above, a Sikh flag.

Left, a flag in Russian style

presented by Emperor Alexander
to his ally - subject, the Khan of
Karabagh.
85
the sliver-hand finial and 2000 cavalrymen accompanied by three suffered a crushing defeat. Another version of what is probably this
standards furled in their crimson cases. He also mentioned the action, described by Von Klaproth, is provided under the Georgian
Governor of Brajoon putting his hat on a stick and waving it about, section that follows. He mentioned 10,000 Chechins.
during the Battle of Khoosh-aub, to signal his countrymen.
Russian forces attacking the cleric-combatant Shaykh-
Mansour at Anapa, 22 June, 1791
Friends, Allies and Fringe Dwellers After a period of guerrilla war, battles, sieges and daring escapes (and
the Russian General Herman’s destruction in 1789 of the Turkish army
This section provides information on the major players on the Iranian of Bathal Pascha that landed by sea to aid the tribesmen) Shaykh-
periphery being either; a description of their costume, arms, military Mansour was bottled up in the city of Anapa in the far west and north of
capacity, a potted history, specific examples of orders of battle or the Caucasus - near the Sea of Azov - the city was taken by assault.
battle narratives.
Russian forces - Count Goudovitch
15 battalions
The battle narratives would be improved by more and diverse 3000 ‘sharpshooters’
accounts from the combatants or better still disinterested third parties, 54 squadrons of cavalry
sadly these may not exist in many cases. Two Cossack regiments
50 guns
Russia
Shaykh-Mansour’s forces - 15,000 defenders.
The politics of Russia saw them as Persian enemies, until the 1830s, Russian losses - 93 officers and 4000 men ‘half their troops’ killed or
when they begin to view Persia as a possible cat’s-paw to further wounded.
their ambitions in Afghanistan or India during the ‘great game’ in
opposition to Britain. Russians dabbled with supporting Persian Shaykh-Mansour’s losses - garrison ‘annihilated’, 80 guns, 12 mortars,
claimants to the throne. Ali Morad Khan, in 1784, negotiated to give 130 banners and Shaykh-Mansour himself were captured.(88)
Russia the Caspian coast in return for them crushing the Qajars.
Failed Cossack ‘invasion’ of India, January-March, 1801
Hedaytallah Khan, ruler of the Gilan area, allied with Russia but An opportunistic and badly-organised ‘invasion’ of India by a massed
was defeated in 1786 by the growing power of Aga Mohammed force, largely or exclusively of Cossacks, ran out of supplies and
Khan - who was treacherously supplied weapons in this clash by momentum. The idea appears to have been the dream of Emperor Paul-I
the Russians. In 1786 Aga Mohammed Khan offered a deal to King and it died with him.
Heraclius of Georgia. If the later could convince Russia to support
him in the civil war against the Zands he would cede Azerbaijan to the Russian forces - General Platoff, General Orloff - Atman of the Don
Georgians. Nothing came from the offer. British sources also claimed 22,507 Cossacks
Russia helped finance the Persian attack on Herat in 1836. 24 guns (26)

The military forces and commanders Russia sent into the Caucasus The force marched in four groups and had made it only as far as crossing
theatre were of variable quality. When Napoleon ruled in Europe the Volga, on 18 March, when news of the Emperor’s death ended the
the higher-quality troops and generals would be reserved to oppose adventure. Lyall, quoting Sir Robert Wilson, said the Cossacks were
him. Cossacks could make up a high proportion of Russian forces marching to join other army units for the invasion.
in the region but it was their artillery, infantry, logistics and formal
command structures provided relative advantages. Russian cavalry Russian forces at Ganja, 1803-04
was almost always overmatched by Persia’s, either in numbers or In late November 1803 Russia began a siege of Ganja, a Caucasian
quality, and when they did win a clash this was noted as novel. Khanate, and took the city on January 15, 1804.

The descriptions of Russian actions and the numerical strength Russian forces - General Prince Pavel Dmitrievich Tsitsianov
of their enemies often rely on Russian sources and are far from 5000 men ‘of all arms’.(26)
impartial. Some information is also given here for Russians fighting
non-Persians in the broader Caucasus region. Dates of events may Or via the Cambridge History of Iran (74) and a useful wikipedia entry
stumble on Julian / Gregorian calendar differences, (as a rough guide that includes Russian sources:
the Gregorian is 12 days in advance for most of the 19th century), the Two battalions, Sevastopol Musketeers
exact date of battles can also be listed differently, by several days, Three battalions, 17th Jaegers
depending on the author. One battalion, Caucasus / Georgian Grenadiers (Vereshaga)
Three squadrons, Narva Dragoon Regiment (perhaps 200 per squadron
as a unit of that number is mentioned in the various assault parties)
Russian forces attacking the Caucasian cleric- combatant 165 Cossacks
Shaykh-Mansour at Tatartoub, 1786-87(?) 700 irregular cavalry, ‘Tatars’
The charismatic leader Shaykh-Mansour rallied diverse groups to his 11 or 12 guns
cause under the banner of Islam and Russian opposition, sometimes
later known as Muradism - ‘disciples, followers’. Ganja forces - Javed Khan Qajar
2000 men including the Khan’s bodyguard, 900 Leshgi auxiliaries.(26)
Russian forces - Colonel Nagel
Four battalions of infantry Or via Cambridge History of Iran, 1700 men and four guns, although
Two squadrons of dragoons Javed Khan in pre-battle correspondence with the Russians claimed to
Mozdok Cossack regiment
have three to four times their number of guns. Russian sources said ‘12
One sotnia (100-150 men89) of Don, Terek and Grelen Cossacks
guns and six falcon’ (swivel guns?) were captured in the action.
Shaykh-Mansour’s forces - ‘a motley force of many thousands’ of
Tchetchens, Koumuiks, Karbadians and Daghistanian mountaineers Before the siege started, Ganja troops defended, for a while, the gardens
and mud-wall enclosures on the outskirts of the city.
86
Above and Right, Flags of the Khanate of
Ganja, 1747-1805. The flag, Above Left,
was captured by Russians in 1804. Below,
defenders of Ganga, 1804, and their flag.

Below, a row of flags from the Sheki Khanate 1772-1824. Below Left, is the flag of Selim Khan captured by Russian General Nebolsin, in 1806.

Above and Left, flags of the Baku Khanate,

from 1747.
Below and Below Left, flags of the
Tabriz and Hoy Khanates 1747-1802.

Flags on this page are sourced from the

Administrative Department of the President of
the Republic of Azerbaijan, Presidential Library,
available on-line at
http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/
remz_bayraq.pdf

Some of the flags are housed at the

Azerbaijan Museum.

87
The city was taken by a night assault and escalade, at two or perhaps powers won the ensuing battle.
three places (diversionary assaults are mentioned), while some
breaches were made by artillery. The defenders threw logs and rocks Russia and Persia, by agreement, committed to not expose the cathedral
to repulse the Russians a few times. to the ravages of war and the site is now a world heritage item. See
page-97 for a battle reconstruction.
Losses - Russia, 300 men - Montieth, or ‘about 380 killed and
wounded’ or 17 officers and 227 men. Russian forces - General Prince Pavel Dmitrievich Tsitsianov
4000-5000 infantry
Losses - Ganja, Javed Khan and his eldest son died fighting among 2000 Cossacks
his bodyguard, the defending force was destroyed - 1700 dead, while 3000 Georgians
20 guns (26)
3000-7000 civilians were reportedly butchered, some when sheltering
in a mosque. Von Klaproth added the detail of the Khan being Russians forces (via von Klaproth)
bayonetted while fighting in one of the batteries. A tradition has it that 5000, including Georgians and Cossacks
Javed Khan told the Russians: ‘you will get Ganja only by stepping
over my dead body’ and he proved true to his word. Persian forces - Prince Abbas Mirza
30,000 troops, mostly mounted
Don Juan Van Halen who visited the area between the Russo-Persian Six ‘badly mounted’ guns (26)
Wars described Ganja’s walls as mounted with Turkish cannon of
thick calibre. He described the last stand of Javed Khan;(114) Persian forces (via von Klaproth)
15,000
‘... [the] Khan withdrew into a battery where he had an iron cannon 50 zamburaks as captured
of 48-pounds ... [he] sat astride the gun fighting with his sabre till he
fell.’ Losses - Persia 700 (via von Klaproth)

The Dynasty of the Kajars described Persian royal forces led by a The battle unfolds into a few distinct phases;
Ghoolam rushing to help Ganja but were unable to make it there 1) an assault by the Persian army where the Russians formed
before the Russian assault. The fall of the city was blamed on squares to rebuff them, albeit Persian sources claim some success,
treacherous local nobles and faithless Armenians abandoning their
part of the fortifications. 2) Russian attack on the Persian camp that was repulsed - and the
Persians placed more distance between the armies,
Russian forces, Battle of Etchmaidzen / Erivan, 1804
On 23 June, 1804, in the Erivan Khanate near the famous cathedral- 3) Persian forces cut off the Russian communications and lines of
monastery at Etchmaidzen, the advancing Russians were challenged supply,
by the Persian army.
4) both sides retiring.
The ruler of Erivan, Mohamed Khan, remained in his well-fortified
city declining to commit to either side. Monteith puts words in his Phase-1 has the Russians camped six miles from the cathedral which
mouth to the effect that he would side with which ever of the larger was 12 miles roughly west from Erivan. The Persians deployed on a

Below Left, Abbas Mirza defeating Russian general Bawalunik. Below Right, defeating Russian general Karawich, the pictures are from
the Shāhinshāhnāmah, a volume of 40,000 verses, written in 1806-1810 by Fath-Ali Khan Saba. Several copies of the book survive but no
translation of the text has been found. Russian shakos are depicted as black hats with brass plates. The Russian infantry in the right picture
are shown in uniform clothing colour. With untranslated text it is not clear which events and Russian generals are intended.

88
 Left the famous painting
by Franz Roubaud
showing a Russian
‘human bridge’. The
men of Colonel Karyagin
crowd in the ravine to
allow artillery to cross
over on top of them,
during action near the
River Askeran, 1805.

Above and Below, Javed Khan of Ganja.

The picture above is from infoAz.com, the
flag below looks a modern version.

Right, The Russians capture Ganja by

assault on January 15, 1804, painted by
A. Sharlmann in about 1892.

89
plain with the walled fortress-like cathedral to their right and they Persians forming up in three divisions. The central one was led by the
also occupied gardens immediately in front of the Russian camp. Prince. The refugee Georgian Prince Alexander accompanied the Persian
army which suffered greatly from enemy artillery. Watson placed the
The Russians advanced to threaten the Persian right which triggered bungled Russian night assault some time later and following a successful
general action. Persian cavalry charged with ‘great impetuosity’ into Persian night raid on the Russian camp, by seven ‘divisions’ (units?). He
the Russian battle-line, which formed into squares, perhaps deployed may well be reporting different events. In his version the Persians had
echeloned back as they later did against Kurds fighting for Persia. been warned about the night attack and were waiting with their artillery
The guns and musketry repulsed the cavalry but some broke into the in an ideal position.
Russian rear-guard and baggage.
Von Klaproth, a German serving with the Russians, in 1807-08, placed
Monteith and others described the battle as resembling the Battle of the events in the month earlier and starts the action with an unsuccessful
the Pyramids (1798) where dashing Mameluk riders unsuccessfully Persian raid on the Russian camp, two weeks before the main conflict.
engaged Napoleon’s squares. If this meant the Russians also formed He also implied that Prince Alexander was leading the Persian army. A
up in multi-battalion ‘divisional’ squares is unclear. Napoleon foreign national leading a significant Qajar army would be unusual if
developed his tactics after studying Austrian methods against the not unique. Persian sources, however, do note Alexander among their
Turks. Russians were no strangers to fighting Turks so the formation supporting nobility. Two days of skirmishing precede Russians crossing
might well have been adopted. the River Ssangi, on the 25th, to take the Persian camp, wherein they
find vast sums of booty and ‘50 small cannon upon camels called
After the assault on the squares was repulsed, the Persians regrouped Samburak were taken,’ but without the crewmen. Von Klaproth then
at the village of Chulmitchie, on higher ground, behind Etchmaidzen. recorded defenders of Erivan making numerous sallies into the suburbs
before a Persian relief force of 65,000 arrived, on July 2nd, and a
A Persian version of this phase was recounted in the Dynasty of the detached Russian group of 1200 men was destroyed by 15,000 enemy.
Kajars. It described the Russians deployment array of their thousands.
Russian regional forces, 1806-07
‘... he divided the dragon-like guns, and the infantry, furious as Monteith recorded the Russian general Goudowitch’s forces in the
crocodiles, into three columns so that 200 paces intervened between
Caucasus theatre as 20,000 men (presumably Russian ‘nationals’) and
each column: he himself [Tzizianov], like a devouring flame, took
post amidst the fire-vomiting guns.’ 30,000 to 35,000 of all arms including ‘some active militia’ and many
unreliable irregulars. The general was expecting both Turkish and
Persian cavalry of the Shahun, Khagawand and Abdul Maliky tribes Persian opposition.
launched an ‘undaunted ... impetuous’ charge on the Russians and
took musketry and artillery fire from ‘three sides’ - suggesting they Russian assault on Erivan, 1808-09 (?)
had worked their way among squares. A new push south, in October, saw the Russians send 3000 men to attack
the Nachtevan Khanate and 8000 men to assault Erivan. The force
‘The Russian infantry, stubborn as enraged tigers ... at last began detailed to attack Erivan included a battering train of four 24-pounders,
to waver, and lose ground, and fled to join the other column. On two 12-pounders and two 8-inch mortars. The defenders possessed a
this the ever-triumphant army gave itself up to the plumber and ‘numerous garrison’ and some old Turkish guns.(26)
spoil of the tents and the making of prisoners.’
A Persian army of 10,000, ‘almost all cavalry’, hovered about the plains
Nightfall ended any further action. The Persian account said a ‘great to harass the besieging force. Russian General Portnagene was sent with
many were wounded and slain on both sides’ and many Russian and a force to attack by night-assault the Persian army camp, which was
Cossack horsemen were taken prisoners. near or beyond the River Arras. The Persians were not surprised and
the leading Russian unit, of heavy dragoons, chased after a false flight
Phase-2 has the Persians adopting a new position eight miles from of Persian cavalry to find itself exposed and surrounded. The dragoons
the Russian camp (which may mean the position near the village dismounted into square until relieved by friendly infantry and artillery
mentioned above) which was assaulted by a Russian night attack of that forced the Persian field army to retire.
‘1200 infantry some cavalry and guns’.(26) Monteith stated the assault
was hampered by losing its way in rice fields among water courses The Russians failed in several attempts to scale the walls and force
and did not make the destination by dawn when the roused Persians breaches in Erivan, losing 1500 men in the attempt. They retreated with
fought bravely giving others time to form up and retire to the village 3000 losses, the other 1500 lost were presumably inflicted by the Persian
of Develloo, 20 miles away, for the loss of some baggage. army. Persian losses were not recorded.

Phase-3 saw detached Persian forces cut off Russian supplies and A Persian account of the events included a detachment of ‘experienced,
communications; a force under Colonel Montresor was sent from the gallant and invincible veterans of the infantry’ sent to help the city
Russian position to secure supplies and at 14 miles from the camp defenders and the Russian night assault of the Persian camp (which may
was engaged by 6000 Persian cavalry under Peer Kouli Khan.(26) The not be the same one as above) included ‘many pieces of cannon’.
Russians sought shelter in a cave where they were destroyed save for
a few Georgian nationals made prisoner. The city defenders included; ‘... musketeers of Khorasan, with the
Prince’s train, and body-guards of Tabreez, and the tiger-hearted
The battle was sometimes described in European accounts as a Sarbaz’ while another defender list was: ‘... musketeers of Asterabad,
Russian victory. This is hard to credit as they failed in any major Damawend, and Kerman and Royal Guards or Khorasan.’(145) A Persian
objective. The Khanate of Erivan was not captured and chose to ballad celebrating their victory was, in part,
unequivocally side with Persia after the battle. The Persian army
remained intact and the Russian push south was reversed with them ‘Every Russian bit the dust,
retreating north to a defensible line. The Persian army was damaged Breasts were rent at ev’ry thrust;
and later retired to Tabriz before sending some troops north to help Sword and spear did well their duty;
garrison Erivan. The battle was thus inconclusive. Persian heroes shar’d the booty.’

Watson adds the detail that the battle lasted three days with the Russian losses - 3000 dead, 450 of whom were generals, colonels,

90
 Right, the walled
compound of the famous
Etchmiadzin Cathedral by
Frenchman Jean Chardin
who travelled in the 17th
century. The Russian
and Persian combatants
agreed to spare the site
from military action - but
the Russians once used it
as a garrisoned hospital.

Above, The assassination Russian general Tsitsianov at Baku, in 1806, picture by M Andreev.(151)
Below Left, Abbas Mirza defeats Russian general ‘Ashanjdar’ - a name by which the Persians knew Tzitzianov.
Below Right, the Prince about to kill Russian general Gazhadand.

91
majors and officers. The wounded men numbered 3000. up to 12,000 infantry, 22,000 irregular cavalry and 36 guns.

Persian losses - two or three dead and five or six wounded. Russian losses - 400 to 500
Persian losses - 100
Battle near Askeran, 1808-09 (?)
This conflict was recorded in the Dynasty of the Kajars. The Morier said the Russians retreated to a walled village where they were
author, Abd Al-Razzaq Maftun Dunfufi, (similar names are given as bombarded before surrendering.
alternatives for the writer) described with equal importance major
battles and what are probably minor skirmishes, which at least gives The famous Persian painting of the battle shows a line of Persian
him more opportunities to describe Persian victories. battalions, perhaps five or six, interspersed with artillery encircling a
line of Russian units of foot (perhaps two or three units) and guns. The
The author can at times admit to a Qajar defeat but other reverses were Persian cavalry is in reserve and some Russians defend among tents of
explained away by bad weather, thirst, nightfall, treachery or similar their camp. No fieldworks appear to be depicted.
excuses.
Battle of Aslanduz, near the River Arras, Azerbaijan,
In this battle, a Persian army under Abbas Mirza, engaged Russian 19–20 or 27 October, 1812
Kurakeen Bulkuneck three hours after dawn and after a fierce In a two-phase action Russians made a surprise crossing over a river
exchange of musketry and artillery forced them to retreat to ‘an thought too difficult to cross. They repulsed the Persians who mounted
extensive burying ground, which contained some strong defences’. a counter-attack before abandoning their camp for a new position away
from the river. Persian cavalry was initially dispursed to forage. The
The Russians augmented the defences with their upturned wagons and next night the Russians mounted a flanking assault on the new partly-
improvised earth walls to which the Persian responded by surrounding built camp fortifications to secure a victory.
the place with entrenchments. After six days’ of bombardment,
during which the Persians brought up more artillery and zamburaks, Russian forces - General Pyotr Kotlyarevsky
the Russian position was taken by storm with great numbers of 2221 soldiers, including 485 or 511 Cossacks
defenders killed. Five or six guns

The source almost never gives numbers for Qajar troops, or losses, Persian forces - Abbas Mirza
10,000 infantry
but often details contingent leaders and generals, this battle included;
20,000 irregular cavalry
12 or 14 guns
Abbas Mirza, Pir Kuly Khan, Mohammed Ali Khan, Sadek Khan 50 falconets
Kajar (severely wounded in action by a ‘fire-vomiting gun’) and
the reserves of four artillery pieces and a body of Damaghenees (a Russian losses - 127 and one gun-team lost in the river crossing.
djanbaz unit?) led by Hussain Kuly Khan Kajar. The army included Persian losses - 2000 and 12 guns.
cavalry, guns, zamburaks and infantry, the latter including musketeers
of Guzazi and Ferahan. Persian losses - via Russian wikipedia - 1200 or 9000-10,000 and 537
prisoners including 17 officers, 12 guns, 36 falconets, six banners.
Russian force covering Ganja, 1809-10 (?)
A force of 1200 foot and four guns held off the raiding army of up to Unravelling the information to provide a coherent narrative of the
25,000 ‘traditional-style’ Persian army under Prince Mohamed Ali battle is tricky, the Russian-language wikipedia article appears to draw
Mirza. heavily on biographies of Kotlyarevsky and reproduces his rousing
speeches to the men. Monteith’s account is a chauvinistic rant in praise
of the courage and initiative shown by the two English officers, Christie
Russian raiding force, Caucasus, October (1810?)
and Lindsay, while missing no opportunity to describe the Persians as
General Lesanowich, with thee battalions ‘some cavalry’ - 2500 men
dithering, incompetent and haughty.
and 12 guns conducted a punitive raid into pro-Persian areas.
A counter-narrative might question the Englishmen apparently
Battle of Sultanabad, 13 February, (or 12 January) 1812 abandoning the first Persian camp, leaving Abbas Mirza to organise a
A Russian force was engaged by the Persian army, of Abbas Mirza, defence, before they returned, or attempt to explain away the capture of
which included regular infantry and horse artillery commanded by 11 of 12 English guns in the second camp fortifications. No doubt can
Englishman Col D’Arcy. Monteith gives the Persians as two attacking be cast on the heroism of Christie who was wounded and refused to be
columns each of three infantry battalions and six guns supported captured. The morning after the battle he cut down six would-be captors
by irregular cavalry. Morrier gave larger numbers for the Persians before being shot by a Cossack. His infantry unit suffered roughly 50%
suggesting 9000, via Persian sources, or 14,000 via English sources, casualties during the battle or when attempting to rescue him.
being a mix of ‘undisciplined Toffenkchees, the common infantry of
the country and part of the Serbaz ... a body of undisciplined cavalry
Battle account from Dr Cormick (103)
and a corps of flying artillery with 12 guns.’(18)
The doctor was serving with the Persian Army. His eyewitness account,
in a personal letter to Malcolm, on 23 November 1812, provides a useful
The Russians were 800 men and 60 guns. The high number of guns
narrative of events often at odds with Monteith. The two-phase nature of
looks an error. Montieth’s account of the action said the Russians
the clash was confirmed. Watson’s account appears based on Dr Cormick
deployed two companies to shoo off some irregular cavalry, which
whom he referenced. The map attached to the Russian-language
they soon found was the advance of a major force. The Russians
wikipedia account seems to broadly correlate with Dr Cormick’s views.
defend fieldwork fortifications that were not strong enough to
resist close range Persian artillery fire. A Russian sortie of 500 men
Cormick described the Persian army camped for 10 days, near the River
attempted to neutralise the Persian guns but was driven back. The
Aras, and a small tributary of it was on their right. The Russian surprise
Russians surrendered and 450 men were taken prisoner.
crossing was at 11am, on 31 October, where they marched to a hill
overlooking the rear of and dominating the Persian camp. They reached
Other accounts differ with up to 10,000 Russians and only six guns
this point as Persian troops were falling in, including Lindsay and
mentioned (not directly sourced, via wikipedia) and the Persians with
92
 Above, a
Russian
grenadier from
the late 1820s
(the Russo-
Turkish war)
from James
Alexander.(152)

Above Right, a Russian map depiction of the Battle of Aslanduz, showing the main features of a Russian flanking move on the left and the
Persians repositioning right, over the tributary.

Below, a painting described as ‘Battle of Elizabethpol 1828’ by Franz Roubaud, the Russians are at right.

93
artillerymen who had earlier crossed the Aras on a hunting trip. The fortified hill appears to have enclosed some buildings, the roofs
of which caught fire in the action, adding to the confusion. The whole
The Russians moved from the hill to threaten the left of the Persian camp was in chaos and the Persian army crumbled. Cormick reported
camp from where Lindsay removed his guns, but with little that Christie suffered a bullet wound to the neck and five significant
ammunition, and not all of it the right calibre. Christie at this time sabre wounds, among others, before being finished off in his crippled
organised an infantry body to be positioned to protect the camp from state.
the hill. A group of 300 Russians and one gun fired on the protecting
body and advanced in extended files to attack it. Cormick wrote that Battle Shamkhor / Schamskhar River near Ganja -
Christie was ordered to not charge this body but to join the general
Elizabethpol, September 14 or 15, 1826
re-positioning over the tributary on the right. Christie challenged the
In an early phase of the second Russo-Persian War, various Islamic
order to retreat and the Prince personally seized the unit’s colours
Khanates, in the Caucasus, rose up against Russia. The people of Ganja
to enforce the order. Christie remained with two companies to cover
revolted in the absence of their Russian garrison. A Persian force was
the retreat and Lindsay shot off some 3-pound ammunition out of his
sent to occupy the place and a Russian force to retake it.
6-pounder guns (which was the only ammunition he had) and then
retired the guns over the tributary. Russian forces - General Madatoff or his subordinate Col. Reut
10,000 Cuban Cossacks
The Prince had gathered his forces over the tributary, part of which Four infantry battalions
were near a section of 600 yards of ‘ground filled with jungle’, 12 guns
between the combatants.
Russian forces - via Asiatic Journal (93)
A raid to the captured camp to retrieve ammunition was led by 6000 infantry
Christie with 20 artillerymen and 30-40 gholams, of whom only one 3000 cavalry
braved entry into the camp. ‘proportionate guns’

The new Persian deployment had its right resting on a hill that they Russian forces - via Alexander (11)
began fortifying and the left lined the tributary. The ‘jungle’ (probably 6000 foot
meaning low scrub, brambles etc) is hard to place, the Russian map 3000 cavalry
seems to show both sides of the Aras as vegetated or swampy with a
patch of woods beyond the new Persian right and over the tributary on Persian forces - Ameer Khan, (Abbas Mirza’s brother), accompanied by
the Russian side. In any case, possession of the jungle was contested the 18-year-old Mahomed Mirza, Abbas Mirza’s son and future Shah.
by Christie and two companies, who drove the enemy from it. At 5000 ‘men of the Persian army’
the same time Lindsay, with two guns, forced the retirement of three
Russian guns on the opposite bank of the tributary. Persian forces - via The Edinburgh Annual Register (91).
2000 regular infantry
7000-8000 cavalry
The Russians attacked in the dark at about 4.30 the next morning and
+ ‘guns’
with a close-range volley and bayonet charge routed infantry opposing
them. They captured 11 of Christie’s 13 guns as these became stuck
Persian forces - via Asiatic Journal (93)
in ditches. (Lindsay, looking over Cormick’s shoulder as he writes,
5000 infantry
stated that he commanded only nine of the 13 guns, losing seven.) 5000 cavalry
Six guns

Persian forces - via Alexander

10,000 men
Six guns

The Russians were victorious, ‘after some smart fire from both sides’
the Persian cavalry was repulsed and their isolated infantry fell to a
charge of ‘800 Cossacks and a few Tartars’. Ameer Khan was killed,
Ganja abandoned and Christian ethnic minorities were maltreated by the
retreating Persian army.

The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register adds the detail that three
Persian guns were captured and Ameer Khan was killed trying to rally
his troops and that the young prince was briefly captured by a Cossack
but rescued by retainers.(90) Alexander reports that Ameer Khan’s body
was decapitated and presented to Madatoff, who, unimpressed ordered
he receive a decent burial.

Persian losses - 2000 killed and wounded, two Khans killed and camp
captured.

Persian losses - via Alexander, ‘considerable’. Russian losses included

200 men of a 600 strong vanguard.

Writing from the Armenian tradition, and with the benefit of

non-English language sources, Bakour Karapetgan mentions Matadov

Left, Abbas Mirza defeats the Russian general Bawalunik. Painted

1806-10.
94
Above, Russian soldiers entering Tiflis, 26 November 1799, in a painting by Franz Roubaud, 1886.

Below, Battle near the Shamkir minaret, Ganja, where the Russians defeated Persians on 3 September, 1826, painted by Mesherskiy. In the
left foreground are riders wearing the Qajar hat, these could be allies or enemies of the Russians.

95
was joined by the Archbishop Girgor Manucharian and some The Russian painting of the battle shows the ground between the armies
Armenian cavalry. cut up with a series of small hills and gullies and some relatively higher
ground behind each force.
‘This brave soldier was named ‘Dalikeshis’ (mad priest) by the
Tartars’ ‘He took off his priest’s mantle and took up a gun or sword Losses were not detailed by Monteith.
instead of a cross whenever needed.’ (108)
Version-2 James Alexander (11)
He records that Matadov somehow ‘set a trap’ for the enemy to secure This account places the action on 25 September and five miles from
his victory. Ganja / Elizabethpol.

Battle at River Akistafa, 5 or 16 miles from Ganja - Persian forces - Abbas Mirza and Prime Minister Alair Khan
Elizabethpol, 26 September, 1826 20,000 ‘nizam’ regulars
20,000 total for cavalry, irregulars and artillery
20 guns
Version-1 Monteith
Abbas Mirza led an army to threaten Tiflis where he was opposed by Russian forces - General Paskevich, numbers not given but these
Russian Generals Madatoff and Paskewitch. included the battering train and some light infantry.

Detailed numbers for either side were not given by Monteith. The Abbas Mirza advanced to attack, while deployed in three bodies, with
Russians presumably included troops from the above action. cavalry in the intervals and on the flanks. The army was deployed two
lines deep with a further reserve. The Persians were losing the artillery
The Persian cavalry turned the right flank of the Russian army and dual due to the heavy Russian battering guns so began an assault. The
their infantry made ground pushing into the centre, until Paskweitch Russians deployed in hollow squares but quickly formed into lines to
massed his artillery there to help dive back and rout the infantry. break the enemy first line and push it into the second, thus disordering
‘Contrary to the usual case’ Russian calvary charged and defeated it. The reserve and then the rest of the Persian army routed. Sergeant
Persian cavalry and the Russians ‘very slowly followed’ thereafter. Dawson held at bay Russian light infantry to save most of the guns.

Englishman James Dawson, sergeant of the Royal Artillery, but Persian losses - 2000, ‘several’ standards and four guns captured.
serving privately in Persia, organised a covering force of 14 guns, two Russian losses - 500 killed or wounded.
Irak infantry units and a few cavalry to repulse pursuing Cossacks and
Georgian cavalry. Dawson soon left the area, reportedly to settle in In what might be the same action, Karapetgan records a victory for
Australia. Paskevich, but provides no details other than the Persians lost 1000 as
prisoners, 2000 dead. Two guns and four flags were captured.

Above, a painting of the meeting of Paskevich with Abbas Mirza, by Above, a picture described as the ‘Russo-Persian War 1826-28’, from
Vladimir Moshkov. the Art History Journal webpage. The artistic style looks similar to the
Erivan palace paintings c. 1820s. Below, Persians pillage the German
Below, Russian Cossacks attacking Turks at Apana, 1828. colonists at Katherinenfeld (now Bolnisi, Georgia) 14 August, 1826.

96
 Russian camp
Russia Battle of Etchmaidzen
Cavalry  - Erivan 23-24 June 1804


Infantry Tsitsianov


 Artillery 

 Squares
 


Persia 
 
Cavalry 


Infantry
Artillery 

Z Zamburak 
Z



Peer Kouli Khan
Alexander

Abbas Mirza

© DFM Brown 2015

The armies clashed near the famous cathedral-monastery at Etchmaidzen as the Russians moved to threaten the city of Erivan. In the first phases
of the battle, Above, the Persians deployed with the cathedral to their right and within gardens to the front of the Russians. The Russians
threatened the Persian right , who then charged them with great impetuosity. The Persian cavalry was met by Russians forming squares
, and guns. Some Persian cavalry broke into the Russian baggage. The Persian account described the Russians in three ‘columns’ one of
which was defeated by Persian cavalry who were fired on from three sides during their charge, . The Persians retired,  to re-deploy. The
deployment schemes and topography presented is largely conjectural.

The next day, Below, the Persians have re-deployed on higher ground near the village of Chulmitchie and behind water courses and rice fields,
. The Russians attempted a night assault, , but they were disrupted by the terrain and were repulsed at dawn by the Persians, who may have
had prior warning of the attack, and deployed artillery to meet it. The Persians retired to a new position, perhaps having had their camp sacked
in a general action while the Russians also retreated to a defensible position to the north. A detached Persian force, , was sent to raid enemy
communications and attack dispursed Russian units.
© DFM Brown 2015

Battle of Etchmaidzen
- Erivan 23-24 June 1804

 Tsitsianov



 

  



Z



Peer Kouli Khan

Alexander
Abbas Mirza

Chulmitchie  Persian Camp

97
Russian force against raids in Kazask / Chamechadil areas, Russian losses, 103 men and 2 officers.
from 11 September, clash at Mirac Castle, 15 October, 1826 Persian losses, 200 men including 10 officers.

Russian forces - Yermoloff (General Dandov was also in the area) An updating report in the Asiatic Journal said the action was larger than
2nd Battalion combined regiment of the ‘guards’ previously suggested and that the Russians outnumbered Persians.(126b)
Infantry battalion of Chirvan It gave the Russian losses as 500 men and 12 officers killed and captured.
Infantry battalion of ‘mixed troops’ The Persians lost 15-20 men ‘killed on the first onset of the Lancers.’
400 Cossacks ‘When the Cossacks gave way, the rout of the Russian cavalry became
12 guns complete’ and General Benkendorff was arrested thereafter.

Persian forces - the Sardar of Erivan and / or his brother Hassan Battle over the River Arras, 24-June / 6 or 16 July, 1827
3000 cavalry or perhaps two such bodies acting independently. Persian and Russian forces shadowed each other on each side of the river.
One account described the river as too deep to ford and some desultory
The Persians sent several large raiding forces to capture cattle, stir artillery shooting forced the Persians to retire. Another account had
up revolts and recruit irregulars. Either or both men led the raids, Russians successfully cross to drive them away.
sometimes simultaneously, one body of 3000 cavalry was mentioned.
Russian forces - Lt. General Prince Eristoff, troops including
The Persians were forced to retire to the fort at Erivan, lastly, after a Regiment of Neshing Novgorod dragoons
clash near the castle.(92) The Russian guards unit had mutinied in the Two companies (sotnias?) of Cossacks
west and was sent into the theatre as punishment. Georgian militia
Four x horse artillery
Minor action on the road between Nakhitchevan Khanate
and village of Sardarabad, 16 or 28 May, 1827 Persian forces - Hassan Khan, Nashi Khan, troops including patrols
Russians under General Benkendorff, with 1200 Cossacks and two of 1500 horse, 2000 horse, 300 horse and 3000 horse, which may be
guns, drove off 2000 Persians under Hassan Khan. Persians lost 300 the same lot seen at different points. The action implies more troops
men, some by drowning, while fleeing across the River Arras. presumably of all arms.

The second account had Abbas Mirza leading the Persians. He ordered
Battle near Sardarabad Village, 8 June, 1827 Hassan Khan to drive a Russian scouting group back over the river and
Russians pursued a Persian force and charged them but they were in
they pursued them until they met the main army, he then re-crossed. The
turn charged by ambushing Persian cavalry and were routed.
Russians then forced a crossing with their cavalry, each also carrying a
foot soldier.
Russian forces - Benkendorff, (troops in the general area and
potentially present)
One battalion of ‘chasseurs’ (Jaegars?) The remainder of the Russian army attempted a crossing but ‘the fire of
100 grenadiers of Georgia the Persians preventing them, and occasioned great loss’ The Russians
Two guns moved up the river (looking for an easier ford?) and discovered part of
950 Cossacks the Persian army lurking in ambush in a ravine. The ambushers were
+ Armenian partizans ? driven off ‘in utmost confusion’ by artillery with other troops pursuing
them over the river.
Persian forces - Hassan Khan
‘Cavalry’ The second report said losses were not given but considered the Russian
500 infantry eight dead and 28 wounded, mentioned elsewhere, was unbelievably
Three guns low given the duration of the conflict. The details are from the Asiatic
Journal. (126c)
The Asiatic Journal reported the Russian Cossacks charging after a
group of 200 Persians and a general action developed.(126a) A charge
by an ambushing ‘considerable number of Persian cavalry’ hit the
Battle near Djelao Boulak, 25 August, 1827
Abbas Mirza, and perhaps Hassan Khan, advanced with a cavalry force
Russian flanks to rout them.
from Scharlsur to a position near Djelao Boulak and were engaged by
General Paskewitch with troops previously encamped at Natchievan.

Russian forces - General Paskewitch, troops at least as listed below and

others in ‘a main body’;
Eight battalions
5000 irregular cavalry, probably including the Cossacks
Nichney Novgorod dragoons
A brigade of ‘Hulans’ (presumably Uhlans, as originally named after
the Polish Capt Hulan)
Four guns, at least

Persian forces - Abbas Mirza

16,000 cavalry
Enough guns to maintain a ‘heavy cannonade’

Russians crossed the river on ‘beurdouks’, bridges resting on inflated ox-

skins, as reportedly invented by the general. The Russians on February
20, 1827, had an organised structure for river crossing, as a ‘pontoon half
park was ordered to be built for the Caucasus Sapper Battalion.’ (101)

Left, Detail of a painting of the ‘Russo-Persian War, 1826-28.’

98
Above, Captain John Wood leading the British assault on Bushire
during the Anglo-Persian War, by L. Edwards.

Right, British cavalry charge at the battle of Khuoosh-aub, 1857.

Below, British advisors at the battle of Sultanabad, 1812.

Right, a British steamer on river patrol, from the 1850s.

Below, British delegation guards from India, by Alexander.

