2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern
2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern
2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern
THE CONSTITUTION
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
define Constitution
describe types of constitution
describe the forms of constitution.
explain the main parts of the Zambian constitution.
describe the history and main provisions (recommendations) of constitution making process in Zambia.
describe the process of constitution making and adoption.
discuss the characteristics of the good constitution.
explain the importance of a constitution.
DEFINITION
A constitution is a system of laws, customs, and principles, usually written down, according to which a country or
an organisation is governed (ruled).
• Laws – set of rules (the dos and the do nots)
• Customs – accepted traditions or habits of the people in a society.
• Principles – a fundamental essence, particularly one producing a given quality. It can also be understood as a
guiding belief.
A nation needs a constitution to regulate the activities and behaviour of its citizens. It is, therefore, important that
people are involved in the making of the constitution, as this results in the constitution commanding respect, loyalty,
obedience, and confidence from the people.
The people should think carefully about what to include in the constitution, because the constitution is a Supreme
Law to which all other laws of a country are subordinate. Supreme law of the land means that any other law that
does not conform (be in accordance…) with the constitution, is void (invalid). Therefore, the practice of adhering
(sticking to) firmly to the prescribed rules and laws enshrined in the constitution is known as Constitutionalism.
TYPES OF CONSTITUTIONS
There are mainly two types of constitution, namely, Written Constitution and Unwritten Constitution. Constitutions
can either be written or unwritten. A written or unwritten constitution can take the form of being either rigid or
flexible, depending on the requirements on how it can be changed or amended. A constitution with provisions
hard/difficult to change (amend) is referred to as a rigid constitution, while a constitution with provisions that make
it easily changed (amended) is referred to as a flexible constitution.
1. WRITTEN CONSTITUTION: is a constitution whose contents are documented (embodied) in a single (one)
formal written instrument (document). A written constitution can either be in form of a flexible or rigid
constitution. All flexible constitutions are written, but not all written constitutions are flexible. A particularly
good example of a constitution that is written but rigid is that of the United States of America. Some of the
countries with written but flexible constitutions include Tanzania, Malawi, South Africa, and Zambia.
Advantages (Merits)
It is drawn up with great care.
It is clear and definite.
It is free from being twisted.
It is easy to refer to.
People can easily read and understand the structure and functions of each organ of government.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
Much of the language used is too technical to be understood by an ordinary citizen.
The power of interpretation is vested in the Judiciary; therefore, it may be abused by the Judges.
It may create lacunae (gaps). This means it may leave out important details as all the ideas and principles of
the nation are compressed into one document.
It gives more emphasis on the written laws; hence public opinions are decreased.
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2. UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION: is a constitution whose contents are not documented in a single (one)
document but in a collection of documents. Many years ago, most countries did not have Written Constitutions.
These countries were governed by the general laws known to that society. They depended on traditions,
customs, and norms to guide and govern their people.
Some countries still have Unwritten Constitutions. Among these are The Kingdom of Eswatini ( Swaziland) and
Britain. Some of these countries have different parts of a constitution written and some parts not written.
Therefore, it is a collection of documents, statutes and traditional practices that are generally accepted as
governing a nation. The constitutions falling under this category can be easily changed/amended.
Advantages (Merits)
It is easily adaptable to the changing conditions in society.
It can be bent to meet national emergencies.
It may not create lacunae (gaps). This means it may include all the important details of a country’s culture.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
It is not easy to refer to.
It is not clear.
It may be taken for granted that it exists, as it is not written down.
Its existence in multiple documents makes it difficult to be mastered.
FORMS OF CONSTITUTIONS
As earlier stated, a written or unwritten constitution can take the form of being either rigid or flexible, depending on
the requirements on how it can be changed or amended. A constitution with provisions hard/difficult to change or
amend is referred to as a Rigid Constitution, while a constitution with provisions that make it easily changed or
amended is referred to as a Flexible Constitution. Therefore, there are two main forms of constitutions, namely,
Flexible Constitution and Rigid Constitution.
1. A FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION: is one that can be amended or changed easily. It can be changed by the
simple majority vote in parliament. In other words, it can be changed without calling for a referendum (…
asking citizens to vote Yes or No….). A good example is the Zambian constitution. The only part of the
Zambian constitution that is not flexible is the Bill of Rights because it requires a referendum for it to be
amended.
Advantages (Merits):
Its elasticity and adaptability make it easy to be changed or adjusted to meet emergencies, circumstances
and changing needs of society. This curbs revolts, anarchy, and revolutionary changes.
It allows some constitutional demands to be conveniently postponed or brought forward.
Disadvantages (Demerits):
It may result in political instability if abused by those in power to satisfy their selfish interests.
Frequent amendments may create uncertainty which may result into people losing confidence in the
constitution.
It may change with changing passions of the people since it is easy to amend even where the change is not
necessary.
It is unstable.
2. A RIGID CONSTITUTION: is a constitution that is difficult to amend. It cannot be amended by the simple
majority vote in Parliament. It can only be amended by a special body with a special status than Parliament.
Such bodies include National Constituency Conference (NCC), the Constituent Assembly. It can be altered or
amended only by special procedures, such as the Referendum. It is for this reason that a Rigid Constitution is
not representative of the people but a section of the people. Examples of rigid constitutions are those of Britain,
the United States of America, Switzerland, and Austria.
Advantages (Merits):
It prevents rush amendments from being made.
It allows time for detailed deliberations before the enactment of any laws.
It is relatively permanent and stable. This creates confidence among the people.
It is free from changes resulting from popular passions.
It avoids manipulation by those in power who may wish to amend the constitution in favour of their selfish
interests.
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Disadvantages (De-merits):
It may cause delay when there is an urgent need to amend the constitution to suit the changing needs of
society.
Its amendments can be delayed indefinitely thereby leading to frustrations and revolts in society.
In the preamble, the Zambian people acknowledges the Supremacy of God Almighty; Declare the Republic a
Christian Nation, while upholding a person’s right to freedom of conscience, belief, or religion. It goes on to state
that the country is a sovereign state ruled on the principles of democracy, good governance, and justice for all. It
confirms the equal worth of women and men to freely participate in all orders of society.
It is resolving that Zambia shall remain a unitary, multi-party and democratic sovereign State. To achieve liberty,
justice, and unity, it recognises and honours the freedom fighters that fought for independence and directs that all
State organs and State institutions abide by, and respect Zambia’s sovereign will.
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A. THE CONSTITUTION MAKING PROCESS:
A constitution should be made in a clear and satisfactory manner. Each country must have a constitution that fits its
situation. It is not just about copying any other country’s constitution and adopting it. To ensure this, a Constitution
Review Commission must be put in place. This makes a good study surrounding the need for a new constitution or
its major amendments. This commission then comes up with a draft constitution which would eventually be used as
the major reference by the Constituent Assembly in making a new Constitution.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MAKING A CONSTITUTION.
i) People’s Views – The CRC has the responsibility of seeking the views from the people for whom the New
Constitution is intended. This consultation must be done nation-wide. These views must capture the general
understandings and opinions of the citizens and be turned into the final draft constitution.
ii) A Country’s History – Every country has a history. This history provides rich experiences that can be helpful
to guide a nation towards a better future. It shows how a country handled a certain situation in the past and the
results that came out of it, whether bad or good. If good, it is used, but if it was bad, for example, it brought
disunity and tense situations, it is avoided. Guidelines to discourage reoccurrences must be provided. So, history
helps to guide makers of the new constitution on how they can go over certain provisions that proved to be
divisive in the past.
iii) Past Constitutions – These can also guide in making a better and new constitution. The effectiveness of certain
provisions in the past Constitutions, form the basis of knowledge on how decisions can be made on certain
provisions in the new Constitution.
iv) The Present Situations – As it has been stated, historical experiences are important in the guidance of making
a new Constitution. However, situations keep on changing. A new generation can have its own challenges,
values, experiences, and prospects. These are important to be considered because the new Constitution is always
aimed at serving the people for whom it is made. For example, Zambia used to be a one-party state, and the
majority never opposed it. But when times kept on changing, they changed and demanded for change to
multiparty. Therefore, present situations are always important to be considered in the making of the
constitution.
v) Way of Life – People all over the world have traditions, cultures, and customs. These determine their way of
living. A new Constitution must put these factors into consideration. A Constitution which undermines people’s
traditional and cultural values can never succeed. A good Constitution must accommodate all the neutral and
good aspects from the people’s way of life. However, these must keep in line with the fundamental human
rights and freedoms.
B. WAYS OF ADOPTING THE CONSTITUTION: There are three main methods/ways used to adopt a
constitution, these are: Through Parliament; The Constituent Assembly; and The Referendum.
(i) Through Parliament: the draft constitution, compiled by the CRC, is submitted to the President who
then accepts or rejects some provisions before submitting to Parliament for debate. Parliament debates
through normal procedures of the House. If parliament is satisfied with it, it adopts it and sends it back
to the President for the Presidential assent. Zambia has used this method four times: in 1972, 1991,
1996 and 2016.
(ii) Through a Constituent Assembly: A Constituent Assembly is a specific body tasked with the duty of
debating and coming up with a constitution for a nation. Members are usually elected by the public
from different constituencies, churches, learning institutions, trade unions, Non-Governmental
Organisations, student bodies and special interest groups. The adoption of the Constitution by the
Constituent Assembly is more representative than by Parliament. It is independent and free from
government interference or control of any person. It is also not like the National Constitution
Conference whose final draft constitution must be adopted by Parliament, as it adopts its own final
draft constitution.
(iii) Through a Referendum: this is a situation whereby a draft constitution is subjected to the public to
approve it through a public vote. Voters are required to vote ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. If more than half (50% + 1)
of the votes cast are in favour, the constitution will be adopted, and the President must assent. As stated
earlier, the only part of the Zambian Constitution which requires a referendum for it to be amended is
the Bill of Rights. In 2016, attempts to make amendments to the Bill of Rights through a referendum
failed because the number of votes in favour of this were less than the required 50%+1 threshold.
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HISTORY OF CONSTITUTION MAKING IN ZAMBIA
Constitutional development in Zambia can be traced back to British colonial times, especially from the beginning of
the 1950s. This period was marked by the establishment of the Federation of Nyasaland and Rhodesia through the
Order-in-Council (a legislation made in the name of the Monarch in some Commonwealth countries), of 1953.
The Order-in-Council was followed by a constitution written by the British Colonial Administration in 1962. The
purpose of this constitution was to accommodate both white settlers and native Africans in the Legislative Council,
and to lay a foundation stone for the independence of Northern Rhodesia outside the Federation.
