10-Tutorial of Induction Motor
10-Tutorial of Induction Motor
10-Tutorial of Induction Motor
15.1 INTRODUCTION
AC drives is a term used to refer to equipment designed to control the
speed of an a.c. motor. They receive a.c. power and convert it to an
adjustable frequency, adjustable voltage output for controlling motor
operation. Inverters and other types of frequency changers are typical
examples of modern a.c. drives which are also called adjustable frequency
drives.
A typical inverter receives 400 V a.c., three-phase, 50 Hz input power
and in turn provides the proper voltage and frequency for a given speed to
the motor. The three common inverter types are the variable voltage
inverter (VVI), current source inverter (CSI), and pulse width modulation
(PWM). Another type of a.c. drive is a cycloconverter. These are
commonly used for very large motors used in steel industry and mils. The
cycloconverters is an arrangement of poly-phase rectifiers in which the
firing delay is cyclically varied to synthesise an a.c. output, instead of the
set delay for producing a controllable d.c. for the d.c. motor previously
mentioned.
A feature of a.c. drives is the ability to increase or decrease the voltage
and frequency to a motor gradually. This accelerates the motor smoothly
with less stress on the motor and connected load. Smoothing is a feature
that can be added to the acceleration/ deceleration operation. This feature
smoothes the transition between starting and steady-state operation.
There are several types of a.c. motors used in industrial applications
that need real drives to suit a given task. In all types of drives, motors and
load have stored energy which can be either regenerated or dissipated as
the load speed falls. One third of the world's electricity consumption is
used for running induction motors driving pumps, fans, compressors,
elevators and machinery of various types. In general, the speed of a.c.
motors depends on the frequency of the supply voltage and the number of
magnetic poles per phase in the stator. Early speed controllers depended
on switching in different numbers of poles and control was only available
manually and in crude steps. Modern electronic drives make continuously
variable frequency supplies possible permitting closed-loop speed control.
This chapter is intended to provide a basic understanding of a.c. drive
terms, types and theory of operations.
Benefits of AC drive
1- single-phase motors
(a) Induction type-squirrel cage
(i) Split-phase
(ii) Capacitor start
(iii) Permanent split capacitor
(iv) Capacitor start / capacitor run
(v) Split-phase start / capacitor run
(vi) Shaded pole
(b) Induction type-wound rotor
(i) Repulsion
(ii) Repulsion start
(iii) Repulsion induction
(c) Single-phase synchronous
(i) Hysteresis
(ii) Reluctance
(iii) Permanent magnet
(d) Single-phase universal motor (AC and DC)
2- Poly-phase motors
(a) Induction type
(i) Wound rotor
(ii) Squirrel – cage
(b) Synchronous
These motors are summarised in the following diagram (Fig.15.1) ,
Split –phase
Capacitor start
Squirrel Permanent capacitor
-cage Capacitor start capacitor run
Shaded -pole
Single-phase Induction
Wound Repulsion
Universal rotor Repulsion start
Repulsion induction
AC and DC
Synchronous
Hysteresis
AC Reluctance
Motors Permanent magnet
Induction
Wound rotor
Poly-phase
The number of poles p must be an even integer since for every north
pole there is a corresponding south pole. The following Table-15.1
shows motors speeds for motors with different numbers of poles
working with different a.c. supply frequencies.
Table 15.1. Synchronous speed of induction motor for different
number of poles.
An induction motor runs at a shaft speed n that is less than the synchr-
onous speed at which the stator rotating field is rotate. The speed
difference is called the slip speed. The ratio of slip speed to
synchronous speed is the most important variable in induction motor
operation and is called the per-unit slip s, and is given by:
where s is the slip in per unit, ns is the synchronous speed in rpm, and n is
the rotor speed. Since the rotor current is proportional to the relative
motion between the rotating field and the rotor speed, the rotor current
and hence the torque are both directly proportional to the slip. For
particular cases, the slip of the motor will have the following special
values:
Squirrel cage motors are built with the slip ranging from about
3 – 20%. Motors with a slip of 5% or higher are used for hard-to-start
applications. A motor with a slip of 5% or less is called a normal slip
motor. A normal slip motor is often referred to as a constant speed motor
because the speed changes very little with variations in load. At full load
the per-unit slip usually 5% for a small motor because .