99
A central body of 5000 irregular cavalry, ‘kept in check’ by the Eliphistine articulated that British interest and involvement in
dragoons and four guns held a central position while the ‘main body’ Afghanistan was a direct result of the Franco-Persian Treaty and
of the Russians attacked on the right. The Persians keep up a heavy military mission of 1807-08. The Afghans were seen as a potential
cannonade but were repulsed in confusion and then pursued by the blocking power to stop the French or Persians from reaching India.
dragoons, Hulans and ‘some regiments Cossacks’.
French writer, Ferrier, spelled out in great detail the logistic and
Persian losses - 400 dead, 100 captured, two standards captured. political considerations of a Russo-Persian invasion of British India. He
Russian losses - nine dead, 28 wounded. Details are from the Asiatic considered possible routes of march and time taken for either a Russian
Journal quoting ‘Dutch and Hamburg newspapers.’ (126d) army, or a combined Russo-Persian army (⅔ Russians), of 25,000 men.

Battle near Etchmaizen Cathedral and Aberan, Another concern for British India was Persian intrigue with the local
29 August, 1827 population. Aga Mohammed Shah reportedly tried to stir up Indian
Abbas Mirza, campaigning in Erivan, met Russian troops near the Moslems against British rule. He also established diplomatic relations
famous cathedral. with Tippoo Sultan, the ‘tiger of Mysore’. France was unsuccessful in
convincing him to send 12,000 horsemen to aid Tippoo.
Russian forces - Lt. General Krassovski was noted commanding in the
cathedral in the month earlier By the fourth decade of the century Britain was actively opposing
4000 men Persian advances into Afghanistan as they saw them a proxy power for
2000 men + battering train stationed at Aberan a possible later Russian invasion. Pottinger was credited as organising
1000 men garrisoning the Cathedral at Etchmaizen - in and rallying the defenders of Herat, during the siege of 1837-38, and the
contravention to agreements, and guarding sick troops British seized Kharg Island in the Persian Gulf as a warning of further
Seven guns, at least military intent.
Persian forces - Abbas Mirza - no numbers given, but included at least Returning to attack Herat, in 1856-57, this time successfully, the
One foot battalion
Persians again met with direct British action in opposition; this time via
One battalion of guard infantry
invasion through the Persian Gulf.
The Russians (4000 man group) advanced from Aberan and occupied
The British sent an army from India and flotilla to support their invasion.
hills, 14 miles from the cathedral. A clash lasted until evening, when,
The force included British and Native Indian sub-continental infantry,
‘the regiment - and the Prince’s regiment of guards, charged the
cavalry and guns. The naval support included armed steamers among
Russians with the bayonet, who broke.’
the ships. Infantry and artillery were equipped with the latest weapons.
These forces proved vastly superior to the Persians in the major battles.
Russian losses - 1200 men killed or captured and seven guns were
captured. The Persians pursued the vanquished to Etchmaizen and
Both sides expected the decisive battle in the conflict would be held
surrounded the cathedral. Other Persian troops went to Aberan to
somewhere near the inland cities of Shuster or Shiraz. The Persian royal
attack the enemy there. No Persian losses were given. All details
armies were congregating there and the surviving correspondence of the
from the Asiatic Journal.(126e)
British leader, Outram, shows his preparations to bring an army against
these cities. His diplomatic manoeuvres before such an assault included
Monteith related an incident that might be linked with the above.
successfully detaching Arab allies from the Persians. The war ended
General Benkendoff detached a regiment of Don Cossacks, Cuban
with the Treaty of Paris before further battles were joined.
Cossacks, a light infantry battalion and three guns to attack the
Persian camp. The Persians attacked them as they crossed a river
where they were repulsed. The Cuban Cossacks complained that the Anglo-Persian War, assault on Rushire near Bushire,
Dons did not support them. The Russians lost 300 men. 9 December, 1856
A British force landed at Rushire, a village with fortifications near the
Russian army review at Tabris, late 1827 or early 1828 town of Bushire, and took the position with little opposition. Bushire
The army totals recorded were: and its garrison of 1500 then surrendered.
7000 infantry in 12 battalions
2000 ‘guard’ infantry in two battalions The action at Rushire involved a bayonet charge by the 64th Regt of
600 Dragoons in one regiment Foot, 20th Native Infantry, 2nd European infantry all side-by-side
1200 Uhlans in three regiments and supported by Indian sappers. The defenders (including or mostly
2000 Cossacks Arabs?) made use of ruins, walls and ravines - before retiring to the old
2000 irregular cavalry, Georgian and Mohammedan Dutch fort - which soon fell. Fleeing defenders were pursued by the 3rd
52 guns and 1000 gunners Bombay cavalry.

Great Britain Anglo-Persian War, Battle of Khoosh-aub,

7-8 February, 1857
British involvement in Persia during the period stemmed from The British force landed in the Gulf attacked and defeated a regional
opposition to the French regional influence and later in the century Persian army in a battle on the town outskirts. The pre-battle action
opposing Russia. Both nations were seen as potentially threatening described by Capt. George Hunt of the 78th Highlanders included a
British India. There is debate now and at the time about the night attack by skirmishing Persian cavalry and some guns. The British
plausibility of Napoleon marching to India as he professed as one goal formed their army into a square and the enemy melted away into the
of his Egyptian and Middle-Eastern campaigns, 1798-1801. night.

British officials in India suggested such a campaign could be realised British forces. (15)
if France had the support of Persia and also the active help or leave 5670 fighting men of all arms (2270 of whom were Europeans)
of Afghan potentates. They noted that these last two had been recent 3750 followers
historical enemies. 1150 horses
430 bullocks
100
 Battle of Khoosh-Aub
British Shooja-ool-Moolk 7-8 February 1857

Cavalry

 
Hamlet and
Infantry 

date grove
Khoosh-Aub
Artillery



 Horse
Artillery
Light
  


⊕ company
 
 ⊕ ⊕
⊕ ⊕ ulla
N

 
⊕ 
⊕ 

⊕ ⊕ ⊕
h

 


3rd t 2nd 26th NI 78th
⊕
rg

Persia
e
fl

⊕
Ri

 Squares 20th NI 64th

ch

Poona
o

Cavalry ⊕
lo

Outram
Ba

Infantry
⊕
 Artillery ⊕
⊕ Skirmisher 
British camp © DFM Brown 2015

The battle map Above is schematic. No attempt at a ground scale is given, it is partly based on the picture Below.

The Persians deployed with their left resting on the town of Khoosh-Aub and partly protected by skirmishers in a nullah, , their right extended
toward a date grove and hamlet. Cavalry protected their flanks. The British deployed with flank companies detached as skirmishers, to flanks and
rear, to guard against enemy skirmishers and cavalry.

An artillery exchange opened the action and when the Persian guns slackened their fire the British began a general advance. The horse artillery
moved to close range to deliver decisive fire, their position, at , could equally be positioned further to the right to act in co-operation with
the Poona Irregular cavalry. The Persian centre and left infantry either retired out of musketry range and or routed from the British thrust, as
shown at position .

On the British left some Persian sarbaz regular units retired, in good order, as shown at position . One of the units formed square but was
defeated by a charge of the British 3rd regiment of Light Cavalry. The picture below shows British guns on the left, suggesting they may have
co-ordinated with the cavalry charge. The Persian cavalry appears to have made no offensive moves during the action.

101
 Eight war-steamers of the Indian navy Europeans and Rifle Regiment. The second line from right was; 64th
Seven hired steamers Regt, 20th N.I, 2nd Balooch.
30 sailing ships
The 3rd cavalry operated on the left and the Poona Irregular Horse
The British troops in detail; and Horse Artillery on the right. The infantry units also detached
Artillery light companies to the front, flank and rear to protect against enemy
3rd troop Horse Brigade, 6 guns skirmishers.
1st coy, 1st batt, European Foot Artillery (or 3rd Light Field
Battery?) 6 guns The Persians deployed with their right resting on a date grove and hamlet
4th coy, 1st batt, European Foot Artillery (or 5th Light Field and their left was near the village of Khuosh-aub. Their left and centre
Battery?) 6 guns was party covered with a nullah filled with skirmishers, behind which
Reserve Artillery, European Foot Artillery, remaining in the camp
their infantry and guns were flanked by bodies of cavalry.
with 14 guns
Cavalry Brigade
The Persian guns began to slacken in an artillery exchange which
Head qrs, two squads. 3rd Regt. Light Cavalry - 342 men
Two troops Poona Irregular Horse - 176 men prompted a forceful advance of the British army including the Horse
First Brigade of Infantry Artillery deploying at close range. The Persian army crumbled with only
H.M.’s 64th Regt. of Foot - 780 men some Sarbaz units on the right retreating in good order. Some British
26th Regt. Native Infantry - 442 men sources noted the Persian infantry retired out of musketry range before
Second Brigade of Infantry the main clash. Hunt’s picture of the battle appears to show a large body
2nd European L.I. - 693 men of Persian infantry (or a combination of horse and foot) on their right and
4th Regt. N.I. (Rifle Corps) - 523 men two smaller bodies that roughly total the larger, to its left, with guns in
2nd Balooch Battalion - 460 men the intervals.

78th Highlanders - 739 men Two British cavalry officers won Victoria Crosses when they charged into
26th N.I. * (a misprint repeat perhaps - unless it means two a Persian square to defeat it.
battalions or perhaps 23 / 20 N.I. is intended?) - 479 men
Engineer Department
Persian losses - 700 men, two guns and teams were captured, eight laden
Head-quarters, and two companies of sappers, 118 men, and
miners. ammunition mules and 700-1200 stands of arms, and the standard of the
In the camp Khashkhai regiment were also captured. Other accounts suggest 70-200
378 Europeans dead and 100 men were captured.
1466 N.I.
British losses - 13 dead, 65 wounded. The details are from Outram who
Persian forces - Shooja-ool-Moolk also listed each casualty by name, his wound by type and severity, and his
Guard infantry - 900 unit of service.(15) Other accounts suggest 50-80 dead and 64 wounded.
2nd Karragoozlar - 1500
Shiraz infantry regt - 200 The dubious official contemporary Persian account of the action in the
4th Tabriz infantry regt - 800 Tehran Government Gazette Extraordinary said a Persian night assault
Arab infantry regt - 900 was hampered by rain and Englishmen hiding in holes.(14) The next day
Kashkhai infantry regt - 800 Shooja-ool-Moolk with 3000 picked infantry and eight guns (300 cavalry
1000 Tufengches (irregular foot) and four guns in reserve) charged the English five regiments and 10
300 cavalry guns who blew up their ammunition and ran away, before being rescued
500 Elkhanee horse
by reinforcements of two regiments, 400 cavalry and 10 guns. The
18 guns
combined British army was engaged for four hours during which time
two British squares were broken through.
A second and similar list survives for Persian army when stationed
at the fort of Borazjoon, and evacuated to Khoosh-aub, two or three British losses - 700-1000.
days before the battle: Persian losses - 300-500.
Fouj Khalsah - 800
4th Fouj Tabriz - 400 Battle of Mohumra, 26 March, 1857
Fouj Shiraz - 600 The victorious British advanced their reinforced army and navy up
Fouj Arab - 800 the Shat el Arab waterway to engage the Persians at the fortifications
Fouj Shaskar - 800 of Mohumra / Mohammerah. After several hours shelling the British
Tofangchi - 1000 navy had battered the defences to ruins and their landing troops took
Two regiments of Kharagoosloos - 1000 the place without great resistance, save from some defenders outside
Shah Selman - 400 the forts, sniping with matchlocks. The Persians then retreated. British
Shiraz or inhabitants of the Shiraz neighbourhood - 400 eye-witnesses described the scenes of carnage and horrifically destroyed
Eelyaut horse - 400 bodies of defending gunners. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris -
Afsharee horse - 750
already signed on March 4th - halting the unfolding British invasion into
17 guns and 1 mortar are mentioned with the force
the interior.
The use of ‘Fouj’ for some of the units might imply these were sarbaz
British forces - General Sir James Outram
battalions and the others were not. Outram noted a report ‘from
No. 3 Light Field Battery, 6 guns (176 men)
natives’ that said only about ⅔ of the Persian forces were engaged. No. 3 Troop, Horse Artillery, 6 guns (166)
This could mean some of those above were not active or that there 14th Dragoons (89)
was an unidentified additional third of troops that could be added to Scinde Horse (303)
the above. 64th Regiment (704)
78th Highlanders (830)
The British deployed for battle in two lines; at front, 78th Light Battalion (920)
Highlanders on the right with sappers, then to the left, 26th N.I., 2nd 26th Bombay Native Infantry (716)
102
Ottoman troops from an 1805 illustrated book of costume and uniforms. Above Left, Spahi. Above Centre, Deli. Above Right, rich Spahi.

Above Left, Turkish ‘daredevil’. Above Centre, ‘Baghdad’ rider. Above Right, ‘Tarter’. Below Left, the first two illustrations are of
Janissaries, the left most is an NCO. Below Centre, is a foot soldier from Baghdad. Below, Right of Centre, is a Levantine, Below Right,
is possibly from the north west of Turkey.(95) The lack of pistols and firearms on many of the cavalry looks unusual for the date of production,
perhaps the artist has relied on earlier information. However, parts of the Ottoman armies met by Persia were drawn from outlying areas, so
obsolete weapons can not be ruled out for some troops.

103
 23rd Bombay Native Infantry (749) nearby areas, governed from 1704 to 1831 with a degree of autonomy.
Madras Sappers & Miners (124) From the 1760s the Pasha was a Porte-appointed Georgian, ruling at
Bombay Sappers & Miners (109) times uneasily over Mameluk nobles.

Naval forces as listed earlier, and improvised mortar rafts bearing Later pashas such as Buyuk Sulaiman ‘the great’ (1780-1802) and
several 8-inch and 5½-inch pieces. Ali Pasha (1802-07) might find common cause with nearby Persian
provincial leaders in the turbulent region peopled by hostile Wahhabists,
Persian forces (11) - Shadizar, Prince Khanler Mirza, Arab princelings and nomadic Bedouin clans or even once when they
Irregular cavalry - 1500 joined Baghdad against the Porte. In 1810 the Ottomans removed
Regular infantry, nine regiments @ 700 - 6300 total the Mameluk Pasha only to have their man, Said Pasha, defeated and
Bukhtiyares, Arab, Beloochi irregular infantry - 2600 replaced in 1816 by Dawud Pasha, son-in-law of Suliman. Dawud was
30 guns and 600 gunners the last Mameluk. He ruled until 1831 when an Ottoman army, from
Aleppo, took Baghdad to send him into retirement.
The Persian artillery captured is listed on page 72, five guns were
taken with the retreating troops, leaving eight of the 30 guns Dawud took the lead from Constantinople and destroyed local
unaccounted for and believed by the British dumped in the river. Janissaries in 1826. He was also noted as following the trend of other
Islamic leaders in engaging Europeans to reform and train his military.
Persian forces - from a second slightly more detailed account (11)
Shadizar, Prince Khanler Mirza The Turks and Persians had shifting fortunes in the south, over the
Shah’s cavalry - 300 centuries, with Basara and port cities in the Gulf changing hands. The
Bucktiara cavalry - 1200 cities might at times be ruled directly or though Montafeq Arab subjects.
Regular infantry, nine regiments @ 700 - 6300
Irregular infantry, Buckhtiara matchlockmen - 1200
Irregular infantry Arab levies - 400 Baghdad army invades Persian dominated lands, 1806
Irregular infantry / cameleers, Beloochi mercenaries - 400 Suliman Pasha, son-in law of the Pasha of Baghdad, invaded Persian
30 guns and 600 gunners controlled areas in retaliation for Mohamad Ali Mirza’s re-installing of
Abdur Rahman as Pasha of the Shehr-i-zoor region, after he had been
Persian losses - 200. The Arabs and Beloochis agreed to join the ousted by Baghdad forces. The Baghdad army of 30,000 was defeated
British army, the latter as camelmen. Some European commentators near Mosul and their C-in-C was captured to be used as a bargaining
about this time seem to use ‘matchlockmen’ to denote irregular foot chip to keep Abdur Rahman in his position.
regardless of their actual weapon.
The Dynasty of the Kajars provided detail of the conflict. It described
the Ottoman invasion on 30,000 men, led by Aly Pasha of Baghdad,
Ottoman Turks being composed of cavalry, infantry and a park of artillery ‘and every
other military equipment.’
The Turks were historical enemies of the Persians and defeated by
them in battles of the War of 1821-23, in both the northern sector, near Battle near Dirah, 1806
Azerbaijan, and southern region near Baghdad. The Persians were The Persians opposed the incursion with Muhammed Ali Mirza leading
victorious in other actions earlier in the century. a ‘considerable force of experienced infantry and cavalry, accompanied
by several noblemen’. The latter including Aman Allah Khan, Wally of
During the first decades of the 1800s the nations were in concert Kurdistan, and Farraj Allah Khan Qajar, the Nasakchy Bashy.
opposing Russia in the Caucasus. According to Monteith their efforts
to co-ordinate were hampered by jealousies. When together in the The Ottomans detached 12,000 cavalry and infantry ‘of Baghdad’
theater we hear of armies being encamped separately to avoid trouble. under Suliman Pasha to attack Abd-ur-rahman at Dirah in Kurdistan,
Both sides were apparently far from unhappy, when arriving late by a surprise assault, following a day-and-night forced march. Abd-ur-
to a battle-zone, to see their notional allies already defeated by the rahman’s army was on the point on collapse when saved by Qajar forces
Russians. led by Farraj Allah Khan and Aman Allah Khan that rushed to the battle.
The fight lasted for a further hour and a half and featured confused
The quality of Turkish armies sent against Persia appears to not mixes of infantry and cavalry before the Ottomans were defeated.
have been their finest - like Russia they needed the best men on the
European front - and to suppress a rash of revolts in their European Ottoman losses - 2000 dead, 2000-3000 and Suliman captured.
provinces. Then again the Persians were also hampered in their need Persian losses - not recorded.
to keep forces scattered throughout their realm to defend against
enemies internal and external. Battle at Zahab, 1806
A second battle saw Futtah Pasha leading another Ottoman force,
One British report stated a belief that there had never been a head-to- presumably the 18,000 balance of the original army. The Qajar army
head clash of the Persian sarbaz against the Turk ‘new-model’ nizam led by Nurooz Khan, the Keshsheck Akasy Bashy, included the tribe of
so, if true, which were better troops can remain a debating point.(13) Mad-Au-Lu and Jehan-Beg-Lu Kurds, and Kara Guz Lu. The Persians
The first nizam force was eliminated by a revolt of the jealous were victorious and pursued the Turks almost to Baghdad with; ‘great
Janissaries, in 1808, however some units seem to have been around slaughter and many prisoners taken’.
until 1818. Chris Flaherty’s comprehensive website on the Ottoman
army collates organisational and uniform details including scarce Turco-Persian force near Kartalina, 5 September, 1810
information on the Turks from 1808-18 to the 1826 extermination of
John Baddeley recorded that a combined force of 10,000 Turks and
the Janissaries.(95) Remnant Janissary units were found in Western
Persians were defeated by Russians on 5 September, 1810, on the
Anatolia / Caucasus cities during the 1828-29 War with Russia. It is
borders of Kartalina in the Caucasus.(61)
this possible some remnant nizam were similarly surviving in outlying
areas during the wars with Persia.
Russian forces - Marquis Paulucchi (an Italian serving Russia), troops
included;
The indpendent-minded Mameluk rulers of Ottoman Baghdad, and
9th and 15th ‘sharpshooters’ (Jaegars?)
104
Above Left, a Mameluk from Aleppo, 1816-24, by William Page. Above Centre-Left, a Turk levy infantry. Above Centre-Right, a ‘Turkish
Mameluk’. Above Right, Turks in the 1820s. The painting style suggests Alken is the artist.

Above Left, Turkish regular

infantryman.

Above, the rider is a Delhi standard

bearer, next to him in blue is a
‘topchi’ - artilleryman and an
irregular soldier with a curved
‘atagan’ sword. The figures are from
Alexander, ‘Travels to the seat of war
in the East’, 1830. V-2, and represent
troops from the late 1820s, in this
case as seen fighting Russians.

Left, ‘Turkish Troops, New Levies’,

more depictions from the same time
as above, taken from Alexander’s
Journey to India. The man at left is an
artilleryman, the others infantry.

Far left, an officer of the Pasha of

Sulimania.(139)
105
 Two light guns for the date of publication with riders shown armed with bows and
A contingent of Cossacks few firearms. It is tempting to think the artist has relied on information
‘Tartar militia’ are active in the general area. from earlier. Englishman John Jackson, travelling in 1797 through
Baghdad and parts north, described only one man of 15 in a group of
The Russian troops, by a difficult three-day march over snowy friendly Tartars as armed with a bow (he noted Tartars are never without
mountains, attacked the enemy camp at midnight and routed them. a brace of pistols and dagger, and often other weapons as well), albeit
he was described as remarkably dexterous with the weapon.(100) Other
A possible second Russian victory was recorded after an incident on government troops detailed to guard his party were a group of 15
30 August, 1811, at Magasberd where a shooting accident involving riders from Turkish Kurdistan who were ‘some spearmen and others
the allies led to their estrangement. The Turks were led by the Pasha with firearms.’ Another government-supplied guard of 15 moustached
of Trebizond and the Sardar of Erivan led Persians. The Turks later riders out of Mosul were white-clad with scarlet caps and turbans, their
retired to their (previously resilient) fort at Akhalkalaki where a bearded officer wore a scarlet gown. The ethnicity of both guard groups
Russian night assault led by Koltiarevsky, and two battalions of was not given.
Georgian grenadiers, took the place on December 9th. The Turco-
Persian alliance was also accompanied by exile Georgian and When at Baghdad, Jackson saw the Turkish ‘army’ of 6000 horse
Imeretian Princes. crossing a bridge-of-boats, the men were in: ‘regular procession [and]
had a very pretty appearance.’ He also reported the Arab Sheik Twyney,
Turco-Persian conflict based in the town of Suke-shue, led an army of 30,000 men, 20,000
The Turco-Persian War, of 1821-23, brewed among conflicting being Arabs and 10,000 Turks, against the Waaby. They were not
interests in supporting those borderland minor ‘buffer states,’ such as necessarily successfully led as they ran short of water and we later hear
Kurds in the north, favourable to each side. An unfavourable leader of Twyney assassinated by a ‘Waaby’ slave, a defeated Turk army and
might be removed by an army crossing the nominal border to enforce the Waaby contemplating an assault on Bussora.
regime change. Precursors to the war were Mohamad Ali Mirza’s
raids into Turkish lands in 1804 and 1812. Sabri Ates noted Davud Pasha of Baghdad commanding a similar
force to the northern Turk army described as ‘30,000 men including
Graham Williamson said Russians helped stoke the war flames by provincial Ottoman Troops, Kurdish light cavalry and mounted infantry.’
encouraging the Persians and surreptitiously funding Abbas Mirza’s It is not clear if he means similar in quantum, composition or both.(97)
campaign.(88) The British reportedly tried to advocate peace between Hedue, visiting Baghdad in 1817, noted a nominally Janissary Aga was
their two friends. The causal trigger for the war was wrapped up in commander in chief. The post was in theory appointed by the Porte, but
the usual squabbles; trade and diplomatic complaints, cross-border was, at the time he visited, chosen by the Pasha without reference to
kidnaps, maltreatment of pilgrims, executions. the central government. An official with the ceremonial title of ‘chief
of executioners’ appears to have been commander of a bodyguard, one
The protection of Shia peoples in and near the holy cities of Karbala of whom was selikdar, ‘sword bearer’, a tchakedar, was the ‘chief of
and Najaf, within the Sunni Ottoman lands, was a constant issue for messengers’. Other posts included superintendents of tents and carpets,
Persian rulers. In 1851 Aboullabout Pasha of Baghdad led a force or horse furniture.
of ‘several thousands’ and four guns to defeat revolting residents of
Karbala. After a short siege the walls were battered and reportedly Heude believed the available forces would total 40,000 men; noting that
22,000 ‘Persians’ and bystanders were massacred.(96) A similar Sayud Pasha had a standing force of 5000 men, including a bodyguard
pacification of the city, by Ali Riza Pasha, in 1853, required 3000 under his immediate pay and ‘regularly exercised’ as distinct from 7000
troops. Arab confederates. Heude met these Montific Bedouin Arabs of Shaik
Hamood returning from helping in a victory over Daood and his army,
of 12,000 men, mostly Kurdish warriors. This defeated army included a
Turco-Persian War, Battle for Baghdad, 1822
body of 800, possibly Janissaries as commanded by the Janissary Aga,
Williamson’s narrative has the Ottoman Sultan declare war in October
Sayid Allowee, an ethnic Arab.
1821 and described Davoud Pasha’s army as local tribes and a small
Mameluk standing army.
He noted the city had 10,000 Janissaries that would normally be
reserved for city defence and a further 12,000 to 15,000 men, nominally
The potential force was estimated as the Pasha’s bodyguard, of 2000
on the Janissary rolls, that were usually engaged in civilian trades, he
foot and 1000 cavalry, and a standing body of 5000 foot. Williamson
computed a total of 15,000 men:
said many of the Janissaries had been transferred away by the central
government. Local governors could also provide troops; 10,000 foot ‘... that would be found deserving of the name of soldiers or that have
from Sulimaniyeah, and between 2000 to 1500 men each of nine ever been accustomed to military duties of any kind ... the remainder
subordinate towns or provinces. The levy of troops could include in general being idle, disorderly rabble ...’
10,000-15,000 Arab and Kurd nomads. Mingan, travelling in 1829,
thought the (unwalled) city of Soolimaniah had a standing army of In his assessment of a theoretical British assault on Baghdad, Heude
2000 with 500 of these detailed to be palace guards.(104) allowed for a defending army of 30,000.

The city of Mosul, one of the nine areas mentioned above, had in Heude also mentioned a body of loyal and efficient Asgailess, Arab
1835 a force of three companies of the regular army; 500 hayat, mercenaries, (noted for a mournful war-song and happily fighting for
provincial guard troops, 100 Albanians and 200 akils, local soldiers. the new side if defeated) employed singly or in bands from men found
in the neighbourhood of Garem or the Gulf. A body of 400 such men
Williamson’s estimate of the actual force was 35,000 men and a small join Sayud Pasha seeking refuge in the citadel when Daood Pasha had
number of sub-standard guns to which the central government added taken Baghdad with a reinforced army. A further perhaps larger body
some of the regular infantry and cavalry from Aleppo and Diarbekir. of Asgailess was unable to join their comrades as Georgian slaves had
Davoud Pasha bolstered his force with 10,000 hired men, ‘djellis and thrown down a bridge to the citadel. The citadel was ‘fully supplied
older reservists’, from Anatolia. with guns, powder, and ammunition of every kind’. The citadel also had
20 guns and the city walls a further 30 pieces of poor quality.
Pictures of Baghdad troops are included here (page-103) from a
catalogue of Ottoman troops of 1805. Some look a bit backward even Heude was part of the British embassy visiting the new Pasha, Daood,
106
Above Left, a Turkish artilleryman from 1826. Above Centre, a Turkish
Sultan on his horse, 1826.

Above Right, two Turk infantry men 1826.

Far Left, a figure from Heude titled Hamoud-Beg-Effendi.

Left, a figure from Heude titled Turc De Merdyn.

Below Right, John Jackson’s 1797 drawing of a Tartar, or himself dressed

as one as clad at Baghdad. His hat is yellow, jacket brown, both with a
black lambskin trim. The hat is internally quilted and stuffed with wool
such that Jackson thought it proof against weapons and a useful crash-
helmet in case of a riding accident. His ‘trowsers’ are ‘Turkish’ blue and
boots red. The long whip is a typical Tartar item, however, a ‘Tartar’ was
also a work title meaning a courier or messenger with Arabs and Kurds
also noted in the role. The best regional daggers might be ivory-handled
and pistols decorated with silver.(100)

Below Left, ‘A Tartar’ from William Heude, who traveled in 1817.(42)

107
(Sayud having been treacherously killed) whose residence was A third Persian prince occupied the town of Mendeli, but Ottoman
guarded by Janissaries and a body of 300 Georgian slaves. The latter soldiers, combined with tribal forces such as those from Shammar,
marked by ‘sumptuousness of their dress’ and ‘armed after their own forced him to retreat.
manner with Turkish cimeters, pistols, matchlocks and battle-axe’.
The Shah was not inactive in the war. Although he usually projected
Mingan provided some detail on the efforts of Dauad Pasha to reform military power through his sons, he marshalled the Royal army at
his army on European lines.(14) Hamdan, in what looks a strategic reserve. In the period of study only
one Shah, Aga Mohammed Shah, personally led an army in battle other
‘[Dauad] ... is determined to support a standing army, clothed and than in during a civil war.
disciplined a la Franque, and has actually placed several hundred
of his household troops under the immediate command of Mr Fraser thought that Mohammad Ali Mirza’s army was the best trained
Littlejohn, who holds the rank of binbashee (a Turkish colonel) in and organised in the land, although it is not clear if he ever saw it in
his service.’ person. Williamson estimated the Prince’s army as up to 40,000, mostly
traditional style forces, of up to two-thirds cavalry raised from local
‘He has even established a military arsenal within his citadel, and
Bakhtiari, Lars and Kurd riders. The Kurds included mailed troopers.
appointed a French officer (Monsieur de Marque) its director ... he
Kurds under Suleiman Khan could muster 12,000 irregulars, being
casts canon and makes gunpowder ...’
both mounted and foot, and the small regular Persian sarbaz contingent
including the Hamedan battalion was noted.
Mingan noted the military reforms, and civil ones, as part of the
Pasha’s works over the ‘past ten years’. The disciplined troops might
The Prince, an expert swordsman and dashing rider, was initially an
thus have been established prior to the war with Persia.
opponent of the regular army reforms and as described earlier, once
commanded a traditional cavalry-based army in the war with Russia.
The Pasha, by virtue of his rank, was entitled to a three horse-tail
standard to go with his Turkish flag. The Ottoman navy in the area
Brydges said the Prince championed the traditional: ‘arms of Persia ...
included 14-gun brigs - perhaps provided by Arab allies.
the sword, the mace, the lance, the musquet or carbine, used on horse-
back and the zamburak.’ However, by the time of the Turkish War he
Davud was opposed by Persian Prince Mohammad Ali Mirza with
was leading sarbaz units recruited from Kurdish lands. These troops,
40,000 men; ‘mainly drawn from the heavy mailed squadrons of the
and perhaps other elements of his army, were trained by Frenchmen, M.
southern (Shi’i) Kurdish tribes, as well as the Bakhtiaris and Lars’
Court, Devaux and senior Oms, a Spaniard.(118) Ferrier mentioned one
battalion in Hamadan of the Kara-guzloo tribe and two other regiments.
The war was triggered by support for rival Pashas of Baban; the
Ottomans favoured the current man in Suleimanieh, Mahmud Pasha,
‘These were trained by excellent French officers ... and would well
and the Persians backed his uncle, Abdullah Bey Baban, to whom they bear comparison with the troops of Abbas Mirza, who were trained by
gave refuge in Kermanshah. English Officers sent to him by the East India Company.’
Mohammad Ali Mirza’s army attacked Mahmud Pasha, who was Capt. George Keppel [later Earl of Albemarle] said the three European
supported by Davoud’s army from Baghdad. The Persians were officers listed above led their troops against the Turks (so perhaps
victorious with Davoud’s kethuda, chief of staff, defecting before personally commanding one of the three battalions each?) and that there
the battle. Information on the battle’s thrust and parry has not been were originally seven or eight European instructors at Kermanshah.
found. The Persians advanced on Baghdad, but lack of a battering Meeting these ‘Coordish’ soldiers, albeit when demobilised, he said they
train, blandishments from religious leaders, possible warning from the looked like good disciplined fighting men.(98)
Shah, probable cash payment from Davoud, and finally an outbreak of
cholera saved the city from assault. One of the eight French and Spanish officers was met by Money;
Cholera claimed the life of Mohammad Ali Mirza in November, ‘... their pay was handsome and establishment superb. With infinite
1822. Following this, Mahmud Pasha, supported by Ali Pasha, wali trouble they organised a respectable body of troops, and attended him
of Diyarbakir, retook Suleimanieh after defeating the Persians and on all his expeditions.’
Abdullah Bey Baban.
Porter, who travelled from 1817 to 1820, reported Mohammed Ali Mirza
Below, an Ottoman rider. in Kermanshah utilising two French training officers, that had previously
been engaged by his brother, to instruct ‘a couple of battalions.’ A unit
of four clumsy guns was about to be improved and augmented with the
assistance of the Frenchmen and an ‘Armenian artificer lately arrived
from the canon foundry at Constantinople.’ The Prince’s guns were
probably enhanced by the Italian, Mauritzi, being appointed director
of his artillery some time from 1809-10 to 1814. Maurizi said he was
made a prisoner by Russians in Azerbaijan. If he was captured with his
guns the force may have needed rebuilding.

Prince Muhammad Ali Mirza’s opposition to the regular reforms, and

indeed his later adoption of them, have been placed in the context of him
positioning to reverse the Shah’s decree that the younger brother Abbas
Mirza would succeed. Mohammad Ali Mirza was the eldest son, but as
progeny of a Georgian, not Qajar mother, was unable to rule. In the first
instance opposing reforms gained him conservative religious support
and in the latter case regular units might hold loyalty to him when, as
seemed possible, he would contest the crown by force. Both sons pre-
deceased the Shah.

108
 Ottoman camp
Battle of Topra kale
Ottoman May 1822
Rauf Pasha
Cavalry

Infantry
 Artillery


Persian
Delli cav
 High Ground
 Squares
 Cavalry

  Infantry

  Artillery
Zamburak

Z

Horse


Artillery

Bagaderan
Abbas Mirza
© DFM Brown 2015

In the first phase of the battle, Above, after a clash of light cavalry favoured the Turks, the Ottoman Delli cavalry attacked and disrupted two
Persian infantry battalions and captured one gun. Other Persian units were sent to shore up the sector. A general engagement ensued, Below,
with both sides sending their armies into action. The Ottoman artillery fired at beyond effective range while the Persian heavier guns advanced
to 800-900 yards for greater impact. On the Persian right a commanding patch of higher ground was contested. The Ottoman C-in-C sent
cavalry to attack in this area where they were met by Persian infantry forming squares - position , where infantry musketry and supporting
artillery drove off the cavalry and damaged the enemy infantry.

In the centre an Ottoman infantry advance stalled under enemy musketry - position . The Persian guard infantry and the Bagaderan
battalion, initially deployed in reserve, moved through the line of guns and infantry to attack. They were supported by a unit of 12-pounder guns
manoeuvred close to the enemy line, perhaps to help repel the earlier enemy cavalry attack - position . The attack cleared Ottoman troops from
the hills routing them. The Persian centre infantry, a mix of sarbaz and irregular units, attacked without waiting for orders. They may have been
inspired by the arrival of reserves - position . The Ottoman army collapsed and the Persian irregular cavalry pursued the routing army,

Chuppan
Pasha of Van Oglu
Battle of Topra kale
or Selim Khan May 1822

a
sh
Pa



 


f
u


Ra






 
n



a
h
K

  
n
sa
a
H

Guard

Z

Abbas Mirza
Hossein Khan
or
Amir Khan


© DFM Brown 2015

109
Battle of Topra Kale, May 1822 victorious capturing the enemy camp and ten 4-pounders, two
An army in Azerbaijan, led by Abbas Mirza, invaded Turkish lands 12-pounders, a 14-pounder, a 16-pounder and a mortar.(126h) The date is
and brushed aside a minor force to capture two fortified towns, eight hard to reconcile with other accounts of the battle or any other action and
other towns, villages or regions, before winding down the campaign may simply be in error.
for winter. He then unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate a peace. A
Persian second force, aided by dispossessed Anatolian nobles, took Battle account-B, James Fraser
Bitils and advanced on Diyarbakr. (74) Fraser was travelling in the region and with Montieth saw the victorious
but cholera-ridden Persian army straggle back to Khoi a few days after
The next campaign season saw more forces gather in the area and the battle.(111) His account of the campaign has a slightly different
a Turkish army threatened to re-capture the strategic fort of Topra opening with the Persian general penetrating in the first year to Diabekr,
Kale, as garrisoned by troops of the Sardar of Erivan. The Turks had and plundering the area, where he met with a check and while retreating
the early initiative and Abbas Mirza rushed to gather forces from was ambushed ‘and cut to pieces’.
cantonments to support the forts.
Fraser said the Turks raised an army, ‘said to be 40,000, but were
The Turks were initially led by Khusrau Pasha who was replaced of wretched quality, the sweepings of the gaols and streets of
in the new season by former Grand Vizier Muhammad Amin Rauf Constantinople, driven by the whip to their duty.’ He admitted the
Pasha. The new Pasha had three subordinate Pashas, each led a force, information was acquired second hand and Asiatic troops driven into
perhaps of 20,000 each. One division, or part of it, surrounded the battle by whips is a trope as old as Herodotus. Abbas Mirza had ‘nearly
forts at Topra Kale. One group of Turkish troops was defeated by an equal number of men, including his regular battalions, and twenty-two
Persian troops coming from Erivan. It lost its commander and 1000 guns, chiefly horse artillery.’
men captured in the battle.(88)
Abbas Mirza requested money from the Shah to pay troops but was
The main armies clashed near Topra Kale (or Khoy) and the Turk instead sent Allah Yar Khan and 15,000 men whom the Prince reportedly
army was routed. Several descriptions of the action exist and they are thought worthless and likely to drain his resources and / or be distracted
broadly consistent. to plunder the area.