Following the dissolution of the Federation in 1963, a new constitution designed to resolve the conflicting interests
of the indigenous Africans, the settler white community and the colonial government was made. Most of the
provisions in that constitution were meant to safeguard the interests of white settler community. It was called the
Northern Rhodesia Self-government Constitution of 1963. The new constitution came into force through the Zambia
Independence Order-in-Council of 1964, recognising Zambia as a sovereign state. This was the country’s first
independence constitution, and it established a multiparty system dominated by Kaunda’s United National
Independence Party (UNIP).
The era of the Post-Independence Constitution was characterised by a multiparty system. There were increasing
challenges from opposition political parties to Kaunda’s dominance over the country during the First Republic. In
1972, a Constitution Review Commission (CRC) headed by Vice President Mainza Chona was established. A new
constitution which abolished multipartyism and declared UNIP the only political party recognised by law, was
passed in 1973 and this marked the beginning of the Second Republic. It was argued that the elimination of
multipartyism was done in the interest of unity and economic development. It became illegal to form or attempt to
form any political party, and illegal to belong to any political party other than UNIP. A constitution that does not
allow the formation of political parties does not encourage free electoral participation. It infringes (breaks or
violates) on people’s rights and freedoms such as freedom of association, freedom of conscience. This constitution
limited the rights of the citizens
In 1990, there was increased demand for the restoration of a multi-party system due to the deteriorating (reduction in
quality / shrinking) economic situation. This demand, among others, made President Kenneth Kaunda to appoint a
Constitutional Review Commission, headed by one of the respected Lawyers at the time, Professor Patrick Mvunga.
This constitution was a transitional document designed to meet the needs at that time. The main recommendation
was that Zambia should revert (return) to multi-party democracy. In other words, multi-party (existence of more
than one political party) should be reintroduced. It was adopted in 1991 and this marked the beginning of the Third
Republic.
With the election of Fredrick J. T. Chiluba as president, a new attempt was made to get a lasting constitution for
Zambia. A new Constitution Review Commission, chaired by John Mwanakatwe, was appointed in 1993 to draft a
Constitution. Its first Draft Constitution was presented in 1995. It recommended that persons contesting the
presidency of Zambia must have both parents who are or were Zambians by birth. As a result, the presidential
aspirant, former President, Kenneth Kaunda was automatically disqualified since his parents were not Zambians by
birth. This is also known as Parentage Clause. Other recommendations include; establishment of an Independent
Electoral Management Body (Electoral Commission of Zambia), and traditional leaders (chiefs) not to participate in
active politics. This constitution was adopted in 1996.
In 2001, Levy P. Mwanawasa became president of Zambia, and in 2003 appointed a Constitution Review
Commission headed by Wila Mung’omba. In 2005, the Mung’omba Constitution Review Commission presented its
draft Constitution that was seen as progressive but the whole process was later suspended despite the agreement to
adopt the document through a Constituent Assembly. Among the recommendations are; establishment of the
constitutional court, appointment of ministers outside parliament, more than 50% + 1 of the total vote cast for one to
win an election and become President of Zambia, borrowing public funds with approval by parliament, introduction
of a Presidential Running-mate. However, its recommendations were not adopted.
One of President Michael Chilufya Sata’s promises in the run-up to his election in 2011 was the adoption of a new
Constitution. Keeping to this promise, President Sata appointed a Technical Committee to draft a new Constitution
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on 16th November 2011, headed by Aniel Silungwe. A first draft of the Constitution by the Technical Committee
was released in April 2012. Their main term of reference was to use the reports from the previous Constitutional
Review Commissions to come up with the final constitution that would stand a test of time. The Committee’s
recommendations include; the Presidential running mate, Dual citizenship, 50% +1, and Minimum qualification. It’s
draft constitution which was adopted by parliament and signed by President Edgar C. Lungu on 5th January 2016, in
the National Heroes Stadium.
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g) It must respond to the Social, Economic and Political needs of the citizens.
IMPORTANCE OF A CONSTITUTION.
A Constitution is important for many reasons. Some of them are as follows:
i It acts as a Social Contract between citizens and government: the relationship between government and the
people is clearly defined and regulated. It clearly lays down the responsibility of the government towards her
people. Citizens can check and assess the performance of the government.
ii It protects the Rights and Freedoms of citizens: the rights and freedoms of the people are well spelt in the
Bill of Rights, and thus, the government must respect and protect them. Every citizen is treated equally
irrespective of his/her tribe, religion, colour, or background.
iii The government is regulated: whatever the government does must agree with the Constitution. It is the
constitution which provides the government with the framework through which it operates. Therefore, the
government does not have any right to do whatever it wants.
iv It gives citizens a Legal basis: once the rights of citizens are violated by the government, citizens have the
right to use the Constitution against the government in the courts of law.
v It establishes Government Power: the power of the government and how it should be used is defined in the
constitution. By so doing, it authorises the government to use those powers on behalf of the citizens in
governing them as well as providing social services.
vi It makes a clear separation of powers: the major arms of government (Legislature, Executive and Judiciary)
and their responsibilities are well defined in the constitution. This enables a proper interaction of these organs
and the general administration of the government. The relationships are rightly regulated and guided.
vii It restricts the abuse of government power: It is said that power corrupts. This can be true with the
government. A government has a lot of power since it controls all the nation’s revenues and the security
agencies. Such powers need to be regulated and restricted in the interest of the citizens. The constitution does
this.
viii It guides citizens on what they must do: A constitution regulates the behaviour of the citizens of a nation. It
guides them in knowing their duties. It is through these duties and responsibilities that a good citizen can be
differentiated from a bad one.
ix It gives equal opportunities for individual development.
NOTICE TO THE TEACHERS
Make corrections were possible.
Update the notes
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TOPIC 2
GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
define and explain governance.
discuss the characteristics of good and bad governance.
analyse different Electoral Systems
explain Zambia’s Electoral Systems
explain Zambia’s Electoral Process
explain Zambia’s Electoral Code of Conduct
describe the Local Governance System in Zambia
discuss the role of Traditional Leaders in governance.
DEFINITION
Governance refers to the way a group of people or society manages its affairs. A group of people of people can be a
family, a public institution (Government organisation, Government Ministry and Parastatal) or even a private
enterprise (non-governmental organisations). Governance also means the running and management of public affairs
for the benefit of all the people. If public affairs are run efficiently (making good use of resources) and for the
benefit of the people, it means there is a practice of good governance. However, in a situation where groups or
institutions employ undemocratic tendencies such as misuse of power, lack of accountability, lack of free and fair
elections, they are said to be badly governed.
Governance is seen through political, social, and economic situations. Through its policies (decisions on what to do
or not to do), government influences the general way a country is run. It is either a country is run in accordance with
democratic principles or dictatorship. There are two types of governance, and these are Good Governance and Bad
Governance.
At national level, government manages the affairs of the state, including running of elections through the established
institution called Electoral Commission of Zambia. This chapter looks at the two types of governance and their
characteristics, Electoral systems, Electoral process, local governance system and finally the role of traditional
leaders in governance.
GOOD GOVERNANCE
Good governance means a government in authority has elements that add up to what most people expect from those
who rule over them. This means the government is legitimate (has people’s support), competent (adequate for the
purpose), accountable (obliged to answer for its deeds), and respects human rights and the rule of law. Without good
governance, progress is difficult to achieve and impossible to guarantee. It has consent of the people ruled. Mostly, it
is practiced by a democratic government.
BAD GOVERNANCE
Bad governance means a government in authority has no elements that add up to what most people expect from
those who rule over them. This means the government is illegitimate, incompetent, unaccountable, and does not
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respect human rights and the rule of law. It is governance by a government which rules against the wishes of the
majority. It does not have the consent of the people ruled. Dictatorship is a form of bad governance. However, bad
governance can also be practiced by a democratically elected government.
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
An electoral system is a set of rules that translates the votes cast in an election into seats won by parties and
candidates. The purpose of the electoral system is to translate the will of the people, as expressed through the ballot
box, into members of a legislative body, local authority and presidency. For instance, the way citizens elect their
political leaders. There are four main electoral systems used throughout the world. These are:
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1. Single Member Majoritarian System (SMMS).
2. Single Member Plurality System (SMPS) or First Past the Post System (FPTP).
3. Proportional Representative System (PRS).
4. Mixed Member Proportionality System (MMPS).
For example, if there are two million (2,000,000) valid votes cast, fifty percent of the valid votes is one
million (1,000,000). For a presidential candidate to win, one is required to get at least one million plus 1
vote translating into 1,000,001. This means that other candidates will share the 999,999 which is less than
50% of the valid votes cast.
Second ballot system is not the same as election re-run. An election re-run is where the election results are
cancelled by the courts of law, and fresh elections are held. This might be due to a successful petition. A
good example of where an election re-run was conducted is Malawi.
Advantages:
It is more democratic in that the winner is elected by the majority.
It allows voters to choose between people rather than just political parties.
It retains the link between constituents and their members of parliament.
It provides a clear-cut choice for voters between political parties and between personalities.
It provides a coherent parliamentary opposition which can present itself as a realistic alternative to the
government of the day.
Disadvantages:
It is expensive in case of a second ballot system.
It may cause voter apathy (lack of motivation to vote), as voters whose candidates do not qualify for a
re-run may not vote.
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Party structures are mostly dominated by male, so this affects the ability of women to be elected to
parliamentary office.
3. PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM (PRS)
In this system, there is no delimitation (demarcating of boundaries) of constituencies and wards. Voters vote
for a political party of their choice and not for an individual candidate. Parliamentary seats are shared
among political parties, according to percentages obtained in election. A party with the highest number of
votes forms government. Members of Parliament are not directly elected by the people but are appointed/
nominated by their respective political parties using a Party List System. This system is used in South
Africa.
Advantages:
The system facilitates a more representative Legislature.
Where there is a social division, the inclusion of all significant groups in parliament can be a near
essential condition for democratic consolidation.
It creates few wasted votes.
Disadvantages:
Members of Parliament are not answerable to the electorate but rather to their political parties.
It tends to increase government instability.
It tends to produce more parties in legislature, in which it is less likely for one political party to have a
majority number of seats. Bills for the ruling party could be difficult to go through.
It weakens the constituency-Representative link because it fails to provide for the relationship between
constituencies and representatives.
ELECTIONS
An election is a formal process of selecting a person for public office. It can also be understood as a formal process
of accepting or rejecting a political proposition, by voting. It can also be defined as a formal group decision-making
process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.