15.3.2 Development of Circuit Model (Equivalent Circuit)
Standstill Operation
At standstill, the motor can be considered as a static transformer with
primary (stator) winding and secondary (rotor) winding. If the stator is fed
from a three-phase supply with voltage V1 is the phase voltage, the air gap
field produced rotates at synchronous speed ns . This field induces emfs E1
and E2 in both the stator and rotor winding respectively. The magnitudes
of these emfs are given by, assuming unity winding factor (kw =1) ,
Since the flux in the air gap is constant, the secondary emf at slip s
is proportional to the time rate of flux cutting. Hence,
where
R‟2 = rotor effective resistance
X‟2 = rotor leakage reactance
I‟2 = rotor current
E2 = back emf (line-to-neutral) generated by the resultant air-gap flux.
some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator
(Pcore). The power remaining at this point is transferred to the rotor of the
machine across the air gap between the stator and rotor. This power is
called the air gap power PAG of the machine. After the power is
transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as I2R losses (the rotor copper
loss PRCL), and the rest is converted from electrical to mechanical form
(Pconv = Pm). Finally, friction and windage losses PF&W and stray losses
Pmisc are subtracted. The remaining power is the output of the motor
which is mechanical Pout =ωTL . However, one may simplify the power
flow diagram to the form shown in Fig.15.8. This can be validated by
considering opposite variations of mechanical loss and rotor iron loss with
speed.
By examining the per-phase equivalent circuit, the power and torque
equations governing the operation of the motor can be derived. The input
current to a phase of the motor is:
√
Thus, the stator copper losses, the core losses, and the rotor copper losses
can be found.
The stator copper losses in the three phases are: PSCL = 3 I12 R1
The core losses: Pcore = 3 E12/ Rc
The air-gap power: Pg = Pin – PSCL - Pcore
Also, the only element in the equivalent circuit where the air-gap power
can be consumed is in the resistor R2 / s. Thus, the air-gap power:
The total actual resistive losses in the rotor circuit are given by:
PRCL = 3 I22 R2 = s Pg
where
√( √
)
After stator copper losses, core losses and rotor copper losses are
subtracted from the input power to the motor, the remaining power is
converted from electrical to mechanical form. The power converted,
which is called developed mechanical power is given as:
( )
( )
The rotor copper losses can be given to be equal to the air-gap power
times the slip : PRCL = s Pg . Hence, the lower the slip of the motor, the
lower the rotor losses. Also, if the rotor is not turning, the slip is s =1 and
the air-gap power is entirely consumed in the rotor. This is logical, since
if the rotor is not turning, the output power Pout ( = ωm TL ) must be zero.
Since Pconv = Pg – PRCL , this also gives another relationship between the
air-gap power and the power converted from electrical and mechanical
form:
Pm = Pg – PRCL
= Pg – s Pg
Pm = (1- s) Pg (15.13)
Finally, if the friction and windage losses and the stray losses are known,
the output power:
Po = Pm – PF&W – Pmisc (15.14)
The induced torque in a machine was defined as the torque generated
by the internal electric to mechanical power conversion. This torque
differs from the torque actually available at the terminals of the motor by
an amount equal to the friction and windage torques in the machine.
Hence, the developed torque is:
or it can be expressed as
sE
s
√( )
Hence, the speed of the induction motor can be changed either from the
stator or from the rotor sides. Therefore, from Eq.(15.1), the speed control
of three-phase induction motor from stator side are classified as:
The speed controls of three-phase induction motor from rotor side are
further classified as:
Therefore, the resultant mmf wave will have two different numbers of
poles,i.e.
Hence, by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed
of three-phase induction motor.
(2) Controlling supply voltage (Variation of stator voltage)
It is seen from Eq.(15.17) that at any fixed speed, if we neglect the
mechanical losses, the developed torque TL (=Td) is proportional to the
square of the applied stator voltage V12. As the stator voltage is reduced
the rotor speed decreases and the maximum torque available from the
motor also decreases, Eq.(15.19). If the stator voltage is varied to control
the speed then the speed range of this method is limited with a constant-
torque load. This can be proved as follows:
The torque produced by running three-phase induction motor was
given by Eq.(15.17) as
sE
s
In low slip region (sX2)2 is very small as compared to (R2)2, hence it can
be neglected. Therefore the torque becomes,
sE
sE
We know that rotor induced emf E2 V1, the supply voltage. So,
s
From the equation above, it is clear that if the supply voltage is
decreased voltage by one half the torque reduces to one quarter.Therefore,
the low speed performance of the motor with this method is poor because
motor current at a given slip is also proportional to the applied voltage
whereas the torque varies as the square of the voltage.This means that the
torque per ampere becomes lower at reduced speed as large currents are
required to develop a sufficient torque. However, in fan or pump drives,
the load torque varies approximately as the square of the speed. Hence the
torque required for low speed operation and starting is small and may
obtained without excessive overheating from a voltage controlled induc-
tion motor.
