Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2.

Pizzicato

Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda of [1624],80 however, up to the closing

years of the nineteenth century, pizzicato was basically a one-dimensional device.81

Doubtless individual players develop their own way of varying the timbre of pizzicato
though artistic sensitivity, but no exercise has ever been made to develop timbre or
speed.

Walden notes that although pizzicato was overlooked by most 18th-century cello
Methods, it was mentioned in 1752 by the flautist Quantz.82 The earliest example of
pizzicato in solo cello literature is found in the 1st movement of French cellist Jean-
Jacques Nochez’ Sonata III, Op. 1 (1765), where open strings have the indication
pincez. It was the English cellist John Gunn who in 1789, formalized the practice of
having beginners first pluck the notes rather than bow them.83

Left-hand pizzicato, according to Read,84 was developed in the 17th century,85 allowing
string players to pluck and bow the instrument simultaneously for displays of virtuosity.

It is only in 1828 that more extensive discussion and specific performance indications
are provided for pizzicato; Baudiot advises using the fleshy part of the finger to achieve
a round, soft sound.86 He discusses single notes, double-stops (using thumb and index
finger), block chords (one finger on each string pulling all the strings at once),
strummed broken chords (with a back and forth movement using the fleshy inside part
of the finger in a downwards motion on the strong part of the beat, and the nail on the
upwards motion of the weak beat), alternating strings (placing the 3rd finger against the

80
Read confuses the date of composition (1624) with that of L’Orfeo by the same composer (1607).
Monteverdi’s performance instruction to ‘put down the bow and strike the string with two fingers’ (trans.
Nicola Moro) is not found in every edition, but is present in Tutte le Opere di Claudio Monteverdi (1927),
Vol. 8.
81
Read (1993), p. 235.
82
Quantz (1752), p. 234. Cited in Walden (1998), p. 202.
83
Gunn (1789), p. 10. Cited in Walden (1998), p. 202.
84
Read (1993), p. 235.
85
Left-hand pizzicato is also mentioned in Playford’s Musick’s Recreation on the Viol Lyra-Way (1652)
for the viola da gamba. He uses the term ‘Thump’, which according to the website
www.dolmetsch.com/defst2.htm is ‘a short-lived, specifically English term for a “left-hand” pizzicato’.
86
Baudiot (1828), p. 226. Cited in Walden (1998), p. 203.
Page 61
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

outer side of the fingerboard, the player alternates thumb and index), and left-hand
pizzicato (recommending the use of the 2nd or 3rd finger).87 Dotzauer, Kummer, and
Romberg’s88 Methods can serve as further study of 18th-century pizzicato technique.

Berlioz suggests in 1844 an alternative technique for violinists using the thumb and
three fingers, supported by the 4th finger, approaching that used by guitarists,
whereupon the notes could be played much faster. The brief exercise below is a
transcription of Berlioz’ Traité, originally intended for violin.89

Exercise 7: Finger Dexterity in Pizzicato

a) The use of p (thumb), i (1st finger), m (2nd finger), and a (3rd finger) to label the
fingers of the right hand is borrowed from the guitarist’s terminology. See also p.
74.

Though this suggested new technique is intended for the violins and violas, surely the
cellist of today could prove Berlioz’ following remarks outdated:

The cello’s pizzicato cannot be executed with much speed, and the method we have
suggested to perfect the violin’s pizzicato would not be appropriate to the cello

87
Baudiot (1828), pp. 226-228. Cited in Walden (1998), pp. 203-205.
88
Dotzauer (1824); Kummer (1839); Romberg (1840).
89
Berlioz (1844), p. 28.
Page 62
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

because of its size, the tension of the strings and their height above the table of the
instrument.90

The diversification of pizzicato was prompted by the Late-Romantic’s search for colour,
as Read points out.91

Theory & Practice

Sound is produced by a chain reaction, in which the first step will vary according to
whether the string is bowed (see p. 76), struck (see p. 126), or plucked. Once the string
is activated, an impulse is sent throughout the string, for which Fallowfield uses the
term ‘kink’. In pizzicato, the string is pulled by the plectrum and as it is released ‘sends
two kinks of vibration from the contact point, one in the direction of the bridge and the
other in the direction of the nut’92 or stopped finger. The kinks are reflected between
the two extremities of the string until the excitation energy runs out.