Through elections, citizens transfer power they hold to make decisions and manage public affairs to representatives
who will exercise it on their behalf. Therefore, elections provide citizens with a formal opportunity to influence the
democratic governance process. The constitution of Zambia requires that elections be held periodically.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17 th
Century. Elections are important because they:
provide an opportunity for the people to participate in the governance of their country.
Provide an opportunity for citizens to choose their representatives that speak and decide on their behalf.
are a means through which political leaders are chosen.
give legitimacy to the government.
give chance to citizens to choose parties that support their policies that are beneficial to the people.
oblige candidates to explain to the citizens why they should be elected,
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make political parties accountable to the people,
provide a mechanism of peaceful transfer of power,
offer regular opportunities to people to change government, and
provide the peace and stability necessary for development.
MANAGEMENT OF ELECTIONS
Elections in Zambia are managed by the Electoral Commission of Zambia (ECZ). The ECZ is an independent
Electoral Management Body established under Article 229 of the Constitution of Zambia. It has the responsibility to
manage elections in Zambia.
The Commission consists of a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and three other members appointed by the President,
subject to ratification by the National Assembly. These members of the Commission serve on a full-time basis.
Functions of the Commission are two categories: Constitutional and Statutory
I. Constitutional Functions:
Delimit electoral boundaries. Settle minor electoral disputes.
Implement the electoral process. Regulate the conduct of voters and
Conduct elections and referenda. candidates.
Voter registration (this function is Accredit observers and election agents.
continuous).
II. Statutory Functions:
To provide voter education (this function is continuous).
To make regulations providing for the registration of voters and for the manner of conducting
elections.
To constitute conflict management committees and appoint conflict management officers for purposes
of resolving electoral disputes.
to correct mistakes committed by electoral officers in the tabulation of results within seven days of the
declaration of the results.
To administer and enforce the Electoral Process Act, and the Electoral Code of Conduct.
To disqualify a political party or candidate in breach of the Code.
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held in Zambia was on Thursday, 11 th August 2016. There are four positions that are voted for in these
elections, namely, President, Member of Parliament, Mayor/Council Chairperson and Ward Councillor. A
candidate can either be sponsored by a political party or stand as an independent candidate. Note that, under
the 2016 National Constitution of Zambia, a person is disqualified from being nominated as a candidate for
election as President if that person has dual citizenship.
2. By-Elections – these are held when either a Member of Parliament, Mayor/Council Chairperson or Ward
Councillor:
dies
resigns from his/her position.
is expelled from his/her political party.
is imprisoned for more than six months.
Note that, in Zambia, under the 2016 Constitution, there is no need for a Presidential By-election. This
applies to any country with the Presidential Running-mate close. If the position of the Republican President
falls vacant for any reason, there will be no Presidential By-election as the Vice President will be sworn-in
as President. This is because the Vice President was a running mate who was elected alongside the
President.
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▪ Gender (Sex) ▪ Signature or thumbprint
▪ Date of Birth ▪ Polling station
▪ Portrait (Photograph of the Holder) ▪ Polling district
▪ Voter’s card number ▪ Expiry date.
Significance of Registering as a Voter: it gives you an opportunity to choose representatives of your
choice. Further, it is your Constitutional right and responsibility to vote. Additionally, it is one of the
requirements for a person to participate in an election through voting. Voter registration determines
who may or may not vote in an election.
5) Inspection of the register of voters (Verification of Voter’s Roll) – after the registration of voters, the
Electoral Commission of Zambia produces a provisional register of voters. This provisional register of
voters is not final and cannot be used in an election. It is still open to changes or amendments in case of
clerical errors or any other mistakes. All registered voters should inspect the provisional register of voters
to make sure their names and other details are correct.
In order to be allowed to inspect personal details in the provisional register of voters, a person must provide
the Registration Officer with his or her Voter’s Card and Green National Registration Card. The date for
inspection is normally announced by the Commission. During this period, a copy of the provisional register
of voters is available at all registration centres (polling stations) for inspection by the public.
6) Nomination of candidates – different political parties present their candidates for filing the nomination
papers stipulating qualifications of the presented candidates. They publicly make their intentions of
standing for elections known. The nomination day marks the beginning of the official election campaigns.
7) Election Campaigns – these are activities or strategies that political parties candidates or independent
candidates use to convince the electorate to vote for them. Campaign strategies vary from party to party.
They do this through political rallies, indoor meetings, door to door canvasing, use of posters, wearing of
T-shirts with political messages and symbols. Election campaigns provide voters with information that can
assist them in choosing a candidate of their choice. Election campaigns end a day before the actual voting
day at 18 hours.
8) Polling day or Voting day – this is the day electorates or voters go to polling stations to vote for their
candidates of their choice. Voting is the act of casting a ballot on the polling day. Voting in Zambia is
carried out on a “one person, one vote” basis. It is done through the secret ballot. This means that when
voting, no person should see who the voter is voting for. On poll day, polling stations open at 06:00 hours
and close at 18:00 hours. Voters who joined the queue before 18:00 hours will be allowed to vote. If the
polling station opens late, the time lost will be added to the closing time. A voter must vote at a polling
station appearing on the voter’s card.
A. The Right to Vote: it is every citizen’s right and responsibility to vote and participate in the
governance of the country in any democratic society like Zambia.
B. Rights of a Voter: apart from the right to vote, a registered voter is also entitled to the following
rights:
(i) Be assisted if he/she has a disability or is illiterate.
(ii) Complain about irregularities.
(iii) Be excused from work to go and vote.
(iv) Be protected by the law and police.
(v) Seek and access to voter information freely.
(vi) Vote for candidates of their own choice freely.
(vii) Take part in elections by registering and voting.
(viii) Express opinion peacefully and without restrictions.
(ix) Vote in secrecy
(x) Vote without intimidation or fear
C. Eligibility to vote: In order to vote, a person must:
i. be a Zambian with a green National Registration Card (NRC)
ii. have attained the age of 18 years and above.
iii. be in possession of a valid voter’s card.
iv. have his/her particulars appearing in the register of voters.
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D. Voting Procedures: it is important for a voter to go and vote from a polling station appearing on the
voter’s card. During poll day, a voter should do the following:
Step 1 - preparing to go to the polling station: a voter takes the following documents with
him/her to the polling station:
Green National Registration Card
Voter’s Card
Step 2 - Arrival at the polling station
A voter lines up with other voters to wait for their turn to be allowed inside the
polling station to cast their vote.
Voters are expected to observe all rules and regulations governing the polling station.
Voters will be directed by an usher to the correct queue.
Step 3 - Inside the polling station ascertaining the identity of the voters.
The voter shows the polling assistant his or her NRC and a Voter’s Card.
The polling assistant checks the details on the NRC and Voter’s Card against those
appearing in the voter’s register.
Step 4 - Inking: all fingers of the voter are checked to see that there are no ink marks. The
absence of ink means that the voter in not voting for the second time on that particular day. It is
not allowed to vote twice. The right-hand thumb is then marked with indelible (difficult to wash
away) ink.
Step 5 - Issuance of Ballot Papers: the voter is issued with stamped ballot papers. If the voter has
been given ballot papers that are not stamped, he/she has the right to demand for stamped ones
because unstamped ballot papers are considered to be invalid when counting them.
Step 6 - Marking of Ballot Papers: the voter marks the ballot papers in the polling booth. Once a
voter is issued with a ballot paper, he/she must take care so that it does not become a spoiled one.
Thus, the voter shall not do the following:
Write their name on the ballot paper.
Write their signature or any mark that may identify them on the ballot paper.
Place a mark on more than one candidate or write anything else except for the mark
X.
Leave the ballot paper unmarked.
Remove the ballot paper from the polling station.
Come with a ballot paper or any other paper from outside the polling station.
Step 7 - Vote Casting: the voter deposits the marked ballot papers in the respective transparent
ballot boxes. The ballot boxes have different coloured lids as follows:
For Presidential - Orange
For National Assembly - Red
For Mayoral/Council Chairperson - Purple
For Local government (Councillor) - Black
For Referendum - Brown
Step 8 - the voter walks out of the polling station.
9) Counting, Tabulating and Verification of the Results – votes cast are counted and added to come up
with a total for each candidate. The Electoral Commission of Zambia through Town Clerks or Council
Secretaries check on the results to ensure that election results contain correct figures and were a true
reflection of the votes cast. The spoiled ballot papers are also verified. Thereafter, the results are taken to
the Totalling Centre where verification of the same results is done to ensure that the counting was done
properly.
10) Announcement of results and declaration of winners – results for Local Government and Parliamentary
are announced by the Presiding Officers at the Constituency Totalling Centre, while those for the
Presidential are announced by the Electoral Commission Chairperson at the National Totalling Centre. The
one who declares the winning Candidate as President is the Electoral Commission of Zambia Chairperson.
The ones who announce results of Ward Councillors are called Presiding Officers while those who
announce results for Parliamentary elections are called Returning officers.
11) Resolving Election-related disputes and complaints – after the declaration of the winners of the
elections, the aggrieved candidates may petition the results through the Courts of Law. The Constitutional
Court is the one mandated with the responsibility of handling the disputes or complaints.
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ELECTORAL CODE OF CONDUCT:
This is a set of rules and principles that regulates the conduct of all stakeholders before, during and after elections.
The stakeholders include the Electoral Commission of Zambia, Political Parties, Media Institutions, Election
Monitors, Election Observers, Election Agents, Zambia Police Services, and other Law Institutions. The Electoral
Commission of Zambia and various stakeholders agreed on the Electoral Code of Conduct to provide a level of
electoral playing field in Zambia. This code applies to all citizens and institutions in Zambia.
Political parties, candidates, monitors and observers are required to sign the Declaration of Compliance Form,
stating that they shall comply and be bound by the code of conduct. The Commission now has the power to
reprimand an erring political party, candidate or stakeholder for any violation of the code. The Commission also has
the power to revoke (withdraw) the accreditation of election agents, polling agents, monitors, observers or the media
where it is in the interest of public safety and security to do so.
It is, therefore, important that election officers familiarize themselves with the Electoral Code of Conduct so that
they know the kind of conduct electoral stakeholders should exhibit during elections. The code lists a range of
offences and penalties.
Electoral Offences:
An electoral offence is the violation or breach of electoral regulations or laws that govern the electoral process.
Electoral offences are committed at three stages of the electoral process which are: nomination day, campaign period
and poll day.
I. Offences at Nomination Day - there are various offences that are committed at nomination day. Examples
include:
Returning Officers wrongly accepting or rejecting a nomination paper if they have been persuaded by
promises of money to assist or hinder any candidate.
Persuading a Returning Officer to accept an invalid nomination paper.
