Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]

Basic Anatomy and Physiology

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 4

Handout – Basics of Anatomy & Physiology

Structural Organization of Body


I-Cell-Tissue-System-Organ system
A. Cell:

The cell is the fundamental unit of all beings. All cells contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and
various minerals.
Parts of cell:
1. Cell Membrane: The cell membrane not only surrounds and protects the cell but also regulates what passes into and out of the cell.

2. Nucleus: Nucleus controls the operations of the cell. It directs cell division and determines the structure and function of the cell.

3. Chromosomes: Chromosomes are rod-like structures within the nucleus. All human body cells—contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
However, each sperm and each egg cell have only 23 unpaired chromosomes. On fertilization of egg and sperm, an embryo would have 23
paired chromosomes.

4. Genes: Chromosomes contain regions called genes. There are several thousand genes, in an orderly sequence, on every chromosome.

5. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a chemical contained in each gene. DNA regulates the activities of the cell according to its sequence
(arrangement into genes) on each chromosome. The DNA sequence resembles a series of recipes in code.

Terms related to Anatomy & Physiology of Cells:


1. Cytoplasm- All the material that is outside the nucleus and yet contained within the cell membrane.
2. Karyotype: A karyotype is a photograph of an individual’s chromosomes, arranged by size, shape, and number. Karyotyping can
determine whether chromosomes are normal.
3. Metabolism: Total of the chemical processes in a cell. It includes catabolism and anabolism. Meta- means change, bol means to cast, and
-ism means a process.
4. Mitochondria: Mitos(thread) + Chondrion(granule). Structures in the cytoplasm that provide the principal source of energy (miniature
“power plants”) for the cell.
5. Catabolism: Cata(down) + Bol(cast) + ism(process). Catabolism is the process that occurs in mitochondria, complex nutrients are
broken down to simpler substances and energy is released.
6. Anabolism: Ana(up) + Bol(cast) + ism(process). Process of building up large proteins from small protein pieces called amino acids.
Together, these two processes, anabolism and catabolism, make up the cell’s metabolism.
7. Endoplasmic reticulum: Network of canals within the cytoplasm of the cell. Here, large proteins are made from smaller protein pieces.
Types of Cells:
Cells, though contain similar structure, are different, or specialized, throughout the body to carry out their individual functions. Few
examples are as below.
1. Muscle cell is long and slender and contains fibres that aid in contracting and relaxing;
2. Epithelial cell may be square and flat to provide protection. Epithelial cells cover the outside of the body and line the internal surfaces of
organs
3. Nerve cell may be long and have various fibrous extensions that aid in its job of carrying impulses;
4. Fat cell contains large, empty spaces for fat storage.

B. Tissue:

A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job. Few examples are as below.
1. Epithelial Tissue: Epithelial tissue, located all over the body, forms the linings of internal organs, and the outer surface of the skin
covering the body, all exocrine and endocrine glands.

2. Muscle Tissue: Tissues of the muscles. 1. Voluntary muscle - found in arms and legs and parts of the body where movement is under
conscious control 2. Involuntary muscle, found in the heart and digestive system, as well as other organs, allows movement that is not
under conscious control.

3. Connective Tissue: Adipose or fat tissue, cartilage (elastic, fibrous tissue attached to bones), bone, and blood are made of connective
tissue.

4. Nerve Tissue: Nerve tissue conducts impulses all over the body.
C. Organ:

Different types of tissue combine to form an organ. The medical term for internal organs is viscera. Viseral (internal) organs is the medical
term for internal organs.
D. Organ System:

Systems are groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.


Various body organs are listed below:
1. Respiratory System: consists of Nose, pharynx, larynx ("voice box"), trachea ("windpipe"), bronchial tubes, lungs (where the exchange
of gases takes place).

2. Reproductive System:

Female: consists of ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus (womb), vagina, mammary glands.
Male: consists of testes and associated tubes, urethra, penis, prostate gland.
3. Endocrine System: consists of thyroid gland (in the neck), pituitary gland (at the base of the brain), sex glands (ovaries and testes),
adrenal glands, pancreas (islets of Langerhans), parathyroid glands.

4. Nervous System: consists of Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and collections of nerves.

5. Circulatory system: consists of Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries), lymphatic vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus gland.

6. Musculoskeletal: consists of muscles, bones, and joints.

7. Skin and sense organs: consist of skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous (oil) glands; eye, ear, nose, and tongue.
II-Body Positions:
1. Dorsal or Posterior side – pertaining to the back side of the body is called dorsal side or posterior side of the body.

2. Ventral or Anterior – pertaining to the front side of the body.

3. Deep: Away from the surface. Example: The stab wound penetrated deep into the abdomen.

4. Superficial: On the surface. Example: Superficial veins can be viewed through the skin.

5. Proximal: Near the point of attachment to the trunk or near the beginning of a structure. Example: The proximal end of the thigh bone
(femur) joins with the hip socket.

6. Distal: Far from the point of attachment to the trunk or far from the beginning of a structure. Example: At its distal end, the femur joins
with the knee.

7. Inferior: Below another structure or pertaining to lower part of the body. For example, legs, knee, foot, etc.

8. Superior: Above another structure. Pertaining to the upper portion of the body. For example, head, neck, etc.

9. Medial: Pertaining to the middle, or nearer the medial plane of the body.

10. Lateral: Pertaining to the side. For example, shoulder, arms, elbow, hands, fingers, Legs, knee, foot, toes, etc.

11. Supine: Lying on the back. For example: The patient lies supine during an examination of the abdomen. The face is up in the supine
position.

