ISSN Print: 2580-9016

KHAIRUN
Law Journal
ISSN Online: 2581-1797
Khairun Law Journal, Vol. 1 Issue 1, September 2017 Faculty of Law, Khairun University

International Humanitarian Law Review on Genetically

Modified Super Soldier

Nur Asmi
International Law Students Association (ILSA) Chapter Hasanuddin University.
E-mail: asmikhae@yahoo.com

Abstract:
This research aims to find out and understand genetically modified super soldier as well to find
out and understand whether genetically modified super soldier is legitimate under
international humanitarian law.This paper used normative legal approach by utilizing literature
study. Data collected are secondary data derived from conventions, books, research, scientific
journal and other written sources relevant. Data collected was analyzed descriptively.The result
inflicted of this research as follows: 1) Genetically modified super soldier is genome
manipulation on soldier aimed to modify sequencing or gen characteristic to create stronger
soldiers by utilizing biotechnology, pharmacology, neuroscience, nanotechnology, and
biochemical. 2) Genetically modified super soldier collides ethical and human rights as it did
not consider informed consent of soldier. Genetically modified super soldier requires law
review in its justification as means and method of warfare because some of genetically modified
super soldier technologies constitute possibilities in disobeying international humanitarian law
principles, and its justification of means and method of warfare that did not comply ethical
requirement.
Keywords: Ethical; Human Rights; International Humanitarian Law; Super Soldier

INTRODUCTION
Jean Pictet describes “International humanitarian law in the wide sense, is constituted by all
the international legal provisions, whether written and customary, ensuring respect for
individual and his well-being”1 has brought us today upon the effort of fulfillment to
international humanitarian law. In modern era nowadays, the interaction between
technological development and armed forces is a constant feature of the history of
warfare. Technological development can be stimulated by, and dedicated directly to
addressing, military requirements. On other occasions, technological development
outside the military sphere affects or informs the conduct of warfare and military
expectations, as has been illustrated by the application of computing and software
innovations that have led to major changes in the military tactics of developed nations.2

1Jean Pictet. (1977). Humanitarian Law and Protection of War Victims. Leiden/Geneva: Henry
Dunant Institute. p.13
2 Hitoshi Nasu. (2012). Nano Technology and Challenges to International Humanitarian Law: A
Preliminary Legal Assessment, International Review: ICRC. p.654

1
ISSN Print: 2580-9016 ⃝ ISSN Online: 2581-1797

History had shown technology evolution and its contribution in war, either in
defensive or offensive form, starting from body armor, gun, tank and many more. Yet,
soldier as a main part of war is no longer typical to historical era. Modern military
research and weapons development are marked by the ongoing pursuit of a
dehumanized battle space replete with robots, drones and other unmanned systems.
While there are a number of reasons for this, one is certainly the desire to remove the
‘human element’ from combat: emotion, error and the physical limitations of human
combatants (including mortality) and the risk of overwhelming decision-making
capacities. However, a rival school of thought is beginning to emerge that notes the
continuing importance of the human element in combat and aims to improve human
combatants rather than replace them. This is the field of military human enhancement.3
Soldiers efficiency in decision-making have not yet being replaced by technology upon
today, however soldiers themselves are inseparable with flaws, such as the need for
sleep, fear, hunger, even post-war they may develop post traumatic stress syndrome,
that may trigger ‘human failing’4 and majorly contribute to mission accomplishment.
Related to current military research development, terminator style of warfare has been
predicted to happen in few decades, as such realistic efforts are developed by US,
Russia, China, and some countries with sophisticated technology by using advanced
pharmacology, biotechnology, neuroscience, genetics, nanotechnology and robotics.5
The importance of soldier and its complexity in war has created massive military
research as in the future; this type of soldier will be capable to actively engage in
combat efficiently. Yet this type of soldier may raise concern, as they are different form
typical soldier today and could be inferred as “modified” soldier. Practically, the term
‘super soldier’ is adhered to them, and new rules are necessary to regulate them, as
they are no longer “subject” that international humanitarian law refers to. Regarding to
this concern, this paper will discuss 1). what is genetically modified super soldier; and
2). whether genetically modified super soldier is legitimate in international
humanitarian law.
METHOD
This paper used normative legal approach by utilizing literature study. Data collected are
secondary data derived from conventions, books, research, scientific journal and other written
sources relevant. Data collected was analyzed descriptively.