Threatening a Returning Officer to force him/her to accept an invalid nomination paper or reject a valid
nomination paper.
Making a false statement to a Returning Officer or forge a nomination to make it seem valid.
Falsely state that a candidate has withdrawn the nomination or died.
Threatening another person to make such a person to stand or not to stand as a candidate.
Threatening or using force to compel another person to sign or refuse to sign a nomination paper.
Loitering in any public place within four hindered metres radius of the nomination centre
Refusing to leave a nomination centre when ordered by an Election Officer.
II. Offences During Campaign Period - there are a number of offences that can be committed during the
campaign period. For example, it is an offence for a person to:
offer money or goods and services to another person in an attempt to persuade that person to vote or
refrain from voting for a particular candidate.
offer money or goods and services to another person in an attempt to persuade that person to join a
demonstration.
disturb or disrupt a public meeting to prevent a candidate from canvassing (seeking) for support.
cause violence or use any offensive language (insults) or engage in any conduct likely to lead to
violence or intimidation.
carry or display firearm (personal weapon) at a political meeting or in a course of any match,
demonstration or other public gatherings of political nature.
make false defamatory or inflammatory allegations concerning any person or political party in
connection with an election.
use Government or Parastatal transport of facility for campaign purposes except for the President and
his/her Running Mate (Vice President).
deface or destroy political party notices or posters.
be in possession of another person’s Voter’s Card or Green National Registration Card.
III. Offences on the Poll Day - there are a number of offences that can be committed on poll day. For
example, it is an offence for a person to:
canvass for votes and/or shout political slogans, anywhere within four hundred metres of the polling
station on poll day.
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Persuade people to refrain from voting anywhere within four hundred metres of the polling station.
Post a political party notice or sign and/or persuade to vote for one candidate or another, within four
hundred metres of the polling station. Only the official notices that are posted by election staff are
allowed.
Destroy, remove or deface the official notices posted by election offices.
Prevent voter(s) from accessing a polling station by threats, violence, or other means of persuasion.
Offer money or other goods and services to another person in order to persuade that person to vote or
refrain from voting for a particular candidate.
Attempt to or vote more than once.
Persuade a Presiding Officer to issue them with a ballot paper in an attempt to vote when they are not
eligible to vote.
Impersonate another person in an attempt to vote under that person’s name.
Be in possession of another person’s voter’s card.
Be in possession of a ballot paper that has not been offered by a Presiding officer.
Leave a polling station with a ballot paper.
Deface or destroy a ballot paper.
Force another person to disclose who they have voted for.
Put in the ballot box anything other than a ballot paper.
Remove anything from the ballot box before the close of the poll and before the Presiding Officer
officially opens the ballot box.
Attempt to or persuade a Returning Officer who is responsible for the count to make a false count or
declaration.
Fraudulently complete, alter or destroy a ballot paper or a voter’s card.
Knowingly give false information to an Electoral Officer.
Abrogate one’s oath of secrecy such as to ascertain, record and communicate the serial number of any
particular ballot paper or ascertain how it has been marked by the voter.
Harass or assault a Commission member of staff.
Penalties:
For any of the above-mentioned offences, the maximum penalty shall be on first conviction liable to a fine not
exceeding two hundred thousand penalty units or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or both.
In addition, any person who is convicted of a corrupt practice (bribery, undue influence, impersonation) or an illegal
practice shall be disqualified from voting for a period of five years and shall also be disqualified from being
nominated as a candidate for the same period.
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To reduce delays, as most decisions could be made on the spot instead of referring to headquarters.
To make plans and programmes more relevant to local needs and conditions.
To improve co-ordination between different government agencies in an area.
To reduce the burden on senior staff at national level to improve their performance.
In 1991, the Decentralisation Act was amended. The new act introduced three types of local councils, these were
City, Municipal and District Councils. The MMD government wanted to give more powers to the councils so that
there was less dependence on central government for funds. This made the council to operate freely without
interference from political parties. Town Clerks and Mayors are found in City and Municipal Councils, while
Council Secretaries and Council Chairpersons are found in District Councils. This has continued to present;
however, the position of Mayor or Chairperson has now become elective.
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They encourage their people to uphold positive or good cultural practices and values. These include loyalty,
love, kindness, fairness, justice, and honesty. These are important virtues in promoting good governance.
They initiate public discussions during village gatherings on matters that are related to culture and
development. Issues affecting the community are tackled. These include child marriages, child sacrifice,
forced marriages and general moral corruption. People are told about the dangers of such negative vices.
They also control land in their communities. They help in allocating plots of land to their people. They
must ensure that fairness prevails and that there are no causes of grudges related to land issues in their
communities.
They also help in settling disputes among their people, through advising, counselling, and disapproving
those who are in the wrong. Many of them are like fathers or mothers to their communities. This brings
them power and influence. It is this power which they use to guide their people for positive change.
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TOPIC 3
CITIZENSHIP
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
Explain citizenship
State qualifications of a Zambian citizen
Describe qualities of a good citizen
Identify factors that hinder good citizenship
Explain the rights and freedoms of a citizen
Explain duties and responsibilities of a citizen
Identify groups of people and citizens with special needs
THE CONCEPT OF CITIZENSHIP
The concept of citizenship has its origins in Greece (a European country). Citizenship is a state of belonging to a
particular country. It is a mutual relationship that exists between an individual and the nation to which he/she
belongs. The state guarantees an individual rights and freedoms, and in return, the individual is obliged (do a
service) to take part in civic and political processes of the state. Therefore, a Citizen is a member of a state who
enjoys all fundamental rights and privileges provided by a state, and in return, performs duties towards the state.
There are two aspects (the way it appears) of citizenship, these are Legal Aspect, and Moral Aspect.
A. LEGAL ASPECT: - A citizen is recognised by law and his/her rights are enshrined
(Protected within…) in the laws of the land. He/she must receive protection of the state whether within the
state or when abroad. He/she must enjoy total freedom of property ownership and political rights. When
one misuses this freedom, that individual is liable for prosecution.
B. MORAL ASPECT: - A citizen must have a sense of responsibility to fulfil all his/her obligations to the
state, such as obeying the law and defending the country. He/she must be self-disciplined and have self-
control. He/she must be good and have honourable sense to the state/family he/she belongs. One must be
ready to give back to the community to promote general happiness and common well-being of the people.
A citizen who does not comply with the moral aspect of citizenship is not liable for prosecution but may be
reprimanded by society.
TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP
There are two types of citizenship, namely, Natural Citizenship, and Naturalised Citizenship. Before we look at
them, it is important to understand the term Alien (Foreigner).
Definition of Alien: - an Alien or Foreigner is a person staying in a country which is not his/her own. An alien,
although resident in one country, owes allegiance (readiness of a citizen to protect his/her country in times of threat
and be able to do the duties of the country) to his/her own country. Aliens enjoy human rights but not political
rights. For instance, a Chinese staying in Zambia cannot take part in voting for leaders in Zambia.
An Alien does not always have complete freedom to acquire or sell land or property but is required to obey the laws
of the state in which he/she stays. An alien may be deported from the host state for misconduct or for committing
serious crimes. He/she owes no duty to the host country but may pay taxes. If the host country is at war with another
country, an alien is by law not allowed to participate in that war. Immigration laws of a country govern the entry and
status of aliens in the host country.
1. Natural Citizenship:
There are two rules that guide natural citizenship. These are the rule of Jus Sanguinis (blood) and the rule
of Jus Soli (place of birth). The rule of Jus Sanguinis considers citizenship based on blood relation or
descent. A child inherits the citizenship of his/her parents, regardless of where that child is born. Most
countries follow this rule because it was the first to define citizenship.
The rule of Jus Soli considers citizenship based on the place of birth. A person acquires a citizenship of a
country he/she is born. For example, a person born in Zambia from Chinese parents is a Zambian.
Countries that acknowledge both Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli result in having Dual Citizenship (a state of
belonging to two different countries). Zambia, in accordance with the 2016 National Constitution,
recognises dual citizenship. Other countries that recognise dual citizenship include Britain and the United
States of America.
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2. Naturalized Citizenship:
This is a type of citizenship acquired by an alien or foreigner upon meeting the prescribed conditions.
However, a naturalised citizen can either be partial or complete.
Partial citizenship – is a type where a naturalised citizen does not enjoy all the rights and
privileges of the country. For example, he/she has no right to vote.
Complete citizenship – is a type which allows a naturalised citizen to enjoy all the rights and
privileges in the state.
The following are some of the prescribed conditions which one must follow to acquire citizenship:
(i) The rule of residence – an alien who lives in a host country for a certain period, may apply to
become a citizen that country if he/she wishes so. For example, an alien who has lived in Zambia
for at least 10 years, can apply for citizenship.
(ii) Marriage – allows a spouse to acquire citizenship of the wife or husband, but the host country
can demand the evidence of good character before issuing citizenship to the spouse.
(iii) Principle of declaration on a prescribed form – requires an alien to fill in a prescribed
application form and provide important documents declaring that his/her wants to apply for
citizenship in the host country. An alien must publish his/her declaration in the Government’s
daily newspaper.
(iv) Renunciation of previous citizenship – an alien is required to give up his/her previous
citizenship and take an oath of allegiance to the host country. This is known as expatriation.
However, this is not a case in a country that allows dual citizenship.
A citizen—
(a) may renounce citizenship as prescribed; or
(b) shall be deprived of citizenship if that citizenship was acquired by means of fraud,
false representation, or concealment (hiding) of a material fact.
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elections. This right is called franchise. Rights are divided into three categories, namely, Natural rights, Moral
rights, and Legal rights.
1) NATURAL RIGHTS: These are rights that are enjoyed by individuals in the state of nature. These
rights existed before the establishment of countries or nation states. They are natural and essential to
individuals whether the person is aware of them or not. For example, the right to life. All citizens are
equal in dignity. No citizen should be discriminated in any way or treated unfairly.
2) MORAL RIGHTS: These are rights acknowledged by the moral sense of the people. They exist due to
custom, long usage, and the strength of public opinion. No legal action can be taken against violation of
moral rights, but the way people feel about them is so strong that it is difficult for an individual to
deliberately violate them. For example, old person has a moral right to be looked after by his/her
children. However, if the children do not take care of their parent, he/she cannot sue them.
Nevertheless, public opinion will condemn them.
3) LEGAL RIGHTS: These are privileges given by the government of a nation and guaranteed by it.