The Asiatic Journal, quoting a ‘respectable Persian merchant’ The Persians advanced to relieve the siege of Topra Kallah and were met
interviewed at Bombay, said a Sirdar from Room - a military leader by the Turks. As the armies approached, a cavalry skirmish took place, in
from Turkey - with 70,000 men, moved to Arzeroom and was which the ‘Turks had the advantage which gave them the courage to offer
opposed by Abbas Mirza with 50,000 men, ‘whether any battle took battle.’ The Ottomans formed up with their camp (and the besieged fort)
place is at yet unknown’.(126f) in their rear, their right was commanded by the Pasha of Van, the centre
by the Seraskier and their left by Chuppan Oglu.
Battle account-A, Asiatic Journal report
The Asiatic Journal provided a narrative of the battle stating the Turk Abbas Mirza placed a battery of 12-pounders on the right under Hoossain
forces were 52,000 strong.(126g) Prince Abbas Mirza scouted the Turk Khan, Sirdar of Erivan, the Sirdar’s brother was on the left and the Prince
camp with small body of irregulars, in doing so he advanced past the commanded the centre.
vanguard of Hussain Khan, Sardar of Erivan, who was positioned
3½ miles from the Turkish camp. The Turks drove back the scouting (As with many battle descriptions it is not always clear if the second
force but these held on long enough for the Prince to support them described left-centre-right means relative to their own army or the
with troops of the main body. enemy’s orientation.)

The Nackshewan and Erivan (Persian) battalions attacked on the left, The Turks commenced the action with a cavalry charge headed by ‘a
but were thrown into confusion by a charge of Turkish ‘Delhibash’ few Delhees’ and artillery firing ‘long before the Persians were within
cavalry, ‘mad-heads’, who captured one gun. Two Persian Tabreezies range. The latter did not return a gun until they were within eight or
battalions under Cosseim Beg and the Merandies arrived and with nine hundred yards, when they fired into the mass, and put them into
two volleys threw the enemy into confusion. This was immediately confusion.’
followed by a bayonet charge to put the enemy left ‘entirely’ into
rout. The Russian deserter battalion was stationed behind the Persian guns.
They advanced in the intervals, supported by ‘Serbaz’ infantry, to storm a
The Turkish right held out until four 12-pounders came up and hill in front of the Turk positions, routing the enemy there. These enemy
drove them off. The Persians captured the enemy camp, 14 pieces of were then pursued by the Persian cavalry.
artillery and enormous quantities of ammunition; papers captured in
the camp said the Turk army was 52,000 men. Persian forces were One Hadjee Beg, captain of Persian artillery, commanded a unit of four
‘not more’ than 30,000. 12-pounders; ‘the showers of grape from which are said to have done
great execution.’
A unit of four 12-pounders looks unusual given the nominal
organisation of guns into three sections of two, perhaps the unit had Ottoman forces
taken battle losses or a section was detailed to other duties. 40,000 men including artillery, ‘Dehlee’ and other cavalry

Persian forces - Abbas Mirza

Persian losses - about 30 killed and wounded, only one man from the
40,000 including cavalry, sarbaz regulars, Russian battalion
irregular contingent, in a battle that took 15 minutes. Following the
22 guns ‘mostly horse-artillery’, including a unit of four 12-pounders
battle a cholera outbreak inflicted the army thus halting any advance,
and in a few days 2000 men were dead from the disease. Ottoman losses - 2500 ‘and many prisoners’ the camp and baggage
captured.
Ottoman losses - ‘severe’.
Persian losses - were not given, but cholera is estimated to claim at least
Another brief version of Asiatic Journal said the action was on one man in ten and up to a third of some units.
August 3, and in a battle lasting only an hour the Persians were

110
Above, a 1919 painting of the Battle of Krtsanisi, by Below, Aga Mohammed Khan’s Persians, at the right of the picture, defeat the
Valerian Sidamon-Eristavi. Georgians, from a painting of 1806-10. The camels in the centre are not shown
firing so they may represent zamburaks as shown in other paintings in the series or
Below, another painting of the battle. perhaps the royal band. No Persian infantry appear to be present. At the top of the
picture, over the river, Persian cavalry pursue their foe into the city. Their position
Bottom, Georgian daggers and swords, 18-19th century. separate from the main action may support accounts of a flanking move.

111
Persian supporting force - Allah Yar Khan front) joining the three Turk divisions to total 40,000-60,000 men.
15,000 men.
In Williamson’s recreation of the action, Ottoman attempts to invest the
Fraser later met the supporting force of Allah Yar Khan and made forts at Toprah Kaleh were pestered by the raiding cavalry of Hussain
no mention of it making it to the battle. This force was ‘a melody Khan. The raids gave Abbas Mirza time to regroup his forces, perhaps
of all the southern and Irak tribes’ including Bucktiaries, Maufees, 20,000 strong, at the start of the new campaign season.
Lacs, Lourees and ‘others of most predatory reputation’. Such people
might imply a force strongly or exclusively of cavalry. The formation The Turk deployment was given as Mahmood Pasha of Van or Selim
was recorded joining the Russian garrison at Elbaugh to destroy a Khan of Moosh on the right wing, Chuppan Oglu of Yozgat on the left
contingent of Kurdish invaders near Selmast and then themselves and seraskier Rauf Pasha in the centre. This was opposed by Persian
indulged in plundering. deployment of Abbas Mirza in the centre, either his chief-of-staff
Amir Khan or Hossein Khan, Sardar of Erivan on the left, and Hassan
In other writings, Fraser said that when Abbas Mirza took the field Khan, the Sardar’s brother on the right. The last man was noted for his
against he Turks, in 1822, he could barely muster 35,000 troops reputation as a ruthless cavalry commander nicknamed ‘the yellow lion’.
including a large proportion of inferior quality. He reported that
in this war the British officers aiding Persia could not fight against The initial Persian deployment had a line of sarbaz units, some
Turkey, an ally, however some sergeants of horse-artillery remained understrength, of perhaps 4000 men. Two guard battalions, one the
to instruct this body. Russian Bagadaran, were behind these in reserve.

Battle account-C, Watson (88) A small hill on the Turkish left of the battlefield attracted initial attention
Watson’s account of the Battle of Toprak-Killeh has Abbas Mirza with the Persians hoping to use it as an anchor for defence. As they
moving from his base at Khoi to support the fort garrison and moved to it Turkish cavalry, commanded personally by their
ordering detached forces to hasten to join him. Some units marched C-in-C (so moved from the centre?), charged them. The cavalry was
30 miles a day, for several days, to so reach the Prince, however, unable to break the infantry line that formed squares supported by
‘very few’ made it in time. artillery; these helped drive off the cavalry and damaged Turk infantry.

The Turks releasing they had a strong numerical advantage attacked The Turk artillery was described as deploying too far back, firing at long
the Prince but he held on until 7000 reserves arrived, but even with ranges beyond 1000 yards, and being mostly light guns which all added
these he was still outnumbered significantly. Poor coordination of the to them not discomfiting enemy infantry squares that might otherwise
Turkish army countered their numerical advantage and after a long be vulnerable to a cannonade. The catalogue of captured Turk artillery,
and bloody fight they were defeated as one of their Pashas quitted the given earlier, lists 10 of the 15 guns as light artillery, 4-pounders.
field to prompt the collapse of his division and thereafter the entire
army. The Persians relieved the fort, capturing three Turkish camps In this sector, the Persian right wing, a Captain Hadjee Beg was noted
that contained among the riches hastily abandoned unfinished cups of as bringing his battery of 12-pounders into close and decisive action,
coffee. perhaps causing, or after, the repulse of the enemy cavalry.

Ottoman losses - Watson discounts Persian historian Riza Kuli Action now described the Turkish infantry advancing and losing
Khan’s account of 50,000 Turkish dead on the battlefield. cohesion under Persian musketry. On the Persian right surteer (colonel)
Hajee Beg led the valihad ‘Crown Prince’ and Russian Bagadaran Guard
units to attack through the gun positions and infantry line - they engaged
Battle account-D, Williamson (40)
the enemy with long-range shooting.
The Turk army of Khosrow Pasha at the opening of hostilities was
a provincial force of ‘foot-militia, tribal light cavalry, ‘djellis’ or
At this point, other sarbaz and irregulars moved forward, contrary to
guides and mounted Kurdish infantry,’ Pasha’s bodyguard and town
Abbas Mirza’s orders to hold ground.
Janissaries. Williamson calculated this to a total of 30,000 men. In
addition to this the eastern provinces of Van, Moosh and Kars might
It appears these infantry were centrally deployed in the Prince’s division.
be able to supply 12,500 men each, to the seraskier’s army.
Williamson speculates they may have been encouraged by 7000 fresh
Persian troops arriving on the battlefield. The enemy wavering under fire
The government hired men in and around Constantinople, which
may also have inspired them to impetuously advance without receiving
Williamson, quoting Fraser, said included men of dubious quality
orders.
some indeed ‘sweeping of the gaols’. These new troops might be
included among the 10,000 additional men mentioned by Ates (see
Stuart described the Persian guard unit, Khossars, in 1835, as
below, assuming this is not confused with reserves on the southern
commanded by the surteep Hajee Cossm Khan who had been a good

Below Right, kadjari - horse decoration. Below Left, saddle Blankets / bags, from the Georgian National Museum collection.

112
 Tiflis

Battle of Krtsanisi
9-12 September 1795

Georgia

Cavalry
Davit
Infantry




 Artillery 

Imereti
 
Cavalry
Infantry  


River Kura

Persia

Cavalry  Z

Infantry
 Artillery
Z Zamburak
© DFM Brown 2015

The first phase of the battle, Above, has Georgian Prince Davit organise a defence and with artillery to repel the Persian vanguard. Much
of the topographical and other detail in the maps are conjectural. A Georgian reference said the Persians advanced on the Soghanlughi
road - if this means the modern Sagharasheni they approached from the south west. Krtsanisi village is south and slightly east of Tiflis
on the west bank of the river, which is tree-lined in between. The modern road and railway between Krtsanisi and Tiflis are constrained
between mountains and the river - so the city on the maps is indicative and would be further north and beyond a valley. The early phases of
the battle may thus have been a fighting withdrawal through the valley.

On the next day(s), Below, the main action saw the Georgians organise a defence with what appears to be improvised field defences, . An
artillery dual ensued, . Aga Mohammed Khan personally led two or three charges in an attempt to dislodge the defenders.

The Persians appeared to have crossed the River Kura,  and outflanked the Georgian positions to defeat them. The Persian painting of
the action shows cavalry on both sides of the river with those on the east defeating their enemy and pursuing into the city. The Georgians
mounted a desperate defence near or in the city,  which was overwhelmed with Heraclius seeking refuge in flight.
Tiflis
Battle of Krtsanisi


9-12 September 1795





 



Heraclius
Solomon
 Davit




   


A han


hu


K


  Javad Khan
li

Z  Z  Qajar (?)
River Kura

   



Z

© DFM Brown 2015

Aga Mohammed Khan 

113
officer but was now (13 years after the battle) old and idle. He Georgia
noted that ‘Abbas Mirza was indebted to his firm and judicious
disobedience of orders for his victory at Topra Kaleh’. The disobeyed The name Georgia, in contemporary and modern sources, can cover a
orders were presumably the instruction for infantry to not advance, as range of areas and ethnicities.
described above.
The Kingdom of Georgia, in the period under study, usually means
The Prince’s caution is understandable. He was potentially still the combined throne of Kartli and Kakheti, famously joined and ruled
outnumbered and expecting a further 10,000 troops to arrive. False from 1762 under one crown by King Heraclius / Erekle / Irikali II of
routs mid-battle to prompt a disorderly pursuit were a standard eastern the Bagratid Dynasty. The closely related small states of Imeretia,
tactic and the possible earlier damaging charge by the Dellis would Mingrelia, Guria (and their occasionally independent sub-princedoms)
argue against unsupported infantry action should units of these riders are sometimes included in a broader concept of ‘Georgia’ as peopled by
be yet unfought. predominantly Christians, albeit some cities and forts in the west near
the Black Sea had Turkish populations or garrisons.
The Russian guard unit was described as advancing close to the
enemy line and with a steady advance of colleagues took the hill, A broader concept of ‘Georgia’ covers these nations and some of the
starting a general collapse of the Turks, who were ‘ruthlessly harried’ Caucasian Khanates. Western writers used the term to cover people in
by the Persian irregular cavalry. this geography, regardless of ethnicity or religion, while Islamic writers
might use Georgian to mean any Christian from the general area. The
As per other authors, poor coordination of the Ottoman troops was Persian province of Gorjestan, under Nadir Shah, also encapsulated the
given as a reason for their defeat, while the unexplained inactivity of broader area of the Christian states. The area where people speak the
the Turk right wing was noted. If Battle Account-A can be spliced in Georgian and ‘sister’ languages would be another logical district to call
here, the Ottoman troops in this sector may have been reticent about ‘Georgia’.
suffering a further repulse. The deployment mentioned by Williamson
has local regional leaders in this sector. They may have been The lands were unfortunately placed between slave-raiding Turks to
cautious, with an eye to negotiation, should the Persians be victorious. the west and south, cattle and slave-raiding Leshgi tribes to the east,
conquering Russians to the north and Persians to the south. The intrigues
The troop list given at page-159, supplied by Fraser, is as a plausible of the occasionally expansionist Ottoman government was another
summary of Persian forces, to a 35,000 total available in the theatre. historic threat. Donald Rayfield quotes Heraclius II describing his lands
Some of the individual named units are mentioned in other accounts surrounded by; ‘Turkish snakes, Persian lions and Lazgi wolves.’ (110)
of the battle.
Ottomans conquered Georgia in 1732 only to have Nadir Shah expel
Ates provides additional information, writing with the support of them, in 1735, and rule through local nobility including the Bagarationi.
various Islamic sources, he describes the strategic and diplomatic On Nadir Shah’s death, in 1747, Heraclius and his father Temiuraz
manoeuvring prior to full-scale conflict. In October 1820, Hasan asserted their independence in alliance with some Caucasian Khanates
Khan was detailed to cross the border to rescue a local potentate and defeated an attempted Persian re-conquest in 1751.
(Haydaran), who had been arrested by the Turks. This force was
repulsed by Selim Pasha. Heraclius joined Russia in the 1768-74 war against the Ottomans. The
Treaty of Georgievsk signed with Russia, in 1783, required them to
In response to heightening tensions the Ottomans ordered eastern provide protection in return for Georgia severing ties with Persia. Such
governors and Kurdish subject leaders to ready their forces for protection was not forthcoming when Aga Mohammed Khan invaded,
conflict and be prepared to support each other. Istanbul, in January in 1795, to sack Tiblisi. The Persians left the region and Tiblisi was
1821, sent additional artillery and equipment to Erzurum, a major city reoccupied by Georgians in the next year.
in Eastern Anatolia.
However, the Russians were financing Khartli’s military with Von
In high-stakes brinkmanship in the south, Davud, the Mameluk Klaproth quoting the written instructions, in 1786, for the governor to
governor of Baghdad, appears to have at one point declined help provide 60,000 rubles in silver per annum to maintain their forces.
from the Porte apparently to avoid having non-Mameluk troops and
pashas in his region. In similar tone, the Porte hinted to any eastern
Heraclius died in 1798 to be succeeded by a corpulent son, George XII,
provincial rulers contemplating using the Greek revolt as cover for
whose succession triggered a civil war of contending factions which
independence that it was prepared to let a overstated, if not actually
continued after his death, in 1800, and prompted the ensuing Russian
fictional, Russo-Persian alliance over-run them. annexation. Less critical portrayals of George XII describe him as portly
and jovial rather than grossly corpulent and useless. Georgian Prince
The estimate of troop numbers provided by Ates, has Abbas Mirza Alexander opposed his brother George and in exile spent the next three
invade when commanding 35,000 troops, many European-trained and decades plotting revolts and building forces to remove the Russians.
supported by Hussein and Hasan Khan of Erivan. Other Princes also manoeuvred to defeat George or the Russians. In
1812 Alexander proclaimed himself King as part of a popular uprising.
They were opposed by Hüsrev Pasha ‘whose 30,000 men included The Russians defeated him in battle.
provincial Ottoman Troops, Kurdish light cavalry and mounted
infantry.’ Dukes - eristavi, Princes - mtavari, or governors of provinces within the
broader Georgia might hold the hereditary right to command the military
For the next campaign season the Turks replaced their commander forces or ‘banner’ of their province.
with Mehmed Emin Rauf Pasha, as the new serasker, ‘C-in-C’, and
they provided 10,000 more soldiers. This was the army defeated by The military of the region appears to be nobility and richer men
Persia at Toprak Kaleh. providing cavalry and others as firearm infantry. The cavalry were
probably little different to their southern neighbours and armed with
swords, pistols, carbines and perhaps lances - although lances are not
often shown or described in most sources. Russian-based sources
mention their Georgian cavalry auxiliaries fighting against Persia with

114
Left and Above, a painting described as
a ‘Georgian cavalry review’ estimated as
1780. No riders appear to have firearms
and it may thus represent an earlier period.
The armoured and shielded lancers mirror
similar Persians. Below and Right,
costumes and weapons from Museum of
Georgia, note the same style of jackets in
the group photograph below. (134)

115
great courage, no doubt the prospect of a new Persian invasion with of their King, which they did in a famous last stand in the city, thus
associated chaos provided encouragement. However, as detailed giving Heraclius time to assess the lost situation and escape. An oath
in an earlier section, the Georgians were also enthusiastic revolters to fight to the death might suggest the men were serving as a previously
against Russian rule. The Russians appear to have used their Georgian constituted bodyguard formation. The men were presumably armoured as
cavalry no differently from other Caucasian irregular cavalry. was traditional for Khevsurs.

Some Georgian factions were happy to live under Islamic Persia or Von Klaproth described the Georgian ‘Aragwi’ tribe as ancient lawless
Ottomans (in the west of the region) with limited autonomy, rather highlanders who killed Russians, on sight, not for plunder but because
than Christian Russia, with none. The imposition of Russian as the they were enemies. Their other occupation was as panther hunters
official language, compulsory sale of goods to the occupying army selling the skins in Tiflis.
at below market rates and compulsory billeting of soldiers proved
particularly unpopular and gave life to many revolts. The 300 became revered national heroes and were canonised as ‘holy
martyrs’ by the Georgian Orthodox Church in 2008. The modern
Travellers to the area noted the local fondness for wine. Animal skins sculpture in their honour depicts them with swords and small round
ranging in size from ox to sheep were used to store and transport wine shields decorated with crosses.
and wagons loaded with skins were seen throughout the land. A 17th
century reference said Georgian soldiers would go into battle with a European Training and the Morige Lashkari
flask of wine tied at their hip. This might have reflected an emergency - National Militia Force
measure for a localised scarcity of drink. The Armenian adventurer Hosvep (Joseph) Emin met Georgian King
Tiamaruz in St Petersburg and offered his services as a military advisor.
The costume of Georgians could be a fusion of eastern and western Emin had served with the British army in the Seven Years War. By the
styles, Alcock travelling in 1828-29, described the dress as: time he reached Georgia Heraclius had succeeded to the throne. Emin
in his uncritical autobiography described his actions fighting in, for and
‘Very pretty costume - a full frock coat with large open sleeves, a
later against Georgia, Imereti, Caucasian Khanates and Lesghi clans.(109)
sash round the waist, a long waistcoat reaching nearly down to the
knees, closed in the front, and a Persian cap, and slippers.’ Emin raised a short-lived unit of 800 Armenians to join Georgian forces.
He also led local Georgian units.
Wilbraham described a Georgian bodyguard for Russians, in 1837, as;
His writings, while giving an insight into the politics of the stateless
‘...over a closely-fitting tunic of rich silk or brocade they wear a Armenian meliks, ‘dukes’, and clergy, suggest he was dangerously
cloth dress with short sleeves, which reach to the knee. Their loose fixated on the dream of a restored Armenian state or a combined
eastern trouser is silk and a black boot, fitting close to the leg Georgian-Armenian nation as a Christian kingdom in the East. He looked
confines it below the knee. A sword and pistols, richly inlaid and to military action at every opportunity, wise or otherwise, but was not
fastened in their girdle, and on their head they wear a low lambskin alone in the pan-Christian buffer-state dream as Catherine the Great and
cap.’ General Suvarov among others had the same idea.

The Georgian guard of the Baghdad Mameluks, mentioned earlier, Emin, active in the Caucasus in the 1760s and early 1770s, does not
was described as the national costume and weaponry. divulge the detail of what training or advice he gave the Georgians,
although he does suggest to Heraclius a compulsory national schooling
Khevsur Highlanders system for 16 to 20-year-olds where military training was included in the
The Khevsur highlanders were famous for wearing mail armour curriculum.
and looking mediaeval. Pictures of these men have been provided.
Without other evidence, these men presumably provided both foot Heraclius established an extensive nation-building program in economic,
and mounted troops, as they appeared to have done in earlier times. legal and social areas including military modernisation, Rayfeild
Some photos of men show mail coats split at front which can be a provided some detail of the latter.
modification for riding.
‘In the 1700s Heraclius reforms his army with Russian advisors,
The warriors are shown with musket, sword, shield and less training manuals and ranks. A royal guard formed the core of a
frequently bow. The highlanders were independent-minded and permanent paid army.’ ‘In 1774 compulsory army service, one male
per each household served at his own expense for one month per
dismissive of the nobility but strongly loyal to the king.
year...’
Khevsur lands include the modern Migmakhevi, Shatili, Arkhoti and
On 4 January, 1773, Heraclius reformed the military by creating a
Aragvi valleys, along with the related Pshavi they were historically
standing national ‘militia army’, known as the Morige Lashkari, to
considered descendents of Crusaders due to their armour and wearing
replace existing military institutions.
crosses or icons - perhaps also depicted on their standards.
Service in the force was compulsory for all able-bodied men. The King
The Crusader link is discounted by modern scholars. The lands were
and Princes lead by example in undergoing the training, any shirkers
home to a distinctive local form of martial art which included armed
were found out and beaten with sticks in public. The new force seems
and unarmed combat and archery. The men were historically engaged
to have been built to meet two needs, a quick reaction force to oppose
as royal bodyguards.
slave-raiding Dagestanians or Turks, and to break down feudal ties where
local nobles might withhold their troops.
300 Aragvian Martyrs
As part of the Georgian army opposing Aga Mohammed Khan, Prince The 1773 Morige Lashkari organisation and the 1774 militia force could
Vakhtang led a force raised from the mountains, including a body of be differing accounts of the same institution, but they are not mutually
300 Argavians. The men fought at both the Battle of Krtsanisi and in exclusive as the month-per-year militia (sounding not unlike the Iranian
the doomed defence of Tiflis thereafter. ‘militias’) could have been drawn from men already having obligations
under the broader Morige Lashkari. If so, the Georgian military would
The Aragvian highlanders had pledged to fight to the death in defence thus be composed of a standing army including guards, a part-time

116
Above Right, two guns with unusual barrel decoration, from
the Georgian Museum, described as cast in Tiblisi in the 18th
century. Above, a Khevsur hat.

Right, a helmet of the 17th century. Far Right, a decorated

horn. Top and Below, photographs of armoured highlanders,
armed with muskets and shields.

Below Right, museum display of weapons.

117
militia and a levy en mass in addition to ethnic minorities and Artillery
mercenaries serving under other terms. Heraclius, at the Battle of Krtsanisi, conducted an artillery dual with the
Persians and 35 guns, being ‘almost all’ the Georgian artillery were later
A Russian estimate, in 1802, said the land could support 20,000 captured.(71) In context this could mean captured from the field army
soldiers. In the preceding decade the King, at times, led forces of but the account is brief and the total may include any guns seized in the
4000 against Lezgi. This number might thus represent the core sack of Tiflis. Such guns were possibly captures from Turks, obtained
standing army. Apolon Tabuashvili computed the Georgian army from Russians or antique items from earlier Persian occupations. Tiflis
of Heraclius raised to oppose Persia, in 1795, as 25,000 men, which housed a crown-monopoly rustic gunpowder industry and Von Klaproth
included Leshgi mercenaries and an Imereti contingent.(112) mentioned gun-makers and sword-cutters in the city. Rayfield noted
Heraclius employing 2000 Greek artificers and skilled tradesmen but not
The Morige Lashkari was led by Prince Levan to defeat raiding any explicitly military tasks for them.
Dagistanians and the rebel Duke George of Ksani who had, in 1777,
hired Dagistanian mercenaries in a grab for power. After Levan’s The quantity of guns suggests an indigenous artillery tradition and the
death, probably by assassination, in 1781, the standing army appears Georgian Prince Tiamuraz, who fought at Krtsanisi as a teenager, later
to have slowly declined in quality and numbers. became the artillery commander for the Persians. During that Battle
Georgian Prince David did great damage to the Persian enemy with his
However, the period following the army reform was also marked by guns dominating the Kura River valley - further pointing to Georgian
Heraclius’ expansion in subduing the Khanates of Ganja, Karabagh and artillery skill.
Erivan, so the new force may not have been solely for defensive use.
In earlier decades Emin recounted a conversation with Heraclius where
Tabuashvili quotes an extant order of Heraclius dated 30 June, 1795, the King said a lack of money and concern about having ‘no artillery or
directing nobleman Glakha Chavchavadze to raise his force of one- ammunition’ guided his decision to not take a more aggressive stance
man-per-household to fight the Persians. The order was sent to all against Persia. The statement is probably not to be taken literally as the
districts and it looks as if up to 7000 men were expected to be so Georgian possession of artillery during this period gave them an ‘ace in
raised, suggesting the levy system devised in earlier decades was in the hole’ when bringing rebel dukes to heel.
place until the Kingdom’s fall.
Two guns on display at the Georgian National Museum - Simon Janashia
Russian Deserter Guards Museum of Georgia (see page-117, for which I have seen no formal
Heraclius, in 1768, organised a Russian bodyguard of 300 ‘possibly’ catalogue description) - have unusual decorations on the barrel and
deserters. These men were probably among a number remaining in mouth. Such decoration looks unique and may signify local production.
the region following the war against the Ottoman Empire.(26) Groups The museum website describes them: ‘The important place is given to
of such men formed in hundreds as lawless free companies that were imperial exhibits of memorial type and a gun, cast in Tbilisi in the 18th
with some effort stamped out by the Russian army. It is not clear if century’. Heraclius’ army to subdue the Khanate of Erivan, in 1779,
the Russians were maintained as a standing part of the army. included ‘a large number of artillery’.

It is also not clear for how long the force was maintained. The Tabuashvili references contemporary private correspondence from one
Russians were relentless in trying to force the Persians to disband Darchia Bebutashvili describing the army led by Georgian Princes into
their Russian deserter unit and they would have much greater leverage Karabagh, to oppose the Persian advance, in June 1795.
over their small allied neighbour. It is possible they may have allowed
their Georgian allies to keep the force as an alternative to stationing ‘The army was accompanied by the artillery, which had never
front-line Russian troops in the area. happened beforehand. Moreover, Erekle II had spent all his income
on its creation. Therefore, he could not send the artillery with a small
army causing its destruction in case of the defeat.’
A modern source said Georgian nationals formed a foot guards unit
wearing red coats. The idea of an army being accompanied by artillery for the first time
could mean several things; the first time artillery accompanied an army
Border Guards and Garrisons led by princes rather than the King, the first time artillery was deployed
Heraclius kept some forces on his borders, 800 was once mentioned with such a small expeditionary force, the first time artillery was sent
and such troops could plausibly be either the standing army or militia into allied territory for defence, the first time all the nation’s guns were
serving by rotation. He also kept troops stationed in Erivan before the deployed in the field or even the first time the Heraclius’ new treasury-
Persian invasion of 1795. draining artillery was deployed.

Russian Allies It is interesting to speculate that the reference to Heraclius spending all
The Russians were happy, when it suited them, to send troops to his income on artillery means he invested in producing new modern
help their Georgian allies. From the 1800s the Russian policy was guns and training for men to use them. Perhaps the unusual guns
to expand its empire in the Caucasus as opportunities presented displayed in the Georgian National Museum, as mentioned above, are
themselves. survivors of the formation. Solomon of Imeretia was recorded executing
prisoners by firing them from a wooden cannon, the form of such a
On the eve of the 1768-74 War against the Ottomans, two Russian weapon remains a mystery, it might conceivably be a ‘leather-gun’
regiments under Col. Burrnashov joined Heraclius and Armenian reinforced with wooden slats.
irregulars, in unsuccessfully besieging Shushi. The action was
abandoned when the Turkish War started. Smaller Russian forces of a Lesghi, Karbadian Mercenaries
few regiments, up to 1200 men and several guns, also gave lukewarm Mercenaries from the wilder tribes bordering Georgia were engaged
help to Georgia and Imeretia in their conflict with the Ottomans, in as mercenaries. Heraclius had up to 8000 Lesghi / Dagistanians in his
1769-1770. Secret clauses of the 1783 treaty promised a Russian army, some commanded by Prince George, but its not clear how many
regiment and four guns to Georgia. In 1784 two Russian regiments were present at the Battle of Krtsanisi. The rebel duke George of Ksani
were stationed in Tiflis, only to be withdrawn three years later. employed 3000 of them in an attempted coup. Heraclius also engaged
Karbadians, a Circassian sub-group, and contemplated allowing their

118
Top, the Battle of Iori River, November 7th, 1800, between Russians and their allies of a Georgian faction
against Avars and another Georgian faction supporting Prince Alexander of Georgia.
Above Left, George XII of Georgia. Centre, Princess Nino of Mingrelia, Above, Solomon II of Imereti.
Below, three images of Heraclius II, King of Georgia. The painting at left is by G. Gagarin, 1847.
Top Right, two images of Prince Alexander of Georgia, below these museum arms and armour .
Bottom Right, a portrait of the 18th-century Georgian historian, Prince Vakhushti, seated with quill.

119
tribes to live in Georgian lands as military settlers. and has been blamed for ordering a few high-profile assassinations to
further her aims.
Prince Alexander and his brothers hired Lesghians in their civil war
with George XII in 1800. Von Klaproth said they ran out of money Mingrelia fell under Russian domination in 1811 with Nina sent to
to pay the mercenaries and had to allow them to plunder villages to retirement in St Peterburgh. The state was annexed by Russia in 1857.
maintain their employment. Emin described Heraclius, in the 1760s-
1780s, as having Lezgi vassals, their sons being kept as hostages for Mingrellian peasants were noted for unusual flat hats, a museum photo of
good behavior. an example from Imeretia is provided (page-123), so the item could have
been fashionable in the broader area. Pfeiffer described the Mingrellian
Irregular Allies and Subjects hat as a ‘round black felt cap, in the shape of a plate, fastened by a string
Emin described some ethnic groups as part of Heraclius’ forces, as under the chin.’ She also described the burki, a wet weather garment of
‘Cossacks’ or sometimes Circassians. One group under Secander wool or felt with large black collars that reached below the knees.
Aga, a ‘Persian Turk’ chief, was a clan of 15,000 ‘Cossacks’. He also
mentioned the Tarakamas Turks, that were moved to the area by Shah Svaneti
Abbas, serving as troops under Heraclius when he requested them.
The small principality of Svaneti in north and west Georgia was at times
In addition to Emin’s own Armenians providing soldiers, individual an independent polity but was usually under the vassalage of Mingrella.
or small groups of Kurds and at least one native from Astracan The area came under Russian domination in 1833 before being annexed
fighting with bow and arrow, could be recruited. in 1858.

Imeretia Guria
Imeretia was the western small ‘Georgian’ kingdom, ruled during our Guria was another small principality in the west, it was usually the
period by a Bagratid dynasty and often intermarried with Kartli and vassal of its larger eastern cousins with periods of relatively more
Kakheti. King Solomon II of Imeretia sent a military contingent to independence. The ruling house was a branch of the Dadiani, the land
help his grandfather, Heraclius II, to fight Aga Mohammed Khan in came under Russian dominion, in 1811, and annexed by them in 1829.
1795. Solomon I of Imeretia joined Heraclius on Russia’s side during
the 1768-74 War with the Ottomans.
Abkhazia
Emin encountered a body of men with firelocks, swords and
knapsacks that were fighting against Lezghis. He also met Solomon’s Abkhazia was the furthest west of the ‘Georgian’ states and bordered
bodyguard of ‘300 Aznavurs or knights’, described as a fine body of the Black Sea. At the time of study and in proceeding centuries Ottoman
30-35 year-old-men, the equal of any European household guard. naval forces captured the coastal cities. The Turks might impose
favourable rulers in the region. The Turks also spread Islam into the area
Imereti became a Russian client state in 1804 but Solomon II revolted and some ruling families and nobility might swap between faiths. In time
in 1810 to wage a guerrilla war only to be defeated and ousted by a Russia used its power to impose a Christian regime to replace Moslems.
Russian army. In exile he appealed for help from Napoleon (who was
a otherwise occupied in 1812, but encouraged to learn the Russians The Russians made one Safar Bey / George Sharvashidze, Prince of
had problems on their other fronts), Persia and the Ottomans. Abkhazia, their vassal in 1809. During the Crimean War the Ottomans
stirred up the Abkhazians against Russia and supported pro-Turk factions
Von Klaproth, visiting in 1807-08, noted the feudal society, a in concert with Omar Pasha’s invasion of Mingrelia. Abkhazia was
powerful council of nobles and estimated their population as 20,000 finally annexed by Russia in 1864.
families. He does not specify if this total was just nobles and
freedmen or the entirety of the land. Georgian Battles and Campaigns
The relations between Georgia and Imeretia were not always Civil War, Turk conquest of Imereti and Russian
good. Rayfield expands on the Byzantine and often bloody and
counterattack, 1769
treacherously fluid diplomacy between these two, the other
Solomon King of Imereti was ousted by a group of nobles who had
‘Georgian’ states, Russia, the Porte and Persia.
Ottoman backing. Several forts and cities were ceded to the Turks in
return for their support.
Mingrelia
Solomon appealed to Catherine the Great of Russia for support. She sent
The state in western Georgia was ruled by Princes of the Dadiani Count Todleben with 5000 men who helped the King reclaim his lands
dynasty. During the reign of King Solomon II of Imereti, Mingrelia by expelling the rebels and Turks. The Turks in Mingrelia were also
was his vassal, until 1803, when the Russians took them over. At cowed. Numbers of the non-Russian combatants or losses of either party
some point after the Russian occupation, a local militia force was are uncertain.
established, perhaps in imitation of the one created by Heraclius.
Imereti defeats Ottomans, 1771-72
Princess Nina (or Nino) of Mingrella ruled on behalf of her infant Count Todleben was replaced by General Sukhotin, who later returned
son when her husband Grigol died in 1804. She was allied to the to Russia, upon which the Turks invaded again. Solomon defeated the
Russians in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-10 personally leading Turks with great slaughter, personally slaying many enemies.
troops to the assault of Turkish held port city of Poti, in 1809-10.
This made her perhaps the only female head of state, in the West, to Revolt in Georgia, December 1777
lead soldiers in battle in the Napoleonic period. In 1810 sent 1000 Prince Levan and Crown Prince George defeated Duke George of Ksani
troops to support pro-Russian factions against pro-Turks in Abkasia who raised a force including 3000 Dagestani mercenaries to seize power.

120
 Top Right, Murtaza Kuli Khan, Brother
of Aga Mohammed Khan, by Vladimir
Borovikovsky.

Top Left, a photo described in Cyrillic as

‘Tiflis. Pochetnaia strazha (kn. Argutinskii
i dr.) 1845’, the men are a bit of a mystery,
they appear to be in Georgian dress but
appear to lack firearms.

Right, a photo identified as

‘Imerertian militia cavalry’.

Below, ‘Georgian light cavalry’, while all

the photos presumably date from the late
19th or early 20th century and are thus
beyond the period of study, note the fur-
edged hats on the men below are the same
form as those of the preceding two centuries.

