Invitation to the Life Span 3rd Edition

Berger Test Bank

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1. A person's average body mass index (BMI) is the lowest at the ages of _____.
A) 1 to 2
B) 5 to 6
C) 9 to 10
D) 13 to 14

2. Between the ages of 2 and 6, a child's appetite _____.

A) increases slightly
B) increases dramatically
C) stays the same
D) decreases

3. Over the past three decades, what has been the trend in children's health and body
growth in Brazil?
A) Children have gone from suffering malnutrition to being healthy.
B) Children have become more impoverished, leading to malnutrition.
C) Children have become less impoverished, which has led to malnutrition.
D) Children no longer suffer from undernutrition, but now face overnutrition.

4. To ensure adequate nutrition and vitamin intake, what is recommended?

A) Eat six to eight times a day.
B) Take vitamin and mineral supplements.
C) Eat breakfast cereals that contain 100 percent of the day's nutrients and vitamins.
D) Eat well-balanced meals with a variety of foods.

5. A common food allergy for young children is _____.

A) soy
B) rice
C) oats
D) bananas

6. Bernie is a 5-year-old who has never visited a dentist, even though his family has dental
insurance that allows for free regular checkups. His parents say that they will start
taking him to the dentist when his first permanent tooth erupts. What should his parents
know about delayed dental care?
A) Untreated decay in “baby” teeth can harm permanent teeth.
B) There is no medical need to visit a dentist before permanent teeth emerge.
C) Visiting the dentist at a young age will cause the child to fear the dentist.
D) Children do not need to brush their baby teeth but they should visit the dentist to
get fluoride treatments.

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 7. Which statement about oral health is true?
A) It is not necessary to brush until children start to lose their baby teeth.
B) Almost all young children in the United States have been to the dentist.
C) Diet soda is a good option to help prevent tooth decay in children.
D) Young children should develop the habit of tooth brushing.

8. Cynthia wants to keep her son from getting cavities, so she gives him diet soda instead
of regular soda. Her dentist tells her that her strategy won't work because _____.
A) diet soda is sweetened using high fructose corn syrup
B) all sweetened beverages can lead to tooth decay
C) diet soda contains the calcium needed for strong teeth
D) diet soda will keep the fluoride in drinking water from being ingested

9. A 2-year-old human's brain is _____ percent of the adult brain's weight.

A) 55
B) 65
C) 75
D) 80

10. Which of the following is most likely the difference between the brain of Tarik, a
2-year-old, and Terrence, his father?
A) Tarik's brain is about 75 percent of the weight of Terrence's.
B) Terrence's brain has more activity in the angular gyrus than Tarik's.
C) Tarik's brain is the same weight at Terrence's.
D) Terrence's brain is less lateralized than Tarik's.

11. Researchers had children sort picture cards by shape. Then they asked the same children
to sort the same cards by color. They found that children under the age of 4 _____.
A) could easily switch their original sorting pattern
B) could switch to sorting by shape but not by color
C) could switch to sorting by color but not by shape
D) had difficulty changing to a new sorting pattern

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12. Juan is left-handed and always kicks with his left foot when playing soccer. This
preference demonstrates _____, which advances with the development of the corpus
callosum.
A) myelination
B) lateralization
C) pragmatics
D) overregularization

13. The long band of nerve fibers that connects the brain's hemispheres is _____.
A) myelination
B) the corpus callosum
C) the prefrontal cortex
D) the axon cord

14. Alden is beginning to learn how to write. He can hold a pencil in one hand and steady
the paper with his other hand. This new ability to coordinate the duties of his right and
left hands is likely due to _____.
A) the growth of his corpus callosum
B) his arms and legs growing longer
C) his brain's lateralization
D) adequate calcium in his diet

15. Jerome is 4 years old and has recently begun coordinating the two sides of his body
more efficiently. This improvement can be attributed to _____.
A) the growth of his corpus callosum
B) his arms and legs growing longer
C) his brain's lateralization
D) adequate protein in his diet

16. One of several possible causes of autism spectrum disorder may be _____.
A) rigid myelination
B) abnormal development of the corpus callosum
C) lesions in the prefrontal cortex
D) incomplete axon cords

17. A disorder that may result from abnormal development of the corpus callosum is _____.
A) hearing impairment
B) nearsightedness
C) extreme impulsivity
D) autism spectrum disorder

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18. The specialization of the functioning of the two halves of the brain is called _____.
A) lateralization
B) linearization
C) equalization
D) disequilibrium

19. The left side of the brain notices _____, while the right side grasps _____.
A) the big picture; the details
B) the details; emotions
C) emotions; language
D) creative impulses; detailed analysis

20. Today, about 10 percent of adults in Great Britain and the United States claim to be
_____.
A) left-handed
B) right-handed
C) left hemisphere dominant
D) right hemisphere dominant

21. Today, about _____ percent of people in Great Britain and the United States are
left-handed.
A) 5
B) 10
C) 20
D) 50

22. The number of people who claim to be left-handed in the United States and Great
Britain has ____ since 1900.
A) increased
B) decreased
C) remained the same
D) become equal to rates of right-handedness

23. The process through which axons become coated with a fatty substance that speeds up
the transmission of nerve impulses is called _____.
A) myelination
B) action potential
C) transmission
D) mylarization

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24. Myelination is important because it _____.
A) connects the two halves of the brain
B) compensates for loss of brain function due to injury
C) promotes regular childhood sleep patterns
D) speeds up the transmission of neural impulses

25. Steven, a 6-year-old, can correctly name objects, catch a ball and throw it, and write his
ABCs in proper sequence. His younger brother Harvey is much less speedy and skillful
in all of these areas. What is the best explanation for Steven's superior performance?
A) Steven most likely eats healthier foods than Harvey.
B) Steven's brain has experienced greater myelination than Harvey's.
C) Steven's frontal cortex is less mature than Harvey's.
D) Steven has fewer dendrites than Harvey.