3Matthew Beard, Jai Galliot and Sandra Lynch. (2016). “Soldier Enhancement: Ethical Risks and
Opportunities”. Australian Army Journal Autumn. 13 (1): 6.
4Heather A. Harrison Dinniss and Jann K. Kleffer. (2016). “Soldier 2.0: Military Human
Enhancement and International Law”. International Law Studies. 92 (432): 435
5 See: How Pentagon ss Building the ‘Enhanced’ Super Soldiers of Tomorrow,
https://www.inverse.com/article/9988-how-the-pentagon-is-building-the-enhanced-super-
soldiers-of-tomorrow; 8 Technologies Pentagon is doing to make Super Soldier
http://www.businessinsider.com/8-technologies-the-pentagon-is-pursuing-to-make-super-
soldiers-2016-3?IR=T&r=US&IR=T; Iron Man Robot
Putinhttp://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3612649/Iron-Man-robot-one-step-closer-
reality-Putin-s-scientists-reveal-Ivan-Terminator.html; 5 Ways Scientists Are Building Real World
Super Soldierhttp://www.pcmag.com/slideshow/story/322349/5-ways-scientists-are-building-
real-world-super-soldiers; accessed on Saturday, 22nd April 2017

2
 Khairun Law Journal ⃝ Vol. 1 Issue 1 September (2017) : 1-9

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Genetically Modified Super Soldier Definition
1. Genetic Modification
Genetic modification or genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic make-up
of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA. DNA can be introduced
directly into the host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with the
host.6 DNA sequencing was firstly identified through Human Genome Project (HGP).
The sequencing of the human genome represented the largest single undertaking in the
history of biological science and stands as a signature scientific achievement. All of
history in the making, human DNA took just 13 years to sequence under the Human
Genome Project (HGP), an international public project led by the United States, and a
complementary private program. Sequencing the human genome - determining the
complete sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs and identifying each human gene -
required advanced technology development and the assembly of an interdisciplinary
team of biologists, physicists, chemists, computer scientists, mathematicians and
engineers.7
The completion of the human genome sequence has had a significant impact on
biomedical science. The genetic basis for thousands of common hereditary diseases is
now known, and widely-available genetic tests exist for many common diseases and
other physical traits. Related fields such as proteomics (the study of protein expression
throughout an organism) have also benefitted from the technological and scientific
advances made possible by the HGP. Additional international efforts are under way to
sequence the genomes of one thousand individual humans to create the most complete
and detailed reference map of the human genome.8 Today, genetic modification is used
in creating medicine, animal for experiment purposes, laboratory material research,
gene therapy and human enhancement.
2. Super Soldier
According to Joseph Pugliese, Researcher Director of the Department of Media, Music,
Communication and Cultural Studies from Macquarie University at Australia defines
super soldier as what is constructed through a series of technological interventions and
manipulations that transmute the soldier into an enhanced human-machine of war.9 ”Anthony
Gucciardi defines super soldiers refer to genetically modified humans that are capable
of producing super human abilities that typical humans cannot generate.10

6 Genetic Engineering, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering as cited fromThe

European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 12 March 2001 on the deliberate
release into the environment of genetically modified organisms and recalling council Directive
90/220/EEC Document, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32001L0018 accessed on Wednesday,1st March 2017.
7Simon Trip and Martin Grueber. (2011). Economic Impact of the Human Genome Project.
Colombus, Ohio: Batelle Memorial Institute. p.1
8Jorge L. Contreras. (2011). “Bermuda Legacy: Policy, Patents, and the Design of the Genome
Commons”. Minnesota Journal of Law Science and Technology. 12 (1): 72.
9Jai Galliot and Mianna Lotz. (2013). Super Soldier: The Ethical, Legal and Social Implications, US:
Ashgate Publishing Ltd. p.25
Christopher E. Sawin. (2016). “Creating Super Soldier For Warfare: A Look Into The Laws of
10

War”. Journal of High Technology. 17 (1): 109.