Parameters of Pizzicato
While many of the following parameters are basic considerations when playing with the
bow, this section aims to encourage their exploration within pizzicato to broaden the
control of this technique.

Note Length
This first parameter is actually controlled by the stopping finger, rather than the
plectrum. For a given dynamic, the resonance of the note can be controlled by the
stopping finger’s pressure, the length of time it is on the string, and the speed at which it
is lifted (slowly or quickly). This is an important aspect of pizzicato, as a note that rings
on too long (especially a bass note or the open C-string) can affect the harmony. Left-
hand pressure and placement is discussed later (‘6. Stopping the String’, p. 111).

90
Idem., p. 32. Trans. V. Welbanks.
91
Read (1993),. p. 235.
92
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string.html
Page 63
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

Point of Contact
How close one should pluck to the bridge, or how far up on the fingerboard, is an
important consideration for sound production in pizzicato. It is rare that any indication
is given in the music other than for pizzicato sul ponticello. The sound is most resonant
at the middle of the resonating portion of the string, as this is where the string
oscillation has the possibility of greatest amplitude; while the strength of the overtones
increases as the point of contact approaches the bridge, resonance decreases.
Theoretically, the same effect as pizzicato sul ponticello can be achieved by plucking
near the nut or left-hand fingers; however in practical terms this is only the case in very
quiet dynamics because the string is much closer to the fingerboard, which restricts the
possible amplitude of the string and the angle at which the plectrum can approach the
string.

The portion of string under the plectrum is the part of the string which is most
displaced, which creates an antinode at this precise location. Harmonics that already
have an antinode close to this point of contact will be very present in the sound. While
the mid-point of a string has the potential for maximal physical displacement, plucking
at this exact point will cut out or minimize every second harmonic in the sound, just as
in does in bowing the string (see ‘3. Bowing the String: Point of Contact’, p. 76). This
is called overtone exclusion. In practical terms this means that if the plectrum’s point
of contact is between the 2nd and 3rd harmonic nodes, this will be the most overtone-rich
sound possible. This is indeed the point at which cellists are taught to pluck the string
for music of the common practice period, although without the accompanying theory.

Exercise 8: Overtone Exclusion

a) Find the 2nd harmonic.

b) Pluck the string exactly at this point, this 2nd harmonic should be completely absent
from the sound but the fundamental should be very loud.

c) Pluck the string at the mid-point between this harmonic node and the bridge (or, at
the 3rd harmonic node), the 2nd harmonic should be very prominent in the sound as
the 3rd harmonic is its antinode.

Page 64
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

Fallowfield has an interesting schema to explain overtone exclusion, which presents a

simplified model of a cello string up to the 13th partial. She precedes this with the
explanation ‘excitation at any point affects every partial by either enabling or restricting
its vibration. The pattern of the timbral response to each excitation point changes
significantly throughout the string length.’93

While there are many factors which influence overtone content (damping and string
thickness can eliminate overtones; cello body response, room acoustics, and
psychoacoustic94 effects can add them), suffice to say here that overtone exclusion does
not occur in a linear way – some points over the fingerboard are more overtone-rich
than beyond the fingerboard. The cellist should develop sensitivity to which points on
the string of their cello is richest, strongest, most piercing and so forth.

Direction
The direction in which the string is pulled affects the sonority; plucking the string either
sideways in parallel to the fingerboard or up away from the fingerboard (or towards it
for that matter) produces very different sounds. At its most extreme position, vertical
pizzicato will produce a strident, percussive sound (see ‘Bartók / Snap Pizzicato’, p.
69), and horizontal pizzicato, will create a rounded sonority (see ‘Jazz / Double-Bass’,
p. 70). Approaching the string from different angles also should be explored,
particularly in chords.