12. Prone: Lying on the belly. For example: The backbones are examined with the patient in a prone position. The patient lies on his or
her stomach in the prone position.

III- Body Planes:


Body planes are imaginary planes dividing human body across the three dimensions into two halves for better understanding and relative
location identification.
1. Coronal Plane: Coronal or frontal plane is a vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions.

2. Sagittal plane: Sagittal or lateral plane is a lengthwise vertical plane dividing the body or structure into right and left sides. The
midsagittal plane divides the body into right and left halves.
3. Transverse plane: Transverse or axial plane is a horizontal (cross-sectional) plane running across the body parallel to the ground and
divides the body or structure into upper and lower portions.
IV- Body Cavities:
A body cavity is a space within the body that contains internal (visceral) organs.
Based on the location there are 2 types of cavities – Dorsal (backside/posterior) and Ventral (frontside/ventral) body cavities.
1. Dorsal body Cavities are Body cavities that are towards the backside of the body. Cranial and vertebral cavities are dorsal cavities of the
human body. a. Cranial Cavity - Space in the head containing the brain and surrounded by the skull. Cranial means pertaining to the skull.

b. Spinal Cavity: Space within the spinal column (backbones) containing the spinal cord. Also called the spinal canal.

一 2. Ventral body Cavities are cavities that are present on the ventral (anterior/back) side of the body. a. Thoracic Cavity: Space in
the chest containing the heart, lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, oesophagus, and other organs. i. Mediastinum: Centrally located space
outside of and between the lungs.

一 ii. Pleura: Double-folded membrane surrounding each lung. Pleural means pertaining to the pleura.

一 iii. Pleural cavity: Space between the pleural layers.



一 b. Abdominal Cavity: Space below the chest containing organs such as the liver, stomach, gallbladder, and intestines; also called
the abdomen. i. Peritoneum: Double-folded membrane surrounding the abdominal cavity.

一 c. Pelvic cavity: Space below the abdomen containing portions of the intestines, rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive
organs. Pelvic means pertaining to the pelvis, composed of the hip bones surrounding the pelvic cavity.
一 d. Diaphragm: Muscle separating the abdominal and thoracic cavities. The diaphragm moves up and down and aids in breathing

Thoracic and abdominal cavities are ventral body cavities.


V- ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS REGIONS
For better understanding of the location and ailment of the patient, abdominopelvic area is divide into 4 quadrants and 9 regions.
A. Four quadrants of abdominopelvic region area as below:
1. Right upper quadrant (RUQ)—contains the liver (right lobe), gallbladder, part of the pancreas, parts of the small and large
intestines.

2. Left upper quadrant (LUQ)—contains the liver (left lobe), stomach, spleen, part of the pancreas, parts of the small and large
intestines.

3. Right lower quadrant (RLQ)—contains parts of the small and large intestines, right ovary, right fallopian tube, appendix, right
ureter.

4. Left lower quadrant (LLQ)—contains parts of the small and large intestines, left ovary, left fallopian tube, left ureter.

B. Nine regions of abdominopelvic regions are as below:


1. Right hypochondriac (hypo + condriac) region: the right upper region below (hypo-) the cartilage (chondr/o) of the ribs that
extend over the abdomen.

2. Left hypochondriac region: left upper region below the rib cartilage.

3. Epigastric region: Epi(over) + gastric(stomach) region above the stomach.

4. Right lumbar region: right middle region near the waist.

5. Left lumbar region: left middle region near the waist.

6. Umbilical region: region of the navel or umbilicus.


7. Right inguinal region: right lower region near the groin (inguin/o = groin), which is the area where the legs join the trunk of the
body. This region also is known as the right iliac region because it lies near the ilium (the upper portion of the hip bone).

8. Left inguinal region: left lower region near the groin. Also called the left iliac region.

9. Hypogastric region: middle lower region below the umbilical region

VI-Spiral Column:
The spinal column is composed of a series of bones that extend from the neck to the tailbone. Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae).
There are 29 + 1 vertebra in the spinal cord.
A. Divisions of the back (33 bones)
1. Cervical Neck region (C1 to C7).

2. Thoracic Chest region (T1 to T12).

3. Lumbar Loin (waist) region (L1 to L5).

4. Sacral Region of the sacrum (S1 to S5).

5. Coccygeal Region of the coccyx (tailbone – 4 bones fused together).

B. Common terms related to Spinal column:


1. Vertebra: Single backbone.

2. Spinal column: Bone tissue surrounding the spinal cavity.

3. Spinal cord: Nervous tissue within the spinal cavity.

4. Disc: Pad of cartilage between vertebrae.

C. Some more common terms:


1. Cartilage: Flexible connective tissue attached to bones at joints. For example, it surrounds the trachea and forms part of the external ear
and nose.

2. Larynx: “Voice box”; located at the upper part of the trachea

3. Pharynx: Throat. The pharynx serves as the common passageway for food (from the mouth going to the oesophagus) and air (from the
nose to the trachea).

4. Pituitary gland: Endocrine gland at the base of the brain.

5. Thyroid gland: Endocrine gland that surrounds the trachea in the neck.

6. Trachea: “Windpipe” (tube leading from the throat to the bronchial tubes).

7. Ureter: One of two tubes, each leading from a single kidney to the urinary bladder. Spelling clue: Ureter has two e’s, and there are two
ureters.

8. Urethra: Tube from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. Spelling clue: Urethra has one e, and there is only one urethra.

9. Uterus: The womb. The organ that holds the embryo/fetus as it develops.

10. Viscera: Internal Organs.

You might also like