3
ISSN Print: 2580-9016 ⃝ ISSN Online: 2581-1797

It must be noted that genetically modified to human today is not yet inheritable. Any
genetic effect or modification will be restricted to the individual treated and is not
inherited by the progeny.11 Even though cloning technology is existed, yet the author
does not find any indication to create super soldier by cloning, moreover United
Nation Declaration prohibits it on human cloning to apply cloning technology on
human.12
The idea of using technology to enhance soldiers was first used by George Washington
during the American Revolutionary War from 1775-1783, where vaccinations were
used to enhance the human immune system. However, the next time human
enhancement was used in creating super soldiers for warfare began as early as the turn
of the nineteenth century where the Soviet Union sought to use DNA manipulation to
cross breed humans with apes to create an army that would not easily die or complain
by becoming resistant to pain and unconcerned about the quality of food they ate.13
In modern war, Vietnam War could be noted as extreme examples of soldier
enhancement. The conflict was distinct in another way it came to be known as the first
“pharmacological war”, because the level of consumption of psychoactive substances
by military personnel was unprecedented in American history. The British philosopher
Nick Land aptly described the Vietnam War as “a decisive point of intersection
between pharmacology and the technology of violence”. 14 Soldier enhancement has
become focus on United States military through Future Soldier 2030 Initiative. Future
Soldier 2030 Initiative with seven major areas such as human performance and training,
soldier protection, lethality, mobility and logistics, soldier network, soldier sensors,
soldier power and energy. This program investigates many futuristic technologies,
including medicine, nerve trigger, exoskeleton and artificial intelligence assistance.15
Defense Advanced Research Project of Pentagon (DARPA) through its fiscal year
report had released list of research such as: 1). widening physical capabilities by
improving strength and mobility with nano-reinforced exoskeletons and other external
devices; 2). improving cognitive abilities such as memory, attention and awareness
through the use of networked body suits and pharmacological means; 3) enhancing
senses such as smell, sight, taste and hearing; and 4). altering the human metabolism to
allow for increased endurance, rapid healing and the digestion of otherwise
indigestible materials.16 The usage of modafinil for brain enhancer in France and US is

11See: John Steward, “Human Enhancement”, Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science,

2013,http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/2013/11/human-enhancement/accessed on Thursday, 27th
April 2017.
12 United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning, 2005, A/Res/59/280.
13 Christoper E. Sawin. Op. Cit., p. 107.
14 Lukas Kamienski, The Drugs That Built a Super Soldier,
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/04/the-drugs-that-built-a-super-
soldier/477183/accessed on Friday, 5th May 2017.
15 See: Future Soldier 2030 Initiative,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Soldier_2030_Initiativeaccessed onTuesday, 27th April
2017; Future Soldier 2030 Initiative Document, 2009, Soldier Roger Center, US Army Natick. p.2.
16See: Department of Defense Fiscal Year. (2015). Budget Estimates, March 2014 by Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency ( Research, Development, Test & Evaluation, Defense-Wide);
Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. (2013). Enhanced Warfighters: Risk, Ethics, and
Policy, Greenwall Report.

4
 Khairun Law Journal ⃝ Vol. 1 Issue 1 September (2017) : 1-9

also investigated for military purposes by Britain and Canada.17 In China, People of
Liberation Army (PLA) officially introduced Night Eagle.18 The drug was developed
specifically for the military to help soldiers cope with sleep deprivation during
missions for 72 hours with unknown side effects and unrevealed composition. These
indication have published that nowadays super soldier is no longer a novel-based story
or fiction movie.
Genetically Modified Super Soldier Legitimacy in International Humanitarian Law
1. Ethical and Informed Consent
Clearly "medical ethics" refers exclusively to matters arising in the treatment of
patients and would not extend to the ethical opinions entertained by doctors upon the
nature of a particular conflict,19 as scientific research in military development such as
biotechnology can substantially modify human life, alter the nature of society, and
destroy human lives one at a time or in mass numbers.20
In military research development, human as object of the research is allowed to
undergo research under informed consent procedure as granted in Article 7 of ICCPR
regulates “no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be subjected without his free
consent to medical or scientific experimentation”.21 But apparently, military research is
placed superior than informed consent due to soldiers may deal with experimental
drugs, undergo surgery testing, even any unapproved procedure to their body without
able to resist under informed consent right. This is contradict upon Ethics in Research,
particularly on human subject protection noted that when conducting research on
human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations;
and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.22 This is particularly
concerning hence the arising power of countries with mandatory military may perform
massive military research to their soldiers to trigger dominance in military power, such
as China.
Edmund D. Pellegrino noted that if humans wish to avoid universalizing one aspect of
their nature, and at the same time truly control the products of their own ingenuity,
they must ground their notions of right and wrong in something more than a "willful"
gene.23 The problem of ethic that may arise is the good or wrong of particularly