Theoretically, the reason for such changes in colour would be due to a difference in how
the bridge reacts, depending on whether the string is plucked upwards or sideways.
This would explain the difference in attack, volume and decay. Fallowfield suggests
that horizontal pizzicato would maximise volume and initial attack while vertical
pizzicato would maximise decay duration, each at the expense of the other. Whether
created by plucking or bowing, horizontal vibrations in the string cause the bridge to
also oscillate from side to side (towards the f-holes), which is where a bridge is most
efficient. If the bridge oscillates backwards and forwards with vertical pizzicato

93
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string/where.html
94
‘Psychoacoustic’ refers to the perception of sound.
Page 65
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

(toward and away from the tailpiece), the excitation energy dissipates more slowly, thus
increasing the duration of decay. She concludes with: ‘If this proposition is true, a
mixed output is heard for excitation angles between these two extremes.’95

Plectrum: Contact Area / Size

The amount of contact between the plectrum and the string also affects the sonority.
More or less flesh of the finger can be used by slanting the right-hand finger to varying
degrees of angle with the string. In this way, for example, the entire outer side of the
first two phalanges of the first finger or of the first phalange of the thumb can be in
contact with the string.

Figure 11: Finger

plectrum
For a very consistent sound in rapid passages, a ‘finger-
plectrum’ can be created with the thumb, reducing the
size of the surface area used. This ensures that the same
amount of contact is used for every note. Whether this
can be used with the bow may depend on finger length;
thumb and first or second finger can be used.

The smaller the plectrum, the more overtones will be in the sound, thus creating a
brighter sound. This is because the portion of string under the plectrum doesn’t vibrate
– the wider the plectrum, the more nodal points are prevented from vibrating, and
therefore the less overtones are present in the sound.96 The larger the plectrum, the
longer the contact time is with the string.

To simulate a very wide plectrum, two plectra can be used. The distance formed
between the outer edges of two plectra is equivalent to the outer edges of one single
plectrum. Using two plectra doubles the volume. In practice, the resulting timbre of
using two plectra can be unpredictable. Fallowfield specifies: ‘However, a clear change

95
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string/how.html
96
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string/with-what.html
Page 66
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

in timbre and volume is heard between plectra at fixed positions exciting the string in
the same direction compared with plectra exciting the string in opposite directions.’97

Exercise 9: Plectrum Width

Try these possible combinations, at varying distances:

a) R.H. 1st and 2nd fingers, in the same direction

b) R.H. thumb and 3rd finger, in the opposite direction

c) L.H. 3rd finger and R.H. 1st finger, in the same direction

d) L.H. 3rd finger and R.H. 1st finger, in the opposite direction

Plectrum: Material
Plectrum material equates to density; different parts of the finger will yield different
sounds. A more rounded sound will be obtained from using the fleshy pad of the finger
while the tip of the finger or thumb will produce a more precise and focused sound; the
sound made by the nail is even more overtone-rich and piercing. Plectra of other
materials, such as metal, wood or plastic, will each also have a different sound. The
denser the plectrum, the more overtones will be present, creating a brighter sound. This
is because the angles at which the string vibrates are more pronounced, involving more
overtones. The denser the plectrum, the shorter is the contact time with the string, thus
damping is minimized.

Velocity
A sound will be more overtone-rich and louder if the string is plucked with greater
speed. This can be modified in two ways:

Distance The distance from which the action is started can help the
movement gain speed. This is very much like the subtlety of
articulation achieved by a pianist, slowly depressing the key so

97
Ibid.
Page 67
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

that the hammer is close to the string when it hits, or starting well
above the key and depressing it with the full weight of the arm to
achieve a sharp front to the note. Flicking the string with the nail
for example (high speed) will produce a clearly defined sound.

Preparation Pulling the string into position and then releasing quickly
produces greater amplitude in the string movement. This is
especially effective in Bartók pizzicato (see p. 69), but of limited
use in rapid passages.