Example 15.1
TL = 60 (1-s) 2
Solusion
Using Eq.(15.20), the torque of the three-phase induction motor for the
three phases is
At steady-state, T = TL , hence
From which ;
The line current is calculated from Eq.(15.8) ,since Xm is very high , thus
I1 = I2 ,
√( )
√( )
Fig. 15.14 Current and the firing angles relationship for three-phase star
connected R-L load : (a) Rms line current versus α,
(b) Straight line approximation of current (p.u.) for three-wire
star-connected induction motor.
Example 15.2
A variable speed drive is used to drive a water pump which has a torque-
speed curves described by the equation SI units, where
is the speed of the pump motor. The drive employs a three-phase,
240V, six-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected induction motor controlled by pairs
of inverse-parallel connected thyristors in each supply line. The per-phase
equivalent circuit parameters of the motor, referred to primary turns are
The required
speed range is 975 - 600 rpm. Use performance curves of current versus
firing-angle to calculate, approximately, the necessary ranges of thyristor
firing-angles.
Solution
Hence
From Eq.(15.13) , the output power for the three phases of the motor is
( )
Ω
Ω
√ √
√
√ √
It is obvious that, with this method of speed control, the variation of speed
is not great (if the voltage reduced to ) . It generates harmonics and
electromagnetic interferences. However, the method for obtaining speed
change is simple and energy saving is possible.
Example 15.3
Solution
Hence
From Eq.(15.10), the output power for the three phases of the motor is
( )
Ω
Ω
√ √
√ √
√ √
Where K is the winding constant, N is the number of turns per phase and
f is frequency. Now since (4.44 K N) is a constant value for any induction
motor, therefore the above equation can be written as,
⁄ ⁄
It is clear from the above equation that, if we change the frequency. the
synchronous speed will change (ns= 120 f / p). So if the frequency is
decreased the flux will increase and this change in flux causes saturation
of rotor and stator cores that causes increase in no load current of the
motor. Hence, it is important to maintain flux, φ constant and this is only
possible if the value of the voltage V is changed to keep the ratio of (V / f )
as constant. Hence, this technique is known as constant (V / f ) method.
For controlling the speed of three-phase induction motor by (V/ f ) method
it is necessary to supply variable voltage and frequency which is easily
obtained by using converter using solid-state devices / power electronics
which has the ability of providing such requirement.
So far, we have calculated torque-speed relationships at single supply
frequencies, now we need to find how the torque changes with changing
frequency. Consider the circuit diagram shown in Fig.15.15, which shows
the induction machine equivalent circuit in terms of inductances, rather
than reactances at any effective frequency fe :
sE E
s
where
angular frequency of the supply
= number of poles
= number of pole pairs = 2 .
Note that slip frequency has its own symbol, while slip speed is actually
written as the product of slip and synchronous speed.
Now multiplying top and bottom of the torque Eq. (15.32) by ωe yields
E
( )
E
( )
It can be seen that, if the ratio E2 /ωe is constant the torque will be
proportional to slip frequency. Considering another approach to define
E 2 from the equivalent circuit:
| |
Tm
f1
f4 f2
f3 TL
Speed
0 ωs (rated)
ωs
Fig.15.16 Torque-frequency relationship.
Example 15.1
A 400 V, 50 Hz, 4-pole motor has rated speed of 1450 rpm and rated
torque of 10 Nm. If a torque of 10 Nm is needed at a mechanical speed of
1250 rpm, find the synchronous speed, supply frequency and line-to-line
supply voltage.
Solution
At rated torque, the slip speed will be the rated value. For a 4-pole 50 Hz
machine, synchronous speed is 1500 rpm, therefore, rated slip speed =
1500-1450 = 50 rpm. When operating at 1250 rpm, 10 Nm, slip speed will
still be 50 rpm and the synchronous speed is given by
ns =120fe / p
fe =ns p/120 =1300×4/120 = 43.33 Hz
Finally, if V/f is constant, the supply voltage must be
Methods of obtaining supply frequency changing
(a)
(b)
With PWM inverter drive, motors run smoothly at high and low speed
(no cogging); however, they are current limited. PWM drives can run
multiple parallel motors with acceleration rate matched to total motor
load. At low speeds, PWM drives may require a voltage boost to generate
required torque. However, PWM is the most costly of the three main a.c.
VSD (Variable Speed Drives) types.