17 Heather A Harrison Dinnis and Jann K. Kleffner. Op. Cit., p. 434.

18 PLA eyes “Night Eagle” to make army of night owls
http://www.scmp.com/article/982075/pla-eyes-night-eagle-make-army-night-owls, accessed
onMonday, 20thMarch 2017.
MJ. Gunn H. McCoubrey. (1998). “Medical Ethics and The Laws of Armed Conflict”. Journal of
19

Armed Conflict Law. 3 (2): 140.

Marion Hilligan et al. (2007). Superhuman-Biotechnology’s Emerging Impact on The Law. Western
20

Michigan: University Thomas M. Cooley Law Review. p. 5.

21 Article 7 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1976.
22 David B. Resnik. (2015). What is Ethics in Research and Why is it Important. US: National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. p.4. as cited from Shamoo A and Resnik D. (2009).
Responsible Conduct of Research. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15.
23Edmund D. Pellegrino. (2001). “The Human Genome Project: The Central Ethical Challenge”.
St. Thomas Law Review. 13 (4). p. 818.

5
ISSN Print: 2580-9016 ⃝ ISSN Online: 2581-1797

concerning issues might be utmost at the doctors and scientist realm and not publicly
published. Soldier will be a subject of merely trial and error upon military research.
2. International Humanitarian Law Review
The main issue arises in relation to the usage of advanced technology of human
military is that how far the extension of such technology could trigger a review in
International Humanitarian Law particularly in Additional Protocol I of Geneva
Convention (AP I) and customary law. In accordance to that, such technology shall rely
on classification whether these “super soldier” falls into weapon or means and method
of warfare. If genetically modified super soldier is set as weapon, it is necessary to
fulfill international humanitarian law principle as follows:24 1). Distinction principle; 2).
Proportionality principle; and 3). The prohibition of unnecessary suffering.
Firstly, As AP I regulates that weapon must be discriminating enough to target only
combatants and never noncombatants and civilian objects.25 Biological weapons and
most anti-personnel landmines, then, are indiscriminate and therefore illegal in that
they cannot distinguish whether they are about to infect or blow up a small child
versus an enemy combatant. Unintended killings of noncombatants or “collateral
damage” may be permissible, but not their deliberate targeting; but to the extent that
biological weapons today target anyone, they also target everyone.26 Employing
weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare which are of a nature to
cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering or which are inherently
indiscriminate in violation of the international law of armed conflict, provided that
such weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare are the subject of a
comprehensive prohibition and are included in an annex to this Statute, by an
amendment in accordance with the relevant provisions set forth in articles 121 and
123.27
Secondly, as regulated in Article 52 of AP I that civilian objects shall not be the object of
attack or of reprisals. Civilian objects are all objects which are not military objectives, 28
clearly requires combatant to reflect proportionality principle to maintain causalities as
minimum as possible. In the words of Judge Higgins, in her Dissenting Opinion in the
Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion stated that:29
“The principle of proportionality, even if finding no specific mention, is reflected in many
provisions of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949. Thus even a
legitimate target may not be attacked if the collateral civilian casualties would be
disproportionate to the specific military gain from the attack. Example like firing
excessive shots and bombs to immobilize an adversary“.

24Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. (2013). Enhanced War Fighters: Risk, Ethics,
and Policy. New York: Greenwall Foundation. p. 30.
25 Article 48 Additional I Protocol of Geneva Convention (AP I) 1977.
26 Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. Loc.Cit., p. 30.
27Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 1998 as cited in Yoram Dinstein. (2004). The
Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 61.
28 Article 52 of AP I 1977.
29Yoram Donstein. Ibid., p. 120 as cited from Advisory Opinion on Nuclear Weapons. (1996).
Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. Den Haag: ICJ Report. p. 587.

6
 Khairun Law Journal ⃝ Vol. 1 Issue 1 September (2017) : 1-9

Third, the prohibition on unnecessary suffering principle is related to proportionality

in that it requires methods of attack to be minimally harmful in rendering a war fighter
hors de combat or unable to fight. This prohibition has led to the ban of such weapons as
poison, exploding bullets, and blinding lasers, which cause more injury or suffering
than needed to neutralize a combatant.30
Even though super soldiers still have not yet classified as weapon, because they are
still unable to produce their own weapon directly from their own body (such as
produce laser to kill adversary) but in the future super soldiers may fall into weapon if
they are able to do so and it is necessary to review their legitimacy. This is particularly
concerning due to Article 1 of Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention 1975 (BTWC)
implicitly stated that (1) microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their
origin or method of production, of types and in quantities that have no justification for
prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes; (2) weapons, equipment or means
of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed
conflict. The term ‘biological agent’, however not implicitly stated, it can be broadly
indicated as “living creature”, which is included human as well.31
Lastly, super soldiers may fall into method of warfare classification. As cited form
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, Manual on International Law
Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare (hereinafter AMW Manual) that methods of
warfare refers to activities designed to adversely affect the enemy’s military operations
or military capacity and extends to the various general categories of operations
(bombing, ground, close-air support, etc.), as well as the specific tactics used for
attack.32 Observing the military research indication such as brain-machine interfaces,
also known as neural interface systems, attempt to connect the brain directly to a
machine without the need for manual input, such as a keyboard, joystick or other
device. The interfaces use electrodes (whether surgically implanted in the brain or
merely resting on the scalp) to record and translate the user’s brain signals into
commands that operate computer-controlled devices. The technology has been used
both to actively control an external device (e.g., the ability to operate drones with the
mind) and to passively shift information by using the brain’s power to unconsciously
detect anomalies in large amounts of data.33
During the last decade, the Pentagon's DARPA launched the “Advanced Speech
Encoding Program” to develop non acoustic sensors for speech encoding in
acoustically hostile environments, such as inside of a military vehicle or an urban
environment. The DARPA division is currently involved in a program called “Silent
Talk” that aims to develop user-to-user communication on the battlefield through EEG
signals of “intended speech,” thereby eliminating the need for any vocalization or body
gestures. Such capabilities will be of particular benefit in reconnaissance and special

30 Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. Op. Cit., p. 31.
31 See: Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. Ibid., p. 31.
32Heather A. Harrison Dinnis and Jann K. Kleffner. Op. Cit., p. 436-437 as cited from Program
on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. (2009). Manual on International Law Applicable to
Air and Missile Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33 Heather A. Harrison Dinnis and Jann K. Kleffner. Ibid., p. 435.