Force
The strength with which the string is activated: a small movement of the finger versus a
movement made with the weight of the entire arm will affect the sound. A sound will
be more overtone-rich and louder if the string is plucked with greater force.

Applications
While the aforementioned parameters belong comfortably to the realm of traditional
pizzicato, an extreme variance of just one of these results in a considerably different
effect. Several techniques resulting from such modifications are discussed here. As
many pizzicato techniques as possible should be developed both with the bow in hand
and without. While holding the bow during pizzicato can prove to be restrictive in the
number of fingers used, the added weight of the bow enables a more resonant sound.

To develop the existing repertory of pizzicato, inspiration can also be sought by

observing and listening to harpists, jazz bass players, classical and flamenco guitarists,
banjo players, folk musicians and the virtuoso guitarists of rock music. Plucked string
instruments have developed an extensive vocabulary to complement the array of
techniques which are integral to their performance, some of which are used below.

Articulation
Articulation in pizzicato is controlled with the length of contact time between left hand
and string. With short contact time, pizzicato can be staccato, for example, or qualified

Page 68
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

of ‘dry’ or ‘secco’. A long pizzicato may be indicated by a tie or be accompanied by

the indication to ‘let vibrate’ (‘l.v.’).

Bartók / Snap Pizzicato

To achieve this technique, the string is pulled directly upwards (away from the
fingerboard), and released so that it hits the fingerboard and produces a percussive
sound of metal against wood. The string should be plucked above the fingerboard,
where there is the least tension – this technique will not work close to the bridge. The
string can be held away from the fingerboard between the thumb and first finger, for
greater reliability. One must be careful that the string does not slip from the finger’s
hold and be released at the wrong moment, especially as this technique has a very
piercing sonority, often used for its rhythmic characteristic. It is a common
misconception that Bartók pizzicato can only be achieved in a loud dynamic however; it
should be rehearsed in different dynamics.

The first use of this technique is by Ignaz Biber in Battalia à 10, C. 61 (1673), where
the bass instruments imitate the sound of musket fire. The composer instructs: ‘The
battle must not be played with the bow, and the string must be snapped like a cannon
with the right hand. Vigorously!’

The snap pizzicato was only next notated in 1905 in the Scherzo of Mahler’s Symphony
No. 7. The string players are instructed in a footnote to a pizzicato written in a fffff
dynamic to ‘pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood’.

Figure 12: Early use of snap pizzicato - Mahler Symphony No. 7

The snap pizzicato is now most commonly called the Bartók pizzicato in honour of the
composer who used it so effectively in many of his works, beginning with his
Divertimento for String Orchestra. Arditti suggests that Bartók was influenced by the

Page 69
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

playing techniques of the ütőgardon (‘ütő’ meaning ‘hit’), a Hungarian folk instrument
which resembles a rudimentary cello.98 It is played as a drum, with a combination of a
wooden stick beating the strings and the left-hand pulling the string so that it slaps
against the fingerboard, providing a rhythmic drone to ensemble music. This technique
was also used from the earliest days of jazz, and is known as ‘slap bass’.

Multi-Stop Pizzicato
This technique will deal with all strings plucked simultaneously, rather than strummed.
Various combinations of fingers used in double-, triple- and quadruple-stopped
pizzicato can be rehearsed. As do pianists when playing chords, balance between the
notes of the chords must be sought. This can be achieved through experimenting with
various angles of the right elbow, to achieve greater strength on a given note. The
exercise below is adapted from P & A Strange.99
Exercise 10: Voicing in Pizzicato Chords

a) Play all four notes simultaneously, using the thumb and different fingers for each
note. Begin by making each red note a Bartók pizzicato, taking care that the other
notes are not.

b) Then make the voicing more subtle by eliminating the snap and simply making the
red notes louder than the others.