These rights are justiciable (able to be evaluated and resolved by the courts). In other words, legal
rights are recognised by the state and the judiciary ensure their enforcement. They are enshrined in the
laws of the nation. There are three kinds of legal rights:
(i) Civil Rights:
right to personal safety and freedom
right to family life
right to freedom of speech and expression
right to assembly and association
right to property
freedom of conscience and religion
(ii) Political Rights: - these are rights that ensure that every person is given an opportunity to take
part in the affairs of a state. Democracy is only made possible by the active participation and
cooperation of all citizens. These rights include the following:
right to vote
right to belong to a political party
right to be voted into public office
right to criticize government
right to form a political party
right to petition to register grievance, either individually or collectively (as a
group)
(iii) Economic Rights:
right to work
right to adequate wages
right to reasonable hours of work
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Personal Responsibilities of a Citizen include:
Taking care of oneself
Supporting one’s family
Adhering to morals, principles, and values of one’s society
Respecting the rights and interests of others
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CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RIGHTS
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:
define Human Rights
outline the historical development of Human Rights
discuss the characteristics of Human Rights
explain categories of Human Rights
discuss the significance of Human Rights
DEFINITION
Human Rights are entitlements (claims and freedoms) that one has simply by the fact of being human. In other
words, human rights are entitlements that one has by virtue of being human. Every human being, regardless of one’s
colour, religion, age, sex, nationality, the geographical location or whether rich or poor, has the same claims and
freedoms. They are human rights because they are things you can be, do or have. These rights are there for your
protection against people who might want to harm or hurt you. Therefore, we can understand human rights to be the
basic rules for fair treatment of all human beings. They are naturally given by God.
Human rights constitute a set of norms governing the treatment of individuals and groups by states and non-state
actors based on ethical principles regarding what society considers fundamental (important) to a decent life. They
are based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect, and independence. These values are defined and
protected by law. in Zambia, Human rights are enshrined in Part III of the Zambian Constitution under the Bill of
Rights.
When human rights are not well known by people, abuses such as discrimination, intolerance, injustice, oppression,
and slavery can arise. Human rights are relevant to all of us, not just those who face repression or mistreatment. No
one has any right to deny another person any of these rights.
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For this reason:
“Every life being a life,
Every damage afflicted on a life needs repair.
Therefore, nobody may, without reason, oppose his neighbour,
Nobody may do his neighbour a wrong,
Nobody may torment another human being.”
The Charter of Mande also contains some paragraphs addressing two main evils: hunger and slavery. It condemns
slavery and guarantees that nobody would be captured as a slave. The Charter promised to eradicate (remove
completely) all forms of hunger:
“Hunger is not a good thing,
Slavery is not a good thing either.
There is no worse calamity than these two things, in this world.
If we have quiver and arrow,
Famine will not kill anybody in Mande …
(and) no village will ever be destroyed
by wars fought with the aim to capture slaves …
As from today,
The very substance of slavery is eradicated …
Within the borders of Mande.”
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speech and movement will certainly be affected. This is because he/she is not free to associate with others;
he/she cannot speak with them freely.
Human rights are NON-DISCRIMINATORY – all human rights rotate around the principle of equality.
Everyone must be treated equally in relation to each specific human right. No one should ever be favoured
at the expense of others. Therefore, there is no human right that can promote any form of discrimination.
This principle is greatly emphasised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in Article (1)
that states that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
(i) Civil and Political Rights: these are also called First Generation Rights. They are first generation rights
because they were the first rights to be recognised. These are those rights which are made to protect
individuals’ freedom from governments or private institutions. Due to these rights, governments are obliged
not to interfere in the life of the individual. They give freedom to individuals to participate freely in the
civil and political affairs of their countries. Civil rights, generally, refer to the rights of citizens. Examples
of these “liberty-oriented” rights include:
right to life
right to personal liberty
right to security of the individual
right to vote
right to join any political party of your choice
right to religion
right to a speedy and fair trial
protection from slavery and forced labour.
protection of freedom of conscience
protection from discrimination on grounds of race, age, sex, religion, and many others
freedom from torture and inhuman treatment
freedom of opinion
freedom of assembly, association, movement, and expression
(ii) Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: these are also known as Second Generation Rights. This category
consists of rights that are economic, social, and cultural in nature. In other words, those rights which
directly affect one’s economic, social, and cultural life. Their realisation brings about social justice, dignity,
and equity. Governments are required to take deliberate action or steps to bring about conditions in which
every person enjoys adequate standards of economic, social, and cultural rights. These “security-oriented”
rights include:
Right to employment
Right to education
Right to a reasonable standard of living
Right to food
Right to shelter (adequate housing)
Right to health (medical care)
Right to social security
(iii) Collective Rights (Solidarity Rights): these are also known as Third Generation Rights. They are the most
recently (latest) identified rights. These are rights that belong to groups of people. They are enjoyed
collectively. These are there for protection from attacks on group identity and group interests. The most
important collective right is the right to self-determination.
This category has rights that go beyond the mere civil and social rights, as expressed in many progressive
documents of International Law. They include the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and
other pieces of generally desirable Soft Law. These are called soft law because they have not been enacted
into legally binding documents. The difficulty in enacting them into legally binding documents is because
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of the principle of sovereignty which respects the decisions of nations. The other reason is that of the
influence and power of nations that might go against the provisions of the rights. These rights are best
described as solidarity rights because they require international cooperation and aim at community building.
Examples of these rights include:
right to self-determination
right to clean water
right to safe sanitation
right to participation in cultural heritage
right to live in an environment that is protected from destruction.
right to natural resources
right to inter-generational equity and sustainability
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CHAPTER 5
CORRUPTION
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
describe corruption
discuss types of corruption
explain causes of corruption
explain effects of corruption
identify institutions that fight against corruption in Zambia
identify the role of public officers, community, and the youth in fighting corruption
DEFINITION
The definition of corruption, according to the Anti-Corruption Commission Act Number 3 of 2012, should be
understood in two ways as follows:
1. BRIBERY: soliciting, accepting, obtaining, giving, promising, and offering a gratification as an
inducement or reward for a favour. A gratification is any payment in cash or kind.
2. ABUSE OF PUBLIC OFFICE: misuse or abuse of public office by doing arbitrary (based on
individual judgment) acts which are against the state’s and citizen’s interests.
Today, corruption has become a wide term to mean the abuse of public office for personal gain. It is the abuse of
entrusted power and authority for personal gain. It is equated to different forms of bribery in public office. However,
the term corruption is very wide. It refers to acts of dishonest, fraud, deception, and all other wrongs ways a person
can use to get what he or she should not get by law.
Corruption involves squandering, embezzlement, and misallocation of public resources. It involves taking bribes and
receiving illegal payment in return for a favour/ an official act. This can be illustrated by a Civil Servant who
demands for extra payment from a service provider to award him or her a tender (contract) to supply goods to
government. It can be civil servant using public office to take advantage of others or the public. A government
worker can use fake companies to supply goods to the government at excessive prices. This worker can be behind
the formation of the fake company contracted to carry out a transaction with the government.
TYPES OF CORRUPTION
Corruption can be categorised as:
1. Petty Corruption
2. Grand corruption
3. Political (electoral) corruption.
1. PETTY CORRUPTION – that which occurs at a small scale at different levels of government. It involves
small value such as K100.00. For instance, chicken, bread and may include:
Soliciting or offering of bribes to provide or acquire services. E.g., driving licence, police bond, or
school places.
Unreasonable delay, omission, or refusal to perform duties. E.g., to issue a permit, licence,
certificate, or payment.
Failure to declare interest or gifts. E.g., chicken from a learner.
Petty corruption can involve exchange of gifts for certain other favours. For example, a businessperson can give
a gift of a flat screen television set to a tax collector/ official to undervalue a few of his or her goods. In this
way, businesspersons use gifts to pay less tax to the government. It can also involve selling government jobs to
the candidates seeking for employment.
2. GRAND CORRUPTION – the term grand refers to something that is massive. With grand corruption, it refers
to corruption that involves exceptionally large sums of money. It generally occurs at the highest levels of
government operations whereby; it cannot be easily blocked by the different departments of the government. It
involves large amounts of such value as a vehicle, K200,000.00 and may take the form of the following:
Fraudulent or unlawful acquisition, diversion, disposal of public property/ funds. E.g., motor
vehicles.
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Wilful failure to comply with procedure relating to management of public affairs. E.g., tender/
contract procedure for procuring medicine.
Bribes about contract or procurement of goods, works and services. E.g., undue insurance for
teachers’ houses, health centres, roads.
Grand corruption can also involve paying hundreds or thousands of ghost civil servants. Ghost workers mean
those workers who are reflected in the records and payroll but do not exist physically. The money that is paid to
them is taken by an individual or a few dishonest individuals. The more the ghost workers, the more the
government loses money. Grand corruption is sometimes the same as political corruption since it can be possible
in most cases by the involvement of political leaders at the highest level of government in a country.
3. POLITICAL OR ELECTORAL CORRUPTION – this is mainly the use of political power to illegally gain
advantage of others. A person holding a political office can use it to illegally gain money or favour. It mainly
occurs during election period whereby politicians engage in different forms of illegal activities to win elections.
Some of these activities involve asking for company contributions from businesspeople with promise to give
them commercial favours in case a contestant won election. Political or electoral corruption relates to vote
buying and include distribution of any unauthorised items to the electorates during election campaigns, e.g.,
sugar and cash.
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CAUSES OF CORRUPTION
There are many causes of corruption in our country. Some of the causes seem to be genuine, but corruption is an
unacceptable practice in our society. There is no factor that can be justified as the right reason for being corrupt.
Greed and dishonest are the overriding causes of corruption.
Social Causes include: Weak religious and moral teachings, unethical and immoral leadership, widespread
illiteracy, lenient punishment to offenders, indifference of people to corrupt officials, selfish politicians,
desire to gain favours from government officials.
Economic Causes include: Low wages/salaries, wide income disparities, inadequate social economic
services, high tax charges.
Organisation Causes include: Unnecessary long procedures (red tape), lack of the independence of the
judiciary, lack of press freedom, non-existence of service standards.
(i) UNETHICAL AND IMMORAL LEADERSHIP: There are some leaders who are generally immoral and
therefore, appointment in positions of power cannot change their attitude. These do not have moral
accountability. They are greedy. Being greedy is having excessive desire to possess wealth and property. It
is about acquiring more than one’s needs. The danger of greedy people is that they tend to deprive others of
basic needs, survival, and future opportunities for a better life. It is the greedy of wealth which motivates
people to be corrupt. Greedy people are only concerned with accumulation of material and money. They
engage in corruption as a normal way of their lives even though they have plenty. Social values such as
honesty and unselfishness do not matter to them.