121
Georgians defeat the Khan of Erivan, summer, 1779 Hambly describes Ibrahim Khan ‘assembling a strong force’ in
Georgians successfully attacked the Khan of Erivan for his refusal anticipation of the invasion. He was defeated in battle as no help came
to pay a tribute. Drawing on regional sources, Hakobyan provided from his Baku allies who agreed to terms with Aga Mohammed Khan.(17a)
detail on the diverse nature of Georgian forces in the campaign.(113)
Tabuashvili, deducing from written records, said the Georgians sent
‘Heraclius will soon begin its assault. His army had a mixed 5000-6000 men, in mid June, and a further 7000 men in late June. It is
composition consisting of Georgian, Armenian, Borchalui, not clear when the action took place but it could have been before the
Damurchii, Hasanlui and other places, Turks, Kurds, as well second tranche of troops arrived.
as mercenaries tusherits, gharadalkhannerits, Circassians,
Abkhazians and others. Some sources said the army consisted of The Georgian force was commanded by Alexander and Prince Iulion,
40,000.’ with Otar Amilakhvari leading the right-wing and Ioane Mukhranbatoni
the left-wing. Alexander recruited Turkic mercenaries in Karabagh which
Heraclius’ force also included ‘a large number of artillery’ and the may have been part of this army.
source mentioned devastation, looting and prisoners sent to Georgia.
In 1782 the parties signed an agreement whereby Yerevan would Georgian / Karabagh forces - Georgian Princes Alexander and Iluion,
provide troops if requested by Georgia and the latter agreed to defend Ibrahim Khan of Karabagh
the Khanate from external foes. 5000-13000 Georgian troops + Karabagh troops
Georgian guns
Russians defeat Karbadians, 1779
Persian forces - Aga Mohammed Khan
General Von Jacoby led the Russians in several engagements against
20,000 or 10,000 troops
the Karbadians who lost 3000 men in the conflict.
Karapetgan mentions Alexander being sent to help Karabagh and that the
Georgian conflict with the Ganja Khanate, 1780-86 Armenian noble Jraberd Melik Mejlum, with troops, joined the Persian
In 1780 Georgia and the Karabagh Khanate took over Ganja and side and Melik Shahnazwe’s son Jumshud joined Ibrahim. He does not
imposed a joint rule (each appointing a co-governor) that lasted until record a major battle, only sallies from the besieged city and that the
1783 when a local revolt re-established autonomy. Georgia then invaders reached the area in August. He described Javed Khan of Ganja
unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Ganja in 1784, 1785 and 1786. supporting the Persians.

Russo-Chechin conflict, 1785-87 (?) Georgian mobilisation and stalemates, Karabagh, Erivan and
Von Klaproth reported the career of one Scheich Manzur, a dervish,
Ganja - June - August 1795
allegedly sent by the Ottomans to go among the Chechins and stir up
Tabuashvili, quoting from Heraclius’ letters to his nobles from the middle
trouble for Russia. (See also the section on Russia earlier.) In about
of June, describes Prince Alexander commanding 5000-6000 men. A
1787 Manzur had organised an army of 10,000 in an attempt to take
further similar group was under Prince Iulon or the King himself and
Kislar, where they were defeated ‘with great loss’ by the Dalmatian
a third group of 5000-6000 Georgian troops remained in reserve. The
Count Woinowitsch. Another defeat was suffered at the hands of the
letter relates that Heraclius was also waiting for mountaineers (meaning
garrison at Naur. The defenders were ‘Wolga’ Cossacks, women and
‘inhabitants of Tush-Pshav-Khevsureti, Aragvi and Ksani ravines’) and
old men. The women won life pensions from Catherine the Great for
foreign troops - the latter referred to Imeretians and Lezgians. The first
their bravery.
group of 5000-6000 may already have been with Alexander helping the
Karabagh army or they could be additional troops sent to help there.
Von Klaproth mentioned a Chechin stratagem in the conflict, they:
Tabuashvili calculated Heraclius as mobilising up to 25,000 men, by the
‘... employed with considerable advantage a mobile breastwork end of June, a number that included ‘foreign’ troops.
composed of fascines placed on the wheels of Tartar carriages,
which his soldiers pushed before them.’ One surviving letter between Georgian nobles described the ‘enormous
army’ of Prince Alexander gathering. The army included artillery,
Georgian conquest of Karabagh, 1787 Ibrahim Khan’s troops and Prince Iulon. Its right wing was commanded
Princes Iulon and Orbeliani, with a 4,000-strong Georgian force, by Otar Amilakhvari and its left by Ioane Mukhranbatoni (see above).
defeated Ibrahim, Khan of Karabagh. An allied Russian army was Alexander also mobilised ‘nomadic Elles’ which may be additional to, or
active in Caucasus, but it returned home, prompting the Georgians part of, the numbers above.
to discontinue any further expansionist campaigning in the region.
Details of any battles are uncertain. On June 30 Heraclius ordered his nobles to raise the one-man-per
household levy / Morige Lashkari and the Imeretians arrived in Tifilis in
July (after the 18th). The Imeretians were 2500 men under Solomon II
Russo-Georgian defeat of Leshgis, 1788 and another contingent of 1500 led by commander Kaikhosro Tsereteli.
Generals Lazaroff and Goulakoff with 2000 Russians joined forces The Imeretians had been delayed by floods.
with Georgians to ‘totally defeat with great slaughter’ Lesghis near
Kara Agatch. Dagistanian mercenaries joined the army, in June, being paid 20 roubles
per man (perhaps in addition or in the form of blue paint/dye and
Persian Conquest of Georgia, 1795 brocade) and in August they were noted in military operations.

Battle near Karabagh, June, 1795 Heraclius sent 120,000 roubles to Ibrahim Khan to mobilise ‘several
A Georgian force was sent to the Karabagh Khanate to help its thousand’ troops while the Khan of Erivan’s troops were also called up.
ruler, Ibrahim Khan, oppose the Persian invasion. The conflict was
described as a Georgian victory, a claim that should be treated with A strategic stalemate appears to have developed. Aga Mohammed
caution. Reports of tactical victories that are followed by no strategic Khan was unwilling to fight the combined mobilised forces of Georgia,
reversal for the nominal loser deserve scepticism, so a Persian Karabagh and Erivan. Heraclius remained in Tiflis, with troops, but
victory, an inconclusive or minor action remain possibilities. unwilling to further reinforce Karabagh or take an attacking posture
unless Russian support was forthcoming.

122
 Above and Above Right, two illustrations described as Imereti
combatants. The one at right is sometimes noted as a prince.

Right, jewel-
encrusted mail
armour of King
Alexander III
of Imereti,
from the 17th
century.

Above, the standard of Georgian cavalry fighting as part of the

Russian Army against the Turks, in 1854.

Above, the distinctive Imereti

peasant’s flat hat, black versions
were also worn in Mingrellia.

Right, a Gurian warrior.

Far Right, museum weapons.
Below, a schematic map of the
‘Georgian’ states showing their
broad relative position.

Abk
haz
ia

 

Schematic Georgian Regional Map
Svaneti

 Russia ↑
  

Mingrelia  
   
 


Kartli
Black
Imereti Kak
Sea
 Tiflis
heti
Guria
Caspian
Turkey ↓ Sea
Persia ↓

123
To break the deadlock Heraclius sent Alexander and Iulon, in August, However, the section above suggests he did successfully mobilise forces
with a force including Dagistanian mercenaries, to raid Ganja. The and allies, albeit with limited capacity for offensive strategic action.
Persians responded by raising the siege of Shusha, possibly as part of
a deliberate ruse. The Khan left Ali-Ghuli with 4000 troops to shadow Detailed accounts of the Battle at Krtsanisi, on the outskirts of Tiflis,
the city. seem to all derive from non-Persian sources and play up the disparity
of forces and Heraclius’ heroic defeat against the odds. There is no
In August Heraclius began demobilising of some of his army. The need to burnish the military record of Heraclius. He had a long and
Imeretian contingent of Kaikhosro Tsereteli was sent home while distinguished career extending back to his being chosen, as a young
Dagestanian mercenaries and some or all of the levies were dismissed. man, by Nadir Shah to be an officer for his Afghan campaign.
In late August Heraclius, with 2500 troops, and Solomon with 2000,
were active in Yerevan when they learnt of the Persian thrust to Tiflis. A Persian account of the campaign and conquest provides a brief
statement of events.(145)
Battle of Krtsanisi, 9-12 September, 1795
Aga Mohammed Khan of Persia invaded Georgia defeating ‘Departing from hence [the failed attack on the castle at Shushi, Aga
Heraclius-II to capture and sack Tiflis. Mohammed Khan] raised his war-like banners for the purpose of
subduing Gurjistan. He immediately defeated Erakly Khan, Waly of
that country and entered the fort of Telfis, there fell into the hands
The common narratives of the Persian campaign have the Georgians
of the soldiers, immense riches ... nearly 15,000 persons were made
under-prepared or crippled by internal treachery. Tabuashvili, prisoners on this occasion. Erakly Khan fled by way of Kakht and
accessing contemporary manuscripts, provides evidence that Kartil.’
discounts Georgian incompetence and perfidy while hinting at the
masterful strategic slipperiness of Aga Mohammed Khan. Soviet-era The battle is usually narrated with a clash of vanguards on the first
writings blame the decadent feudalism of Georgia containing the day (or two) with both sides bringing more troops into the conflict on
seeds of its own inevitable destruction. the second or third days. Georgian Prince Davit was praised for his
positioning artillery to dominate the river gorge to destroy or delay the
Having declined to offer battle to the massed Georgian and allied enemy vanguard.
force mobilised in Karabagh, the Khan abandoned the siege of its
capital, Shushi. In what looks like a calculated ruse he deliberately A surviving document, formally witnessed by Heraclius, detailed Prince
abandoned part of his tents, baggage, two guns, standards, Vakhtang’s commendation of one Giorgi Vezirishvili’s deeds in the
ammunition and gunpowder to bluff the enemy into thinking his opening act of the battle.
invasion was in disarray and retreat.
‘Agha Mohammad Khan - the son of Mohammad Hassan Khan
Heraclius began disbanding his army and Aga Mohammed Khan from Astarabad - came to ravage Tbilisi. He was accompanied by
seized the opportunity to thrust his army at Tiflis where the defenders numerous soldiers from Persia, Arak, Ardibejan... It was Monday,
were defeated. September 10. We were standing without our army beside the
armory near the parks of Krtsanisi. There were few of us - 2 majors,
The failure of the Russians to support their ally has been attributed, 5-6 shooters and 12 others including my retinue. The army of the
not to perfidy, but because their forces were scattered and more Kizilbash approached us from Soghanlughi road and from the rock
concerned about potential conflict the with the Ottomans. Heraclius above Krtsanisi. You came and fought for an hour till the army came
was warned by the Russian General Gudovich, in 1792, that no from the city. You fought bravely and valiantly ...’ .(113)
military help would be forthcoming and the Ottomans, for the first
time in 400 years, were happy to recognise Persian sovereignty over The final day saw an artillery dual and what sounds like Georgian field
Gorjestan. However, Tabuashvili said the Russians, having seen defences - perhaps constructed over night. The men above appear to
the Georgian mobilisation, in 1795, and the apparent foiling of the have bought a precious hour for the city garrison to return to the artillery
Persian threat in June-July, sent correspondence that they would now positions and rebuff the Persian vanguard. Why defending outside the
provide troops if required. None were sent. city was preferable to defending the city itself is not clear and indeed
may not have been a deliberate choice in the face of the surprise attack.
Several accounts mention Aga Mohammed Khan’s invasion by three
columns of 20,000 men each or a 70,000 total in some descriptions. The Georgians and their Imeretian allies held out stoically during the
One column went north and east toward the Caspian to secure Ganja day as Aga Mohammed Khan personally led two or three charges in an
and smaller Khanates; one went north and west under the Khan’s attempt to dislodge them.
brother Ali Ahuli Khan to secure Erivan and Aga Mohammed Khan in
the centre marched on Shusha, the capital of the Karabagh Khanate. One account mentioned a deserter telling the Persians that the enemy
were exhausted and on the point of collapse thus inspiring a final
The Persian army, probably unencumbered with heavy siege artillery, charge to evict them from their positions. After this, or perhaps causing
could move quickly and being divided into columns its axes of attack it, the Persians appear to have crossed the River Kura and outflanked
or even its intended strategic targets could be masked, to further Heraclius’ position.
wrong-foot defending forces.
The Georgians mounted a final counterattack but it failed to halt the
The central column was foiled by the resistance of Shusha and enemy. On nightfall the Persians had the victory and a final stand by
inability to take the city. Aga Mohammed Khan contemplated Georgian artillery near the city bought time to cover the King’s flight.
attacking over a ravine by filling it with all the army’s saddles to make The 300 Aragvian Martyrs made their last stand as the battle ended.
an improvised rampart. Karapetgan says Georgian Prince Alexander
was sent to support Ibrahim in Shusha and that the defenders made The Persians pursued the vanquished into Tiflis, where there was further
sallies to engage the Persians. fighting, before the city was plundered for up to eight days.

The check at Shusha may have tricked Heraclius into thinking he had Lyall’s summary of the battle mentions the speed of the Persian advance
more time to gather forces. Monteith specifically said it lulled him and Heraclius’ courage.
into a false sense of security and he neglected organising defences.
‘... by forced marches from Georgia [Aga Mohammed Khan], with a
124
Guria Kartli Kahati Imeretia (see also below)

Abkhazea Svania Samtskhe Odishi-Megrelia

Coat of arms of the Bagration Flag of Archangel Michael. Katli Coat of arms, Eristavi of Guria.
House of Georgia.
Above, coloured pictures. various heraldic devices of ‘Georgian’ states taken from the Vakhushti’s
Atlas, c. 1745. It ts not clear how long the designs remained current or the accuracy of the author’s
sources. The line drawings are taken from Мichael Wadbolsky. (150)

Below, Turkish flags and weapons, from

James Alexander. (11)

Above, seal of King Heraclius II of

Georgia.
Above, coat of arms of Nachivan.

125
 numerous army surprised the tsar Heraclius, who, although above In any case, the Georgians appear to have fought an entirely defensive
eighty years old, fought like a hero, and did prodigies of valour but battle. This suggests they were indeed outnumbered, or were waiting for
was only able to save himself and his family by flight.’ more troops to arrive, or both.

The Persian painting of the battle, made in 1806-10, shows Georgian The lower number for the Persians, at 30,000, would suggest the
cavalry defeated in the foreground and others over the River Kura invasion columns, minus any battle losses, had to detach significant
being pursued into the city, which adds weight to reports of a numbers to secure captured towns and forts. The Persian force
successful outflanking move. was probably in great majority cavalry, one (Georgian-exile, Prince
Teimuraz) source recorded a Battle at Tiblisi, in May 1795, noting that
Georgian forces - King Heraclius II the Persians deployed for battle with cavalry supporting infantry from
Determining Georgian numbers is problematic as sources vary greatly. behind to bolster their morale. The date might be in error or the action
If Heraclius and Solomon, while in Erivan, learnt of the Persian move represents an earlier clash in the campaign as described above.
in late August, they had roughly two weeks to gather available troops.
Hambly says the Persian force was 40,000 cavalry, which might
Numbers quoted include 5000 - 2000 Georgian men which might represent the mounted components of the invasion columns combined
include the 300 Aragvians and presumably other troops of that for rapid action. An all-cavalry force might also explain their difficulty
area as commanded by Georgian Prince Vakhtang (assuming these in prizing inferior numbers of Georgian infantry and guns from prepared
particular highlanders were not a standing guard unit) and the artillery positions. The account said the action lasted all day with the Persians
commanded by Prince Davit. Prince Giorgi sent only 2000 men of repulsed three times and that Aga Mohammed Khan recited passages
4000 stationed in Khaheti which might be additional to the 5000-2000 from Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh to inspire his men.
above.(110) His reserving of troops might be a reasonable response to
strategic flexibility of the enemy. The artillery action suggests the Persians had guns present, perhaps
including their zamburaks as they depict later engaging Russian artillery.
From Imeretia 2000, 2500 or 4000 men were led by King Solomon II, The painting of 1806-10 does not show the camels firing, they look more
Heraclius’ ally and grandson. Some reports said only 300 of these men like the royal band. The enemy is not shown with foot or artillery.
fought and the rest unfaithfully went home, which might mean they
fought in the field battle but declined to join the failed defence of the Earlier in the campaign the city of Shusha was bombarded by the
city itself. Persians, but not with enough power to force a surrender.

The army could have included any Lesghi mercenaries, tribal During the campaign through the Caucasus; Ganja, Erivan and other
troops or foreign-ethnic irregulars that were at hand, such as Prince minor Khanates submitted to Persia and presumably they provided
Alexander’s ‘Turkic’ men that were raised in Karabagh. troops, even if in nominal numbers or as hostages, to secure their
acquiescence for the further campaign. Ganja is usually described as
The 35 guns as captured after the battle perhaps included city defence providing a significant contingent and their recent history of extensive
artillery. (71) conflict with Georgia gave them a strong motive to do so.

Persian forces - Aga Mohammed Khan Two months before the battle Erivan was opposing Persia. References
30,000, 35,000, 39,000 or 40,000 men, perhaps including or in to their troops supporting the Khan might mean some factions supported
addition to troops from Ganja and other minor Khanates. either side, that some nobles were dragged along as hostages or that the
Sardar was a supreme political opportunist.
Motieth’s account has Georgian Prince Gurgine ordered to march with
10,000 Khaetians and 8,000 subsidised Lesghis and prince Alexander Georgian losses - 4000, and 12,000-20,000 civilian prisoners taken as
to come from Akhisia with the border force there. Neither turned up slaves from Tiflis.
but Solomon of Imereti did, with his 2500 men, who rather than help
fight, looted a city they were supposed to protect. All these claims Persian losses - 13,000 which sounds implausibly high. (26)
seem to be unsupported propaganda fed to Monteith by Russians to
justify later absorbing their nominal ally. This description of the battle would be improved by reference to
S. Kakabadze, ‘The Battle of Krtsanisi, Tbilisi’ (in Georgian) 1991 and
If the Georgian army suggested by Emin, for a proposed campaign I.V Shaishmelashvili, ‘The Battle of Krtsanisi’, (in Georgian), 1965,
in western Anatolia, of 6000 cavalry and 10,000 foot (and allies) is which I have not been able to source directly.
accepted as a typical mix for Georgia, the troops above might split
into roughly two-thirds foot and one-third cavalry. Battles at Ananur, and between Kodjori and Krtsanisi,
September-October 6, 1795
The Imeretian allied forces and probably the Georgians were Georgian sources, presumably accessed by Wardrop, described these
potentially higher-quality standing forces with a higher proportion of two actions, both victories by Heraclius against the Persians. It is not
cavalry as could be quickly mobilised. The Lesghis were described clear if any such battles were actually fought as other references say
by Westerners as mercenaries, but as mentioned earlier they may be the Persians soon left Georgia laden with loot and without other major
subject people serving under treaty terms. Some Western sources battles.
describing battles in the general area mention only regular and home-
nation troops, it is thus possible non-Georgian ethnic minorities could In the first purported battle a Georgian traitor guided 8000 Persians
be added to the numbers above. The Daghistanian mercenaries were to Heraclius’ position of retreat. No other details for either action are
specifically mentioned as not participating in the battle but that might available.
still leave others fighting as allies.
Emin described Heraclius with Leshgi and allied troops, from Shushi,
The Georgian levy had been called up in the month or two before the unsuccessfully attacking Ganja in 1795-96.
battle and those nearest the city may have been summoned again if
they were disbanded in the mean time.

126
 Summary of the Fate Caucasus Khanates in the 18th to 19th Century
Khanates dominated by Russia

Derbent Khanate (1806 occupied and annexed to Russia, same year abolished)
Baku Khanate (1806 occupied and annexed to Russia)
Erivan Khanate (1827 occupied by, 1828 annexed to Russia)
Ganja Khanate (1804 occupied and annexed to Russia)
Karabakh Khanate (1805 protectorate of Russia, 1822 abolished)
Nakhchivan Khanate (1827 occupied by, 1828 annexed to Russia)
Quba Khanate (1805 protectorate of Russia, 1816 abolished) Below, Fath Ali Shah’s crown.
Shaki Khanate (1805 protectorate of Russia, 1819 abolished)
Shirvan Khanate (1805 protectorate of Russia, 1820 abolished)
Talysh Khanate, also called Lankaran Khanate (1802 protectorate of Russia,
1826 abolished)
Avar Khanate (1803 protectorate of Russia, 1864 abolished)
Ilisu Sultanate (1803 protectorate of Russia, 1844 abolished)
Jar-Balakan Free Communities (1806 occupied and annexed to Russia)

Shamkhalate of Dagestan or Gazikumukh Shamkhalate,

which broke into the following smaller states in 1642
Gazikumukh Khanate (Russian influence from 1811, 1860 abolished)
Shamkhalate of Tarki (1813 protectorate of Russia, 1867 abolished)
Khanate of Mekhtulin
Principality of Kaytak (also called the Utsmia of Karakaytak)
Principality of Tabasaran (also called the Maisumat of Tabasaran)
Javad Khanate
Federation of Akhty
Federation of Akusha-Dargo
Federation of Andalal
Rutul Federation

Khanates dominated by Persia

Ardabil Khanate (1820 abolished)

Karadakh Khanate (1813 protectorate of Persia, 1828 abolished)
Khoy Khanate (1828 absorbed by Persia)
Maku Khanate (1922 abolished)
Marageh Khanate (1826 invaded and abolished by Persia)
Sarab Khanate (1828 abolished)
Tabriz Khanate (1780 to Khoy Khanate, 1828 to Persia with Khoy
Khanate)
Urmia Khanate (1797 subordinated to Persia)

- Data taken from wikipedia

Right, a painting salvaged from the Erivan palace, it may

represent Hossein Khan, Sardar of Erivan or Hassan Khan
‘the yellow lion’, his brother.

127
Contested succession and Russian annexation of Georgia, army intervened to quell the opposing factions. The settlement they
September - December, 1800 imposed pleased both parties.
King George XII succeeded Heraclius. Other Princes contested his
crown and rallied forces, including Lesghi mercenaries, to capture Regional revolts, 1816-22, 1841-57
strategic forts and roads to challenge the succession. In September A series of minor revolts by Chechens and Daghestanians sparked
Russia sent 10,000 troops to support George. Following his death, on during this period simultaneously with an uprising in Imeretia, from 1819
December 30th, the Russians annexed the land to foil the immediate to 1820, inspired by the clergy. Other unrest flared in Guri, Apkhazia and
plans of the other Princes. Mingrelia. Guria revolted in 1841 and Mingrelia in 1856-57.

Fath-Ali Shah of Persia recognised Prince Iulon as the rightful King

Caucasus States and Peoples
of Georgia, in 1802. In 1803 Queen Maria, George’s widow, refused
to obey a Russian edict to go into exile. When General Lazarev
Even a brief history of the divers Caucasian Khanates would swamp the
attempted to arrest the Queen in her private chambers she killed him
scope of this work. Some data has been provided on them in preceding
with a hidden dagger. She was later sent to a convent for life.
chapters and a few more snapshots are included here. The Khanates
prospered in the 18th century with the waning of Persian dynasties
Revolts in mountain provinces, 1802-04 and to fill the vacuum between competing Ottoman and Persian
Anti-Russian revolts in the Mtiuleti, Pshavi and Khevsureti regions of interests. The states themselves could be subject to Persia, Ottomans,
north and east of Georgia spread to Samachablo (north and west) and Georgia or their stronger cousins. They were systematically conquered
parts of Kakheti. and absorbed into the Russian Empire, from the late 18th century, or
consolidated within Persia.
Georgian, Ossetian mountaineer revolt, 1804
Russians under Tsitsishvili / Tizianov defeated a revolt of mountaineers Avar Khanate
who had invited Princes Pharnavaz, Iulon and Leon to lead or join The Avar people in the Caucasus can trace a history back to ancient and
them. Russian troops led by Captain Novitsky and guided by Georgian mediaeval times. Their states could be part of the Dagistani Shamkalate
Prince Giorgi Amirejibi captured Iulon who was then sent into exile. to the 17th century or subject to Turk or Persian rule. The Avars, in 1741,
famously defeated Nadir Shah and his army of reportedly 100,000 men.
Imeretia revolt, Russo-Turk War, 1809-11
Solomon II revolted against Russia during their war with the During our period the Khanate was led from 1775 to 1801 by the
Ottomans. Wardrop recounted how the western port fortress-city of energetic Umar / Omar / Umma-Khan. He successfully expanded
Poti, ruled by Turks, was taken in 1810 (or 1809) and that Princess into the broader area and subjugated the Khanates of Shaki, Quba and
Nina of Mingreli, a Russian ally, personally led attacking troops. Shirvan while establishing diplomatic alliances with others.
Solomon was treacherously captured during peace negotiations
with the Russians. He was imprisoned in Tiflis. Soloman escaped to Invasion of Georgia, Battle of Kakabeti / Yora River, 7 October, 1800
sanctuary in the Turkish city of Akhaltsikhe, until the Russians took Omar invaded Russian-occupied Georgia accompanied by the exiled
this in 1811, having earlier captured the coastal Sukhum-Kaleh in Georgian Prince Alexander and was defeated by the Russians and
Abkhazia, in 1810. Georgians. Differing accounts describe the role of Alexander range from
him masterminding and organising the army to being a minor player,
Funded and encouraged by the Turks, Solomon returned to stir up a perhaps a useful agent of Persian and Avar interests, to be installed on
new revolt in Imereti and gained poplar support to wage a guerrilla the Georgian throne. Wardrop said Alexander had appealed to Persia
war and trigger uprisings in Kakheti. The revolts were suppressed by for aid, which he obtained, to help the invasion. Other accounts suggest
the Russian army. Persian support did not make it in time to join the combined force.
Baddley claims Fath Ali Shah sent an army north over the Aras but it
Ossetian Revolt, 1810 decided to quit the venture and return.
Georgian Prince Leon, son of Iulon, helped a revolt of Ossetians
against Russia. Details of the battle are scarce, it was described as ‘on the river Iora’ or
‘near the junction of the Yora and Alazan rivers.’ Other details include
Prince Alexander’s Georgian revolt, Jan-Feb, 1812 the Avars suffering from Russian artillery; Georgian cavalry allies of the
In a major revolt, Prince Alexander was proclaimed King, among Russians ‘distinguished itself by its valour and ferocity’, Omar being
skirmishes and sieges he was defeated by Russians in battles near wounded in battle, few of the wounded surviving and that the battle
Ananour and Telaf, lasted three hours.
in the second week of
February. The reported small size of the Russian army suggests the enemy
numbers might be exaggerated or that the ‘invasion’ was more an
opportunistic raid in force and that Alexander hoped to raise additional
Mingrelian peas- local support when in Georgia. Another view of the conflict is perhaps
ant revolt of Utu also understood as two Georgian factions (Alexander and George XII)
Mikava, 1856-57 in a civil war each supported by an external power - Avars and Russians
A revolt of Mingrelian - leaving the serious doubt on the Russian-sourced accounts of them
peasants was led by the being the major player.
blacksmith Utu Mikava
against their repressive Alexander was recorded as raising local troops and during the previous
nobility - the Russian war with Persia he commanded Turkic ‘mercenaries’ that might still be
available.
Left, Imam Shamil,
who led the Caucasian Russian forces - Georgian - General Lazareff
Imamate in its conflict 1224 troops ‘of all arms’, Georgians and non-Russian Caucasian
against Russia from subjects might be in addition to these numbers. (61)
1834 to 1859.
128
Far Left, the palace at the Erivan
Khanate.

Left, Huseyngulu Khan Qajar depicted

at the same Erivan palace, by Mirza
Kadim Erivani.

Below, scenes from the Khan’s palace

at the Shaki Khanate. The palace was
built in 1797 and the artwork depicts
men in contemporary costume, albeit
the event is an earlier conflict of
Ottomans against Safavid Persians.
The men from the Caucasus are mostly
depicted with the fur-trim hat with a
red cloth top, while Turks have red caps
or turbans. The lance-armed riders,
below, with unusual peaked hats might
be Tartars or even Kurds.

Bottom Left, are retainers of the royals

or nobles wearing ornate headgear
and holding the horses. The diverse
standards depicted might be a guide for
the style employed by other regional
Khanates.

129
The 1224 might represent just Russian government troops as Wardrop asserted independence in 1803. Javed Khan, 1786-1804, and Rahim
described the revolt put down ‘with the help of Russians’. In the Khan, who ruled in 1806, defeated several attempts by the Georgia
months before the action, Russian General Knorring was ordered - Karabagh alliance to re-conquer the State.
to ready 15 squadrons, nine infantry regiments and guns to support
King George. Up to 10,000 troops so crossed the border, perhaps after Some evidence suggests Javed Khan adopted an aggressive posture
the battle. Either of these totals, with local Georgians, sound a more sending troops to raid Karabagh, Erivan and Shirvan, but these were
plausible opponent for 12,000-15,000 enemy. withdrawn to defend against the Persians. The Khan appears to have
fought a field battle against Aga Mohammed Khan’s invasion, of 1795,
Avar - Georgian forces - Omar Khan, Prince Alexander before retiring to the city, any detail of the action is unclear and they
12,000 (71) or 15,000 Avar ‘and other Dagistanians’ troops,(61) later joined the Persian invasion of Georgia. (32)
including Georgian exile Prince Alexander and possibly some
Persian or Persian-financed troops such as Turkic mercenaries. The Russians captured the city of Ganja and re-named it Elizabethpol.
The Khanate was economically strong and may have been in the position
Avar / Georgian losses - 1,500 and Omar wounded to hire mercenaries and organise field artillery. Emin suggested the
Russian / Georgian losses - ‘quite insignificant’ Khanate fielded 10,000 troops, and on one occasion, artillery.

Caucasian Imamate The Erivan Khanate and its rulers were well documented during the
The Avar Khanate was forced into a Russian protectorate in 1803 and period as the area was in or near the main theatres of conflict between
formally annexed in 1864. From the late 1820s the broader Daghistan Russia, Ottomans and Persia. The Sardars of Erivan seem to have
region came under the influence of anti-Russian militant religious adopted the trappings of a Persian court and royalty, albeit on a more
leaders with the state they organised now referred to as the Caucasian modest scale - other Khanates may have followed suit. The Khanate
Imamate. The Caucasian War, of Russia against the Imams [Ghazi retained a semi-independent but loyal status within Persia. Significant
Mohammed (1828–32), Gamzat-bek (1832–34) and Imam Shamil Persian army units, including regular Sarbaz infantry, were stationed
(1834–59)] and their bracing version of Islam, was characterised as and raised there from the 1800s. In the 1822-23 War with Turkey the
guerrilla warfare, assaults of forts and some major conflicts until the Sardar was noted as commanding 2000 cavalry, 1000 sarbaz and 2000
area was suppressed by Russia, in 1859. toffungchi / semi-regular infantry. A further force of militia - irregulars
being 1500 cavalry and 3500 infantry were in reserve. His forces thus
A full description of the war is beyond the scope of this work. Of note resemble a smaller version of the Persian army in the region.
is Shamil, at a battle in 1851, fielding formations of European-style
regulars. These were 5000-6000 ‘nizam’ who fought against a Russian The Khan of Nakshivan was recorded as raising his own force of sarbaz,
force of 4500 infantry, 1600 cavalry and 24 guns. The Russians were in 1812, they were described as not even remotely competent which
victorious and the nizam experiment was not repeated. It is not clear might mean, when observed, they were only newly raised.
if the regulars were copied from Persian or Turkish prototypes or
were even an indigenous construct. The Shaki Khanate’s detailed palace paintings give an indication of the
possible style of clothing and arms of the area. While the paintings show
Kerim Fenari gives the detail that the warriors of Ghazi Mollah wore an action of an earlier period (Safavid vs Ottoman), the soldiers were
plain clothes and used weapons without ornamentation as they fought depicted in contemporary costume.
under black flags.(131) He described the army, in 1839, as 6000 strong,
organised in units of 500 led by a naib, ‘deputy’. He later mentioned Troops include artillery, infantry musketeers and several bodies of
armies of 10,000 strong under Shamil that included four guns and 600 cavalry of different types. One body of riders has fur-edged hats and
Russian and Polish deserters fighting alongside the Moslems. carbines that look like Caucasus types, another has lances and bow with
unusual hats with upturned portions - it is tempting to identify these as
Into the 1840s and 1850s, armies of up to 15,000 were noted, being an ethnic group such as Kurds or Tartars, but not with certainty. A third
mostly cavalry raised via a levy system of 10 households supporting group of riders is armoured lancers with bows, these may be analogous
each rider. An army of 14,000 men, in 1844, was accompanied by to the armoured Persian cavalry.
eight field guns with good horses. Shamil, in a letter appealing to
the Ottomans for military support, claimed his state was producing Infantry musketeers and artillerymen wear the Caucasus headgear.
cannons, gunpowder and Congreve rockets.(132) The army was accompanied by foot drummers and mounted men with
trumpets and bugles.
Caucasus Khanates
Russian infantry battalions and garrisons were, during the 1826-28 War,
The Khanates’ military forces appear to mirror early Qajar in
seen helping the forces of their Khanate subjects, such as they did earlier
organisation - with some standing forces supported by a general
at Karabagh, in 1804-06, when a force of 300 Russian infantry held a
‘militia’ roll of men obliged to serve as a required. Troops would
strategic bridge.
be cavalry, infantry and some guns. Allies and mercenaries might be
fielded if available.
Mustafa Khan Shirwany (of Shirvan?) helped his Russian masters, in the
1803-14 War, by engaging Persian forces with his cavalry and infantry.
The Karabah Khanate could, at the time of Ibrahim Khan, call upon
He was also cooperated with combined Ganjan and Russian forces where
the notional 12,000 men on the rolls. Such men would be paid when
he once launched a bungled night assault. Van Halen, in 1820, described
called up, again reflecting the Persian organisation. The Khan’s
the Khan of Shirvan, then a Russian vassal, possessing a guard of 400
defenders of Shushi, against Aga Mohammed Khan, included
cavalry several of whom wore helmets and armour. The riders were
Daghistanian mercenaries. The Khanate was unintentionally gifted
armed with lance and buckler.
the siege artillery of Mohammad-Hassan Khan Qajar, in the 1780s, as
the latter had to call off the attack and rush to fight a Zand insurgency
Khanates fighting for Persia, against Russia, include Selim Khan of
in Shiraz. Deciding the guns were too slow redeploy away he simply
Shakaki with troops including artillery and Qajar-financed Lezghee
left them.
mercenaries.
The Ganja Khanate was led energetically against Georgian -
Karabagh domination by Hajji Beg (ruling from 1883-86) who
130
 Above and Right, more scenes from the
Shaki Khanate palace. The armoured
lancers at Middle Right, could be
armoured Persians or Kurds. Both groups
of lancers appear to have no firearms
(although one armoured man in the melee
above aims a pistol) but a quiver at hip.
Other riders use carbines or pistols. Head
hunters, at Right, present their grim
trophies to the ornately dressed potentate
(presumably the Khan or Shah?) for
reward.

Bottom, detail of an unrelated painting

of ‘Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar’ in the
Soleimaieh palace. He is surrounded by
princes or generals, almost all of whom
wear mail armour and vambraces.

131
Kurdish Khanates against the Porte and Russian success in the 1828-1829 War.
Kurdish people in the east of Anatolia formed something of a buffer
zone between Ottoman and Qajar lands. Their semi-autonomous One such aggressive Kurd leader, Mir Muhammed, undertook a
states sometimes leaned toward either of the major powers. Rivalry significant campaign of expansion in conquering or cementing alliances
between the clans was often used as leverage, by the larger states, to with local chiefs. In 1831 he led punitive raids against the Yezidis
set one against the other or to help repress an overly independent- near Mosul. These people were often in bloody conflict with Kurds.
minded princeling, perhaps by militarily backing one rival. The two Mir Muhammad’s rule was characterised as ruthless and bloody in its
large states might also drift to conflict over their competing efforts to methods but also as bringing some regional stability and relief from
impose regime change in the Kurdish areas. petty raiding.