Jazz / Double-Bass Pizzicato

A cello pizzicato can sound surprisingly close to that of a double-bass. The string is
pulled sideways (horizontally to the fingerboard), and the follow-through of the action
leads the right-hand finger to rest on the adjacent string. Either the finger is turned
almost parallel to the string or two fingers are used side-by-side, to increase surface

98
Arditti & Platz (2013), p. 43.
99
P & A Strange (2001), p. 63.
Page 70
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

area. Guitarists use a similar technique, called apoyando, introduced by Francisco

Tárrega (1852-1909).

Nail Pizzicato
The nail pizzicato was first notated by Béla Bartók in 1934, in his String Quartet No.
5.100 In the second movement of the piece, the second violin is required to pluck the
string with the fingernail, which produces much the same sound as a metal plectrum.
The string can also be flicked with the fingernail.

Pizzicato-Tremolo
There are several ways to produce a rapid sequence of pizzicato notes. The maximum
speed one can achieve using traditional methods of pizzicato will differ from one person
to the next, but nevertheless this is generally quite limited as traditional pizzicato creates
a circular motion when repeated. Here are three techniques which use a back-and-forth
(rather than circular) motion:

a) Alternating fingers (right hand): Two to five fingers of the same hand alternate
cyclically. This is a basic technique for guitarists, called Picado in Flamenco music.

b) Alternating fingers (different hands): Alternating fingers of the right and left hand is
generally faster than traditional pizzicato but speed is still quite limited because of
the difficulty in coordinating the alternation between both hands. The resulting
range of timbre is greater however, because of the possibility for each hand to be on
different points of contact.

c) One finger: Pizzicato-tremolo is executed with either the right-hand thumb or first
finger. If using the thumb, the action should come from the wrist; if using the first
finger, the action should come from the knuckle-joint, the first finger fully extended
and quite rigid. The cellist might find it more comfortable to also extend the second
finger to provide strength to the first, using both fingers as a unit. In all of these
cases, the thumb or finger should be as parallel as possible to the string so that the
flesh rather than the nail comes in contact with the string. For the thumb, this means
angling the hand upwards, and for the first finger, downwards. Flamenco guitarists
use this back and forth motion with the thumb, alzapúa, on one or more strings.

100
Bartók’s Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) is often cited as the first instance of notated
nail pizzicato.
Page 71
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

Alla Chitarra / Quasi Chitarra

As would a guitarist, this technique is produced by using a combination of thumb to
strum the string from the lowest to the highest and first finger from the highest to the
lowest. This is used for chords.

The Flamenco guitarist’s idiomatic rasgueado can also be applied to the cello, although
only three strings sound, and only when this strumming technique is done high on the
fingerboard where the curve of the strings and fingerboard is minimal. While the thumb
is leaning on the side of the fingerboard, each finger is flicked towards the string from
the palm of the hand in one motion, and in this order 4-3-2-1. The return motion of all
four fingers back into the palm of the hand also makes the chord sound.

Touch Pizzicato
Push the string down with the finger, then let go: the release of the string produces a soft
sound, and is more effective if the finger is on the rosined part of the string, just over the
fingerboard. This technique is useful for very fast but quiet pizzicato.

Left-hand Pizzicato
This technique, as discussed previously in the context of history (p. 60), is anchored in
the tradition of the virtuoso. Here we will consider the relationship of left-hand
pizzicato to point of contact. While an open string can be plucked along any point, if
the left-hand is also stopping the string, the point of contact of the pizzicato will be
quite close to the string’s extremity. This is effectively a sul ponticello pizzicato (see p.
64). More distance can be achieved by stopping the note with the thumb and plucking
the string with the third finger.101

Sub-Ponticello Pizzicato & Pegbox Pizzicato

It is useful to know what pitches are produced on the other side of the bridge of one’s
instrument (see ‘Sub-Ponticello / Oltre Ponticello’, p. 84); the same applies for the
length of string between the peg and the nut, located inside the pegbox. Using these

101
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string/where.html
Page 72
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

short segments of string has the advantage of liberating either the left or right hand, and
eliminates the difficulty of finding those particular pitches in a very high position.