(ii) WIDESPREAD ILLITERACY: Corruption or corrupt leaders take advantage of illiterate people to
swindle national resources without much resistance. This is because a population that is largely illiterate is
not able to fight corruption/ their rights. Illiterate people cannot tell whether their leaders are misusing
resources or not.
(iii) INDIFFERENCE OF PEOPLE TO CORRUPT OFFICIALS: Public views about corruption play an
important role in fighting corruption. In Zambia, corruption is tolerated by some people who think it is
normal because of the economic hardships. People have powers to resist certain vices in their leaders.
However, if they do not mind about those vices and voice out their dissatisfaction, leaders cannot change by
themselves. For instance, national government misallocation or misuse of resources and they do not rise and
denounce such behaviours, leaders will become more extravagant.
(iv) SELFISH POLITICIANS: Some politicians have personal interests than offering service to the nation.
They look for opportunities to fulfil their selfish interests, and corruption is one of the ways they use to get
what they want. When one becomes a politician with the purpose of enriching oneself, there is nothing that
would stop him/her from being corrupt because there is not much money in political appointments for one
to become wealthy. These seek for illegal contribution to their campaigns from businesspeople and those
who also want to take advantage of them.
(v) DESIRE TO GAIN FAVOURS FROM GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS: Some industrialists and
businesspeople are motivated to give bribes to gain favours from civil servants and politicians who are
strategically located. These can be Permanent Secretaries, Chief Accounting Officers, or Ministers dealing
with awarding of contracts and local leaders who normally have the final say on budgets. These are targeted
by the businesspeople so that they can gain advantage over their fellow competitors in business.
(vi) LOW WAGES AND SALARIES: In most developing countries, workers are paid little wages and salaries
as compared to the cost of living. People work to earn a living by being able to meet all their basic needs.
Once they are unable to meet their basic needs in the proper ways, there is high temptation for them to
resort to some means which are unacceptable by law. Most would engage themselves in corruption to
supplement their lawful income.
(vii) WIDE INCOME DISPARITIES: In some government departments, some workers who are slightly above
others in rank are paid far too much higher wages than those below them. Sometimes the disparities
(differences) tend to force the lowly paid to resort to corrupt means to try to earn as those who are highly
paid.
(viii) HIGH TAXES CHARGED: Sometimes governments can impose heavy taxes on certain items. Some
people who do not want to pay the statutory taxes resort to bribing tax officials so that they underpay the
levies.
(ix) UNNECESSARY LONG PROCEDURES (RED TAPE): Some procedures that officers expected to
follow in workplaces may unnecessarily be too long. The officers take advantage of such delays to demand
kickbacks for fast action.
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(x) LACK OF POLITICAL WILL: Sometimes governments are not willing to deal with corruption firmly.
The government can have incredibly good laws against corruption, but if the leaders at all levels do not
have the will to fight corruption, the laws are rendered ineffective. For instance, those who may have been
cited in cases of corruption may not be tried as according to the law by those whose duty is to do so. Due to
lack of political will, the government may not thoroughly follow up such cases to stamp out corrupt
tendencies.
(xi) LACK OF PRESS (MEDIA) FREEDOM: The media plays an important role in exposing cases of
corruption. The media should investigate corrupt activities or practices. In countries where press freedom is
lacking, the media is not free to expose corrupt practices, especially those of committed by high-ranking
government officials.
(xii) LACK OF TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY: If a government lack checks and balances,
there is mismanagement and misuse of public funds.
(xiii) LACK OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY: Courts may not act independently on matters of
corruption if they are influenced by outside forces such as the executive.
(xiv) PUBLIC REACTION: Public view about corruption plays an important role in fighting corruption. In
Zambia, corruption is tolerated by some people who think it is normal because of the economic hardships.
EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION
The effects of corruption are very unpleasant and devastating on any given society. They hinder a country’s
economic development. A corrupt country will never prosper economically as its resources are not properly utilized.
The following are some of the most common effects of corruption in society:
It makes those involved in it become rich at the expense of other citizens
Widespread dissatisfaction among citizens
Increases poverty
Undermines good governance and democracy
Undermines development
Undermines the rule of law
Undermines peace and security
Erodes standards and procedures
Reduces investor confidence
Lowers the quality of services delivery
Increases crimes
Weakens institutions
Hinders the enjoyment of human rights
Creates high levels of discontentment
Increases inequality in society
Leads to underdevelopment
Brings about serious environmental degradation.
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6) The Public Protector (Ombudsman Institution)
This office was established to replace the office of Investigator General, also known as Ombudsman. This is by
virtue of Article 243 of the 2016 amended Constitution. The Public Protector is the chairperson for the
Commission for Investigations. This office carries out investigations on a wide variety of complaints which
include corruption cases which may include misallocation of funds, misapplication of regulations and laws. This
office holds the government accountable for its actions and decisions. It exercises some oversight on the way the
government carries its constitutional role. This institution also serves to promote practices of good governance
within public institutions in the delivery of public services to the general public.
(iii) The Youth: the youth form the largest percentage in most of the developing countries where corruption is
high. They are energetic and ambitious for a bright future. Therefore, they should be more concerned about
the consequences of corruption. This is because corruption is more likely to affect them than others. This
should encourage them to join the fight against corruption. The knowledge of the negative effects of
corruption should motivate and encourage them to resist and fight it. They can form anti-corruption clubs
through which they can raise the awareness of the danger of corruption in their society.
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CHAPTER 6
CULTURAL STUDIES
Specific Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:
Describe Culture
Outline components of culture
Explain characteristics of culture
Discuss the importance of culture
Explain types of culture
Identify Zambia’s societal core values
Discuss Zambia’s cultural practices
Identify factors that affect the appreciation of cultural diversity in Zambia
Describe Global Culture
Identify institutions that preserve cultural heritage in Zambia.
DESCRIBE CULTURE:
Culture is the whole way of life of a given people. This includes their food, language, taboos, festivals, values,
beliefs, and traditions. It can also be defined as the sum of behaviour which people have learnt over a period and
defines ways by which they do things. Therefore, culture is identified in how and what people worship, how they
dress, how they prepare food, the type of housing they live in, their sporting activities, technology, music, dance,
symbols and meanings, ideas of beauty, economic activities, education system, their legal and political system, the
fundamental rights of a human being, spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional aspects of a human being.
Culture is not something that one is born with, but it is learnt. It is learned behaviour patterns, opinions and attitudes
that differentiate one society from the other. People live in groups called societies. People in different societies have
different patterns of living. This pattern of living includes beliefs, knowledge, morals, customs, and regulations that
govern a society.
Culture is a tool through which people pass over the knowledge and norms established by ancestors from one
generation to another. Things like the structures through which people govern themselves are part of the culture that
was established long ago. Modern people learn about the culture of the people of long ago by studying the artifacts
and broken pots that have been recovered. These reveal the cultural patterns they led.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE:
A component is a unit or part of something. It is an element of the whole. For example, two legs are a component of
a human being because they are part of the whole human being. There are eight major components of culture. These
include:
1. Language – is a group of symbols that enable communication between people. Through a given language,
people can communicate with each other in a clear and understandable way. It is also through language that
people interact. Language defines a cultural group even though the same language can be used in different
countries. It differentiates one culture from another. It reflects the nature and value of a culture. Language
is not only spoken, but it can also be unspoken language such as gestures. Gestures are signs used to
express different things such as showing a fist as a sign of strength or violence. Gestures mean different
things in different cultures.
2. Religion – is a system of beliefs dealing with soul, deity and/or life after death. It is a major cultural
component. Religious taboos, customs and rituals dictate the behaviour of a given society. Religion can
also dictate the type of food, or drinks (beverages) people eat or take. For example, Hindus do not eat beef,
devout Catholics do not eat meat on Good Fridays, while devoted Muslims do not drink alcoholic
beverages.
3. Values and Attitudes – Values are things or standards in a society that are held in high esteem. Generally,
all members of a society strive to achieve such standards. Values and attitudes constitute the value systems
of any given society. A society value system guides people in what is considered right and wrong. It is the
basis of society’s way of life. Most value systems are based on a society’s central religion.
4. Education – is an important part of culture since culture is learned behaviour. There are three types of
learning in any society, and these are:
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(i) Informal learning – it is a type of learning in which a child learns by imitating the
behaviour of its family members/friends or by watching characters portrayed in the
movies or films.
(ii) Formal learning – this is a type of learning in which adults teach young family members
on how to behave in certain situations. For example, in Zambia, an adult teaching a
young child to kneel when he or she is greeting or giving something to an adult.
(iii) Technical learning – this is a type of learning in which teachers instruct a child in an
educational environment about what should be done, how it should be done, and why it
should be done. It takes place in a classroom arrangement.
5. Social Organisations – this is the way a society organises itself. It relates to how society defines
relationships, social institutions such as marriage and status system such as the role of a man, woman, and
children. The extended family system is a common social institution in African societies for it provides
mutual protection and social support daily.
6. Technology and material culture - these refer to society’s ability to create and use things. Technology
and material culture relates to the way society organises its economic activities. Terms like ‘Industrialised
nations’ and ‘developing nations’ refer to different technologies and material cultures. Thus, we speak of
being in Stone Age when society used stone tools; Iron Age when society used Iron tools, but now we talk
of Computer Age culture since computers are the means of organizing, calculating etc. Developed countries
have reached Space Age culture by designing the most modern technology such as E-mail information.
7. Aesthetics – this is a society’s perception of what is considered beauty in art and in persons. It dictates
what is acceptable or appealing in that culture. What is considered good taste or beautiful in one culture
might not be in another culture. Some types of dressing acceptable in urban areas such as mini-skirts and
slits may not be acceptable in villages.
8. Law & Politics – these are the rules and structures that regulate the behaviour of individuals. Legal rules
that attract punishment when broken. The laws protect members of the society to live at peace and free
from inhuman treatment. The political system of a society defines the structure of government and who
occupies positions in the structures. It defines the roles and responsibilities of those who govern and the
governed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
A characteristic of a thing or person is that which distinguishes it or the person from other things or people. It is a
special mark or quality. The following are the characteristics or special features of culture:
A. Culture is DYNAMIC – Culture is not constant; it changes with time. Some aspects of culture can be
preserved because culture in totality cannot be preserved. It is always evolving and changing. Some
changes in culture are harder to accept than others. Change in technology is easily accepted rather than
change in the value system of society. For example, the use of cell phones has been accepted easily than the
equality of men and women because this touches on a value system.