Kurd states included Baban, Soean, Hakkari, Bayazid and Bokhiti as A Turk army, led by Rashid Muhammad Pasha, including rival Kurd
larger more autonomous entities. Smaller or less autonomous states chiefs and a force from Ottoman Baghdad, campaigned in 1834 to end
included Ardalan, Jelali, Dilmakan and Bitlis. Mir Mohammed’s independence. The rival armies were for a while in a
stalemate near Mir Muhammad’s fortified stronghold at Rawanduz.
The armed forces of the Kurds are described earlier. When fighting
for Persia we often hear about cavalry forces, including the famous British agents tried to get the sides to avoid a battle which the Turks
armoured riders. Proficient infantrymen were also available in looked like losing. Russia wanted the Turks embroiled in a new conflict
significant numbers. that the British were hoping to stop. Nobody was sure if Rashid Pasha
was in league with Egypt or if he hoped to use a victory to further his
Aga Mohammed Shah secured power in the west of Persian- broader ambitions. Persia wanted a battle to see Turkey humiliated so
influenced areas by skillfully negotiating with Kurdish princes. The they sent an army over the border to help Mir Muhammad. Britain now
key ally, Prince Sadek Khan of the Shaqaqi Kurds, staged a grab for held dual fears, a Turk battle loss would be a bad outcome but little
power following the Shah’s assassination, by capturing Tabriz and better than a victory that might start a new war with Persia. Both nations
other parts of Azerbaijan. He also seized the crown jewels as a useful were British friends. The battle was avoided and Mir Muhammad
bargaining chip. was offered high offices by the Turks. He ‘mysteriously’ died by
misadventure when returning from Istanbul.
During the 1803-14 War with Russia, a body of 3000-4000 raiding
Turkish Kurds attacked the Persian-aligned province of Erivan. The Bedr Khan, Beg of Buhtan was perhaps the most powerful and
raid, by a force of both infantry and cavalry, appears to have been an independent Kurd leader in the 19th century and by 1845 he had
opportunistic enterprise that was ultimately attacked and defeated by established what was effectively a separate state, as traditionally
the Khan of Nakhsivan. symbolised in Islamic countries of the time by minting coinage and
having his name mentioned in Friday prayers. He became leader of his
Battle of Khaki Ali near Qazvin, 1795 people in 1820 aged 18 and David McDowall said he was given a formal
Sadek Khan was besieging Qazvin to rescue hostage relatives when rank in the Turkish army in 1839.(122)
Fath Ali Khan, nominated successor of Aga Mohammed Shah,
advanced in force with what elements of the royal army could be In 1843 and 1846 Bedr launched campaigns of persecution and slave-
assembled quickly. Sadek Khan’s bothers, Mohamad Ali Sultan and raiding against the Nestorian Christian Assyrians of the Hakkari region.
Jafar Khan, had raised what troops they could - including soldiers His army was reportedly 70,000 strong in 1843.
from Qarajadagh and by arming the tradesmen of Tabriz’ bazaars;
In 1846 a Turk army was sent against Bedr, who scored a battle victory
‘... a force composed of peasants, auxiliaries both Turk and Tajik against them, before the Turks were victorious in 1847. Bedr was
artizans and manufacturers from Tabreez and Karajah Dagh.’ (145) captured and sent to exile in Crete. The Baban Dynasty was removed
from power in 1850.
After a hard fought battle Sadek Khan was defeated with great loss.
Yezidi
Kurd forces - Sadek Khan
Many European writers report, without reflection, their Moslem hosts’
15,000 troops
claims the Yazidis, of the northwest Iran or eastern Anatolia, were devil
Persian forces - Fath Ali Khan worshippers. Heude described the ‘Zezides’ as a:
Fewer than 15,000 troops
‘... sect of fanatics - not so much worshippers of the devil as
depreciators of his wrath,’ [they] ‘ ... fight on horseback with a
Sadek’s brothers in Tabriz and Khoy
sabre, a lance, pistols a rifle or a fusil which they can use with equal
were also defeated by other Kurds who
dexterity in the advance as the retreat.’
were formerly loyal governors of the
cities. Sadek was given rule of some
He further described them as dressed like Turks; trained from youth to
lands in exchange for the crown jewels.
arms and ‘wanton, cruel and treacherous.’ He noted the ‘black Zezides’
were their priests. One bit of trivia, from De Bode, claimed Yezidis
Mir Muhammad and Bedr Khan Beg
shunned blue clothing because the word blue sounded like ‘the devil’ in
Ottoman attempts, in the 1830s, at
their dialect.
centralising power and adopting modern
governance methods saw Kurdish
The Yezidis were often in conflict with the Ottoman authorities. Davi
princelings respond by asserting greater
described the Turks mounting eight expeditions against them from 1767
independence. They were encouraged
to 1809. Yezidis converted to Islam provided loyal soldiers for Bedr
in this action by the stunning military
Khan and helped him score victories over rivals in the 1830s.
successes of Muhammad Ali of Egypt
Kurds and Yezidis might also fall into armed conflict, the latter were
recorded as defeating Khan Mohamad of Van.
Left, A ‘Lesguy Tartar’ from
George Keppel, 1824.
132
Revolt of Jaafar Kuly Khan, Battle of Mount Ghazan ‘A countless host’, cavalry, infantry, artillery, mortars and zamburaks.
c. 1797-98
Jaafar Kuly Khan, taking advantage of revolts further east, raised Jaafar had peasants divert watercourses to flood the battlefield and
support among Yezidis and Shakaki Kurds near Mount Maku. approaches of the Prince but the stratagem seemed to have hampered both
These, combined with his own supporters, attacked his brother sides equally.
Hassan Khan, governor of Khoi.
‘The [royal] infantry, furious as tigers, applying the match to the volcanic
The Shah sent Ibrahim Khan Kajar Davalu, and royal forces, to chambers of the mortars, camel-guns and muskets, dealt the flames of hell
rescue Hassan Khan who was bottled up in his castle. This pair to their enemy’s souls, and with the fiery blast of destruction and death
then joined forces to fight the rebels near Mount Ghazan, in a burned up the demon-like bodies of the Kurds, their innately-depraved
‘mighty battle’, that lasted from noon to nightfall; foes.’(145)

‘... great numbers of the Yezidi and Shakaki tribes, writhed in Losses on either side were not recorded, nor was the fate of Jaafar Khan.
the dust, and a river of blood flowed outside Khoi.’
Assyrian Nestorian Christians
Battle of Deelmakan, 1799 The Nestorian Christians were a significant ethnic minority in a few Kurdish
Jaafar Khan, having fled to safety, later stirred up the rabble of principalities and they might support competing factions. This might have
Khoi who deposed and killed his brother. Abbas Mirza was sent bloody consequences as other rulers would feel at liberty to attack non-
with an army to put down the new revolt and he captured the Moslem people.
rebel fort of Hudar before battle was joined.
Watson said 30,000 Christians lived in Persian lands. He said Kurds attacked
Rebel forces - Jaafar khan the Christians of the Salmas region after the 1822-23 Turko-Persian War and
15,000 men, infantry and cavalry of ‘demon-like appearance’ killed 6000 people. The incursion brought a military response from Persia
being mostly Kurds but also Yezidi, Erivan and nomads. and a force was sent from Tabriz to repulse the attackers.
‘Government artillery’ taken from the Khoi garrison.
One significant player was Mar Shimun of the Hakkarri Kurdish polity. He
Royal forces - Abbas Mirza, Prime-minister Suleiman Khan was both a secular and religious leader of the Christian tribes in the Tiyari -
Kaja, Ibramin Khan Kajar, Ahmen Khan Mukaddam - governor Zab regions who, in the 1830s, had repulsed the attacks of two different Kurd
of Tabiz and Maragah. leaders. Internal descent among the Christians saw some factions prepared to
support Kurdish leaders against Mar Shimun, however, in 1837, he could still
send 3000 men to help a Kurd leader against the Turks, albeit the men were
later withdrawn. Fraser described how the Nestorians of the Mountains of
Jewar, west of Ooroomia, could field 12,000 toffunchees. These people were
the nominal subjects of the Hakkaree Koords.(131)

Central Asia
The Qajar dynasty held hopes of bringing the Central Asian states into their
empire as had been the case under earlier regimes. Such a move would have
the immediate practical aim to cut off the market for Turkoman slave-raiders
who captured Persians to sell there.

Ferrier, in 1845, estimated there were up to 30,000 Russian and Georgian

slaves in Khiva. He noted a punishment for misbehaving slaves was to be
nailed by the ear to doorways.

The Central Asian states were often intriguing to pillage or capture Persian

Far Left, a Kurd musketeer. Left, a chief of the Nestorian Christians from
Drouville, 1821. Below, Persians fighting Kurds, from 1856.

133
cities in the east, perhaps in concert with rebellious Iranian governors The second group would have their tax waived for the period of service.
or Afghan potentates. Persian intrigues also looked to gain these The Khan would replace any horse or camel killed on military service.
states as confederates for action in the broader area.
Mingan, who travelled in 1829, contemplated a theoretical Russian
Khiva invasion of British India and described the Khivan military capacity in
The Khanate of Khiva (also known as Khwarizm Khanate) was unflattering terms.
located on the east shore of the Caspian Sea and south of the Aral
Sea. The Khan’s seat was at the city of Khiva. ‘The military force [of Khiva] only amounts to 50,000 wretchedly
armed men who are a mere rabble.’
The population was a mix of Uzbeks, Turkoman, Persians, Sarts,
Kazakha and Karakalpak ethnic groups. The southern boundary with Infantry were not a key part of armies but could be city defenders. From
the Turkoman tribes occupying the semi-desert lands between Khiva the early 1850s a force of sarbaz was raised in imitation of Persian and
and Persia was a fluid construct. The tribes might be more or less Bokharan examples. The maximum number of sarbaz appears to have
subservient to the Khanate, mostly less, and the state was often a reached 1000, but fewer were generally mentioned.
nominal vassal of Bokhara.
Small quantities of artillery, of diverse calibres (from 4 to 12-pounders),
Fraser provided a note that Nadir Shah, when capturing the Khanate, could be fielded firing stone or iron shot. The sources suggest 30
buried alive and head-down the Khan and several of his family. was the maximum number of guns in the land. However, this number
Visiting in 1821-22, Fraser suggested the Khan of Khiva’s forces included city defence guns and those without carriages or otherwise in
would be a ‘standing army’ of 12,000-30,000. Of these 12,000- bad repair. A field army, in the period of study, might typically have as
15,000 were ‘continually at command’ and the forces could swell to few as two to ten guns. The crews could be Russian, Persian, Afghan or
40,000 at need by calling up all tribesmen. Fraser said the additional other foreign nationals.
troops might need to be given horses from the Khan’s stables. This
additional levy was described as of poor quality and; ‘by no means City defenders could be men armed with swivel guns, probably in the
efficient for external warfare.’ form of jingals with crews of three or four. It is unclear if such weapons
were also used in field battles. One device mentioned by Heath was an
In 1829 Conolly described the Khan of Khiva as commanding 12,000 artillery piece being five ‘falconet’ tubes mounted on a carriage as per
horseman in regular pay and a further 30,000 ‘feudal’ horse. Wolff, other artillery. The device must have resembled a mediaeval organ-gun.
in 1831-34, said Khiva had a force of 30,000 warriors. Munshi Russians unsuccessfully defending their island naval base in the Caspian,
Mohanlal travelling in 1831-34 said Khiva sent 20,000 horsemen to against Turkoman pirates, used a similar seven-barreled gun suggesting
aid Herat in their conflict with Persia.(142) the idea was copied in the broader area.

Riders would use sword, dagger, mace and matchlock. Lances were Khivans were noted for their tall broad-topped sheepskin hats and long
mentioned but they appear to have been rare and armour was worn by coats of coloured vertical stripes, of blue, red or grey.
only a minority of men. The matchlocks were heavy, long-barrelled
and designed to be used mostly dismounted with a bipod. Bows were Incursion into Bokhara, c. 1810-13 (4)
used up to the second half of the 19th century, by which time they Khan / Amir Iltenuzzer with two brothers and 3000 troops invaded
were made obsolete by matchlocks. The varying number of troops Bokhara, they were defeated by Shah Hyder’s troops, Iltenuzzer and
recorded might reflect the division into the Khan’s guard, of 1000- ‘many of his troops’ drowned in the Oxus river during the rout.
1500 or so, and a militia force raised by levying a rider per a certain
land area. A further general levy, of ‘nukers’, raised one man per Invasion of Khorasan, 1815
family, mustered when required. Mohamed Raheem Khan, brother and successor of Iltenuzzer, invaded
Khorasan, in 1815, where he besieged fort Dereguz. He negotiated with
The first group of levies provided their own weapons and horses but local Kurdish and Khorassanain chiefs to revolt against the Qajars, but
would receive a pay in fodder or food and / or cash when called up. received only timid support. The chiefs urged the Khivan to attack
Meshed and provided some token troops (100 riders). Mohamed Raheem
Khan, suspicious of his lukewarm allies, seized some
Kurdish leaders as hostages and returned home. His army
suffered significant losses crossing the desert in the retreat.

Turkoman - Khivan invasions, 1814-18 (?)

Watson described a revolt of Turkomans in support of
Qajar chief Mahomed Zeman Khan’s grab for power,
these were defeated somewhere near Astarabad. Thereafter
the tribesmen melted back into the arid regions. In what
might have been a coordinated effort the Khan of Khiva
invaded and marched toward Astarabad in support of rebel
Khorassanian chiefs.

The ‘Oozbeg’ Khan found he was now opposed by a larger

force from the Shah of Persia. Following unsuccessful
peace negotiations he sustained a ‘severe defeat’. This
invasion may be a differing account of the next described
action.

Left, General Muravev visiting the Khan of Khiva, from

‘Voyage en Turcomanie et à Khiva, fait en 1819 et 1820’
Nikolai Muravev, 1794-1866, pub 1823.
134
War against Tuckeh Turkomans, Persians, 1818-1820
Fraser described how Mohamed Raheem Khan invaded the Tuckeh
Turkoman lands forcing them to retreat. The tribesmen were then supported
by the Persian Prince, Reza Koollee Khan, and Nujjuff Alee Khan of
Boojnoord who appeared to have foiled the Khivan. Mohamed Raheem
Khan had supplied his army with vast numbers of camels bearing water but
in the retreat he still suffered catastrophic losses of men, horses and camels
from the oppressive conditions and presumably raiding Turkomans.

Khiva - Turkoman invasion of Khorasan, 1823 (?) (88)

The new Khan allied with Turkomans invaded Khorasan and the local
Persian Prince-Governor raised a force of the famous mailed riders who,
after a ‘severe struggle’, forced the young Khan of Khiva back into the
desert. The Persians built a pyramid of Turkoman heads.

Revolt in Khorasan, 1830 (?)

The Khan of Khiva allied with revolters in Khorassan, the prime being the
Ellkahni of Kurds.

Abbas Mirza and Mohamed Mirza, campaigning in the area, joined battle
against the Kurds and each side fielded about 12,000 men. The Persian
artillery superiority gave them an advantage and the Khivans abandoned
their Kurd allies. The Afghan rulers of Herat who were intriguing with the
rebels also abandoned the Kurds.

Failed Russian invasion of Khiva, 1839-40

Attempting to halt slave raiding, Russia sent General Perovsky to mount
a punitive invasion, in winter, to avoid the stifling summer climate. The

Above, detail of people of Central Asia showing some

costume detail, 1 Ouzbek, 2 Turcoman, 3 Kirghiz, 4 Sarty,
5 Tadjik, 6 Tadjic Woman, 7 Kirghiz woman, 8 Afghan. The
image is from Baron George Meyendorff. (154)

Left and Below Left, Bokharan sarbaz infantry and artillery,

as depicted by Wolff, who travelled in 1831-34. (94)

Below, details from a painting, ‘Timur’s Gate’, by Russian

painter Vasily Vereschagin, showing ornate coloured clothing
examples for Uzbeks. The artist painted in the later 1800s but
the subject matter appears to be set earlier.

135
winter climate proving no better, the invasion failed, in February 1840, of riders only would be so armed. It was not until the last two or three
having suffered catastrophic losses of men and animals. decades that firearms would be universal.

Russian forces - Perovsky If Fraser’s earlier description of a third of riders having matchlocks as
Three and a half battalions of infantry their only weapon remained general throughout the period, it might
Two regiments (sotnias?) of Ural Cossacks, 300-400 men suggest the men had role as specialist marksmen, the analogy with
500-700 Orenburg Cossacks Persian ghulams and the ghulam-toffangchi comes to mind. Such troops
22 guns and four rocket-stands might equally be mounted infantry, as described below, and operate
Totalling 5,325 men
tactically as massed toffungchi as noted for other nations.
Russia losses - 1856 men.
A proportion of the cavalry were armoured with helmet, mail, vambrace
and shields. The percentage of these declined until thy disappeared in
General Perovsky later had a success, in 1857, capturing the Khanate’s
the late 1860s.
border fort at Khoja-Niaz.
Firearms were almost exclusively matchlocks for the first half of the
Bokhara 19th century. After this, flintlocks became more common, representing
Men of Bokhara had the fashion of staining their beards blue, unlike captures from Russians, Persians or imports from India.
say the men of Mazanderan and others who used henna. Illustrations
of Bokharan Uzbek costumes are shown earlier. They were known for Infantry matchlock-men could be raised under the militia system. Such
their highly colourful and highly decorated coats, sheepskin hats and men numbered up to 3900 who would, in dragoon-style, ride to battle
sometimes turbans. on horses and dismount to fight, reportedly with little resolve.
Shah Murad, in 1784, seized power in Bokhara from the remnants of From the 1830s, imitation European infantry named in Persian-style as
the Janid Dynasty. After this the state took the name of an Emirate sarbaz, were raised. The formations were often officered by Persians
rather than a Khanate. and their ranks included Persian, Russian, Cossack, Afghan or Indian
freebooters, prisoners or ex-slaves. The numbers of these men ranged,
Fraser described reports of the military ranging from 100,000 to in the period of study, up to 2500 with a steady increase throughout
30,000 men. He said the difference represented accounting for ‘the the remainder of the 19th century. The efficiency of these troops was
force kept in constant readiness and the emergency’. He suggested described with no praise by European observers. Sarbaz were clad
the former might number 30,000-40,000 horsemen and the levy the in red coats. The formation also included an artillery component; 11
balance. He believed the force was all cavalry; guns and two mortars were noted in 1841. The sarbaz artillerymen by
distinction wore black jackets.
‘... armed with a very long lance, a sword, a shield, and a certain
number, perhaps a third, have matchlocks and these have no other
arms, they all wear long knives or daggers.’ Bokharan artillery grew in numbers from a dozen or so in the first
decades of the 1800s up to 100 by mid century. Many of the guns were
Wolff, in 1831-34, said the ‘Khan’ of Bokhara could muster 20,000 city defence artillery. Reports of the guns suggest many were in bad
men, mostly cavalry. The Khan owned 100 guns even though ‘he has repair or unserviceable and lacking carriages. The weapons themselves
no men who know well the use of them’. appear highly varied in type, ranging from locally-cast to captures
from Russia, Persia, other Central Asian states or even, via a few steps
Munshi Mohan Lal, traveling in 1831-34, provided similar information removed, from Chinese Turkestan.
in suggesting the Bokharans had 20,0000 cavalry ‘on swift horses’
some of whom received a small sum of money and corn as payment. The calibre of 41 guns seen by a European traveller, in 1831, was three-
He noted their ‘irregular and undisciplined bravery’ and that the state quarters 3-4 pounders, four mortars and six or seven larger guns.
(75)

could raise a further 100,000 soldiers, from the villages, in times of

great danger. The Bokharans also used swivel guns with 130 noted in 1839. Several
names were given for the weapons, including djezanlis or Shahins. The
‘The people in this country fight with javelins, and cannot fire on guns could be carried on camels or carts or used from forts. Heath’s
horseback ... here are about 60 cannon, but their commanders are description of them suggests they may not necessarily be zamburaks
unqualified to use them. The gunpowder is very bad.’ when on camel-back. They were possibly more like jingals provided
with animals or equipment to aid mobility and not intended for mounted
Other estimates for the general levy of villages range from 30,000 to fire. It is possible that some could be used in either fashion.
60,000 men. This number might include up to 10,000 Turkoman - if
they could be forced into service. The cavalry would fight in loose swarms typical of steppe riders for
the past millennia and attempted to find
Heath noted the village or regional levy system rased men called enemy exposed flanks and especially any
the Nawkar (or kara matrghan according to Fraser), with men aged under-guarded baggage. The riders were
15 to 60 and their horses registered on a roll and liable for service noted as stoically brave when fighting
under Begs, ‘provincial governors’. Troops raised and paid for by dismounted behind fortifications or
the ‘Khan’- Amir were called sipahis or jigits, while Begs would also entrenchments. Gunners might also fight
have a small force of permanently embodied retainers. to their death when defending their guns
in defences.
The jigit cavalry were lancers also armed with sword, javelin and
dagger. The observation above concerning cavalry being unable to Capture of Mirv from Persia, 1785
fire on horseback refers to the heavy long-barrelled firearm, with a The city was captured by Shah Murad of
bipod stand, that was common for both infantry and cavalry in the Bohkara in 1785. It was destroyed and
region. The weapon apparently could be fired while mounted, but with
no great accuracy, so riders would dismount to fire with any effect.
Firearms were not universal and, by mid 19th century, perhaps a third
Right, Ahmad Shah Durrani.
136
Above from Left: Doorani Shepherds, a Hazaureh, a Khojeh of Uzbek Tartary, a Taujik in the Summer Dress of Caubul, a Hindee in the winter
dress of Peshawar, a Man of the Tymunee Eimauks - from Montstuart Elphistone.(76)

Above Left, an Afghan of Damaun. Above Centre, ‘a Dooranee Villager with his Arms’. Above Right, a Dooraunee Gentleman.

Below Left, ‘The Ulma Baushee in his Dress of Office’. Below Centre, an Eusofzye. Below Right, the Chaous Baushee in his Dress of Office.

137
depopulated in 1789. Aga Mohammed Shah, in 1796, contemplated Afghanistan was captured by Nadir Shah in the 1720-30s. Nadir Shah’s
a combined conquest of Bokhara with the Durrani leader Timur general Ahmad Shah Durrani, in 1747, established rule in Eastern Iranian
Shah. The motivation was partly to avenge the treatment of the Mirv Khorassan, Afghanistan and parts of modern Pakistan, India (captured
Persians and to return captured slaves. The plan came to nothing. from the Moghuls) and Turkmenistan. The state was known variously as
the Durrani Emirate, Khanate, Kingdom or Empire.
Revolt in Khorassan, stalled invasion, 1814-(16?)
Khorassanian chiefs revolted against the Persian government Nadir’s grandson, the ageing blind Shah Rokh, was retained as the puppet
following the latter’s defeat in the war against Russia. The chiefs leader of Khorassan. Ahmad engaged in several campaigns in India and
captured Meshed but they squabbled among themselves and central even sent troops to the central Asian state of Khokand to oppose the Qing
forces, under Prince Mahomed Veli, re-captured the city. The chiefs Chinese Dynasty’s westward push.
called on the Khan of Bokhara to mount an invasion, which was
commenced then cancelled, when the Khan realised the Persian Aga Mohammed Shah’s building of the Qajar state included conquests
government forces had been bolstered and held key strategic positions. in the east where the city of Meshed and Shah Rokh were captured in
1795. Shah Rokh was believed to be hiding the remaining famed jewels
Bokhara - Khokand War, 1839-42 of Nadir Shah, the location of some he revealed when tortured by Aga
Nasr Ullah defeated Madali Khan of Khokand; some minor battles Mohammad Shah.
went in Nasr Ullah’s favour and his artillery battered cities to
surrender, Madali Khan was captured and executed. The Afghan descendants of Ahmad Shah Duranni were fractious and
treacherous beyond comprehension. The competing Durrani clans of
Khulm City - Khanate Barakzi and Sadozi, and even brothers, alternated between concord and
The Khanate / Princedom of Khlum, in the broader Turkestan area, conflict. The titular later rulers of the Durrani lands might hold power
was at times under Afghan rule but often independent. Ferrier visiting only in one city or province with Herat, Cabul and Candahar, Peshawar
in 1845 said the place was then ruled by Mohamed Emin Khan, at times effectively independent, again even when brothers held sway in
who in addition to neighbouring allied cities and tribes could raise a these places. Disunity was fuelled by the diverse local ethnicity, blood
force of 8000 cavalry, 3000 infantry and 800 regulars ‘being remnant feuds, tribal warlords or the Shia / Suni divide. The rising Sikh power in
Eimaks trained by the British in Kabul’. India saw the Afghans lose significant territory on the Indus plain.

These regulars, or a cadre of them, left Kabul in 1841 when Khulm A charismatic and competent leader might rally the diverse Moslem
revolted. The forces also included a few sepoys, formerly part of ethnicities within his realms into a war of religion against the Indians.
the British army, that served artillery of 10 pieces, two of very large Holding such forces together was a more difficult prospect.
calibre. The four best guns were sourced from Mohammed Akbar
Khan after he was defeated by the British. The other six weapons Britain hoped to cement alliances with both Persian and Afghan rulers
were old and bad remnants from Nadir Shah or of a similar vintage. to form a defensive zone protecting British India against French
encroachment. In June 1809 a treaty was signed with the Afghan ruler
In 1845-46 the Afghan ruler, Dost Mohamed, sent his brother Akrem
Khan and 10,000 cavalry to capture the Uzbek dominated Khulm.
Three battles were fought without either side gaining a significant
advantage.

Afghanistan, Durrani Khanate, Khorassan

The Qajar Shahs often looked to capture land, in what we now
know as Afghanistan, to regain rule over areas so claimed by Nadir
Shah. This usually manifested as periodic attempts to capture the
city of Herat and surrounding forts and provinces as a springboard
for further conquests. Local chieftains and princelings in Iranian
Khorassan, might, in periods of chaos, assert their autonomy from
Tehran and side with Afghan or neighbouring powers. Afghanistan
contained significant Persian speakers and ethnic Persians. The
eastern Persian city of Meshed might be caught up in revolts and
reject central authority.

Abbas Amanat described how rulers in the Herat region, and

indeed at times the entire kingdom, were at times vassals of Persia
and conflict between them can
thus be seen as bringing rebel
provincial governors to heel.(116)
This relationship helps explains
why invading Persian armies were
sometimes happy to take money and
promises from a rebel rather than
launch a full military assault.

Left, Timur Shah. Right, ‘Angus

and Pottinger watching the fight
from the walls of Herat.’
138
Shuja Shah (sometimes known to Europeans as Shah Shoojan-ool- overestimate the Czarist contributions. Both attempts to capture Herat
Moolk) whereby he would oppose any European army entering his were halted by British invasion of Iran via the Persian Gulf.
lands. The deal was short-lived as Shuja Shah was deposed by local
forces a few weeks later. Afghan armies during the period of study were noted for their excellent
cavalry. The Persian soldiery of Nadir Shah, that settled in the area,
In the Anglo-Persian Treaty, of 1814, Britain did nothing to dampen became known as Quizzlbash. Ethnic groups such as Pashtuns,
Persian hopes of expansion into Afghanistan. Hazzarahs, Eimaks, Beloochis and Tartars, among others, might also
provide cavalry. The costume and weaponry of some of these groups
Article V. Persia to send an Army against Afghanistan in event of has been described earlier.
the Afghans being at war with the English; such Army to be paid for
by the British Government. Infantry was often outnumbered in armies, or perhaps absent entirely
if speed was needed. The long-barrelled jezzail was famous in the area
Other treaty articles guaranteed that if war broke out between Persia and not limited to foot.
and the Durannis; Britain would not interfere, unless both sides
wanted a peace negotiator. Elephants
Princes, generals and other grandees might ride elephants. The Qajar
From the 1830s Britain took a more active role in Afghanistan by depiction of the 1856-57(?) siege of Herat shows six beasts. The
backing favourable rulers and ultimately installing in 1839 the elephant crew, of at most two riders, appear to be armed with muskets.
ill-starred Shuja Shah as their nominee King. The course of British- No howdahs are shown in this picture but written accounts describe
Afghan War, of 1839-1842, is beyond the scope of this work. potentates fighting from gold howdahs or riding elephants in parades.
From the 1830s Britain saw Afghanistan as a potential target for Ferrier described one Heratee Prince receiving an elephant as a
Russia to threaten British India, either as continuation of Russian wedding present. Shah Mahmood entered Kabul riding a magnificently
expansion into Central Asia or by assisting compliant Persian rulers caparisoned elephant. This beast was captured from the future Shah
in their attempted conquest. Persian attempts to capture Herat, in Shuja who had dressed the elephant in a plan to make the same
1837-38 and 1856-57, had Russian support, albeit the British seem to entrance.

Data from Ferrier. (118)

139
Army Organisation Artillery
Conolly said troops were originally, to roughly the 1790’s, raised Elphistone said the King of Caubul was reputed to own many guns but
by each area of land under an individual plow being required, when noted he could field only five at a battle in 1809. The following battle
called up by the ruler, to furnish an armed rider. This structure soon reports also mention few field guns and the Afghans seem seriously out-
evolved into troops serving for pay while on active duty - in a system gunned when facing Persians. The local guns were also noted as of poor
sounding like the Persian ‘militia’ structure described earlier. quality.

The infantry and probably field artillery of the better organised Later armies appear to have acquired more and better guns, often of
armies were inspired by the trend to copy European regulars. The heavy calibre. Conolly, in 1830, observed four light guns with the rear-
initial example for these appears to have been the sepoys of British guard of an Afghan army marching out of Meshed and also:
India rather than Ottoman nizam or Persian sarbaz.
‘....three twelve-pounders and a smaller one, each mounted on a
Elphistone, who travelled in 1808-10, provided a detailed account of very heavy carriage, drawn by six indifferent horses, ridden by gaunt
the broader organisation of the Dooranee army. Its similarity to the Indians, dressed by way of a uniform, in tight red cotton clothes.’
Persian system will be apparent. Many military terms were the same
as those used by Persians. The following information is taken from When facing a particularly steep mountain climb these guns were
mostly Elphistone, with others included, as noted. dismounted with the barrels loaded onto camel-back. Indian gunners in
red sound like a unit inspired by regular units of the British.
Dooraunee ‘feudal militia’
The land-owning soldiers served in return for their property rights Armies operating on the Indian front against Sikhs, in the 1830s, fielded
and were called up for their three-months’ annual service and paid more guns; 17 and 24 being mentioned in the Asiatic Journal. (126j) These
in cash. They were therefore organised in a system described earlier guns could be found aggressively manoeuvring close to the enemy lines
as ‘militia’ for Persians. This body totalled 12,000 men but the King to give fire.
could, if war was near Dooraunee lands, raise as many men as he
could afford to pay. The men formed by clans into dusteh, ‘groups’ Sepoys
or units, serving in sub-units under their own local commanders. The King had a guard of a few hundred Hindoostanee sepoys, dressed as
those in British India; Elphistone thought they lacked discipline.
The men, all cavalry, were armed with Persian sword and a
matchlock; while ‘a few of the best men’ used lances (without expert Irregular Infantry Garrisons
skill). Some men owned firelocks and the chiefs used pistols. Shields A number of irregular infantry units were maintained as garrisons
were by now largely obsolete. and funded out of provincial revenues. Provincial rulers might also
command smaller forces reflecting in composition the royal army. These
Ghoulaum Shauh units would rarely serve outside their home province.
The ghoulaum shauh or ‘gholaum khauneh’ were foreign residents,
particularly Persians, descended from Nadir Shah’s troopers and
some Tajiks or other local tribes. The body totalled roughly 13,000
men. The Persian component, roughly a third of the total, might also
be known by the Turco-Persian word ‘Kuzzilbaushes’. These were
considered better quality fighters than the rest.

The troops appear to have been permanently embodied and in theory

regularly paid. The men’s bad behavior toward civilians replicated
their Persian namesakes but being non-Afghans, and outside the
political structures, they were considered reliable in civil wars.

The men also formed up in eight to ten dustehs commanded by

‘Kooler Aghauses’. These were appointees and confidants of the
king, sometimes eunuchs, or Peshkedmuts, ‘personal attendants.’

The men were armed much as the Dooranuees but with a higher
proportion of lancers and more men with firelocks.

Peshkedmuts
As well as providing gholaum officers this body appeared to
form a King’s inner guard unit, of perhaps 500 men, usually of
Kuzzilbaushes. The King provided their horses whereas the two troop
types above provided their own mounts.

Shaheenchees - Zamburaks
Reckoned among the ‘regular’ forces were 700-800 camel gunners,
with ‘large swivels’, known locally as Shaheenchees. The
commander of this force, ‘a considerable officer’, was known as
the Shaneechee Baushee. This post exclusively held by the ruling
Baurikyze clan at the time observed.

Right, Pottinger dragging the vizier to

defend the walls of Herat.
140
Karra Nokur ‘militia - levy’ 6000 men, seem to have been of reasonable competence and were
This formation was a levy of probably up to 12,000 men, called up often called out to accompany the King’s army.
at times of war, with nominally one man per plough being supplied.
The body was all cavalry excepting 2000 infantry provided from the Dawaltullub - Volunteers, Ghazis
‘Cohistaun’ of Caubul. Volunteers serving outside the other institutions were called
Dawaltullub. They were engaged with a one-off payment from the
The cost of furnishing these troops fell to local town or province King for a particular campaign and thereafter hoped to loot. They were
authorities and the expense was deducted from taxes due. A paid thus popular when invading non-Moslem parts of India. Presumably
substitute soldier could be provided if landowners were unwilling to be the men were infantry or cavalry depending on their personal finances.
called up - the provincial chief might just ask for, and pocket, the cash. The Ghazis, fighters answering the call to a jihad, logically fell into
this category.
The Karra Nokur would also form up in dustehs commanded by
a Dooranee Sirdar. These troops would serve as long as the King Ooloossee - Mass Uprising
required and local officials would give the soldiers’ family grain in As a further emergency measure, the general population able to
compensation for their absence. The King might have to pay for these bear arms, the unpaid Ooloossee, could be called up. These were
soldiers to muster if he lacked the authority to compel service. probably used only to repel a foreign invasion or to stir up sectarian
Suni - Shia fights in neighbouring provinces. Elphistone thought the
Eeljauree - Emergency Levy ‘ungovernable multitude’ was probably no good but might, with care,
A further levy was known as the Eeljauree, an emergency levy of be found a useful military role.
usually 1/10th of the population (but the King might require more)
being the villagers, poorer classes and tradesmen. They were either Command
volunteers or conscripts if more men were needed. These troops would Generals, perhaps as few as three at a time, were known as Sirdars.
be paid a small sum, for the duration of their service, by town officials. A supreme general, the Sirdaree Sidaraun, might rarely be appointed.
The cost was raised from a poll tax on non-land owners. If men served The dynamic and dangerous grand vizier Futteh Khuan held such a
for more than three months the King paid them. post. Other offices included:

The Eeljauree were ‘almost all infantry’ that rarely served far from their Hicarrah Bashee - chief of intelligence
homes, however those raised at Peshawar and Cabul, each of 4000- Chuppers and Cossids - foot and mounted messengers

Below, a painting of the siege of Herat by Mohammed Ismail, 1856. In the riot of figures are elephants, camels, artillery and cavalry.

141
 Nusukchee Bashee - chief of punishments 16 pieces of artillery, 6, 8 or 12-pounders ‘which are served by the
Meer-Akhor - master of horse [regular?] infantry who make but poor artillerymen’.

Weapons Under the vizier, Yar Mohamed Khan, a body of regular infantry, being
The Ghiljies people were armed as per the Dooraunees, above, but eight battalions of 1000 men, was formed in 1829. The troops were
add a small shield. Eastern Afghans used Hindostanee sword, shield, instructed, from 1834, by a ‘Hindoo Mussulman’ formerly a sergeant in
leather cuirass, matchlock and often a spear - the latter was noted as the service of the British East India Company. The men were married
going out of fashion. and recruited from tribes recently brought into the area.

Infantry generally had a sword or a ‘short’ three-foot long dagger, These troops appear to have been clad in what might be a uniform, of
shield and a matchlock with a rest. The Cohistan of Cabul were short shirt jacket and sir-jameh, ‘trousers’, which sounds like a style
reckoned the best infantry. They used a firelock, pistol and short inspired by the sepoys of British India. Illustrations of Shah Shuja’s
dagger - but no sword. attendants, page-48, show men in crimson jackets (described as scarlet
in the artists’ notes and Heart was famous for red dye) and darker
Other weapons mentioned included axe, short-barrel large-bore blue-green trousers. These men were probably an inner bodyguard,
carbine-like firearm and bow and arrows. Elphintone’s picture of ‘The messengers, runners etc, but the cut and colour of clothing might be
Chaous Baushee in his dress of office’ shows him as a rider with a indicative of a uniform for other troops.
quiver at hip. Ferrier, travelling in the mid 1840s, described an Eimak
tribe that used lance and bow with very few firearms. Ferrier called these militia serbas, as per Persian nomenclature, his
editor noted the irregular cavalry of Afghanistan might be called janbas.
Ferrier described the local weapons as;
The troop numbers above are described as those receiving pay or serving
‘... the firelock, the carbine, the swivel-gun or a pair of bad pistols; in return for land ownership, so the levies and emergency troops
sometimes a bow, or a lance with a bamboo handle. The firearms described earlier could be added to the totals. Ferrier thought only a
are coarse and heavy, the hammers of the locks being very defective, third of the general levy would be of any military use.
most of the barrels are Turkish, and rifled. They also carry a shield,
a foot and a half in diameter, covered with copper, or the hide of
Battles, Campaigns and Revolts
either the elephant or the horse, which is very hard.’
The battle notes below include many where Persians were not
combatants, however they often help to place other events in context
Later Afghan Armies - Europeanised Regulars
and provide more examples of actions by an army that had a number
Ferrier, visiting in 1845-46, provided a general history of Afghanistan
of similarities to Persian institutions. Many of the battles are not
and some detail on the military. Efforts were made to build regular
well known and shed light on the military of non-European nations.
troops, often with the help of European trained advisors.
Accounts up to 1815 are largely taken from Elphinstone and other
sources, as noted, being mostly Ferrier (who sourced information
He divided the national forces into the three polities;
from interviews with some of the players and local writers Mirza Ali
Mohamed and Abdullah Khan Heratee - whom he said did not often
Kabul:
supply usable dates for events).
15,000 Afghan Horse.
Other data comes from Brig-Gen.
6,000 Parsivan or Kuszilbash Horse.
Sir Percy Sykes who sometimes
6,000 Afghan Mountaineers, Infantry.
follows Ferrier.(119)
4,000 Parsivan, Hazarahs or Uzbeks, Infantry.
31,000 total.
Abdoolkhaulik’s revolt, Duranni
A few pieces of artillery served by Afghan crews with some of the
civil war, 1774-75
men trained under the British occupation.
Abdoolkhaulik, a relative of Timour
Shah, raised an army in revolt.
Attempts were made, under Mohamad Akbar Khan, son of the
He gathered large numbers of
Emir Dost Mohammed, to instill British discipline in cavalry and
Dooranis and Ghiljies. His army
manoeuvring by ordered squadrons. Ferrier suggested it was not
was larger but worse trained than
successful. Two battalions of Parsivan infantry, who ‘manoeuvred
the ‘disciplined troops’ of the Shah.
badly enough’, were drilled from 1841 by an Englishman named
They also had fewer experienced
Kervel, who had converted to Islam.
officers. Abdoolkhaulik was
defeated in battle, a loss expedited
Kandahar:
by some key allied clans changing
12,000 Afghan Horse.
sides to the Shah. Abdoolkhaulik
3,000 Afghan, Infantry.
was captured and blinded.
3,000 Belooch Infantry.
18,000 total.
Feizoolah Khaun’s Khulheel
A few pieces of artillery served by Afghan crews with some of the
revolt, 1779
men trained under the British occupation.
Inspired by a famous dervish, the
Sahebzadeh of Chumkunee, who
During the rule of Kohendil Khan, from 1833, a force of 2000 Afghan
held a personal grudge against the
infantry were given regular training under European instructors. These
Shah, Feizoolah Khan a chief of the
appear to have performed badly, in 1838, their first encounter.