Sub-ponticello pizzicato produces the same sound quality as its equivalent stopped pitch
on the fingerboard, as string length and contact with the bridge is equal in both cases.
Because there is no fingerboard, Fallowfield leans her left or right thumb on the side or
upper face of the bridge so that the finger(s) doing the pizzicato action is stable.
Because all four lengths of string sub-ponticello are equal, the pitches mainly
correspond to string thickness and are therefore descending in pitch from the A to the C
string.

The sound quality of pegbox pizzicato is slightly different than its equivalent stopped
pitch on the fingerboard because of the distance between the vibrating string and the
bridge. The middle two strings are longer in length than the outer two, therefore pitch is
not only contingent on string thickness. Fallowfield recommends using the nail or other
dense plectrum for a more overtone-rich sound.102

Other Plectra
When looking to vary the timbre by using a plectrum or pick, imagination is the only
limit of what can be used on the instrument. Plucked string instruments such as guitar
and banjo have a variety of accessories that are easily available and can be used on the
cello.

Finger and thumb picks come in a variety of sizes, while plectra can be made of
materials as varied as synthetic polymers (nylon, various plastics), rubber, felt,
tortoiseshell, wood, metal, glass, tagua and stone.103 Arditti recommends using a soft to
medium plectrum as these have better contact with the strings.104

Many instruments from around the world use a plectrum, the techniques of which could
yield interesting results on the cello with further research.

102
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/bridge-tailpiece-and-in-the-peg-box.html.
103
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_pick
104
Arditti & Platz (2001), p. 42.
Page 73
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

Notation
Figure 13: Pizzicato notation

Term Description Notation / Abbreviation

Let vibrate (English) Long l.v.

Laissez vibrer (French)

Lasciare vibrare (Italian)

Klingen lassen (German) Klingen lassen

Pizzicato staccato Short

Pizzicato secco Pizzicato secco

Bartók pizzicato Percussive

Nail pizzicato105 Metallic

Pizzicato tremolo Imitating a mandolin

105
This notation was first used by Bartók in 1934 in his String Quartet No. 5.
Page 74
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 2. Pizzicato

Left-hand pizzicato Normal

Sub-ponticello / Pegbox Dry See Section ‘3. Bowing the

String: Point of Contact’:
Notation on p. 89.

The different fingers of the hand could be notated following the system established by
guitarists, which has the advantage that none of these letters are used in notation for
bowed string instruments: thumb (p), 1st finger (i), 2nd finger (m), 3rd finger (a), 4th
finger (c).106

106
From the French names for each of the five digits: pouce, index, majeur, anulaire, auriculaire.
Page 75
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 3. Bowing the String: Point
of Contact

3. BOWING THE STRING: POINT OF CONTACT107

The following two sections explore extreme variations of bow control. However, let us
first define ordinario (also referred to as normale or naturale) as the default playing
position. In other words, this is the range of bow positions on the string which yield a
rich overtone content nevertheless subordinate to the fundamental...a beginner will be
taught that this is roughly halfway between the edge of the fingerboard and the bridge,
whereas an experienced player will have a heightened awareness of positioning and its
effects. The ordinario sound is contingent on balancing three elements of bow control:
point of contact, bow speed and bow pressure. The range of subtlety and expression
within these parameters and within the ordinario sound we are trying to define are
infinite, and are the basis of an extremely rich 300-year-old performance practice
tradition.

A brief explanation of sound production is needed first, in order to better understand the
nature of the extended techniques which stem from the traditional use of the bow.
When the bow is drawn across the string, a cycle known as the ‘stick-slip’ mechanism
occurs. This begins with the string ‘sticking’ to the bow and moving in the same
direction, ‘sending a kink of vibration to the bridge, where it is reflected’.108 The
displaced string increases in tension, and as the kink, or impulse, of vibration returns
from the bridge to the bow, ‘the string breaks free from the bow and ‘slips’ back to its
rest position’.109 This sends another impulse to the bridge, and when this comes back to
the bowing point, the bow picks up the string and the cycle continues.