B. Culture is LEARNT - Culture must be passed on from one generation to another. This is possible only
when culture is learnt by the people in the new generation. It is through learning that young people adapt to
their culture. It is taught to an individual by the society in which the individual is born. Children begin
learning about their culture at home from their immediate family by observing how it is respected and
performed, then what is learnt is implemented.
C. Culture is CUMULATIVE – Every human generation can discover new things and invent better
technologies. When a generation acquires new knowledge, it is added to what they already have. They do
not discard the old knowledge because of the new knowledge.
D. Culture is COMPREHENSIVE – this means that culture involves all aspects of life of a given people.
E. Culture is SHARED – stable culture must be shared by a certain specific group or groups of people.
Members of a society share a set of ‘ideals, values and standards of behaviour. This set of shared ideals is
what gives meaning to their lives, and what bonds them together as a culture. A culture that is not shared is
said not to be durable.
F. Culture is INTEGRATED – aspects of culture are functionally interconnected. Changing one trait will
have an impact on others. Without the integration, there would be confusion in the society. For example,
the language should be able to describe all the functions within the culture for ideals and ideas to be
transmitted from one generation to the next.
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G. People are usually not aware of their culture until they meet other cultures. They only realise that their
pattern of behaviour is universal are universal when they meet people from other culture.
H. People do not know all their culture. No one knows everything about their culture. It is not possible for
one to know everything about their culture.
I. Culture gives a society a range of permissible behaviour patterns. Culture commonly allows a range of
ways in which men and women can be who they are.
J. Culture no longer exists in isolation: there is no society that can exist in isolation; thus, languages and
indigenous patterns are being replaced rapidly.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE:
It enables group life. Through a certain culture, people are linked and related. It teaches members to think
of themselves as part of the large unit.
It gives a vision to its people. It provides the focus to the members of the society.
It provides rules and norms by which people must live. These rules help to maintain stability and
orderliness.
It encourages unity among its members. This cooperation leads to peaceful living.
It helps the members to gain a positive concept of family, nation, and government.
It gives opportunity to members to understand each other as they interpret their interaction and
communication according to their culture.
It reinforces ones’ identity and ability to critically reflect on that identity. This allows one to develop and
interact with others, thus, bringing mutual understanding between societies and peoples.
It is important for the identity of the society. Since culture includes language, music, dances, festivals,
rituals and traditional craftsmanship, cultural heritage brings identity of a society. In times of need, songs,
art works, and texts can bring hope and comfort which reinforces cultural and self-awareness.
Learning about culture brings about development. Economic development without roots in culture can
never result in sustainable development.
It contributes to national development through traditional ceremonies that attract tourists. There is keen
interest in the relationship between arts and culture, and the economic and social development of our
communities
It instils a sense of freedom in people. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),
article 27, affirms every human being to freely participate in the cultural life of one’s country.
TYPES OF CULTURE
I. Folk Culture:
Folk culture is sometimes referred to as residual culture, that is, remains of the past. It is usually
revived from elements of the forgotten past due to nostalgic taste. Nostalgic taste is desire of what used
to be done in the past. It comprises of features related to festival, clothing, beliefs, religion, legends,
foods, and traditions. It has ways of preparing food, dressing, dancing, and building houses.
Folk culture is the total of the most vital cultural components belonging to a particular group. With folk
culture, there is much respect for nature and genuine harmony and freedom. Therefore, personal
honour, loyalty to family and clan, duty to the community and respect for nature are the main
principles governing a folk culture.
It focuses much on the personal growth in cultural discipline, knowledge, freedom, and readiness to
serve one’s community. It appreciates nature and seeks to promote it through folksongs, dances, and all
other cultural activities.
II. Mass Culture:
Culture that is spread through machines and is used on a large scale. It uses technology and electronic
media. For example, Television, Internet (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok), Video
Tapes. Many Zambian children now absorb this type of culture, and this leads to the creation of forms
of behaviour different from what their parents knew or did during their time.
III. Popular Culture:
This is culture which is a product of changing needs and innovations in people’s lifestyles. It is short
lived. Most of its components are not permanent since they keep on changing. It is referred to as
common because it tends to have mass appeal and more especially the Youth. It is related to people’s
attitudes, ideas, and the way they see things in different ways of life. Popular culture is greatly
influenced by mass culture. It is a culture created through collection of different ideas from different
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origins. This culture is often criticised by older and religious people. Popular culture includes things
like pop music, pop dance, and pop art and so on.
IV.
V. Ideal Culture:
This is what a group people or a society sees culture as a perfect culture. It is the lifestyle members of
society are supposed to live. It is the expected behaviour pattern and is the culture to which people
aspire to be. They wish and desire to live according to its real values, beliefs, and attitudes, however,
the reality is not the same. Many people when asked to describe their culture, give a response based on
ideals rather than reality. Ideals are often not realised in real life. Examples include:
It is always claimed that all people are equal but in real daily life there are some people
who are treated specially.
Marriage is said to be permanent, and separation is a taboo. However, there are many
people today with broken marriages in our society.
Zambia was declared Christian nation but, most Zambians do not live according to the
principles of Christianity.
Therefore, an ideal culture has certain principles and standards that it aspires to uphold but which are
not attained in real life. Ideal culture is the direct opposite of real culture.
VI. Real Culture:
This refers to the actual behaviour of the people in a society. Real culture is the general culture of a
society as it is practiced in actual daily life. It is the culture that exists, and the actual way things
happen in real practice. For example, among Zambians, sleeping at a funeral house until burial has
taken place is an example of Zambia’s real culture.
VII. Synthetic Culture (Artificial Culture):
This is that is not real. It is when people pretend to be not what they really are. It is full of pretences.
Indigenous cultures are threatened with massive destruction as Western culture is presented as the only
culture which every country must copy. People’s cultural heritage is danger. Aspects of indigenous
cultures are preserved only for the attraction of tourists’ dollars who bring currency while the local
people consume popular western culture in form of films, television, or radio. Western cultural
commodities are often technologically superior and, therefore, admired and enjoyed. Globalisation has
contributed much to the existence of this artificial culture.
One of the most important aspects of synthetic culture is the issue of popularising consumption.
Consumerism promotes products through advertisements to encourage people to buy and own
products. The desire for consumption often creates pressure for imported things instead of encouraging
local production and, in so doing, distorts social priorities. For example, people may buy the latest
expensive imported products.
VIII. Organic Culture:
This is the type of culture that is not contaminated. It is original. This type of culture no longer exists.
This is due to intermarriages and exposure of each culture to different cultures. Urbanisation and
Industrialisation has made this exposure possible.
IX. Counterculture:
This is about behavioural patterns, activities, or styles of life by a group of individuals that are opposed
to the generally accepted standards of behaviour in a society. They usually refuse to follow the normal
way of doing things and end up developing their own behaviour. For example, unemployed youths may
feel neglected and develop their own way of talking, leisure, and clothing that is slightly different from
the way most of the people in society behave. This is a form of social rebellion.
X. Subculture:
Depending on their sense of belonging and attitude towards the core values, people may create another
group of culture within a culture. A subculture is a way of life or behaviour which a small group of
people belonging to the same culture may portray. It may arise due to different occupations in society,
which result in differences in power and prestige. For instance, a group of people with little education
and little income may lead a different lifestyle from those that are educated and with high income. The
well-educated people may form what is called an ‘elite culture’, leading an expensive lifestyle. A
lifestyle of those in low density residential areas (komboni) is not as expensive those in the high-
density residential areas (muma yards) but all are found in the same town or city.
XI. Cultural Heterogeneity:
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The term “Hetero” means different. Therefore, heterogeneity refers to different races, beliefs,
nationalities, and religions. Cultural heterogeneity refers to people in a society with different lifestyles.
The Republic of South Africa is an example of such a society. The South African slogan of ‘Rainbow
Nation’ emphasises the special contributions of various immigrant cultures to the diversity of its
society. Cultural heterogeneity promotes cultural pluralism, which recognises and respects
contributions of various cultures to the whole society.
XII. Cultural Homogeneity:
The term “Homo” means same or similar. This is a type of culture portrayed by people of similar or
same beliefs. For example, North African countries such as Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Egypt share
similar or same culture.
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most Zambian paintings depict real life situations. Folklore plays a key role in shaping and moulding
values and attitudes.
vi. HOSPITALITY: Traditionally, Zambians are hospitable people because welcoming people and
visitors is an important Zambian societal value and is cherished and practiced. It is regarded as a
symbol of being human (UBUNTU). Visitors and strangers are accorded a warm welcome and treated
with respect and honour. This practice has been diluted due to high levels of poverty, crime, and
unemployment in urban areas as well as in rural areas of late.
GLOBAL CULTURE:
Global culture refers to the worldwide culture. The modern world has developed a global communication system
through television, radios, internet, and many other advanced communication facilities such as Facebook,
WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok etc. This has made it easy for many people from different parts of the world
to share similar elements of culture and practices. For example, it was viewed as beauty for a woman to have big
hips and a belly. However, due to globalisation, women and more especially the young ones prefer to be slim. They
limit what they eat (commonly known on social media as Banting) and are careful with what they wear. They prefer
to look like other young women elsewhere in the world.
Global culture is boosted by international travel, international trade, and cultural exchange. With this kind of
interaction, people’s way of life is slowly becoming similar worldwide. This type of culture goes beyond
geographical boundaries such as the borders of our country. Global culture is more realised especially among highly
educated people who are more exposed to the worldwide modern way of life.
The western culture, which mainly refers to the American and European culture, has greatly influenced other world
cultures. Every day, more of the lifestyle of the western culture is assimilated into our worldwide cultures. Among
the components of this culture are, Freedom of expression and women emancipation.
IMPACT OF GLOBAL CULTURE ON ZAMBIA
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Destruction of local cultures.
It has increased the spread of international languages like English and French.
It has led to the reduction or total elimination of negative cultural elements like Female Genital Mutilation
(FGM), forced marriages, widow inheritance and other aspects of gender violation.
It has led to the spread of religions like Islam and Christianity which stress the belief in the existence of
God, the creation of human beings and the universe.
It has led to the increase in moral decay among most youths in Zambia. For example, women wearing short
dresses and shorts that exposes their thighs. Exposing of women’s thighs is considered immoral in most
Zambian cultures. Another example is that of men sagging and putting on earrings.
It has also led to increased social crimes like prostitution because of the spread of materials like
pornography which influence people to engage in these activities.
Spread of technology.
Mixing of culture.
Increase in tourism.