The PWM drive‟s main advantage is it requires less filtering to
produce nearly sinusoidal waveforms for both the voltage and current
(PWM types cause the least harmonic noise). The range of PWM
inverters is typically up to 2250 kW. The output voltage and current
waveforms of the PWM inverter are shown in Fig.15.23. Of the three
most common inverter systems, the pulse width modulated inverter
produces output current waveforms that have the least amount of
distortion.
.
It is clear that from the above equation, the torque is inversely
proportional to the rotor resistance. Hence, if the rotor resistance
R2 increases, torque decreases, but to supply the same load, torque must
remain constant. So, if the slip is increased this will cause further
reduction in rotor speed. Thus by adding additional resistance in rotor
circuit the speed of three-phase induction motor can be decreased. The
main advantage of this method is that with addition of external resistance
starting torque increases. However, this method of speed control of three-
phase induction motor suffers from some disadvantages:
(a) This method can only reduce the speed below the maximum value
correspond to zero external resistance, hence, the speed above the
normal value is not possible. Obviously the method is charact-
erised by low efficiency due to high waste of energy. For example,
to reduce the speed to 50% of its normal value, one has to
dissipate 50% of the power absorbed from the source in the
added resistor. The rheostat, which can dissipate this high energy
with normal temperature rise, is costly.
(b) Another objection against this method is the departure of the
torque-speed characteristic from its original shape of small slop to
a new characteristic of considerable slop and the speed regulation
is degraded. The slop is dependent on the value of the added
resistance as shown in Fig.15.26(b).
Rotor-circuit resistance variation using choppers
Solution
The synchronous speed of the motor is
The approximate equivalent circuit of the motor referred to the stator side
is shown in Fig.15.28.
Example 15.5
Solution
(a) From Eq.(15.9) , the mechanical power is
[( ) ]
√
[( ) ]
Induction motor drives with full-power control on the stator side are
widely used in industrial applications. Although either a cage-type or
wound-rotor machine can be used in the drive, the former is always
preferred because a wound-rotor machine is heavier, more expensive,
has higher rotor inertia, a higher speed limitation, and maintenance and
reliability problems due to brushes and slip rings. When the speed
control of three-phase induction motor is done by adding resistance in
rotor circuit, some part of power called, the slip power is lost as I2R
losses. Therefore, the efficiency of the motor is reduced by this method of
speed control. This slip power loss can be recovered and supplied back in
order to improve the overall efficiency of motor and this scheme of
recovering the power is called slip power recovery scheme. This is done
by replacing the d.c. chopper and resistor R in Fig.15.27 by a three-phase
bridge converter as shown in Fig.15.29.
The converter operates in inversion mode with firing angles
thereby returning energy to the source. The variation of
the triggering angle α results in variation of speed, hence speed control is
achieved by this technique. Therefore, one feature of wound rotor
machine is that the slip power becomes easily available from the slip
rings, which can be electronically controlled to control speed of the
motor.
The two well known types of converter use the slip energy recovery
technique are:
1. Static Kramer drive: only allows operation at sub-synchronous
speed.
2. Static Scherbius Drive: allows operation above and below
synchronous speed.
Breaking this equation into parts, it can be seen that the air gap power is
the sum of resistive losses, power recovered through the slip rings and
the mechanical power.
Using the expression for air gap power, the torque may be written as
Now, substituting the slip expression into the torque expression gives
the result that torque is only a function of rotor current, not slip or
injected voltage:
⁄
[ ]
The expression above means that for a given torque, the rotor current
will always be the same, independent of speed.
No-Load Condition
Consider again the expression for slip given in Eq.(15.42), if the torque
is zero, then the rotor current will also be zero and at zero torque,
therefore the slip is given by
Efficiency
Since some of the power supplied to the motor is recovered from the
rotor circuit, the efficiency cannot be calculated as simply output power
over input power. Instead, in slip energy recovery drive the efficiency is
One motor is the called the main motor and another motor is called the
auxiliary motor. The three-phase supply is given to the stator of the main
motor while the auxiliary motor is derived at a slip frequency from the
slip ring of main motor.
Example 15.6
Two three-phase induction motors are to be speed control by cumulative
cascade arrangement as shown in Fig.15.32. The main motor has four
poles whereas the auxiliary motor has six poles. The supply voltage is
400 V, 50 Hz for the main motor while the frequency in the rotor of the
auxiliary motor is 1.0 Hz. Calculate the slip of each motor and the
combined speed of the whole set.
Solution
Let fRm = Rotor frequency of the main motor
fRa = Rotor frequency of the auxiliary motor
Pm = Number of poles of the main motor
Pa = Number of poles of the auxiliary motor
But