There is a certain range in which the relationship between the three factors of bow
control can be modified before the sound quality changes to something essentially
different. Any point of contact between the bow and the string which gives a noticeably
different colour will be defined as an alternate point of contact. Any extreme use of
bow speed and pressure will be discussed separately in the following section (p. 93).

107
Alternate points of contact between the bow and other resonating parts of the instrument are discussed
on page 87, in section ‘11. Bowing the Instrument’.
108
http://www.cellomap.com/index/the-string/plucking-striking-and-bowing-the-string.html
109
Ibid.
Page 76
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 3. Bowing the String: Point
of Contact

The prolonged use, rapid alternation and extreme locations of alternate points of contact
in modern music now require from the player an in-depth understanding of sound
production and bowing mechanism.

Points of contact are divided into general regions of the string and defined below as
Fixed Points of Contact. Techniques in which several of these regions are used are
discussed in the following category, Modifying Points of Contact. Unlike the
parameters of pizzicato, each component of Fixed Points of Contact is a technique in its
own right. Each part of the following two sections should first be practised on open
strings and then with stopped notes.

History
Traditionally, alternate points of contact are divided into two areas: sul tasto (over the
fingerboard) and sul ponticello (near or on the bridge). Sylvestro di Ganassi first
described the differences of character produced by changing the point of contact on the
viola da gamba in his Regola Rubertina (1542):

‘It is true that you can play occasionally close to the bridge or to the fingerboard,
when you wish to produce a rough sound appropriate to the subject, or should you
want the harmonies to conform to a sorrowful subject. Indeed, sadness leads to
playing closer to the fingerboard and cruel sentiments are best rendered by playing
near the bridge.’110

Baroque composers continued to use the broader range of colours available through
alternate points of contact, and in the 18th century sul ponticello, or alla gamba
(imitating the sound of the then more popular viola da gamba), were used by Austro-
German performers as a matter of course to colour solo passages, and by the French in

110
Ganassi (1542/R 2004), p. 27. Trans. to French Jean-Philippe Navarre; trans. to English V. Welbanks.
Page 77
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 3. Bowing the String: Point
of Contact

rapid accompaniment figures.111 In fact the term alla gamba survived into the turn of
the 19th century, to Romberg’s day, as can be seen in his second concerto.112

There is also some supporting pedagogical material for cellists surrounding this
performance practice: Pierre Baillot provides an exercise for accompaniment figures in
crotchets and double-crotchets in his Méthode113 written in 1804, Dotzauer mentions sul
ponticello in the first page of his Violonzell-Schule,114 Romberg writes in his
Violoncelle-Schule115 of 1840 that sul ponticello / alla gamba is especially effective in
variations and pieces of ‘popular genre’, and Berlioz mentions points of contact in his
Traité: ‘The metallic and slightly bitter sounds obtained by the bow when it is closer to
the bridge vary greatly from the soft, distant sounds which are borne of the bow when it
is on the fingerboard.’116

Theory & Practice

Despite the longstanding tradition of using alternate points of contact in string playing,
sul tasto and sul ponticello have always been executed with the same bowing
mechanism as any other point of contact, but simply ‘closer to the bridge’ or ‘over the
fingerboard’. Neither has ever been considered a technique whose mechanism needs to
be rehearsed.117

111
Stowell (1999), p. 190.
112
Romberg (c. 1799), bb. 159-166 and 170-179. The interested cellist should look at the Allegretto of
Kraft’s Duet I, Op. 3 for violin and cello (bb. 240-258), cited in Walden (1998), p. 209. Probably
published in 1792, the work combines sul ponticello in the cello part with extreme dynamics of pp and ff,
in a French-style accompaniment of rapid notes.
113
Baillot (1805), p. 135. Cited in Walden (1998), p. 209.
114
Dotzauer (1824), p. 1. Cited in Walden (1998), p. 276.
115
Romberg (1840), p. 97.
116
Berlioz (1844), p. 20. Trans. V. Welbanks.
117
This is perhaps a result of the terminology itself, which refers to the means of execution rather than the
end product desired by the composer.
Page 78
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 3. Bowing the String: Point
of Contact

Two facets of bow control will be developed for use in modern music:

a) Fixed points of contact: obtaining a different sound than is usually employed with
ordinario playing by changing the overtone content in a sound.

b) Modifying points of contact: moving rapidly from one point of contact to another.