Herat: Above Right, Akali Tapa Singh,

8,000 Afghan Horse. an early Khalsa soldier during the
4,000 Hazarah Horse. times of the Sikh Misls.
10,000 Parsivan Infantry, 600 of whom guard the vizier. Right, a ‘Khawtee Ghiljie in his
22,000 total. Summer Dress’ .(76)
142
Khulheels organised an army on the pretext of attacking Punjab. His were mentioned marching to the area and dispursing the rebels to their
force was largely of Afghans from the Kyber tribes. strongholds.

Parading his army before the Shah, in Peshawar, Feizoolah Failed coup of Arseleh Khan and Yaghoot Khan, 1792-93
treacherously ordered them to attack the city and Timur Shah retired Yaghoot Khan, commander of Timur Shah’s harem guard, plotted to
to the citadel where the Ghoulam Shah and his few Dooraunees allow Arseleh Khan, of the Mohmund tribe, entrance to the citadel at
present fought off the rebels, with great slaughter. Many of the rebel Peshawar. The plan was to kill the Shah and instal Arseleh’s nephew,
troops had no idea about the plot and declined to join - Feizoolah and Iskander Khan, in power.
his son were captured and executed. The dervish was careful to not
leave enough evidence to implicate him in the revolt. Ferier described how the rebels, with 2500 hill rifle-men and the same
number of armed citizens of the city, forced an entrance at lunchtime
Recapture of Moultaun, 1781 when the Shah’s few thousand Goolam Kuzzilbash horse guards were at
Moultaun had been delivered into the hands of the Sikhs by the their afternoon siesta. Luck was on Timur side as he was not sleeping.
faithless governor and Timur Shah sent an army to retake the place. He fled to safety in a strong tower that the rebels could not batter an
He detached the light troops from his army to conduct a lightning entrance to. Rescue came in the form of the Goolams and other troops,
march which surprised and defeated the Sikh army near Moultaun. now roused, who crushed the rebels. Timour Shah died of natural causes
The city was later taken after a brief siege. in 1793.

Rebellion of the Talpoorees of Sind, 1784 (?) - 1786 Stalled invasion of India, Bokharan invasion, 1793
The Talpoorees of Sind rebelled to expel the governor. The Shah sent The new Shah, Zemaun, organised an invasion of India with promises of
general Muddad Khaun to ravage the area with ‘fire and sword’. The support from some local leaders. Tippoo Sultan of Mysore offered him
rebels and population then fled to the deserts, hills and jungles. The money to attack British holdings.
governor was reinstated and the army retired, which encouraged the
Talpoorees to rebel again and expel the governor a second time. Realising his hold on power was not yet secure, Zemaun cancelled the
Indian expedition to deal with an invasion, by Shah Moraud Bey of
After ‘some time’, in 1786, Timour Shah sent another but smaller Bokhara, who had ventured into the province of Bulkh on the death of
army to restore the area, under Ahmed Khaun Noorzye. This time the Timour Shah.
Talpoorees did not retreat but gathered their forces, perhaps under
Meer Futteh Ali, and drew Ahmed Khaun Noorzye’s army into an The governor of Bulkh, Mahommed Khaun Sheeah Munsoor, led troops
ambush where it was defeated suffering great loss in the retreat. The to oppose the Bokharans but he was ambushed and captured along with
Talpooree leaders and the Shah negotiated a settlement. 4000 men. However, the fort at the city of Bulkh held out and could not
be captured. Timour had left his artillery in the area, in 1789, perhaps
War with Bohkara, Battles near Aukcheh, 1788-89 some or all remained for the defence. The Bokharan Shah agreed to
Shauh Moraud Bey, King of Bokhara, encroached on the northern return to his lands and maintain former agreements to thus end the war.
Dooraunee lands. Timour Shah raised an army, reportedly 100,000
Revolt of Prince Mahmood, Battle at the River Helmund, 1794
strong, including artillery, to oppose the Bokharans and aid the people
of Sher, Subz, Kkojend and Turkomans against the invader. Believing he had a better right to the crown, Prince Mahmood revolted
against Zemaun. The Shah with 15,000 men met the Prince in battle
Shauh Moraud gathered an army from all his lands and dependencies. near the River Helmund. The action which was described as a close run
The two armies began clashing near the city of Aucheh in 1789. Shauh thing, with both sides on the edge of victory, before the Shah prevailed.
Moraud sent his brother Kooshbegee, with a force of light troops, The closeness of the battle suggests the Prince had a similar sized force
and another force under Alaverdee Tauz, of Koorghan Tippeh, to raid (which contained Eikaks and many Dooraunees of rank) or benefit of
Afghan detachments and supplies. position on the river. The Shah took many prisoners and the Prince fled
to Herat.
Some ‘partial and indecisive actions’ occurred near the city but both
sides declined to commit to a decisive clash. The conflict was ended Afghan invasion of Punjab, Persian invasion of Khorassan,
by negotiation. 1795-1796
Zemaun commenced another invasion of India. He crossed the Indus
Revolt in Khorassan, Meshed, 1790-91 (?) with a pontoon bridge and captured several towns including Hasaun
Ferrier described three campaigns to enforce Afghan rule against Abdaul. His general, Ahmed Khaun Shauhenchee Baushee, was sent
the revolt of Shah Rokh and Mamech Khan. Armies of 30,000 men with a detached force, supported by many ‘Guckers, Juts and other local

Far Left
and Centre,
Sikh Nihang
warriors. The
photos are
from the 1860s,
they show
the typical
elaborate
turban and
chakram
quoits.

Left, a Sikh
noble rider in
Indo-Persian
armour.
143
Moslems’, to capture other cities. The Sikh forces fled before the Ferrier described a furious 15-hour battle, near the village of Gourrek,
invading armies to seek refuge in the mountains. where the Shah prevailed. The broader revolt unraveled with treachery
and desertions - Mahmood and his son Caumraun fled west to hide in
Zemaun ended hostilities and returned to face the threat of Persians in the city of Toorshish.
the west. Aga Mohammed Shah had invaded Khorassan and captured
the city Meshed. The city was ruled by descendants of Nadir Shah. Persian action in Khorassan, 1798 - Spring, 1799
Nadir Meerza, the governor, fled to Herat on the Persian advance Fath Ali Shah of Persia sent a force into Khorassan accompanied by
to leave behind his frail father, Shah Rukh, who was subsequently Afghan Prince Mahmood and Zeuman returned from India to shore up
tortured by Aga Mohammed Shah. the defence of his western lands.

Zemaun sought an Uzbek alliance to oppose the Persians. This turned One detail supplied by Elphistone has Zeumaun losing his guns in a
out to be unnecessary as Aga Mohammed Shah came to agreements flash-flood on the Hydapses. These were later dug up and restored by
and campaigned no further east. The Persians had also proposed a Runjeet Singh. The Persians forces retired, having made no further gains
joint invasion of Bokhara with the Afghans, to which Zeuman appears in Khorassan.
to have agreed - but the plan came to nothing. The Afghans ceded the
Balkh city / area to Persia. Battle of Izfezaur, 1799
Prince Mahmood encouraged Mehir Ali Khan, ruler of Kauni and
Invasion of Lahore, 1797 - 1798 Bejend, with 10,000 troops to march on Herat where they defeated
Zemuan invaded Lahore with 30,000 men, half of whom were Prince Kayser in a battle at Izfezaur. Kayser was pursued to Herat which
Dooraunees. He undertook a scorched earth champaign by sending was besieged. The attackers fell out during the siege out; Mehr Ali Khan
out swarms of small parties to ravage the countryside and attack went home and Mahmood fled to Bokhara, then Khiva, then Persia.
Sikh towns and forts. Some Sikh chiefs came to terms with him and
became vassals. Ferrier described Mir Ali Khan as the Arab governor of the region of
Ghain who joined the Prince with 3000 infantry and some cavalry. They
The regional powers expected the invasion would trigger a broader gained other supporters in the region and some from Herat itself.
war - the Mahrattas rallied their allies and the British advanced an
army to protect their vassal, Nabob Visir, in Anoopsheher. The
Rohillas and other Moslems organised in support of the Afghans but
internal revolts saw Zeuman retire from the theatre. The Sikhs scored
a victory over an isolated force of 5000 eastern Afghans. The King
returned in 1798 and secured a workable peace with local chiefs,
including Runjeet Singh, the new King of the Sikhs.

Prince Mahmood’s revolt in Herat, Battle at Gourrek,

3 September, 1797
The Prince organised an army of 20,000 men, mostly Persian
Khorassanians, with which he was plotting to capture Candahar.
However, Zeuman had returned from his campaign in Lahore and set
out in force from Candahar.

Right, a warrior from Ko-i-Staun, by James Rattray, 1847.

Far Right, ‘Hazara mountain fighter’ from Le tour du monde, 1868.
Below, Persian King out riding, by Prince Alexis soltykoff.

144
 Battle of Kafer-Qal’a Afghan
1818 (1816-18)
Cavalry
Infantry
 Artillery
Cohundil Khan
Sheerdil Khan  Z Zamburak


Fath Khan

  
    Z 
Booneeared Beg

 

Z

Z
  
Hazarh

  Persia
Zulfacar Khan
  
Cavalry
Infantry
Hussan Khan
Chinnaraunee  Artillery
Ruins
Z Zamburak
Hussan Ali Mirza
© DFM Brown 2015  Squares

The battle started with an indecisive artillery exchange from both sides,  before the Afghans took action, Above, by launching a massive
charge of half their army, . The Persian centre and right appeared to have buckled, and in parts broken, under the charge. Their zamburaks
retreated with the cavalry and the field guns were lost. The Persian infantry, deployed on the left,  were engaged by waves of cavalry that were
tasked to break them and to eliminate the experienced general Zulfacar Khan.

The Persian infantry either repulsed their enemy or retired to the ruins and held that position,  with the aid of artillery, as shown Below.
Much of the Persian cavalry quit the field and Hussan Ali Mirza narrowly avoided death when attempting to rally his troops. He succeeded in
halting some parts of his retreating army and these returned to battle, .

The Afghan C-in-C, Fath Khan, was wounded in the mouth by a spent shot or possibly a copper coin, bags of which the Persians used as
makeshift canister ammunition, and fell wounded from his horse, . Fearing him dead parts of the Afghan army retreated despite Fath Khan’s
efforts to hold them. Neither side was in a condition to continue aggressive action. The non-aligned Hazarah warriors loitered about the battle
committing to neither side, but raided the baggage of both, .

Battle of Kafer-Qal’a Booneeared Beg

1818 (1816-18) 



 Cohundil Khan
Sheerdil Khan
Z
Fath Khan 
   
 



 


Zulfacar Khan
Hussan Ali Mirza Hussan Khan Chinnaraunee
© DFM Brown 2015
  Z

145
Persian invasion of Khorassan, 1800 they were under. The charge was described as going past the zamburaks,
Fath Ali Shah invaded Khorassan and Zemaun moved to Herat but suggesting these may have moved to the flanks, or otherwise found a way
both retired within their realms to attend other matters. to avoid the tribesmen. Percy Sykes described the artillery as important
in defeating the tribesmen. The charge broke one Doorani division but
Downfall of Zemaun, Battle of Ouchpane, 1800 the others manoeuvred to take Ghiljies in the flank; thus forcing them
Mahmood gained Candahar by diplomacy and his revolt gained many to retreat to a fort. Over night the tribesmen gained reinforcements and
supporters reacting against the King’s misrule. Zemaun sent 15,000 made off to Cabul. The Dooranis rushed to put themselves between the
cavalrymen, under Moollah Ahmed (Serdar Ahmed Khan) and Meer enemy and the city. Abdooreheem lost control over the rebels, who spent
Vice Noorzye, to attack the rebels. The army was badly led and the night plundering, and then launched an
imploded, it is not clear if a set-piece battle occurred. Ferrier said the ill-disciplined attack on the government troops who defeated them.
Serdar and his men joined the enemy. Mahmood was provided with
Persian troops and money to advance his military campaign. Ghiljie losses - 3000 men who contributed to a tower of skulls made to
commemorate the battle. Duranee losses were not given.
Zemaun mustered a new force, of 30,000, mostly tribesmen, to attack
the rebels. The vanguard, under Ahmed Khan Noorzye, was bribed Day of The Five Battles, March, 1802
to change sides while other generals also deserted with thousands of A renewed uprising by the Ghilles saw them organise 50,000 combatants,
tribesmen. in three forces; one group of 20,000 under Abdooreheem attacked Cabul
from the south, one similar force under Futteh Khaun Babukurzye
Battle was joined, at Ouchpane, where the Shah had all the artillery attacked from the east, and another army of 10,000 men was formed. All
and 400 gunners, previously at capital. The rebels had no guns, three were opposed and defeated by a Doorani army.
nevertheless Mahmood was victorious. Zemaun and his remaining
army fled but he was captured and blinded. Mahmood became Shah Tradition has it these three battles all occurred on the same day. A fourth
but Shujah Ool Moolk, brother of Zemaun, also declared himself victory that day was over the Uzbeks at Bulkh, driving them back over
King and in Peshawar gained many supporters. the River Oxus. A fifth victory was gained over Shujah Ool Moolk and
his Khybrees clansmen.
Battle of Eshpaun, 1801
Shujah Ool Moolk with 10,000 men, mostly Berdooraunee irregular Shujah, with 12,000 men, advanced on Peshawar where he was met by
tribesmen, marched from Peshawar to Caubul. Mahmood, with 3000 the regular troops of that city. These defeated him with great slaughter.
troops, met him in battle near Eshpaun. Mahmood deployed on hills Many routers died in the unusually extreme heat and thirst as they fled.
and behind a brook but the more numerous army of Shujah gained the
initial advantage, which they threw away by leaving the battle line to Final defeat of the Ghillie Revolt, 11 May, 1802
loot. Futteh Khaun then led a charge of the Shah’s troops to exploit A battle at Moollah Shaudee saw the Ghille revolt finally snuffed out
an opportunity and gained a victory. when their force of 10,000 men was destroyed in the last of their four
battles.
Revolt of Abdooreheem King of the Ghiljies, 1801
The tribesmen defeated the Afghan governor of Ghuznee in a field Persian capture of Meshed, Summer, 1802
battle. The city of Meshad, in Khorassan, was captured by Fath Ali Shah’s son.
However, the adjacent town / fort of Torshish held out until 1810.
Ghiljie Revolt - Battle at Sejawund, 12 November, 1801
The revolt moved to Candahar where a mass of badly-armed Civilian revolt in Cabul, downfall of Shah Mahmood,
tribesmen was opposed, at Sejawund, by the forces Mahmood could 4 June, to 12 July, 1802 (also listed as 1803)
scrape together. These included menial types, volunteering without A civilian uprising against the excesses of the ghulams, in Cabul,
pay and given arms, and whatever guards and nobles were at hand. unfolded into days of rioting and street fighting. The people were urged
Some of the latter were given weapons from the King’s armoury. on by religious leaders, Mookhtaur Oodowlah and Meer Waez, who,
issuing a fatwa, also wanted to install Shuja as King. The rebels also
Duranni forces - Mahmood, general Mookhtar Oodowlah (released raised troops. Futteh Khan, with 8,000-10,000 soldiers, arrived to rescue
from prison to command) Mahmood - he was initially successful until one of his generals with
3000-4000 troops including many hastily armed, but also troops deserted to the enemy. The rebels took the city and captured
perhaps some Duranni court troops Mahmood. Shuja became Shah.
Zamburaks
Losses - more than 400 on each side.
Ghiljie forces - King Abdooreheem
20,000 or more, ‘almost entirely’ Revolt in Candahar, January, 1804
infantry, badly-armed, including some Shah Shuja was preparing to campaign in Cashmir and Sind with an
equipped only with clubs army of 30,000 men when he learnt of a revolt, in Candahar, by Prince
Kyser, as urged on by Futteh Khan. Kyser’s army was defeated but even
The Doorani army formed up in three despite a second revolt he was reconciled and left in office.
divisions with an unknown number of
zamburaks in front. The presence of Futteh Khan now convinced Prince Feerooz, in Herat, to revolt and
zamburaks suggests at least some other attempt to capture Cabul. Shuja sent Kyser with an army to oppose him
‘regular or guard’ troops may have been and a negotiated settlement was reached.
part of this army.
Revolt of Prince Caumraun, 1805
The Ghiljies launched a mad disordered Caumran, inspired by Futteh Khan, attempted to become King and seize
rush, taking no regard of the shooting Candahar with troops. He was opposed by Prince Kyser. Kyser with
threats and blandishments convinced Futtah Khan to change allegiance.
Futteh Khan failed to convince Caumuran to retire his army, so to keep
Left, a Jokea soldier, from on side with Kyser attacked him with his troops, driving him away.
Sir Alexander Burnes, 1836.
146
Invasion of Cashmere, Battles at Mozufferabad, Hydapses, 1805 Jihad of Sooffee Islam and Hadjee Ferooz, near Shikkeewan - Herat,
Shah Shuja’s vizier, Mookhtaur Oodowlah, attacked Cashmir with an 1805 or 1807.
army of 10,000. At Mozufferabad, near a branch of the Hydapses, Conolly’s version of these events gives more credit to Soofee Islam
the Afghans in four divisions forced an opposed crossing. However, in organising combatants. The Qajars, having secured Meshed, and
later at night the Cashmiri leader, Abdoollah Khaun, threw a bridge established rule in much of Khorassan, continued to expand their
over the River Hydapses, that was separating the armies, and attacked influence in the region under Mohammed Khan, governor of the area.
the disorganised Afghan troops. Part of the Afghan army routed
following the cowardly actions of the vizier’s son. Mookhtaur rallied In opposing the expansion, Hadjee Ferooz enlisted Sooffee Islam, ‘a
his forces claiming his son’s rout was a deliberate ploy and defeated famous saint’. He was originally a Bokhari Uzbek freebooter who
the enemy, many of whom were cut down attempting to retreat over found enlightenment. The Sooffee rallied the ‘Soonnee’ population in a
the choked bridge or drowned while attempting to swim the river. war of faith against the ‘Sheeah’ Persians. The saint was a small lame
Abdoollah later died while besieged in his fort. man carried about in a ‘palkee’ (palanquin, litter?). Conolly described
how: ‘... Mullas exchanged their books for swords’ as common people,
Stalled revolt by Caumraun, Persian activity, 1805 Afghans and Eimaks, flocked to the Sooffee’s standard.
Caumraun at Candahar, again staged a revolt, this time with the help
of 6000 troops Moolik Caussim sent from Herat. His force defeated Afghan forces - Hadjee Ferooz, Sooffee Islam
an army sent by the Shah, however, Moolik Caussim’s troops had to 11,000 men of whom only 2000 were ‘soldiers’
return to Herat due to Persian action against that city. Futtah Khan
was forced to abandon Caumraun and joined King Shujah. Persian forces - Mohammed Khan
More than 11,000 and with greater discipline than the Afghans
Persian invasion on Herat / Soofee Islaum,
1805 (sometimes also listed as 1807) The Afghans were whipped up to be ‘excited to the highest pitch of
Several modestly detailed versions of the battle exist, but they differ fanaticism’ and charged furiously upon their enemy ‘but fighting with
in some key points. The Persian invasion was met by the Afghans more zeal than tact they were divided and sadly cut up’. In Conolly’s
gathering whatever troops they could - including enthusiastic account the bulk of the army sounds like fanatic ‘civilians’. Elphistone’s
volunteers inspired by a charismatic religious leader. account characterised only a proportion of the army as recent enthusiasts.

In Elphinstone’s version, Feerooz Oodeen advanced to meet the Afghan losses - not given, but Sooffee died a martyr and his body was
Persians, despite having fewer men and these being inferior in reportedly burnt by the Persians.
quality. He crossed the River Pooleemaulaun (Ochus) which the
author thought unwise and better to defend behind. After they crossed Persian losses - not given, they marched to threaten the city of Herat and
the Persians captured and secured the only bridge with a unit of accepted 50,000 rupees to not attack it.
‘excellent’ infantry.
Watson’s account of the ‘short but bloody war’, of 1805, placed the
The Afghans then charged, with 700 Dooraunees, who broke through action at the fort of Ghorian near Herat. The fort was previously captured
the enemy front line which was composed of infantry. They then by the Persians but a deputy governor changed allegiance to the Afghans
clashed with and disordered, but not break, the second line which was and Prince Feerooz sent an army to secure the area. The Persian army
of cavalry. The chargers were then surrounded and defeated by the defeated his force. During the fight the Afghan commander was ‘slain in
more numerous Persians. Seeing these troops defeated the Afghan the golden howdah from which he viewed the battle.’
Eimauks and Feerooz fled.
Elephant-riding generals are known for Afghans and this unnamed
The religious leader, Soofee Islaum, fell fighting at the head of a person could be any minor prince, vizier or local commander. Another
‘band composed of his own retainers and of religious enthusiasts who possibility is the ‘howdah’ may mean Sooffee Islam’s conveyance.
accompanied him as volunteers.’
Ferrier’s account of this action is hard to square with the other versions
Afghan forces - Feerooz Oodeen and Soofee Islaum but is not in direct contradiction. In his version Hadji Firooz Eddin
700 Doorannees - cavalry scraped together a force of a few thousand Eimak tribesmen cavalry to
2000 Persians - cavalry oppose the Persians and was defeated near Chekivan. No mention was
5000 - 6000 Eimuaks ‘raised to enthusiasm by Soofee Islaum’ made of the Soofee. The Persians were described as having good artillery
- probably both cavalry and infantry including inspired ‘civilians’ and infantry who had received European training - for the date of the
clash this might mean training by the initial cadre of Russian deserters.
Persian forces - Mohammad Khan Davallu The returning Afghan troops and a sally from the city forced battle on the
More than the enemy’s 8000-9000 men. The army included infantry Persians who were caught
of at least one ‘excellent unit’, and cavalry. between the two forces and
routed. The Persians left
Afghan losses - great numbers slaughtered including many drowning
several hundred dead and
in the River Ochus in the rout.
three or four guns captured.
Persian losses - not given.
The Dynasty of the Kajars’
The impending return of Mullik Caussim and his 6000 troops version of this conflict
bolstered Herat’s negotiating position. The Persians lifted their siege described how the Persians,
in return for 50,000 rupees, hostages and a princess bride for the of Mohammed Khan Kajar,
Persian Prince at Meshed. No princess was actually handed over. accompanied by ‘Khans of
the Hazarah’, were opposed
by 50,000 Afghans.

Right, ‘Attendants on the Queen of Persia’, from Shoberl 1828.

147
Sufy Islam was described as inspiring the Afghan troops who sought 10,000 cavalry, including 300 Koords under Hussan Khan
protection of his sacred person. Chinnarauneee (a famous fighter armed with a double-headed
spear), Arabs from near Berjend, other horsemen from the regions of
The Persians soon changed from ‘projecting bullets propelled by Neshapoor, Subzawar, Meshed and Toorshish.
flame, to the use of the sword and poniard’, which prompted Prince
Firoz to ‘desert the standard of the infidel.’ 200 zamburaks, eight ‘light’ field guns - also called ‘great guns’
during the battle.
‘A fountain of blood flowed from the battlefield to the gates of
Herat.’ Afghan forces - Futteh Khan, his brothers Sheerdill, Cohundil and
Poordil, Sirdar Yar Mohummud Khan Allekkozye.
Persian forces - Mohammed Khan Kajar and ‘a numerous host’ 30,000, perhaps significantly more than half cavalry as they were
noted as both better mounted and ‘in numbers far superior to their
including Hazarahs.
enemy.’
Afghan forces - Prince Firoz, Sufy Islam
100 zamburaks, four field guns.
Persian losses - not given
Non-aligned Hazarah forces - Booneeared Beg Hazaureh
Afghan losses - Sufy Islam, two of his ‘wicked disciples’, 130 Afghan 3000 troops - hanging about the battle and apparently convinced by
nobles and 6000 troops dead. 6000-7000 captured, including 200 the Persian Prince to not join either side but to feel free to pillage
nobles. whomever loses. These remained neutral and were recorded as
plundering baggage from both sides.
Revolt of Prince Kyser, February - 3 March, 1808
Peshawar and Candahah revolted in favour of Prince Kyser but the The Afghans camped about two miles from Herat and then both sides
King took Peshawar as rebels arrived, with 12,000 men, to oppose advanced to meet ‘at Kahreeze’, at about breakfast time, on 25 May
him. The rebels were initially successful but the vizier mounted a Small parties of combatant riders commenced tentative skirmishing.
disorderly charge against King whose army was teetering on defeat.
The vizier was shot and killed to dishearten his troops and encourage Conolly said a; ‘Cahreeeze [creek?] of water, which gives its name
the royalists to reverse the outcome of the battle. to the place, ran through the field’ but nominated no other battlefield
terrain features.
Battle of Gandamak, 1809
Prince Mahmood returned to Kandahar and with Fath Khan defeated An attempt was made to negotiate a peaceful outcome, a course
Shah Shuja in battle at Gandamak. Mahmood regained the crown recommended by the Persian diplomat present, but Sirdar Zulfacar (an
albeit with Fath Khan as the power behind the throne. experienced and brave general who considered the enemy ‘scum’ whose
fathers he wanted to burn) cut short that option by opening an artillery
Conquest of Kashmir, Battle near Tchatch, 1811 attack on the enemy.
Sykes described the chaotic events surrounding Fath Khan’s invasion
of Kashmir. The province was easily captured by the Afghans Both sides deployed with artillery in front of their centres. The Persians
supported by Ranjit Singh and his 12,000 Sikhs. The defenders, under also positioned two field guns on each of their flanks. A general artillery
Serdar Attah Mohamed Khan, occupied a valley but dissolved when a discharge from both sides was kept up for a while ‘without doing much
cavalry flank-march onto their rear made their position untenable. damage.’

However, refusal to pay Ranjit Singh the agreed cash and lack of Futteh Khan commanded from the centre of his army. He dressed for
clarity about ownership of conquered lands saw the allies fall out and battle in all black while Hussain Ali Mirza changed from his princely
the Sikhs defeated the Afghans at a battle near the plains of Tchatch. clothing into that of a common trooper.

In this battle Dost Mohamed Khan commanded the Afghan vanguard, The Afghans launched a massed ‘impetuous’ cavalry charge of half their
of 2000 cavalry; he charged without waiting for the bulk of the forces, suggesting that the other half was infantry or perhaps initially
army to arrive. The Sikhs had position on some hills but the Afghan deployed in two lines. The Persians appeared to have deployed in four
charge repulsed them to capture the Sikh guns. The Afghan success divisions with their infantry on the left. Infantry deployed on a flank
was short-lived as the Sikhs counterattacked with 16,000 men. Dost like this might suggest their flank was secured by the water feature. The
Mohamad’s messages to the Shah for help went astray or were Afghans sent most of their men in the charge towards these infantry,
replaced by enemy agents - thinking his general dead and the vanguard figuring the enemy army would dissolve if Zulfacar could be killed or
destroyed the Shah retired. his division broken.

Battle of Kahreeze - Herat, 26 May, 1818 One Muddud Khan Saugzye (Doorraunee) on the Persian side against
(sometimes listed as 1816 or 1817) his countrymen was described as fleeing under the cavalry charge (it
Futteh Khan, vizier of the Afghan Mahmood Shah, engaged in a series is not clear if he
of political and military manoeuvres to increase his power and wealth. led a contingent, if
He raised forces to oppose Persian demands that the city of Herat this was the same
recognise Qajar authority. man mentioned in
the 1780s with a
Marching east from Meshed, Prince Hussan Ali Mirza sought to similar name he was
impose his authority, by force, with an army of 14,000 men. a Sirdaree Sidaraun,
general of generals
Persian forces - Hussan Ali Mirza, Sirdar Zulfacar with regulars (29)
4000 regular foot, of the Senmaunees and Damghaunnes provinces
- clans, with a warlike reputation. The number might represent four Left, a Persian
full-strength or five to six under-strength sarbaz battalions. army camp
1857, from the
Illustrated Times.
148
and unlikely to have such talents ignored) which triggered a general Furrookh Khan. Futeh Khan quickly raised forces to be supported by
rout of the two Persian centre and right divisions. The zamburaks fled Mohamed Khan Karaoee of Toorbut, in Khorasan, with his 10,000
with the cavalry and the ‘great guns’ were abandoned. Hussan Ali troops.
Meerza attempted to rally his men and was rescued from danger by
Hussan Khan Chinnarauneee. Detail includes the Persians running out of canister ammunition and
using instead bags of copper coins, one of which wounded Futeh Khan
The infantry of Zulfacar Khan held off the cavalry charge and with in the mouth. In this version the Afghans quit the field before the
musketry and cannon fire, possibly helped by re-captured central Persians who nevertheless also retreated.
guns, repulsed the enemy in great confusion.
Battle outside Herat, 1822
During battle Futteh Khan was struck in the mouth by a spent ball Hadji Ferooz Eddin attempted to kill Prince Kamram Mirza when he
and thinking him dead, while also seeing the chargers returning in was out hunting. The Prince escaped the trap and later sent his general,
disorder, his side lost heart and fled. Regaining composure, Futteh Attah Khan, to attack Hadji Ferooz Eddin’s force while the Prince
Khan attempted, but failed, to rally his troops. Hussan Ali Mirza himself led 2000 Afghans to attack the enemy’s rear.
succeeded rallying some of his defeated troops, three miles beyond
the battlefield. He subsequently returned to support his infantry. The battle, under the city walls, was described by Ferrier as seeing little
powder expended because they fought obstinately ‘with cold steel, foot
Losses for either army are not given, both sides claimed victory. to foot’, for 13 hours. The death of the rebel leader Kalech Khan, whose
horse stumbled in a ravine, swung the victory to the Prince.
Battle of Kafer-Qal’a, 1817
This conflict was described by Amanat and is apparently another Losses - ‘the dead outnumbered the living’.
version of the above described action. In this account Fath Khan’s
force was a Durani-Khorassan-Uzbek alliance of Mohammad Khan Battle of Noochero, 1822 or March, 1823
the Qara’i tribal chieftain from Torbat Haydariya, the Governor of Afghans under Mohamed Azim Khan launched a war against the Sikhs
Khiva and the Amir of Bokhara. The Persians had the support of a who had captured some Afghan territory (partly by unexpectedly
Damghani chieftain. swimming cavalry over the Indus). Azim Khan had organised for
a jihad to be called against the Sikhs and many ghazi combatants
This action was described as an overwhelming victory for the answered the call.
Persians with 12,000 Afghan troops captured.
The Afghans deployed for battle with their army partly on both sides
Ferrier’s account of the River Kabul. Ferrier said Sikh leader, Maharaja Runjeet Singh,
This version sets the action some time at the end of 1816 or the next led his massed cavalry against one half of the split enemy army, and
year. Hadji Ferooz Eddin spent several years skirmishing with the defeated it, before Azim Khan could help out. The exposed division was
Persians and contending for the loyalty of chieftains and princelings supported by some artillery and it repulsed the Sikhs four times before
in the border region. Fethi Khan marched 60 miles, from Herat, Runjeet personally led a charge, with all his reserves, to defeat them.
to engage in battle at the plains of Kiaffir Kaleh near the town of
Kussan. Sykes added the detail that the attacked Afghan division was the ghazi
hillmen, on the left bank of the river. These men were assailed by
The Persians under Hoosien Ali Mirza deployed a ‘splendid army’ fanatic Akali Sikhs (Akali - ‘immortals’ these troops were famous,
with a first line of four infantry battalions under Sirdar Zoolfaghar among other things for their extravagant tall turbans and chakram bladed
Khan. This general killed his horse to fight on foot to demonstrate his throwing quoits and blue clothing). Having defeated these, the ghazis
refusal to retreat. The Afghan general, Sher dil Khan, bother of Fethi advanced to face Sikh musketry and artillery where they were halted and
Khan, led a cavalry charge that defeated these infantry who routed to then defeated by Ranjit Singh’s cavalry charge. Azim Khan retreated
some ruins on the side of the battlefield. The infantry later rallied and abandoning his guns.
‘furiously’ returned to combat.
The wikipedia entry for the Battle of Nowshera (Naushehra) mentions
The battle started at dawn and by 4pm the Persians, having taken Azim Khan’s force was shadowed by 8000 troops, of the Maharaja’s
10,000 casualties, retreated. A further cavalry charge by Sirdar son, which made a river crossing to aid their comrades dangerous. Other
Kohendil Khan, another brother of Fathi Khan, forced the Persian generals included in the main the Sikh army were Akali Phula Singh and
army to rout. After this, Fethi Khan was hit in the mouth by a spent the Gurkha Bal Bahadur, both of whom provided a contingent.
ball and fell from his horse. He was carried to his tent. Thinking him
dead, and the Persians victorious, the Afghans broke and fled. Nine The Sikh central army of 1823 consisted of: (121)
days later the Afghans secured the Persian artillery and baggage. It 11,681 infantry
is hard to credit that an army supposedly watching its enemy in full 1650 cavalry
flight would itself rout upon the wounding of a general many of them 7300 irregulars
would not be able to see. The more confused back and forth accounts, 22 artillery in 1819, 130 in 1828
as above, sound more plausible. Ferrier later recorded the rulers of 190 zamburaks in 1819, 280 in 1828
Herat, in 1818-20, happily paying their tribute to the Persians - an act
also hard to reconcile with a significant military victory. Persian invasion of Herat, 1823
The Persians rallied the Khorassanian chiefs and princes to attack Herat.
Sykes’ account They mounted several assaults on the city. These were checked by the
Sykes’ version of this conflict, at Kafir Kala, appears to be based on Afghans and Prince Kamran agreed to pay tribute to Persia.
Ferrier. It recorded the Afghan cavalry charging to ruin the Persian
infantry, 10,000 of whom, their guns and baggage were captured. Persian campaigns in Khorassan, 1830-33
In the wake of Persian defeat in the 1826-28 War against Russia the
Fraser’s account broader Khorassan region was awash with revolts by the diverse tribal
Fraser said the Persians fielded about 6000 men and had a significant groups. Prince Abbas Mirza was sent to deal with the revolts and he was
advantage in artillery - commanded expertly by the topchee bashee successful. By 1833 he organisied an attack on Herat, whose governor,

149
Kamran Mirza (called Caumauran by Elphinstone), had changed with reinforcements taking the total above 40,000. Their artillery was
alliance from Persia to Britain. The siege of Herat was commanded estimated at up to 80 guns.
by Prince Mohammad Mirza (the next Shah) with 30,000 men. He
abandoned the action and returned to Persia on the death of Abbas The Afghans engaged the advancing Persian army outside the city - one
Mirza. action included Afghan cavalry defeating Persians but being checked by
infantry musketry. The Persian artillery then opened up on the Afghans
In 1831 British diplomats dissuaded Abbas Mirza from invading to be met by the fire of a few guns from the city. The dismounted Afghan
Khiva. Prof. M.R. Izady described Abbas Mirza, in August 1831, cavalry used their long-barrelled muskets, from behind cover, to snipe
successfully attacking Kurdish Emir, Riza Quli Khan and his 8000 at the Persian gunners. The dismounted cavalry were then engaged by
soldiers, in the capital of Qochan.(120) The city was besieged by 13,000 Persian skirmishers who turned their flank to repel them.
Persian troops and heavy artillery aided by British advisors.
The defenders mounted several sallies. In one a force of infantry flanked
Battle of Khojak Pass, 1834 by cavalry doggedly engaged the Persians in their positions but without
The deposed Shah Shuja built by conquest a support base among much success other than some prisoners captured and heads severed for
the Amirs of Sind. He then marched on Kandahar with 22,000 men. reward. These were later displayed upon the walls.
His force was Afghans and Hindostanees including two battalions of
infantry trained by Campbell. Ferrier described the Hindostanees as: In another sortie the Afghan cavalry repulsed Persian cavalry sent to
oppose them. The Afghan infantry were not successful fighting in the
‘... drilled and manoeuvring on the European system, and observing buildings and gardens against Persian infantry and guns. The combined
its discipline, some of them being deserters from the Company’s Persian arms regrouped and forced the Afghans to retreat. Pottinger
service.’ believed the Persian infantry was far superior in quality to the Afghan.