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CHAPTER 7
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Specific Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
Define substance and substance abuse
Describe substances often abused by people
Explain reasons for substance abuse
Suggest ways of avoiding substance abuse
Discuss the effects of substance abuse on individual, community, and national levels
Discuss measures used to prevent substance abuse
Identify institutions involved in fighting substance abuse in Zambia.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES:
1. Over the Counter Substances – These are substances or drugs which can easily be bought over the
counter from a shop and used for medical purpose such as Panadol, Aspirin, Cafemol, and other household
cleaners like Bleach and Ammonia. One does not need to have a prescription to buy these.
2. Controlled Substances – These are substances that can only be obtained if one has a prescription or
special authorisation. These substances can be dangerous if not used properly. Examples include Morphine,
Valium, Cocaine, Codeine and Marijuana.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES ACCORDING TO THEIR EFFECTS – substances can also be
classified according to their effects on the user. The following are examples:
Depressants – These are substances that slow down the action of the central nervous system ( brain). They
are also known as sedatives or hypnotics. When taken in small amounts, they decrease a person’s
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awareness and tension. But when taken in larger amounts, they lead into a coma (a condition of deep
unconsciousness, which may result in death). Examples include Alcohol, Mandrax and Valium.
Stimulants – These are substances that stimulate the central nervous system and speed up the body
processes. If stimulants are taken in large amounts, they become depressants because their effects slow
down the central nervous system. The most common stimulant is caffeine found in tea coffee, chocolate,
coca cola and other energy drinks such as Kungfu, Red Bull, Dragon and Kombat
Caffeine derives from a German word Kaffee, meaning coffee. It is obtained from certain plant leaves,
beans and fruits and can be processed into different forms such as powder, liquid, or smoke.
When caffeine is consumed excessively, it leads to convulsions, lack of sleep and excessive anxiety. It
tends to stimulate the central nervous system. Other stimulants include cocaine and nicotine.
Hallucinogens – these are substances which distort the way the brain translates impulses or messages from
sensory organs producing perceptual changes. The distortion may make the brain alter or change messages
about something real, thus, producing an illusion. The brain may produce images with no basis called
hallucinations. These substances in this category include Lysergic acid diethyl (LSD), cocaine, magic
mushrooms, and ecstasy. A person begins to see danger where there is no danger or vice versa. One can
even jump out of a car perceiving a tree is falling on that car, when it is not the true case.
Narcotics or Opiates – These are substances that make the senses dull and relieve pain by depressing the
cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain responsible for consciousness including
perception, memory, learning and initiation of movement. They also affect the thalamus (mood regulation
centre).
Narcotics are mainly derived from the Opium poppy plant. They include raw opium, morphine, codeine,
pethidine, methadone, and heroin.
Inhalants or Solvents – These are drugs or substances found in household products such as glue,
deodorants like perfume sprays and fuel gasses. These form fumes which give out vapour that is inhaled by
the consumer. The capillary surface of the lungs allows quick absorption of the substance. Entry into the
brain is fast and intoxicating effects are intense. Inhalants can cause brain damage and death at times.
2. TOBACCO – it is made up of some chemicals which are poisonous when one smokes as it enters the
bloodstream. It is a commonly abused substance that contains nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar which
are very harmful to the body. Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas that affects the blood’s ability to carry
oxygen around the body. Tar contains a few substances that can cause cancer. Nicotine is a powerful
drug that makes the heartbeat faster. If taken in large doses, nicotine slows nerve impulses, resulting in
reduction of heartbeat.
Constant smoking affects the cells in the respiratory tract, thereby making the smoker easily get
respiratory infections.
EFFECTS OF TOBACCO:
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Bronchitis
Emphysema- Lung disease which affects breathing.
Heart disease nicotine increases the heartbeat and so wears down the heart.
Cancer – smoking causes about 90% of deaths from cancer
Blood clots and stomach ulcers.
Damages the unborn babies
Shortness of breath
Colds, flu, and other infections
Non- smokers inhale smoke which makes them passive smokers
Deforestation. Due to the process or drying and curing tobacco.
3. INHALANTS – As earlier stated, Inhalants are a diverse group of substances that include volatile
solvents and gases. The volatile substances are found in household products such as glue, paint, nail
polish, powdered tobacco, Petro, rubber and lighter fluid.
Inhalants are usually sniffed from an open container and lungs allow rapid absorption as a result entry
into the brain is fast and produces intense intoxicating effects.
EFFECTS OF INHALANTS:
Depression of the central nervous system. (Reducing breath rate)
Causing high blood pressure.
Headaches, nausea, slurred speech, and loss of motor coordination.
Rash around the nose and mouth.
Unpredictable behaviour.
Memory impairment and attention deficit.
Liver and kidney abnormalities.
Red, glassy, and watery eyes.
Distortion in perception of time and space.
4. DRUGS - A drug is any substance which alters the chemistry of the body and affects the natural
balance of the mind and emotions. Drugs can either be natural or synthetic chemicals. Natural drugs
are those which are found in certain plants. For example, caffeine in coffee, nicotine in tobacco and
tetra hydro-cannabinol
I. CANNABIS - This is a hard brown material or herbal mixture that comes from a cannabis
plant. It is an illegal drug in Zambia; therefore, possession, cultivation or trafficking of this
substance constitutes an offence. It has several street names such as Draw, Blow, Weed, Hash,
Pot, Bang, Spliff, Dope, Puff, Shit and Ganja.
THREE FORMS CANNABIS:
a Marijuana: This comes from the dried leaves, flowers, or stems of the cannabis
plant. It has a concentration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) of about 0-
12%.
b Hashish: This is made from the dark, sticky resin of the plant and contains THC
of about 12-18%.
c Hashish oil: This is made by compressing hashish to produce oil using a solvent.
The concentration of THC is about 18-25% and is much higher than that of
marijuana and hashish.
EFFECTS OF CANNABIS:
Causing craving for certain foods (increasing appetite).
Making most users relaxed or talkative.
Making users paranoid and anxious, depending on their mood and situation.
Causing health problems such as cancer and respiratory disorders.
Affecting the reproductive system by reducing sperm count in males while irregular
menstrual cycles in females.
Affecting memory and coordination.
Leaving users feeling exhausted.
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II. HEROIN – Heroin is a brown or white speckled powder made from juice extract from the
unripe capsule of the poppy plant. The seed capsule of the green opium produces a milky
juice (latex) from which many drugs can be made such as morphine. Morphine is used for
medicinal purposes.
Heroin is mainly taken by smoking, sniffing, and swallowing or injecting into the veins. It is
known on the street as Brown Sugar, Skag, Smack and Horse.
EFFECTS OF HEROIN:
Depresses some brain cells or stimulates other types of brain functions leading to
disturbed pattern of nerve activity, perception.
Loss of appetite.
Chronic constipation.
Death due to overdose.
Urge to commit suicide.
Irregular menstrual cycles in woman
Suppresses understanding of the real world by distorting vision, hearing, and other
senses.
Loss of alertness at first, then drowsiness and drunken appearance later.
Damages the heart and kidneys
Causes mood swings
Transmission of diseases such as HIV/AIDS by sharing hypodermic needless
III. COCAINE – Cocaine is white powder made from the leaves of a Coca plant. The leaves of a
coca plant when chewed can relieve hunger and fatigue. The coca plant is mainly grown in
coastal plains of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Cocaine is usually smoked, be
injected into the blood, and can also be taken orally by mixing with liquid or in a capsule
form. The street names for cocaine are Coke, Charlie, Snow Lady and Dust.
EFFECTS OF COCAINE
Irregular menstrual circles
Transmission of diseases such Hepatitis and HIVAIDS using hypodermic needles
Over alertness and elevation of mood
Dry mouth
Sweating
Severe weight loss
Exhaustion and lack of sleep (insomnia)
Digestion problems
Ulceration of the nasal passage
Heart and blood circulation problems
Death due to overdose
DEPENDENCE ON SUBSTANCE
Two forms of dependence:
(i) Physical dependence: is when one tries to withdraw from using a certain substance but experiences
physical effects such as shaking.
(ii) Psychological dependence: Moods, depression, and anxiety.
EFFECTS OF DRUGS:
Authorities prohibit certain drug usage because of their harmful effects on individuals and society. It is a way of
protecting them from dangers that come because of abusing drugs. There are several ways in which substance abuse
can affect individuals and society. These are as follows:
a High Crime Rate – there are many occurrences of criminal offences among people who depend on
drugs than those who do not use them. The effects of drugs tend to vary from one individual to another,
depending on the type of drugs one uses. Different drugs have different effects. Drug abuse interferes
with a person’s normal lifestyle and therefore, affects his or her general responsibilities and what he or
she is expected of.
b It interferes with the normal life of a person – most of the drugs affect the normal function of the
brain. The brain is normally weakened in making the right decisions. A normal person can have some
desires that are not proper to fulfil and restrains him/herself. However, in most cases, one who abuses
drugs loses the ability to restrain oneself. He does whatever he/she feels is fit for him/her. It can be
attacking someone who has annoyed him/her. Drug abuse influences a person’s personality in a
negative way. This leads to anti-social behaviours. Such behaviours are harmful to social relations. It
weakens one’s ability to relate normally with other people. It can lead one to develop excessive anger,
suspicion, fears, and bitterness. These attitudes do not support healthy interpersonal relations. Any
negative influence on the brain can lead to unprotected sex, and abuses, road accidents, aggression,
suicides, or homicide.
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c It leads to Legal Problems – these drugs are illegal by law. Therefore, substance abuse is largely
forbidden by law in most countries of the world. Its use can lead to criminal penalty. Since it affects the
normal understanding of those of consume them, they can influence consumers to commit offenses such
as rape, fighting and breaking traffic regulations. Such offenses lead to prosecution in courts of law.
d It normally causes distress – overconsumption of these substances usually causes severe anxiety and a
feeling of uselessness. As a result, the consumer feels dejected (sad and dispirited) and troubled.
e Leads to decreased productivity – substance abuse affects one’s responsibility. It normally leads to
failure to meet one’s responsibilities at school, home, or workplaces. At school, it can lead to poor
performance in class, withdraw from other people, repeated absenteeism and failing to cope with other
people.
f It can lead to memory loss – drugs cause temporary loss of memory and feeling out of control. One
gets difficulties in learning, grasping, and organizing new information. It impairs one’s attention rate as
one’s concentration is weakened. In this way, one’s ability to recall is reduced, leading to severe
anxiety, hopelessness, and negative mood swings.
g It causes health problems – there are different healthy problems that develop from drug abuse. These
include developing diseases such as lung cancer, bronchitis, heart attack, peptic ulcers, brain damage
emphysema and staining of the teeth. Most of the substances lead excessive mucus collection in the
bronchi. As a result, one develops frequent cough which usually lasts for a long time.
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