It should be observed that all of the techniques below are highly dependent on bow
speed and bow pressure – elements which are difficult to quantify and relate. Bow
speed and pressure for the techniques below should initially be similar to those used in
ordinario, as it is the imbalance in the relationship between bow speed, pressure, and
point of contact which causes the greatest change in colour. Once this relationship is
understood, bow speed can be altered while the relative proportions of pressure and
point of contact are maintained; for example, one could try creating a sul ponticello
sound as close to the fingerboard as possible...

Applications

Fixed Points of Contact

Ordinario is a relatively precise indication; inasmuch as one aims to produce a rich
sound, most cellists will naturally find the point on the string where a rich overtone
content is still subordinate to the fundamental. Sul tasto and sul ponticello are more
ambiguous terms, leaving the choice of overtone content to the performer. Awareness
of the possibilities and the capability of fully exploiting them enlarge the palette and
therefore the artistry of the player.

Sul Tasto
As the term sul tasto somewhat erroneously implies if taken literally, bowing ‘over the
fingerboard’ per se does not considerably alter the sound. The sul tasto sound is
achieved by bowing on a harmonic node, thus cutting a portion of the harmonic
spectrum from the sound to produce a different colour, which is traditionally described
as ‘hollow’, ‘dull’ or ‘distant’. This is called overtone exclusion (see p. 64).

Page 79
Part II: Defining & Codifying Extended Techniques 3. Bowing the String: Point
of Contact

Theoretically, the most extreme example of this is bowing on the node of the 2nd
harmonic (or 1/2-point), which should exclude every second harmonic (nos. 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12, 14, 16, etc.), therefore removing half of the potential overtones from the
sound.118 Similarly, bowing at either node of the 3rd harmonic (the 1/4- or 3/4-point)
excludes one quarter of the potential overtones (nos. 4, 8, 12, 16, etc.), bowing at one of
the 4th harmonic nodes (1/5-, 2/5-, 3/5-, or 4/5-point) excludes one fifth of the potential
overtones (nos. 5, 10, 15, etc.), and so on. Several other acoustic factors come into
consideration, but one of them – the point of contact – can be controlled by the player
though bow placement and direction, and the amount of bow hair used.

Firstly, to ensure a consistent sul tasto sound, the bow must stay on the harmonic node
throughout; the arm must therefore compensate in its movement to ensure a steady point
of contact. Bow movement above the fingerboard is often uncomfortable as the natural
tendency is to bend the elbow so that the arm becomes shorter and therefore higher up
on the string. This adjustment redesigns the necessary arm movement, whereas a more
familiar motion can be maintained by pulling the entire arm back, letting the shoulder
relax while turning the upper body slightly towards the player’s right. Secondly, the
bow should be turned on its side to minimize the surface area of the bow hair in contact
with the string.119 This is to ensure that the point of contact is more precise, ideally only
touching one harmonic node. Harmonic nodes are spaced more closely at the
extremities of the string – if all of the surface area of the bow hair is used in sul tasto
sound production and/or the point of contact fluctuates, more than one node will be
affected by the bow movement, thus creating variations in the sound. Hence, bow speed
and contact must be maintained as in ordinario playing.

When playing sul tasto, the bow is most frequently placed near the 2/3-, 3/4-, or 4/5-point
harmonics. For the open string, the 3/4-point harmonic presents the ideal position: it

118
For a more detailed explanation of the theory and use of nodes, please refer to: Fallowfield (2010), pp.
69-75.
119
For side hair, the bow is usually rotated so that the stick of the bow is further from the bridge. It is
recommended that the rotation be in the other direction for sul tasto playing on the A-string, as this
increases the distance between the stick and the upper corner of the bout, allowing greater freedom in
bow placement.
Page 80