Shuja’s force defeated Kohandil Khan at the Khojak Pass and The Persians used mortars, rocket batteries and at least one 68-pounder
then commenced a siege of the city of Kandahar. A relief force gun as described in an earlier section. European non-contemporary
commanded by Dost Mohammed engaged and defeated the attackers. illustrations of the defenders’ guns show them as clumsy and perhaps
Campbell was wounded and captured, he subsequently offered his with solid wheels looking highly outdated. Pottinger mentioned the
skills to the new army. defender’s post of Topshee-Bashee, ‘artillery commander’, and the man
who held it.
Detail for the battle outside the city included days of fighting over an
area cut through with water courses and a labyrinth of mud walls and Several attempts at storming the city were made and Pottinger organised
gardens. The place was of no use for cavalry, being the majority of the defenders, by his own account exhorting the disheartened
both armies. Some accounts said Shuja personally led several charges Yah Mohammed to join his men and inspire the defence.
to push for a victory while others said he dithered cowardly.
Revolt of the Salar, Meshed, 1845-49 (?)
Siege of Herat, British intervention, In the chaos following the death of Mohammed Shah a major revolt
November, 1837- September, 1838 broke out in Khorassan. The revolt was led by ‘the Salar’ - the son of the
The new Persian Shah, Mohammad, raised a force to invest the city former governor of Meshed. During the conflict Yah Mohamad Khan
but was unable to take it by storm. Britain supported its Afghan ally of Afghanistan sent 2000 cavalry to help - at the price of a promise of
by sending a British-Indian force to capture Kharg Island, in the a supply of muskets and 20 or 24 guns. The forces of the new Shah,
Persian gulf, as a threat of further action. Facing British invasion and Nasser-ed Din conquered the city.
the loss of Russian support the Persians ended the siege.
Persian occupation of Herat, Anglo Persian War, 1851 - 1857
Kaye accessing the now lost diaries of Eldred Pottinger wrote a On the death of Yah Mohamed in Herat, 1851, his son Sayd Mohammed
detailed history of the siege and John Nelson placed the action in a Khan’s pro-Persian stance faced a threat from a combined assault of
broader context.(115, 117) Pottinger traveled in disguise to Herat and Kohandel Khan of Kandahar and Dost Mohammad Khan of Kabul. A
upon revealing himself as a British artillery officer helped organise Persian force of 1000 expelled the partizans of the last two named men
the defence. Europeans helping the Persians included Russian Count and occupied the citadel of Herat.
Simonich and a Polish officer, while the English diplomat John
McNeill, in the Shah’s camp, advocated for his nation. British diplomacy, in 1852, forced the withdrawal of these Persian troops
and the Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1853 included clauses that Persia agreed
The Persian forces were initially in the order of 30,000-35,000 to not attack Herat except in self-defence.

Below, a Persian illustration of a battle scene, the event depicted is not known, and could be from legend.

150
In 1855 Sayd Mohammad Khan was killed in the coup of Wahhabist Arabs
Mohammad Yusof Mirza who then faced the planned invasion of
Dost Mohammad (who had since captured Kandahar) who enjoyed The Wahhabist fundamentalist warriors from central Arabia shook the
British support. Mohammad Yusof Mirza switched allegiance Islamic world as they spread their iconoclastic credo with sword and book.
from Persia to Britain and popular action saw the Persian garrison Their northward push reached into Ottoman Syria and Iraq where, in the
expelled. In response, Persia replaced Mohammad Yusof Khan early 1800s, forces of up to 12,000 men sacked several cities and towns.
with the Isa Khan, who soon also sided with Dost Mohammad and The ruin of the Shia holy city of Kerbala, in 1802, triggered conflict with
Britain. the Qajars.

The Persian Shah, Nasser ed-din, sent Morad Mirza and 15,000 The fundamentalists captured or migrated to the Island of Bahrein to
troops, in 1856, to invest Herat. After a siege they captured the cityfurther destabilise Persian Gulf politics. In 1783 the Utub Arabs defeated
with help from French military engineers. Persian forces on Bahrein. In 1785 a Persian reconquest force, under the
Zands, was unsuccessful. In 1799 the Sultan of Oman, Sayyid Sultan,
Britain declared war and scored military victories over Persia, in invaded the island and the locals secured Persian support to repel the
1857, as described earlier, to force an end to the war and withdrawal Omanis. Sayyid invaded again in 1800 and 1802, the last invasion saw the
of the occupation forces from Herat. Wahhabists called in to halt the Omanis.

Consul Rich W. Stephens in Tehran reported to Mr Murray, on 29 Vincenzo Maurizi, who served as a doctor and military commander in
February 1856, rumors that the Persians were organising a force both Oman and Persia, described their conflict with the Wahhabists.(144)
to attack Candahar via Herat. The force comprised ‘12,000 to His writings noted the Wahhabists under ‘Saout, the third chief of the
15,000 Regular troops, 5000 Irregular and 20 pieces of artillery, Wahabees’, besieging Ottoman Bassora, in 1805, and Sultan Eben of
commanded by Meerza Mohamed Khan, Serkeshikchebashee.’ (124) Muskat keeping the sea-lanes open to the city by opposing the Wahhabist
- Joassamy fleets. In 1806 Saout sent an army to attack the Sultan of
A further account by Consul Stephens, to the Earl of Clarendon, Muskat and with an overwhelming force of numbers defeated him in
detailed the Persian troops and generals sent from Tehran to Herat a battle near the town of Bramee. After the action Muskat became a
during April 1856, it included; vassal of the Wahhabists who stationed a unit of 400 cavalry in the realm
to ensure their compliance. The cavalry also interdicted in a Muskatee
‘Agha Khan, Meer Sing (General de Division), 1000 cavalry, succession crisis.
2000 infantry.

Abdul Alee Khan, Surteep (Brigadier), 3000 infantry, In 1808 a Wahhabist force attacking villages near Bassora was defeated by
30 pieces of artillery. the Montafeek Arabs. The Wahhabist suffered 1500 dead in the clash.(3)

Mehmed Raz Khan, Surteep, 1000 infantry.’ (124) Sayed Said, the ruler of Muskat - Oman, rejected the Wahhabists’
authority in about 1809. He joined his British allies in attacking Wahhabist
In a further note about the skirmishing outside Herat, Stephens and ‘pirate’ cities.
described an action where 200 Persians were killed and 70 men, the
Nishapoor regiment’s standard and 30 ‘wall-guns’ were captured. European writers in the early 19th century were often imprecise in
determining which peoples met were actually Wahhabists, their allies or
Revolt of Agha Khan, Persian capture of Bampur / Baluchistan third parties. The confusion is understandable given the fluid alliances; for
The Shah, in 1838, came into conflict with the Ismailite sect leader, example the Muntafiq Arabs of Thuwaini ibn Abdullah were raiding the
Agha Khan, in the Kerman region. Agha Khan was described Wahhabists in the mid 1780s but allied to them later that decade and in the
variously as the legitimate governor of the Persian city of Kerman, 1790s Thuwaini was leading Ottoman armies (once recorded as two-thirds
or perhaps just seeking refuge there or even that he used forged being Arab tribesmen) against them.
documents to temporarily usurp governorship. The forgery claim
was related by Watson, who also said Agha Khan was a descendant Heude described the Wahabees of Nedsjed as intimately connected to the
of the last leader of the Assassins. pirates of the Persian Gulf - the so-called Joassmees of Rass al Kymer.
Wahhabists were certainly raiding shipping from at least 1805, however
The Persian authorities sent troops, including Habeebullah Khan, some modern authors believe they forced local subject tribes into piracy as
commander of the Shah’s artillery, to oppose Agha Khan. The rebel a means for them to pay tributes and taxes.
then conducted military action, often characterised as guerrilla,
warfare but also with scrounged artillery. He was also helped by Kinneir, in 1810, described the Wahhabist warriors he met as: ‘Wahabee
some massed desertions of government troops. He scored several on dromedaries, armed in Arab fashion with scymetars and long lances.’
victories over detached central forces but could never organise Other authors mentioned weapons including lance, dagger, spear, club
enough troops to resist larger armies sent against him. and pistols while some men might also use shields and bits of armour.
Firearms were used increasingly throughout the period. Maurizi thought
When overmatched Agha Khan retreated into the deserts or the shield could be made from the ‘skin of a whale or some other large
mountains - he finally realised military opposition to Persia was fish [and] about the thickness of a finger’ and of great strength which
futile so retired to modern Pakistan to train race horses. could almost turn a cannon ball.

The Balooch leader, Muhamad Ali, supported Agha Khan and sent The Sultan of Muskat, in 1811-12, convinced the Qajars to send an
forces into the Kerman area. This brought Persian retribution and expedition force to help combat the Wahhabists. The allies scored a
conquest of the Baluchi city / Emirate at Bampur in 1839. The victory over the Arabs at a battle near Nakal. According to Maurizi; ‘..the
Persians then used this city as a base for operations against the Vaabi, after an obstinate action were defeated with great loss.’
raiding tribesmen in western Baluchistan.
Maurizi described the brilliant Wahhabist leader, Matlak, as re-grouping
Watson made a grim note that many tribesmen of Bampur fought to the defeated forces, summoning fresh troops from his capital and
the death having earlier killed their daughters and wives rather than recruiting allied tribesmen. With this new force he scored a crushing
let them fall into the hands of the conquerors. victory over the allies at a battle near Ismael.
151
Matlak reportedly understood the strengths and weaknesses of his The sabr were an army advance guard of 30-40 horsemen being expert
own and European armies. He was the; ‘... ablest politician and most riders and scouts.
skillful general who has for a considerable space of time appeared in
the east.’(144) He was killed when travelling, in 1813, by tribesmen Soud’s bodyguard was the Mendjyeh - a dreaded body of 300 elite
robbers. volunteer horsemen who asked for and gave no quarter in battle. The
men and horses were armoured with the horse wearing quilting under
The Wahhabist state maintained only small bodies of standing soldiers the armour. Brydges described the body as a corps de reserve.
and relied instead on the service of all able bodied men aged 16-60
who would serve unpaid while mostly providing their own arms,
food and riding beasts. The state might provide fodder for horses or
Joasamy Pirates - Al Qasimi Arabs
a camel if a man did not have one. Brydges and Maurizi both noted
that men (musketeers in one case) might ride two-per-camel if the British contemporary travellers described these peoples as Joasamy
journey to battle was expected to be short or over extensive desert pirates. A more balanced view of the Al Qaisimi Arabs might describe
regions. piracy as one of their callings along with legitimate trading, pearling and
fishing industries. Maritime raiding was popular for all the Persian Gulf
It appears one man in ten eligible for service were called up with people, however the Jossami were noted for their murderous capture of
more enlisted in emergencies. Men could pay a substitute to serve shipping where entire crews might be butchered.
for them. Maurizi interviewed a Wahhabi envoy, in Muskat, who said
every man would ride a camel and described the terms of service as: The British navy mounted several major expeditions to capture pirate
cities in order to stamp out their attacks - both to make trade and
‘Every individual by our laws is a soldier, and obliged to serve communication safe and to bolster the position of their Muskat-Omani
without pay, after remaining with the army for a year he is allies. British capturing pirate ships might butcher the entire crews.
permitted to return home, except in critical circumstances ... a
soldier who turns his back on an enemy in battle, is considered a In 1797 Jackson was chased by 22 pirate dows; ‘they were full of men
renegado, and put to death.’ who were all armed ... many of the large vessels had great guns on
board.’ Some of the boats were later described as having 100-man crews
The envoy said the army was still (1809 or 1812-15) funded from the including tom-tom beaters.
loot of Mecca and foreign tributes and that; ‘the public treasury only
furnishes those necessaries which private individuals cannot procure, The pirate dows were described by Johnstone as; ‘very large and light,
and in which powder and ball are generally included.’ they carry only two or three guns, and are manned by from three to five
hundred men, all well armed.’
Firearms and some guns were captured from Turks or imported from
regional states. Maurizi said firearms were generally matchlocks and Heude described the Joassamees of Rass al Kymer as the prime piratical
noted an army of 5000 included 500 musketeers. He said Wahhabi tribe in the Gulf.
in battle would fire a few shots before charging with sabre. The
impetuous dash of the warriors could be turned against them as when ‘Their fleet is said to consist of 60 large, and between eight and nine
the Ottomans, in 1812, staged a false-rout of infantry and guns to hundred vessels of a smaller size; with 18 or 19 thousand men on
tempt the Wahhabists from a strong defensive mountainous position. board.’
They then surrounded and massacred them on the plains with cavalry.
‘...some of their ships carrying as many as forty guns, with a crew of
The Wahhabist cavalry was highly regarded and considered the 300 men.’
equal or better than Egyptian Mameluks. Cavalry could be called
up for service separately from infantry which Brydges noted had the He also mentioned the chief pirate city of Ras al Kymer as able to field
perverse effect of encouraging men to sell their horses to avoid the 1000 horsemen.
frequent call-up.
The pirates came to British notice, in 1797, when they attacked the East
Buckingham mentioned the 50 armed black Soudanese slaves India Company’s 10-gun warship, the Viper, at Bushire. In 1808 they
of Wahabee Sheik, Abdallah Ibin Saood. He also mentioned the captured two British ships, the latter by a fleet of 55 ships crewed by
various desert Arab tribes, while allied to the Wahhabists, were not 5000 men. In response, the British, next year, mounted an expedition to
particularly committed to the zealous religious doctrines rather than combat the ‘pirates’ and their cities. Heude reported the ‘undisciplined
the prospect of plunder. barbarous rage’ of the Arabs who refused all calls to surrender and in
their battered forts would throw back grenades and shells launched
A Wahhabist could be discerned by his keffie, against them.
head-cloth, made of cotton only and not a
cotton-silk mix as was fashionable in the area. Buckingham described a small pirate fleet, in 1808, as a bughala, a
The sheiks of tribes could be distinguished by dow and two trankies. The first two craft mounted ‘great guns’ while
standards of which Saoud had many of various the trankies had oars as well as sails. They were full of armed men who
colours. were seen waving spears.

The pirates of chief Hassan ben Rahma were; ‘... armed men, some
Wahhabist Standing or Specialist Forces
bearing muskets, but the greater number armed with [long straight]
Wahhabist forces included a body of garrison
sword, shields [circular hide, with knobs of metal and gilding], and
matchlock men at Medina. Brydges described
spears; most of them were Negroes, whom the Joassamees spare in their
these men as paid, and ‘some type of elite
wars.’
infantry’, from Nedj and Yemen who led the
storming of Karbala.
The chief wore a scarlet benish of Persian cut, unlike his men who were
clad in plain long shirts and keffeas. Another group of combatants
Left, ‘Abdallah - Ebn -Souhoud, Chief of
included men waiving ‘Arab colours’ and large banners on poles.
the Wahabys beheaded at Constantinople in
1819’, from Bydges.
152
British force of 1809 was organised in Bombay, it included: British campaign against the pirates, December, 1819
Chiffone, frigate - Captain Wainwright, Commodore of the fleet A punitive campaign was launched and the British took Ras Al
Caroline of 38-guns - Captain Gordon Khaimah, the town of Rumps and the hill fort of Zyah. The attacking
Eight East India Company cruisers; Mornington (24-guns), Ternate, force was 3000 European and Native troops (Mingan said 5000 troops,
Aurora, Prince of Wales, Ariel, Nautilus, Vestal, Fury including the 47th 65th and Bombay native regiments and the flank
Four transports companies of others), artillery, engineers, several war ships and smaller
Stromboli, a bomb-ketch (which sunk in transit) gun-boats or mortar boats. The Imam of Muskat sent two frigates and
two thousand troops by land to assist the British.
65th regiment of foot
A detachment of the 47th regiment Fraser described the bravery and tenacity of the Arab pirate ships and
Bombay artillery their night attack by land on the British trenches of sand bags.
1000 men in total
Mingan described more throwing back of shells and accurate gunnery
Native troops ‘sipahis’ - 1000 men commanded by Colonel Smith of from the pirate batteries. He added the detail that the night attack
the 65th regiment captured, for a while, a British howitzer as the Arabs with spear and
sword fought red-coats with bayonet. For reasons he does not further
Battle of Ras Al Khaimah, 11 November, 1809 explain, the next day heaps of the dead in the trench were found naked
The pirate fleet of the Minerva, a captured large merchant ship and covered in grease. The pirates fought under a blood-red flag.
converted to their flagship, and swarm of dhows sailed to engage the
British but returned to port when they realised they were outmatched. The Asiatic Journal provided detail of the British guns as three 18-
pounders, two 24-pounders off the ship HM Liverpool, six 18-pounders
The British landed troops covered by naval fire. They were met by a and two howitzers.(126i)
crowd of town defenders (later estimated at 3000 men, at least half
black Africans) but the ‘firm line, regular volleys and steady charge of Prisoners rescued said the defenders had 2000 combatants led by Shaik
... at the point of the bayonet’ by the redcoats swept them away. Abrahim Bin Haman riding his horse. The night attack was led by the
Shaik and a picked body who attempted to silence the attacking British
Omani forces - Mauritzi said the Omanis that aided the British were batteries. The town of Rumps and the fort city of Zyah, with their
‘6000 men and a flotilla’ and that the British hired 24 Arab boats at smaller garrisons, were in later actions captured after British artillery
Muskat to land attacking troops. The Omani force included their new bombardments.
guns and mortars and perhaps also field guns as described elsewhere.
Pirate losses - 200 ships surrendered and destroyed, 150 men dead and
Pirate losses - ‘heaps of the slain’, 60 boats or dhows and the Minerva 200 wounded. Mingan said the pirates lost 1000 men.
was captured and burnt - representing perhaps half of their best ships.
Guns were spiked and fortifications levelled. British losses - six men dead and 49 wounded.

British losses - ‘trifling’, five dead and 34 wounded were mentioned

Muskat - Oman
in other sources. Mauritzi believed 50 British died in the assault.
The rulers of Muskat were usually British allies during the period of
A few days after this battle reinforcements arrived, from the interior,
study. In 1811-12 they allied with Persians and also saw a common
possibly being ‘Wahhabist’ troops. The British retired from the city
interest with Ottomans to fight Wahhabists. The realm at times included
and the Arabs formed up on the beach displaying their colours,
Gulf islands, East African cities and lands on the Iranian side of the Gulf.
waving swords and spears and firing off muskets. The British then
razed the pirate town of Linga on the Persian coast.
Britain identified the strategic position of Muskat as part of a forward
defence for British India should any European power conquer or ally
About half the British force then travelled to the pirate city of Luft
with Persia. A strong base on the Persian Gulf was seen as critical to
on the Island of Kishma - the fort defenders repelled the British who
stop any subsequent naval invasion of India.
brought up a howitzer in an attempt to blow the gates. The defenders
then abandoned the place over night.
Much of the realm’s military power was naval but they also possessed
land forces that underwent a modernisation following contact with
When Buckingham visited pirate chief Ameer Ibrahim, admiral of
Britain and other Europeans.
the fleet at Ras Al Khaimah, his force was estimated at 60 large craft
each with 80-300 men and 40 smaller boats from two allied cities.
Maurizi, a native of
Buckingham thought the combined fleet would boast 400 guns and
Rome, served the Sultan
8000 fighting men ‘well armed with muskets, swords, and spears’- if
of Muskat as a medic,
they could be united for a cause. The force could, with ten or 15 days
officer and artillery
notice, be supported by a multitude of Wahabees from the desert.
expert, abu metfa, ‘father
of the cannons’. He
Mingan described the pirates having regrouped in 1812 to form a
described the nation’s
navy of 80 boats carrying up to 300 men each, particularly under
military forces and
one Ramah bin Jaubir, ‘butcher-chief’ who had evaded the Persian
several actions against
and British fleets. The ‘butcher’ wore filthy clothes of no trousers,
Wahhabists and pirates.
a woolen cloak and a yellow and green striped head-cloth. He was
conspicuous with his left arm crippled by canister shot and became
famous for blowing the powder store of his ship, and himself, ‘into a
thousand atoms’ when an enemy had almost captured it by boarding.

Right, a collection of
Arab pirate weapons,
from Alexander.
153
The Muskat military had at its core a body of Beloochi infantry, city itself was protected by batteries of uncertain quality, two forts were
Mauritzi provided an overview of their forces.(144) constructed by the former Portuguese owners and two by Arabs.

‘Mascat had long been protected by a body of foreign troops, Troops noted in the Imam of Muskat’s forces, in 1817, included a body
answering to the swiss guards of some European monarchs, these of 500 Bedouin mercenaries. Heude described the armed men, in 1817,
ragamuffins were called Belluchees, or Belluci, and Jedegals or as; Arabs armed per personal or tribal preference with ‘curved asgailee,
Gedegals; [from Sindi].’ a matchlock, or a pike’, Beloochee soldiers naked to the waist - armed
with a ‘crooked toffung, a knife and a straight two-handed sword’, and
Mauritzi described the body as ‘veteran troops’. They vied with wild Bedouin.
British to be first in a breached enemy city wall. The men also came
from lands and cities owned by Oman, so they were ethnically if not Heude visited the ruler of Muskat and the province of Oman, Saiid Ben
politically foreign. Saiid, who could bring an estimated 7000 men into the field. These
were Beloochees and Sindeans from the neighbourhood of Tatta.
‘In case of hostilities, he [the Sultan] has the means of increasing
his army, to 15,000 or 20,000 infantry, and 1000 cavalry’.
Muskat naval forces included the Caroline, an Arab frigate of 40 guns,
two other British-made large ships being former Indiaman and 30-25
The troops were maintained by a tax. Other reliable soldiers could be
inferior craft. Jackson, in 1797, saw a large man of war ‘flying Arab
found among Bedouin and a few bodyguard riders might be ‘Nubians’.
colours,’ a craft of the Emaum of Muscat with its crew of 1000 hunting
pirate dows. Mingan described indigenous military boat building
Cavalry, at least some of who were Belloochi, were re-armed, from
industries. Mauritzi described the navy as 40 square-rigged 300-700-ton
about 1811, with sabres, modern pistols and carbines. The sabres were
vessels and davs.
sourced from the British. Lances were mentioned in cavalry battles
with the Wahhabists, which would certainly mean the fundamentalists
The Omanis and pirates engaged in a naval arms race. In about 1812
and possibly the Muskatees, were also so armed. When under
the pirates launched a large dav with 12 guns and a 400-man crew
Wahhabist masters from, 1806-09, a unit of 400 of their cavalry was
complement - which the Omanis countered with a Bombay-built boat
garrisoned in the land and provided a bodyguard to the Sultan.
crewed with 1000 men armed with ‘lances’ (boarding pikes?).
A routed Muskatee force included 2000 men fleeing while riding on
The men of Muskat wore simple clothes of a long white or blue shift,
horses and camels, which might suggest riding beasts were provided
leather sandals, keffiah and two shulwars. Wild desert Arabs in the area,
for infantry. An army marching by land would be supported by the
who visited the city, were naked but for a blue checked loincloth, a few
navy coasting near by.
possessed swords and wooden shields while the remainder were armed
only with short spears.
When attacking cities the Muskatees were recorded dismounting
ship’s guns to provide a battery in support of their infantry. The navy
When attacking the Arab city of Cinas with their British allies
would also aid in bombardment. In about 1811-12 a small formation
the Omanis wore a piece of European sail-cloth in their turban to
of field guns and mortars was raised with weapons sourced from
distinguish them from the enemy.
British India and elsewhere. Maurizi described some naval gunners
as Persians, and Portuguese were noted as artillerymen on ships. The
Assault on the Pirate city of Cinas, January, 1810
The combined Omani-British force attacked and captured the Joassamy
Below, a Persian illustration of battle, from 1806-1810. clan’s city. This followed the earlier successful assault on the pirate
Below Right, Aga Mohammed Khan defeating Luft Ali Khan Zand.

154
headquarters of Ras el-Kymer and other strongholds. The locals Pirate losses - more than 400 dead
were noted as a Wahhabist ally. They occupied a fortified city. British losses - one dead, 11 wounded. Muskat losses - not given.

Omani forces - Imam Said, his brother Sayd Salem and Sayd The allies later moved off with most of their forces and the Wahhabists
Azan attacked and defeated the remainder, being part of the Imam’s army.
6000 infantry
400 cavalry Persian-Omani expedition against the Wahhabists,
Four dismounted naval guns Battles at Nakal, Ismael, 1812
Two large ships The Sultan of Muskat, in 1811, sent envoys to Tehran requesting military
80 smaller ships help to attack the Wahhabists. The Persian Shah sent an expeditionary force
that formed a combined army to defeat the Wahhabists in one battle before
British forces - Col. Smith losing and being destroyed in a second.
An assault column of troops
Guns Maurizi (who was not present at the time) said the Persian force was
Mortars commanded by Sadi Khan while the Dynasty of the Kajars said Prince
Hussain Ali Mirza, Governor of Farsistan, authorised a body of troops
Pirate forces; commanded by Sadik Khan Afshar to ‘zealously cooperate with the Imam’.
A ‘small army’ of Matlak hanging about with 1000 camels
Fort defenders The Persian force was transported into the conflict area by Omani shipping
and landed near the city of Burca, perhaps having congregated earlier at
The allies’ artillery, after eight hours, blasted a breach in the Muskat with the local force.
city and the defenders refused calls to surrender. Close range
grapeshot was fired into the breach. The allies assaulted in two Persian forces - Sadek Khan
columns, British on the right, and the handful of remaining 1500 cavalry
combatants and civilians were captured. Four Russian deserter light artillery
‘A considerable number of zambeleks’ (perhaps 100-200)
Joassamy losses - 700 dead
‘English’ losses - 15 Omani forces - Seyd Salem
More 4000 men, later growing to more than 10,000 after the first victory.
Omani ‘Arab’ losses - 50
Supporting navy and guns?
Brydges recounted the attack on Shinaas where the allies landed
Wahhabist forces - Matlak
and were attacked by a cavalry force of the defenders. An
Initial forces, reserves from the capital and later local tribes.
entrenched battery of a 10½ inch mortar and three brass field
pieces were supported by guns from the British ships being; two
At the battle at Nakal, a few miles from the sea, the allies defeated the
24-pounders, a 12-pound carronade and three 12 pounders. The
obstinate Wahhabists causing ‘great loss’. Matlak regrouped his army, gained
guns pounded the city.
more supporters from local tribes and at the next battle, near Ismael, utterly
defeated the allies.
A breach was made in the fortifications and a body of 400 of
the Imam’s troops joined the British in the assault and were first
Persian losses - The Russian gunners were all slain and guns captured, all
inside. The defenders held out in two towers where they fought
but 100 cavalry were lost and Sadek Khan fled. Omani losses - not given.
with long spears and showed fanatic resolve - throwing back
British ‘grenades and fire balls’ - before they were bombarded
The composition of the Persian expeditionary force was unusual in lacking
into submission. The Imam’s troops with ‘savage rage’ were
infantry but it complemented the Omanis by providing what they lacked
restrained by British officers from committing outrages on the
- cavalry and artillery to support their infantry and navy. The zamburaks
defenders.
were described as an apparently unique two-gun variant which, as mentioned
in an earlier section, could mean two men riding each beast with each man

Below, pictures from Drouville, 1825, 2nd edition. From Left: a man with a club,
a Persian wearing a velvet coat, Cheick al Islam (Grand Priest of Persia ?), a Persian in summer clothes, a Fakir - an Arab beggar.

155
operating a gun. The unusual zamburak unit and Russian deserter British forces - Maj General Lionel Smith
artillery suggest the Persians sent unusual troops to trial them away 65th regiment - 475
from their on-going war with Russia. The Dynasty of the Kajars Bombay European Regiment - 400
does not detail any major battles, probably reflecting the date of its 1st Bat. 7th Reg. Native Infantry - 450
composition, but said many Wahhabee were slain in skirmishes with Flank bat. Native infantry - 630
forts taken and several chiefs killed or captured. Detachment bat. Native Infantry - 450
Volunteer seamen from the fleet
Suppression of the Ben-i Boo Arabs, 1820-21 Two x 12-pounder (batteries of four?) - drawn by horses
These Arabs were described both as a sub-set of the Jossamy pirates A 18-pounder - drawn by men
and adopters of Wahhabism, they were enemies of the Imam of Muskat. Two 6-pounders - drawn by horses
One heavy howitzer - drawn by men
The British and their Muskat allies landed at the Gulf town of Zoor 200 artillerymen
to assault the inland city of Arab chief, Mohammed bin-Ali. A small Pioneers (Native) - 60
force under Thomspson was swamped and massacred early on the
morning of 9 November, 1820, resulting in 256 men killed and guns Muskat forces - 1100 men of the Imam
captured. Only 55 men survived to tell the tale.
Beni-boo Arab losses - 235-500 dead and 236-270 wounded were made
A larger British force of 16 transports, 11 horse-boats, 1281 European prisoners, all guns previously captured by the enemy were secured.
and 1718 Native troops landed at Zoor where, 12 days later, they
British losses - 26-27 dead, 169-171 wounded. Muskat losses - not given.
were attacked in their night camp on 11 February, 1821. Having got
among the tents, 500 Arabs with spears and long straight swords used
in two hands, launched an attack led by Mahommed bin-Ali’s brother,
Sheikh Kadin-bin-Ali, brother. Nineteen British were killed and 26 Persian Armies and Civil Wars
wounded while some horses and animals were hamstrung before the
Arabs were driven off. The Imam of Muskat arrived with 1100 men, Graham Williamson constructed a detailed list of Persian military forces
ammunition, 800 camels, 200 asses and supplies to support a march for ‘the Napoleonic period’ showing troop types and deployments (see
50 miles inland to assault the city of Ben-i-boo Allee. opposite). Artillery and emergency levy troops have be added to his list,
albeit the latter would be hard to quantify accurately.
The defending Arabs occupied date groves outside the city and shot
with matchlocks at the British skirmishers sent forward. The Arabs, Persian armies could have quite different compositions, especially in the
800-1000 strong, charged sword-in-hand out of their cover, drove off midst of a civil war or succession crisis where units and commanders
the skirmishers and engaged the 65th regiment. They were repulsed might have to declare allegiance to a faction and coordinate with any
by a volley-and-charge supported by fire of 12-pounders. Other Arabs like-minded nearby forces.
outflanked the 1st bat. of the 7th reg. and did ‘dreadful execution’
among them - having driven them back. Deployment and Tactics
Armies were mostly described deployed with a centre and two wings.
The Arabs captured a 12-pounder and fell upon the rear of the 65th to The C-in-C traditionally commanded the centre. Abbas Mirza once
break through them. Companies of the 65th formed up on the rear and joined his artillery mid-battle to encourage them to keep fighting.
drove off the Arabs with a volley-and-charge. This British brigade
was retired and replaced by the other one. The Arabs retired to their The army camp would often be ‘entrenched’ and protected by a guard.
city - ‘castle’ where the British artillery silenced them. An attempted Aga Mohammed Khan’s deployment, which looks like the notional ideal,
break-out failed and the city surrendered on March 2nd. included: ‘... the right, left centre and wings, as well as troops for reserve
and for ambush.’ The ‘ambush’ troops usually means soldiers sent ahead
Beni-boo Arab forces - Mahommed bin-Ali (4) of the army to trap enemy scouts and vanguards. The ‘wings’ above
Spear and swordsmen, matchlock-men, 1300 or more in total would also look for ambushing or raiding opportunities.
Captured 18-pounders and 6-pounders

Below, illustrations from Drouville. From Below Left, a Mirza in ceremonial robes,
a Dervish Charlatan, a Persian noble in court dress, a criminal - prisoner, a man smoking.

156
 Distribution of Military Forces
Emergency
Governor Province(s) Field Army Artillery Notes
Levy
20,000 cavalry The foot artillery
(including 500-800 100-200 includes some
regular lancers) zamburaks 12-pounders
Abbas Mirza Azerbaijan
10,000 infantry 8,000 36 horse artillery Cavalry includes
(including Russian ghulams, Kurds,
Bagaderan and 8-11 (up to 22 tribal 0-24 foot artillery Baktiyari
sarbaz units) units)
The levy infantry total
2,000 cavalry
Erivan 1,500 cavalry includes 2000 - ‘reserve
Hassan Khan (some Kurdish)
(allied to Azerbaijan) 3,500 infantry sarbaz’ / uniformed
2,000 infantry
tofangchis

22,000 cavalry
Mohammad Ali Kermanshah, Luristan, 0-200 zamburaks
2,000 infantry 10,000
Mirza Khuzestan 4-11 guns
(2-3 sarbaz units)

Fars, 10,000 cavalry 0-200 zamburaks

Hussein Ali Mirza
Laristan 5,000 infantry 5,000 4+ guns

9+ guns of
6,000 cavalry
Mazandaran 3-pounders to
14,000 infantry 10,000
14-pounders

3,000 cavalry
Kerman
2,000 infantry 5,000
0-200 zamburaks
4,000 0-35 guns of
1,000 heavy cavalry 10,000 infantry
Mohammad Vali 4-pounders to Irregular infantry may
Khoressan 3,000 cavalry
Mirza 32-pounders include 700 shamkhals
1,000 infantry (up to 32 tribal
units)
0-50 shumkhals
Guard cavalry will
include both ghulam
types
100-600 Palace guard infantry
4,000 guard cavalry zamburaks could be added to the
4,000 heavy cavalry totals
Including
Shah 5,000 cavalry 4,000 0-18 horse
Eraq-Iajam
6,000 infantry guard 6,000 artillery Heavy cavalry can
15,000 infantry 25,000 include Kurds and
0-40 guns joushan-pushan
(up to 31 tribal
units) Other cavalry
will include some
Turkomans
Total 150,000 92,000

The chart Above is adapted from Graham Williamson - Table 3.2 ‘Persian Regional Armies
(Napoleonic period)’ (40) to which has been added estimates for artillery and other forces, c. 1820-40.

Williamson’s figures for ‘Emergency Levy’ troops probably includes what has earlier been described
here as militia or tribal troops, presumably where Williamson’s entry is not noted as cavalry or
infantry it refers to the troop types in the column directly to the left of it.

Each area could also raise further levy troops of the various types described earlier.

Left, a rider from a map by Tallis, Rapkin, 1851.

157
Battle at Mazanderan, 2 April 1779 Forces in Mazanderan, c. 1820s, via Fraser (4, 111, 130)
Aga Mohammed Khan defeated two of his brothers / half-brothers, The Prince with 500 gholaums
Riza Quli and Murtaza Qul. Persian sources described the brothers 12,000 tufangchis
defending entrenchments with a ‘great body of troops’. Later a 4000 cavalry
combined Zand-Afghan army, led by Mahmud Khan, was defeated by 20 guns (attached to Mazanderan and Astarabad)
Jafar Quli - Aga Mohammed Khan’s brother and supporter.
Force of Prince Arghon Meerza, Subazawar City / Province, 1829
Battles near Sari, Astarabad, 1784 Details via Lt. Arthur Conolly, (29)
Mohamad Zahir Khan led 10,000 Zand troops to defeat Aga 500 ‘regular’ horse (probably meaning Ghulams)
800 foot
Mohammed Khan who tried to defend a Safavid-era ditch built to
4000 Eeljauree, (militia-levy?) infantry
protect against Turkomen. Retreating to stand siege in Astarabad, Aga 30 zoombooruks
Mohammed Khan broke out, and with his Turkoman allies, defeated 50 shumkhals
the Zands whose army appeared to have included Lor tribes. The Two other standard guns
Turkomans captured the retreating Mohamad Zahir Khan.
Later armies and the succession crisis of Mohammed Shah
Jafar Quli defeated Rostam Khan Zand in a separate action. Prince Najaf Kooli Meerza, writing in 1839, provided valuable detail on
armies from perspective of a Persian commander. He was on the losing
Battle near Kashan - Nusratabad, 1785 faction during the succession crisis for Mohammed Shah - proving that
Aga Mohammed Khan defeated Jafar Khan Zand and Taqi Khan, not only winners get to write history.
governor of Yazd, in a four-hour battle. The Zands had ‘several
thousand’ cavalry and Aga Mohammed Khan used artillery in an Grand Vizier Abdullah Khan Assef el Dawle’s army to force Firman
action before the battle. Firman, Prince of Shiraz and Fars to pay tribute, 1834
The Grand Vizier’s army was 10,000 strong being cavalry, infantry and
Battle west of Shiraz, 1791-92 four guns. His mission to ensure the tribute payment was cut short by
Hadjji Ibrahim, governor of Fars, an ally of Aga Mohammed Khan, the death of Fath Ali Shah. His army disbanded, possibly as they were
was sent 7000 Qajar cavalry and other troops, including nomad Eel required for the funeral parade, which appeared to include a significant
tribes. He was defeated by Luft Ali Khan (Zand). military presence of irregular troops, artillery and regulars.