7
ISSN Print: 2580-9016 ⃝ ISSN Online: 2581-1797

operations settings, and successful applications of silent speech interfaces have already
been reported.34
It shall be noted that indication of using soldier as method of warfare is also
concerning, because in Vietnam War, Research has found that 3.2 percent of soldiers
arriving in Vietnam were heavy amphetamine users; however, after one year of
deployment, this rate rose to 5.2 percent. In short, the administration of stimulants by
the military contributed to the spread of drug habits that sometimes had tragic
consequences because amphetamine, as many veterans claimed, increased aggression
as well as alertness. Some remembered that when the effect of speed faded away, they
were so irritated that they felt like shooting “children in the streets”. Inferred that
military enhancement violates IHL provisions it is also found that special unit of US
army was given steroid injection. If Parties concerned are elaborating the legitimacy
over super soldiers as method of warfare even by more “humane” way, it shall require
a review under Article 36 of AP I concerning new weapons or method of warfare.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, international humanitarian review on genetically modified super soldier
may address two points: 1). Genetic modification or genetic engineering is a process
that alters the genetic make-up of an organism by either removing or introducing
DNA. The development of genetic modification of the super army originated from the
development of the human genome project, then used as a basis for human
enhancement and then used in military human enhancement by utilizing
biotechnology, pharmacology, neuroscience, nano-technology, and biochemistry; and
2). Genetically modified super soldier in the development of military research through
experiments that violate ethical and human rights by not considering informed consent
on soldiers who became the object of experimentation made the practice of genetic
modification of super soldiers cannot be justified. In international humanitarian law,
genetic modification of the super soldier requires legal review in its justification as a
tool and method of war because some genetic modification technologies may violate
the principles of international humanitarian law, in addition to the need for an
international humanitarian law review of the legitimacy of means and methods of
warfare that does not in compliance with ethical requirements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Advisory Opinion on Nuclear Weapons. (1996). Advisory Opinion on Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. Den Haag: ICJ Report.
Christopher E. Sawin. (2016). “Creating Super Soldier For Warfare: A Look Into The
Laws of War”. Journal of High Technology. Vo. 17 No. 1: 109. Boston: Suffolk
University Law.
David B. Resnik. (2015). What is Ethics in Research and Why is it Important. US: National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
Department of Defense Fiscal Year. (2015). Budget Estimates, March 2014 by Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (Research, Development, Test & Evaluation,
Defense-Wide). US: Department of the Navy.

34Ivan S. Kotchetkov et al. (2010). Brain-Computer Interfaces; Military, Neurosurgical and Ethical
Perspective. New York: Department of Neurological Surgery. p. 4.

8
 Khairun Law Journal ⃝ Vol. 1 Issue 1 September (2017) : 1-9

Edmund D. Pellegrino. (2001). “The Human Genome Project: The Central Ethical
Challenge”. St. Thomas Law Review. Vol. 13 No. 4. Washington DC: Georgetown
University.
Heather A. Harrison Dinniss and Jann K. Kleffer. (2016). “Soldier 2.0: Military Human
Enhancement and International Law”. International Law Studies. Vol. 92 No. 432.
US: The Stockton Center for The Study of International Law.
Hitoshi Nasu. (2012). Nano Technology and Challenges to International Humanitarian Law:
A Preliminary Legal Assessment, International Review: ICRC.
Jai Galliot and Mianna Lotz. (2013). Super Soldier: The Ethical, Legal and Social
Implications, US: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
Ivan S. Kotchetkov et al. (2010). Brain-Computer Interfaces; Military, Neurosurgical and
Ethical Perspective. New York: Department of Neurological Surgery.
Jean Pictet. (1977). Humanitarian Law and Protection of War Victims. Leiden/Geneva:
Henry Dunant Institute.
Jorge L. Contreras. (2011). “Bermuda Legacy: Policy, Patents, and the Design of the
Genome Commons”. Minnesota Journal of Law Science and Technology. Vol. 12 No.
1. Washington: Washington University.
Marion Hilligan et al. (2007). Superhuman-Biotechnology’s Emerging Impact on The Law.
Western Michigan: University Thomas M. Cooley Law Review.
Matthew Beard, Jai Galliot and Sandra Lynch. (2016). “Soldier Enhancement: Ethical
Risks and Opportunities”. Australian Army Journal Autumn. Vol .13 No. 1. Notre
Dame: University of Notre Dame Australia.
MJ. Gunn H. McCoubrey. (1998). “Medical Ethics and The Laws of Armed Conflict”.
Journal of Armed Conflict Law. Vol. 3 Issue 2. Oxford: Oxford Academic.
Patrick Lin, Maxwell J. Mehlham and Keith Abney. (2013). Enhanced Warfighters: Risk,
Ethics, and Policy, New York: Greenwall Foundation.
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. (2009). Manual on International
Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Shamoo A and Resnik D. (2009). Responsible Conduct of Research. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Simon Trip and Martin Grueber. (2011). Economic Impact of the Human Genome Project.
Colombus, Ohio: Batelle Memorial Institute.
Yoram Dinstein. (2004). The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed
Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.