Persian sources described Luft Ali Khan as at times commanding Zel el Sultan seizes the crown, 1834
20,000 horsemen; artillery and zamburaks were captured by him Zel el Sultan in Tehran proclaimed himself Shah. He was supported by
from the enemy. In one battle, near Mesjid-i-Vardi, his defeated army many Princes, generals and officers, especially in Irak and Mazanderan.
included Lor and Fars tribes and suffered 18,000 infantry lost. With access to the royal treasuries Zel el Sultan began paying off all the
key players and re-fitted the army.
Battle near Isfahan, 1794-97 (?)
Aga Mohammed Khan defeated Abdal Khan Bakhtiyari near Isfahan. His force to oppose Mohammed Shah was led by Imam Werdi Meerza
The Bakhtiyarai tribesmen numbered at least 4000, possibly many and an experienced general. The army included 30,000 cavalry and
more, and 1000 reinforcements arrived during battle. infantry and was later joined by Sahrab Khan Kooji, with 2000 men and
20 guns, and Prince Kayoomarth Meerza Abu el Moolook with 3000
18th century historian Mohammad Fathallah Saravi, in 1797, wrote:(35) troops. Prince Najaf Kooli Meerza described the force:
‘Once surrounded the Bakhtiyari horsemen saw their days filled ‘Thus his army was magnificently equipped, in truth such a well
with the smoke and dust of cannons and guns in a black field of war. arranged army had not for a long time been found in Persia.’
... the valorous commanders and protectors of the state swarmed on
Mohammed Shah contests the crown, 1834
the enemy from different directions, putting them to death.’
In Azerbaijan at the time of Fath Ali Shah’s death, Mohammad Shah
secured loans from Russia and Great Britain to back-pay troops and then
The victorious Persians captured 80,000 sheep, cattle and women.
marched to Tehran. His force was initially 7000 men and seven guns.
Abdal Khan Bakhtiyari and other khans were killed. Another Persian
source described the Khan’s victory; (145)
He was joined by the governor of Reshet and Gilan with 500 cavalry
‘... he quite destroyed their entrenched posts, and made great and Assef el Dawle with 2000 men raised from three villages. His army
numbers of them the prey of his triumphant sword.’ increased to include 24 guns. As the armies neared each other
Zel el Sultan’s force suffered significant desertions to Mohammed Shah,
including the treacherous abandonment by
its leader Imam Werdi Meera. Seizing the
moment, Mohamed Shah sent Mr Lynch
to approach the leaderless army’s camp
at dawn and with four guns at close range
demanded their surrender. Many troops
joined Mohammad Shah while others fled
to their homes. The army dissolved and
Zel el Sultan was arrested in Tehran.

Far Left, Jafar Khan Zand.

Middle Left, Karim Khan Zand.
Left, ‘Luft Ali Khan, aged 20’,
from Brydges.
158
Above and Below, two versions of army lists for Persian troops in
Azerbeijan, 1822, compiled by Fraser.
Right, an Ambassador. Centre Right, an Armenian Lady.
Far Right, a High Priest, all pictures are from Shoberl.

159
Hider Koolee Meerza Sahib Ikhtiar’s revolt in Isfahan, 1834-34 mentioned during the action
Hider Koolee Meerza Sahib Ikhtiar was the Prince - governor in Some guns
Gulbaykan and Kalamro. On learning of Fath Ali Shah’s death he 10,000 mules and camels with supplies
captured Isfahan, either to rule there himself or as a confederate of
Firman Firman. He lavished money on Baktiari Khans and built Advance guard - Soliman Meerza
an army of 20,000 men. The army included Kossrow Khan, of the 200 cavalry
Charlamank Baktiari, with 4000 foot and 2000 infantry and Bahram
Khan Sibah, of the Haftlank Baktiari, with 3000 horse and 200 foot No totals or estimates of losses for either side were mentioned.
(2000 may be intended as 12,000 total are later mentioned), which
suggests 8000-9000 other troops were raised. De Bode provided some additional colour on the battle, which was
joined in the valley of Kumisheh, where the armies were not initially
The Baktiari chiefs fell out over a stolen horse and 400 men, including aware of each other’s presence. He described the action as occurring in
Bahram Khan, were killed in blood feuding. mist or fogs and that a surprise assault of Sir Henry Bethune or General
Lindsey, leading the royalist troops, routed the rebels.
Mohammed Shah’s force to secure Isfahan, 1834-35
Mohammed Shah sent Firooz Meerza, Manoocher Khan and Mr Fraser provided more detail, in a broadly similar account, that included
Lynch with 7000 regular troops, 4000 cavalry and 16 guns to secure the royalist troops under Bethune making a prodigious forced march of
the city. Hider Koolee Meerza fled the city for Fars, where he joined 80 miles in 30 hours to block the rebels’ route to Isfahan.
Shojah el Sultane (a general and brother of Firman Firman). The
combined force was defeated by the Shah’s troops at Komsihe. Bethune’s interception force was two battalions of sarbaz, a few
toffungchi, a small number of cavalry and 20 guns for a total of about
Prince Hassan Allee Mirja, 4 March, 1835 4000 men. His total force included reinforcements, gathered near
The Prince, a general of the Fiman Firman, was defeated near Isfahan Isfahan, of at least one other sarbaz battalion.
by Sir Henry Lindsay leading royal forces. The Prince’s army was
5000 men, 800 of whom were infantry, the rest cavalry; three guns and The rebels, under Shuja-es-Sultaneh, deployed for battle at Kumeesha
one howitzer. The event may be the same one as the following. with four ‘divisions’ forward and two held in reserve to also protect the
baggage. Parts of the battle-line formed up protected behind the ruined
Battle of Komsihe, Spring, 1835 walls of a deserted village. Supporting cavalry was mentioned.
Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza described this action in an account which
is at times hard to follow. The Prince and Shojah el Sultane marched Bethune deployed his guns to destroy the mud walls and the defenders
toward Isfahan where they were confident of popular support. were blasted out of the village with round-shot and routed with great
loss. This reverse triggered the rout of the army and the rebel baggage
The march to the area and battle featured snow and men perishing and ammunition were captured.
from the cold. Firooz Meerza and Mr Lynch seemed to have
blockaded and built fortifications on the road to Isfahan (perhaps The ‘Firman Firman’ seizes Shiraz, 1834-35
garrisoned with a strong detached vanguard) The rebels rushed for On hearing of the death of Fath Ali Shah, Prince Hasan Ali Meerza, the
an alternative route where they were also blocked and defeated by ‘Firman Firman’ - Governor of Fars - the last Shah’s eldest son, seized
the royalists who re-deployed to the new area, having left a guard of Shiraz as a power base.
infantry and guns in their camp.
Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza’s army to secure Bushir, 1834-35
Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza placed great importance on the artillery The Prince, an ally of the ‘Firman Firman’, marched to Bushir to force
exchanges and noted the royalists’ significant superiority. Action the independent-minded governor, Gimel Khan Rashimi, to pay tribute
included units of 200-500 cavalry engaging, once at night, to secure due. The Prince also went to secure the area as a base for other military
advantage. The Prince himself spent a day at the head of such a unit operations.
skirmishing with the enemy to mask attempted flanking manoeuvres.
The Prince’s force was initially 12,000 strong, later joined by;
3000 troops of Backtiari and Elliat Khans
One unusual incident reported was Shojah el Sultane standing behind 2000 troops provided by the mother of Abdalla Khan
one of his guns when an enemy canon ball went exactly down the tube
of the gun. The defeated rebels retreated to their homelands. Gimel Khan Rashimi holed up in his castle with some loyal troops.
News of Fath Ali Khan’s death now reached the area. Prince Najaf
Muhammad Shah’s forces - Firuoz Meeza, Manoochir Khan Koolee Meerza defeated the 6000-7000 man army of Khan Ali Khan
12,000 cavalry
Ristinki that was creating trouble in the area, the Prince then was
18 guns
recalled to the Battle of Komsihe, described above.
Advance guard - Mr Lynch
2000 cavalry Battle of the Malamir Plains / River Karun, 1837
Five regiments of infantry Prince Bahran Mirza was sent to bring Bakhtiyari tribes back under
Five ‘regiments’ of artillery central authority and paying their taxes.

The Firman Firman’s forces - Shojah el Sultane Persian forces - Prince Bahram Mirza
2000 cavalry 5000 troops including cavalry and infantry
Two regiments of infantry Six guns
Four guns
Bakhtiyari forces - Muhammad Taqui Khan and unknown number of
Rebel forces - Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza, the Prince’s brother Wali Char Lang tribesmen.
1000 musketeers
5000 infantry of Kirman and Yazed The action was described as inconclusive and the conflict was later
Cavalry, probably including some or all 3000 troops of the resolved by negotiation.
Backtiari and Elliat Khans, as described below, as these chiefs were

160
Maucher-Khan’s small force near Shuster, 1840-41 Fuzl Ali Khan
One regiment of serbaz 10 guns
1000 ghulams Five regiments
Three x 6-pounders with 150 crew 1000 cavalry
Mules and cattle
Sooleman Khan
Persian Army Strength, 1850 12 guns
Binning detailed the army as: (85) Three regiments
50 regiments of serbaz, each of 1000 1200 cavalry
12 troops of ‘suvara’ cavalry
400 bodyguard cavalry Jafer Koli Khan Elkhanee was in Shiraz with 3000 cavalry and an
2000 toopchee artillerymen expected 4000 musketeers might be recruited from local Arab tribes.
200 zamboorekcheee (over one-pounder and heavier guns)

No totals were given for irregulars and a note said that planning was
Religion and Superstition
underway to conscript a further 40 serbaz regiments.
The conflict between Islamic and Christian states is the obvious
Persian force in the Anglo-Persian War, February 15, 1857 religious backdrop to the actions already described. However, the
British intelligence reported a Persian army stationed between Kisht divide of loyalty was far from clear. Many Christian Georgians found
and Shiraz was; semi-autonomy, under Islamic Persian rule, preferable to no autonomy,
under Christian Russia.
2000 Horse
3000 ‘Musketeers’ The Russian General Titsianov was scathing in his criticism of what he
24,800 men being 31 regiments of 800 each saw as timid support received from the minority Armenian Christian
85 guns population of the defenders of Erivan. His letter to one of their leaders,
in 1805, reads:
Persian force, Anglo-Persian War, February 27- March 3rd, 1857
British reports from the above dates detail troops accumulating before ‘Unreliable Armenians with Persian souls ... Georgia is not required
the Battle of Mohumra, they described three columns marching to feed parasites. As to your request to save the Armenians of Erivan,
separately under their commanders to forage. who are dying in the hands of unbelievers: do traitors deserve
protection? let them die like dogs, they deserve it.’ (125)
Sirkeesheekechee Bashee
Eight guns The Persians found an unexpected benefit of their Christian Russian
Four regiments Bagaderan deserter battalion. At the siege of Herat, in 1833, some
1500 cavalry Afghan defenders were taking refuge in a fort containing the tomb of a

A snapshot of troops in the Caucasus theatre, c. 1808, taken from the Dynasty of the Kajars
Leader Troops Location Notes
Musketeers of Asterabad, Damawend and Led by the Sardar’s brother
Kerman, royal guards of Khorasan
(second version) ‘Musketeers’ might identify
Hasan Khan Kajar Defending Erivan city
Musketeers of Khorasan with the Prince’s toffungchis and ‘royal guards’ or
train, body-guards of Tabreez, body-guards could be ghulams if
‘tiger-hearted Sarbaz’ cavalry or janbaz if foot
A body of cavalry
Tabreez foot-guards The ‘foot guards’ may mean
Sent by Prince Abbas Mirza
? A body of Sarbaz from Maraghah janbaz as might the ‘musketeers
to the province of Erivan
Musketeers of the body-guards of the body-guards’
Artillery
A ‘division’ of Tabreez and Khoi sarbaz
Faty Aly Khan - the A ‘considerable force’ of musketeers from Sent by Prince Abbas Mirza
Kur Yesawal Maksud Lu, Chena Shaky, Khan Duzy to the Nakhshivan Khanate
‘many’ of the royal bodyguards
Probably including Kurds, as
Farraj Allah Khan - Via Sulimania to join Abbas
A ‘completely equipped army’ this general led them against the
the Nasakchy Bashee1 Mirza (at Tabriz)
Ottomans two years earlier
Aman Allah Khan The Leader is the governor of
2000 cavalry Sent to Abbas Mirza at Khoi
Afshar2 Khamsah
Husain Khan A numerous body of Kurdish horse and
In Erivan province ?
- Sardar of Erivan other troops
Troops from Karabagh, Ardebel, Maskim These could be of the ethnic
Ameer Khan Kajar including infantry, cavalry, guns and Sent to Mughan groups listed or government
zamburaks forces
Troops from Ferahan and Guzaz still
Crown Prince At Korash, but moving to
learning European drill, now combined
Abbas Mirza engage the Russians
with 1 and 2 and probably other royal forces

161
famous saint, a place that Moslems would not attack; the Russians Bab was executed in 1850. A tradition has it the firing squad all missed
held no such scruples and took the fort by storm. him and he fled amidst the gun smoke only to be soon re-captured and
executed.
The sectarian Shia / Sunni divide fuelled conflict between the Qajars
and Ottomans and within the Afghanistan region. The Babist stronghold of the city of Zenjah revolted in 1850-51. The
Shah sent troops against them; six regiments and several guns were
Islamic traditions in Persia included deserters being granted mentioned. The defenders, including women combatants, held out for
immunity from military authority when claiming refuge within holy several months. They improvised two guns as described earlier. Other
buildings or other recognised places. When on active duty soldiers smaller revolts were in Tabarsi, from 1848-49, and at Neyriz in 1850
were not necessarily under all the strictures of sharia. and 1853. Babists were subjected to brutal repression by the Shah (who
survived, in 1852, an assassination attempt blamed on them) and the
The new model regular army reforms faced opposition from adherents spread around the world where their beliefs are now known as
conservative forces, who considered them un-Islamic, however the the Baha’i faith.
reformers marshalled quotes from the Koran to back their case and
even advanced the idea that the nizam were the true agents of jihad. Notes on pictures
It is almost certain that I have misidentified some of the 19th century
Troops, especially irregulars, could be roused for battle by camp-fire illustrations as they are so often recycled and the original is difficult to
readings of religious texts but the heroic deeds of the characters in determine. As far as I know all pictures are either credited or copyright
the Shahnameh seem equally or even more popular for that purpose. expired - many have been cropped or retouched for clarity.
Aga Mohammed Khan was noted as personally reading the book to
his troops on the night before the Battle of Krtsanisi. Notes on names and spelling
No effort has been made to regularise the spelling used by 18th-19th
The double-edge sword of proclaiming a jihad has been discussed century writers, often the form used by a particular author appears near
earlier. Faith could be expressed in other areas such as Prince a quoted passage. This means multiple forms of spelling have been
Mohummud Kouli Meerza describing his troops as Ghazeaun-e- included for technical terms, such as dozens of variations for toffangchi,
Islam, ‘the warriors of Islam’. ghulam and zamburak - if nothing else this gives the reader an insight
into the style of the original authors.
Religious leaders were not beyond secular considerations. The
British convinced a religious leader of the unwisdom of calling a Tabriz, Tabreez, Tauris = the city capital of Azerbaijan.
jihad against them - no doubt the potential of an invading army sent Tliflis, Tblisi = the modern capital of Georgia.
against the cleric’s power base in the south influenced his views. Arras, Aras, Araxes = the River in Georgia.

Abbas Mirza’s faction at court explained the battle loss at Aslanduz In Persian names, Mirza / Meerza in the form, ‘Mirzra X y z’ denotes
was due to the stars and comets not being in alignment - the Prince a man of letters, while ‘X y z Mirza’ means a prince. Aga Mohammed
had no chance at victory. Astrologers were taken seriously and Khan becomes Aga Mohammed Shah when crowned.
leaders would wait for propitious days to guide actions such as
starting a march or entering a city.

Non-Iranian people within the empire, or surrounds, could be equally © David Brown, 14 View Street, North Wollongong,
superstitious. The Armenian cathedral at Echmaidzen is traditionally NSW, 2500, Australia.
home of one of the best credentialled spears of the crucifixion. In
1770 the spear was paraded through Georgia to successfully cure dfmbrown@mpx.com.au
a plague. The wild Lesghis asked for the same treatment but the
clerics thought it too risky to send the spear to the tribesmen so a December 2015
substitute was manufactured for the tour. This fake spear also cured
the plague. The sorcerers of Muskat were firmly believed to have the
power to turn men into goats and purchasers of the animals would
carefully inspect them for any telltale supernatural signs.(144)

Babist revolt, 1844-1853 Below Left, a Turkoman camp, from Conolly. Below Centre, a Persian
The messianic Ali Muhammad Shirazi, ‘the Bab’, with his new groom of the envoy. Below Right, a messenger, from Brydges.
theology proved an unacceptable challenge to Persian religious
authorities and ultimately Shah Nasser-ed Din. Contemporary
Europeans also describe the Babists as socialists and a doctrine of
social justice and reform was part of their popular appeal. Having
alienated religious powers, the government and moneyed classes it
was only a matter of time before force was used against them. The

Below, Qajar soldiers depicted on a carpet.

162
References 27 Arash Khazeni, Tribes and empire on the margin of C.19th Iran.
28 Vanessa Martin, The Qajar pact: bargaining, protest and the state in
C.19th Persia, Iranian Studies Vol. 40, No. 1, Feb 2007
Where a page number is noted it usually refers to the first entry
29 Lt. Arthur Conolly, Journey to the north of India, through Russia,
quoted for the text.
Persia and Affghaunistaun, 2-Vols, 1834.
30 Frederic Shoberl, Persia, containing a description of the
1 From the Encyclopaedia Iranica online.
country, 1828.
2 Taken from the Qajar Dynasty webpage http://www.qajarpages.
31 George Forster, A journey from Bengal to England,vol-II, 1808.
org/qajintro.html (Note: This list was adapted from Ambassador
32 Kaveh Farrokh, Iran at War, 1500-1988, 2011.
Sepahbody’s pages).
33 Rezā Qoli Khān Hedayat, Rawzat al-Safa-yi Nasiri, 1853-56.
3 Sir Harford Jones Brydges, An account of the transactions of His
34 Colonel C. Stuart, Journal of residence in northern Persia, 1854.
Majesty’s mission to the court of Persia in the years, 1807-11, 2-Vols,
35 Arash Khazeni, Tribes and Empire on the margin of 19th Century
pub 1834.
Iran. 2010.
4 James Baillie Fraser, Historical and descriptive account of Persia,
36 Abbas Amanat, Russian intrusion into the Guarded Domain:
from the earliest times to the present, 1833.
Reflections of a Qajar Statesman on European Expansion, Journal of
5 Uzi Rabi & Nugzar Ter-Oganov, The Military of Qajar Iran: The
the American Oriental Society Vol.113, No.1, Jan - Mar 1993.
Features of an Irregular Army from the Eighteenth to the Early
37 Kaveh Farrokh, Iran at War 1500-1988, 2011.
Twentieth Century. Iranian Studies, 45:3, May 2012.
38 Ian Heath, Armies of the Nineteenth Century: Asia; Central Asia and
6 Capt. August Von Kotzebue, Narrative of a journey into Persia in
the Himalayan kingdoms, 1998.
the suite of the Imperial Russian Embassy, 1817, pub 1819.
39 George Fowler, Three years in Persia, 1841.
7 James Morier, A Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor
40 Graham Williamson, ch-3, in War and Peace in Qajar Persia,
to Constantinople in the years 1808-09, pub 1816.
Roxane Farmanfarmaian ed, 2008.
8 Edward Waring, A tour to Sheeraz, 1807.
41 Lt. Col. John Johnson, A Journey from India to England through
9 Sir John Malcolm, History of Persia, from the most early period to
Persia, Georgia, Russia, Poland, and Prussia in 1817, pub 1818.
the present time, 1829.
42 Lt. William Heude, A voyage up the Persia Gulf, and a journey
10 Sir Robert Ker Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia,
overland from India to England in 1817, pub 1819.
ancient Babylonia, & during the years 1817-18-19, 1820, pub 1821.
43 in Aleksander Kibovskii, see ref 49.
11 James Edward Alexander, Travels from India to England;
44 P.N. Yermolov, 1817, quoted in ref 49.
comprehending a visit to the Burman Empire, and a journey through
45 Colonel F.F. Bartolomei, in 1826, quoted in ref 49 & 47.
Persia, Asia Minor, European Turkey, &c. 1825-26, pub 1827.
46 Colonel I.F. Blaramberg, in 1837, quoted in ref 49 &47.
12 Austen Henry Layard, Early adventures in Persia, Susiana and
47 Aleksandr Kibovski, ‘Bagaderan’ - Russian deserters in the Persian
Bablyonia including a residence among the Bahktiyari and other wild
army, 1802-1839, Tsekhgauz, No5, 1996.
tribes before the discovery of Nineveh, 1887.
48 Edward Eastwick, Journal of a diplomat’s three years residence in
13 Sir Justin Sheil - in Lady Mary Sheil, Glimpses of life and
Persia, Vol-2, 1864.
manners in Persia, 1856.
49 Aleksander Kibovski and Vadim Yegorov, The Persian regular army
14 Capt. George Henry Hunt, Outram and Havelock’s Persian
of the first half on the 19th century, Tseikhgauz, No5, 1996 (trans Mark
campaign, 1855.
Conrad 1998).
15 General Sir James Outram, Copy of a correspondence between
50 Islamicpersia.org website
Lieut. Colonel P.M. Melvill, and Colonel James Outram: with an
51 - C. Stone, in ref-5, A Glosary of the Construction , Decoration and
introduction and notes by a friend of the latter officer, 1854.
Use of Arms and Armour in all Countries, 1961
16 Gaspard Drouville, Voyage en Perse, fait en 1812 et 1813, pub 1819,
52 Steven Ward, Immortal, a military history of Iran and its armed
1825 and 1828 editions.
17 Gavin Hambly in ref 32. forces, 2013.
17a Gavin Hambly in ref 74, ch-3. 53 Sir John Malcolm, Government of India, 1833.
18 James Morier, A second journey through Persia, Armenia and 54 Romesh C. Butalia, The Evolution of the Artillery in India, 1998.
Asia Minor to Constantinople, between 1810-16, pub 1818. 55 The Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, c.11th century.
18a James Morier, Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan, 1824. 56 J.H. Stocqueler (psued?), Fifteen months’ pilgrimage through
19 Sir William Ousley, Travels in various countries of the east, more Khuzistan and Persia in the years 1831-32, pub 1832.
particularly Persia, VIII, 1823. 57 - footnote in ref 40.
20 Lt. Thomas Lumsden, A Journey from Merut in India to 58 Irina Natchkebia, Franco-Persian Diplomatic relations and Georgia
London, though Arabia, Persia,, Armenia, Georgia, Russia, Austria, - www.fereidani.ge/181-irina.html.
Switzerland and France during 1819-20, pub 1822. 59 Robert Elgood, Firearms of the Islamic worlds - Tared Rajab
21 William Francklin, Observations made on a tour from Bengal to Museum.
Persia in the years 1786-7, pub 1790. 60 Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani, Persian manuscripts on cannon
22 General Charles-Matthieu, Comte de Gardane - see also Journal making, different types of ordnances, rockets and fireworks, on-line
d’un voyage dans la Turquie-d’Asie et la Perse, fait en 1807 et 1808 PDF.
Ange-Louis Gardane, 1809. 60a M. Manouchehr, sword forum international webpage. http://www.
23 Adrien Dupre, Voyage en Perse, fait dans les annees, 1807, 1808, swordforum.com/
1809, pub 1819. 61 John Baddley, The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus, 1908.
24 Fredika Freygan & Wilhelm von Freygan, Letters from the 62 David McDowall, A modern history of the Kurds, 3rd ed.
Caucasus and Georgia, 1823. 63 Peter Abbott, Unknown Armies: Persia / Iran, 1989.
25 Colonel F. Colombari, The Zemboureks or the dromedary field 64 Mahshid Modares, European artists in Iran during the Qajar period,
artillery of the Persian army, in, Spectator Militare, 1853. 2007 - on-line.
25a Colonel F. Colombari, picture from, Qajar Studies, Journal of the 65 Vanessa Martin - An evaluation of reform and development in the
International Qajar Studies Association, Vol.-V: 61. 2005. early Qajar period, Die Welt des Islams, Vol-36, Issue-1, March 1996.
26 William Monteith, Kars and Erzeroum: with the campaigns 66 Roberto A Scattolin, Popular support and Military inadequacy in
of Prince Paskiewitch, in 1828 and 1829; and an account of the the Transcaucasic sphere of strategic dominance: 1805 a Georgian
conquests of Russia beyond the Caucasus from the time of Peter the Lamentation, Napoleon series, on-line.
Great to the treaty of Turcoman Chie and Adrianople, 1856. 67 T.B. Armstrong, Journal of the travels in the seat of war, during the

163
last two campaigns of Russia and Turkey, 1831. 100 John Jackson, Journey from India toward England in the Year 1797,
68 Rev. Justin Perkins, A Residence of eight years in Persia among pub 1799.
the Nestorian Christians - with notices of the Muhammedans, 1834. 101 (from Mark Conrad’s webpage) Organisation of the Russian Army
69 Eustace De Lorey, Queer things about Persia, 1907. 1825-55, Viskovatv, Vol-19, Part-A, p228.
70 M. Tancoigne, A Narrative of a Journey into Persia and a 102 Maj-Gen Emory Upton, The Armies of Asia and Europe, embracing
residence in Tehrean (English trans.), 1820. official reports on the armies of: Japan, China, India, Persia, Italy,
71. Oliver Wardrop, The Kingdom of Georgia, notes of travel in a Russia, Austria, Germany, France and England. 1878.
land of women, wine and song, 1888. 103 John Kaye, The life and Correspondence of Maj-Gen Sir John
72 Horatio Southgate, Narrative of a tour through Armenia, Malcolm, 1866, Vol-2, p623-630.
Kurdistan, Persia and Messopotamia with observations on the 104 Robert Mingan, A Winter Journey through Russia, the Caucasian
condition of the Mohammedanism and Christianity in those Alps and Georgia, Vol-1, pub 1839, p38.
countries, 1840. 105 James Morier, Some Account of the I’liyats or Wandering Tribes
73 Capt. Richard Wilbraham, Travels in the Trans-Caucasian of Persia, obtained in the years 1814 and 1815, Journal of the Royal
provinces of Russia and along the southern shore of the Lakes of Van Geographical Society of London, Vol-7, 1837, p230-242.
and Urumiah, in the autumn and winter of 1837, pub 1839. 106 Julius Von Klaproth, (trans. F. Shoberl) Travels in the Caucasus
74 Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 7, From Nadir Shah to the and Georgia: Performed in the years 1807 and 1808 by Command of the
Islamic Republic-Cambridge University Press, 1991. Russian Government, p222, pub 1814.
75 Lt. Alex Burnes, Travels into Bokhara. being the account of a 107 Prince Najaf Koolee Meerza, Journal of a Residence In England
journey from India to Cabool, Tartary and Persia, 1831-32-33, and of a Journey from and to Syria, 2-Vols, 1839, p13.
pub 1835. 108 Bakour Karapetgan, Roots of the Karabakh Problem, PDF on-
76 Montstuart Eliphinstone, An account of the Kingdom of Cabul, line,http://therootsofkarabakh.com/chapters/chapter-9-the-shushi-
and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary and India, 2-Vols, 1815. khanate-avshars-kerim-zend-khan-the-qajar-inheritance/16/
77 Iradj Amini, Mehraban brother, Napoleon Early Franco-Iranian 109 Hosvep (Joseph) Emin, Joseph Emin’s Life and Adventures, 1792
relations. The Iranian August 30, 1999. (and later annotated editions).
78 Robert Coton Money, Journal of a tour in Persia during the years 110 Donald Rayfield, Edge of Empires, A History of Georgia, 2012.
1825-26, pub 1828. 111 James Bailie Fraser, Tales and Adventures in the Persian Provinces
79 Rev. Dwight W Marsh. The Tennesseean in Persia and on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea, 1826.
Koordistan: being scenes in the life of Samuel Audley Rhea, 1869. 112 Apolon Tabuashvili, Some Unknown Details about the
80 Sir William Richard Holmes, Sketches on the shores of the Contradiction between Iran and Kartl-Kakheti Kingdom (1795)
Caspian, 1845. “Spekali” #5 Georgian Studies, Tiblisi state University on-line
81 Louis Fracois Comte de Ferriers-Sauveboeuf, in Robert Heron, A publication, http://www.spekali.tsu.ge/index.php/en/article/
collection of late voyages and travels, chiefly translated and abridged viewArticle/5/41
from the French and other foreign publications, 1797. 113 T.K.H. Hakobyan, History of Yerivan (1500-1800) trans.
82 John Beaumont, EIC Political Resident in Bushire, 1779, British P. Mesrobian, p68, 1971. On-line at Armeniahouse.org
Library, File, Vol-3 Letters Outward (from Bushire) 10R/15/1/3. 114 Don Juan Van Halen, Narrative of Don Juan Van Halen’s
83 Thomas Alcock, Travels in Russia, Persia, Turkey and Greece, in Imprisonment in the Dungeons of the Inquisition at Madrid, and His
1828-29, pub 1831. Escape in 1817 and 1818: To which are Added, His Journey to Russia,
84 Ida Pfeifer, A Woman’s Journey Round the World, from Vienna to His Campaign with the Army of the Caucasus, and His Return to Spain
Brazil, Chili, Tahiti, China, Hindoostan, Persia and Asia Minor, 1852. in 1821, 2-Vols, Pub 1828. V-2, p241.
85 Robert Binning, A Journal of Two Years’ Travel in Persia, Ceylon, 115 John Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan, 3-Vols, V-I, p230,
etc, 2-Vol, 1857. 1857.
86 James Silk Buckingham, Travels in Assyria, Media and Persia, 116 Abbas Amanat,‘Herat Question’ How Herat Was Separated from
Vol-1, 1828, Vol-2, 1830. Iran, Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies, 2015, online.
87 Baron Clement Augustus De Bode, Travels in Luristan and 117 John Nelson, The Siege of Herat 1837-38, MA Thesis, St. Cloud
Arabistan 2-Vols, 1845. University, 1976.
88 Robert Watson, A History of Persia from the Beginning of the 118 Joseph Pierre Ferrier, History of the Afghans,1858, p315.
19th Century to the Year 1858, pub 1866. 119 Brig-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, A History of Afghanistan, 1940.
89 Ray Johnson, Napoleonic Armies, a Wargamer’s Campaign 120 Prof. M. R. Izady, Kurdish Enclave in the 19th Century, http://www.
Directory, 1805-1815, pub 1984. kurdistanica.com/ 2008
90 The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register, for India and its 121 From wikipedia, quoting figures compiled by Professor Sita Ram
Dependencies, - Asiatic Intelligence, Persia, Vol-22, p729-730. Kohli from the records of the Sikh government.
91 The Edinburgh Annual Register for 1826, Vol-19, p313-314. 122 David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 2007.
92 The Annual Register, or a View of History, Politics and Literature 123 Lt. Henry Pottinger, Travels in Beloochistan and Scinde, 1816.
of the year 1826, printed for Baldwin Craddoc and Joy; and C. and J. 124 British Parliament report, Correspondence Respecting Relating to
Rivington, London, pub 1827. p288. Persia, 1857.
93 Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and 125 Roberto A Scattolin, Popular Support and Military Inadequacy in
its Dependencies, Vol-23, 1826, p95 (referencing ‘Russian the Transcaucasic Sphere of Strategic Dominance; a 1805 Georgian
Newspapers’). Lamentation - online www.napoleon-series.org
94 Reverend Joseph Wolff, Reseaches and Missionary Labours 126 Asiatic Journal, Vol-12, 1821, p364-68.
among the Jews, Mohammedeans and other Sects, 1831-34. pub 1835. 126a, Vol-23, p254.
95 Chris Flaherty’s website - http://www.ottoman-uniforms.com/ 126b, Vol-25, p254.
96 The Hon. Robert Curzon, Armenia: A Year at Erezoom, and on the 126c, Vol-24 p515 and Vol-26, p524.
Fronteers of Russia, Turkey and Persian, 1854, p75. 126d, Vol-24, p515.
97 Sabri Ates, The Ottoman - Iranian Borderlands; Making a 126e, Vol 24, p785.
Boundary 1831-1914, 2013, p51-54. 126f, Vol-15, 1823, p431.
98 Captain George Keppel (Earl of Albemarle) Personal Narrative of 126g, Vol-15, 1823, p202.
a Journey from India to England etc, in 1824, 2-Vols, pub 1827. 126h, Vol-15, 1823, p92.
99 William Price, Journal of the British Embassy to Persia, 1825. 126i, Vol-10, 1820, p103-06.

164
126j Vol-25, 1837-1838. Notes on Miniatures Manufacturers
127 Mr Hanaway, The Modern Traveller, Being a Collection of Useful At the time of publishing;
and Enetaining Travels Lately Made Into Various Countires, vol-2,
p263, 1776. Westfalia miniatures - westfaliaminiatures.com
128 Robert Lyall, Travels in Russia, the Krimea, The Caucasus, and Produce 28mm figures including; generals, zamburaks, sarbaz, regular
Georgia, 2-Vols, p91, 1825. cavalry, artillery, militia infantry, Kurdish cavalry, camel train, Afghans
129 C.J. Willis, Persia As It Is, 1886. and Wahhabists.
130 James Baillie Fraser, Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, etc.
with sketches of the character and manners of the Koordish and Arab Khurasan miniatures - khurasanminiatures.tripod.com
tribes, 2-Vols, p282-85, 1840 (?) Produce 18mm figures of sarbaz in multiple poses, officers and regular
131 Kerim Fenari,The Jihad of Imam Shamyl, http://www.masud. artillery, with plans for others including tribal / militia troops.
co.uk/ISLAM/misc/shamyl.htm
132 Rebecca Gould, Imam Shamyl, in Russia’s People of Empire, ed Irregular miniatures - irregularminiatures.co.uk
Stephen M. Norris and Willard Sunderland. 2012. Produce 15mm figures of sarbaz, zamburaks, artillery, regular cavalry
133 Charles Tausch, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great and irregulars including Armenians, Georgians, Khevsur and Chechins
Britain and Ireland, Vol-1, p115, 1829. (search on their ‘colonial’ ranges). In 25mm they produce sarbaz, militia
134 Photo credit, Adam Jones, Kelowna, BC, Canada, 2015. foot, regular cavalry, artillery and Kurd / tribal cavalry.
138 John Kinneir A geographical memoir of the Persian empire,1813.
139 Claudius Rich, Narrative of a residence in Koordistan, and on Eureka miniatures - eurekamin.com.au
the site of ancient Nineveh; with journal of a visit to Shirauz and Produce via their 15mm Grumpy ranges, Cossack, Afghan-Persian-
Persepolis. 1836. Moghuls that can be pressed into service as wilder irregulars and the
140 Rev. Dwight Marsh, The Tennesseean in Persia and Koordistan: 18mm AB ranges of Napoleonics include Russian, French and British
Being scenes and incidents in the life of Samuel Audley Rhea, 1869. for equipment and officers, Cossacks and Ottomans. Eureka’s 28mm
141 Prince Alexis Soltykoff, Voyages dans L’Inde et en Perse, 1858. French Revolutionary range has officers for military advisors.
142 Munshi Mohan Lal, Travels in the Panjab, Afghanistan,
Turkistan, to Balk, Bokhara, and Herat; and a visit to Great Britain Essex miniatures - essexminiatures.co.uk
and Germany, 1846. Produce 15mm and 28mm renaissance ranges of Moghuls (15mm),
143 Abd Al-Razzak Ibn Najaf Kuti, Ma’asir-i Sultaniyah, trans by Ottoman, Mameluk, Tartar, Persian (28mm) Russian, Polish and
Hartford Brydges, as Dynasty of the Kajars [to 1811], pub 1833. Cossacks - some of which can be used for irregular or tribal troops.
144 Vincenzo Maurizi (writing under his Arabized name Shaik
Mansur, History of Seyed Said, 1819. Mick Yarrow miniatures - spanglefish.com/mickyarrowminiatures
145 Abd Al-Razzaq Maftun Dunfufi, Dynasty of the Kajars (to 1811), Produce some Cossack and similar tribal troops in their 15mm
trans. Sir Harford Brydges, pub 1833. ‘Conquest of Siberia Range’ and Omani - pirate - Arabs as part of their
146 Albert Racinet, The Historical Encyclopedia of Costume, 1876. mediaeval range.
147 Gen. Sir Thomas Edward Gordon, A varied life; a record of
miltary and civil service, of sport and of travels in India, Central Asia Evil Gong Miniatures
and Persia, 1849-1902’, 1906. I might finish off some 15-18mm Persian irregular infantry and
148 Clive Phillip-Wolley, Savage Svanetia, Vol-II, 1883. zamburaks one day. dfmbrown@mpx.com.au
149 A.I. Haeckel, Spoils of war 1812, 1813, 1814, Stored in the Kazan
Cathedral, 1909.
150 Мichael Wadbolsky, Heraldic Symbols of Georgia, trans. Mary
Bitsadze and Andrew Andersen (on-line).
151 M. Andreev, Conquered Caucasus, 1904.
152 James Alexander, ‘Travels to the seat of war in the East’, 1830.
153 Illustration by Pascal Coste, Canonnier Persan, in Qajar Studies,
Journal of the International Qajar Studies Association, Vol-V (2005):61.
154 Baron George Meyendorff, Journey to Boukhara, 1820, pub 1826.

Below, ‘Circassian Marauders’ (detail) from ‘A journey from London to Persepolis,’ John Ussher, 1865.
Below Right, an Omani shield, 1850s, from Hunters and Collectors Antiques catalogue - http://www.huntersandcollectorsantiques.com/

165
Evil
Gong

Press