26. The ability to generate several thoughts in rapid succession is most specifically related
to _____.
A) eating healthy foods
B) myelination
C) frontal cortex maturation
D) development of new axons

27. Lin is able to play “Go Fish,” a card game that requires quick thinking. What brain
change most directly supports his ability to think quickly?
A) hypothalamic functioning
B) myelination
C) frontal cortex maturation
D) development of new axons

28. Isaac suffered a brain injury as a result of an automobile accident. His abilities to speak
and to process language were severely affected. His injury was to the _____.
A) right side of his brain
B) left side of his brain
C) corpus collosum
D) prefrontal cortex

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29. Nicoli suffered a stroke in the left hemisphere of his brain. Which of the following skills
is most likely to have been affected?
A) speech
B) face recognition
C) emotion processing
D) location in space

30. During a long car trip, Lex and Nicole asked “Are we there yet?” so many times that
their father became irritated. His children were exhibiting _____.
A) impulsiveness
B) emotional regulation
C) perseveration
D) habituation

31. Beth is a 3-year-old who is working on a craft project at preschool. She has to be
repeatedly reminded to sit still, to continue working on the craft, and to stop interfering
with her classmate's work. What is the most likely explanation for Beth's behavior?
A) She is not artistically inclined.
B) She is displaying normal lack of impulse control.
C) She is not yet mature enough to be in preschool.
D) She has ADHD.

32. Nathan, a 4-year-old, is playing with his building blocks. When his mother announces
that they have to leave to pick up his sister, he launches into a tantrum. What is the best
explanation for Nathan's reaction?
A) Nathan is perseverating on the building blocks.
B) Nathan is spoiled.
C) Nathan's mother should have given a warning.
D) Four-year-olds throw many tantrums.

33. An imbalance between the left and right sides of the prefrontal cortex and abnormal
growth of the corpus callosum seem to underlie _____.
A) hearing impairment
B) nearsightedness
C) extreme impulsivity
D) ADHD

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34. The area of the brain that is crucial in expressing and regulating emotions is the _____.
A) limbic system
B) prefrontal cortex
C) fusiform face area
D) corpus callosum

35. The amygdala is a brain structure that registers _____.

A) body temperature
B) emotions
C) speech perception
D) memories

36. The increased activity of the amygdala is a reason that young children experience
_____.
A) a language explosion
B) the ability to write
C) frightening nightmares
D) an increased susceptibility to disease

37. Because the amygdala responds to comfort but not logic, which of the following is the
best strategy for a parent to adopt when their preschooler has had a scary dream?
A) Tell the child that it was only a dream, and to go back to sleep.
B) Explain to the child that dreams are only imaginary, and so their dreams can't hurt
them.
C) Ask them what was scary about the dream, and then convincingly pretend to scare
off that content.
D) Laugh at the scary content, and remind the child that it's not real.

38. The hippocampus is a structure in the brain that processes _____.

A) language
B) coordination
C) memories
D) emotions

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39. As an adult, Xavier has a panic attack whenever he must ride in an elevator. He has
absolutely no recollection of ever having had a bad experience in an elevator. According
to the text, it is possible that his panic reaction is due to _____.
A) natural fears of elevators that everyone shares
B) deep emotional memories from early childhood
C) Xavier's general fearfulness
D) a recent misadventure in an elevator that Xavier has repressed

40. Preoperational intelligence _____.

A) allows children to think in symbols
B) includes logical reasoning
C) is characterized by reversibility of thought
D) relies on children's motor skills and senses

41. Piaget called the stage of human cognitive development between the ages of 2 and 6
_____ intelligence.
A) operational
B) egocentric
C) preoperational
D) sensorimotor

42. Piaget called the stage of human cognitive development between the ages of 2 and 6
“preoperational intelligence” because children do not yet _____.
A) have intelligence
B) use logical operations
C) understand language
D) produce language

43. Piaget believed that until about age 6, it is difficult for children to think _____.
A) subjectively
B) egocentrically
C) logically
D) about animism

44. One of the milestones of preoperational thought is the ability to _____.

A) use symbolic thought
B) understand reversibility
C) display conservation
D) think logically

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45. Marcy was playing under the kitchen table when she stood up suddenly and bumped her
head. She pointed at the table and sternly said, “Naughty table!” This is an example of
_____.
A) egocentrism
B) operational thinking
C) centration
D) animism

46. Preoperational thinking is all of the following EXCEPT _____.

A) magical
B) symbolic
C) logical
D) pretending

47. To focus on one aspect of a situation and simultaneously exclude all other aspects is
called _____.
A) magical thinking
B) static reasoning
C) centration
D) animism

48. A magician's goal is to get the audience to focus on one aspect of his demonstration
while he manipulates another. This is easy to do with preoperational children, as they
are fooled by their tendency to _____.
A) be logical thinkers
B) reverse things in their minds
C) demonstrate centration
D) equilibrate

49. Nine-year-old Amanda has no problem understanding that the 20-year-old woman who
sometimes stays with her is both a student and a babysitter. According to Piaget, this is
because Amanda's thinking has moved beyond _____.
A) conservation
B) object permanence
C) overregularization
D) centration

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50. “You are your Mom's daughter, right?” Grandpa asked Beatriz.
“Yes!” Beatriz eagerly answered.
“Well, your Mom is my daughter,” Grandpa replied.
“No! She's my Mommy!” Beatriz exclaimed. Why did Beatriz make this error?
A) conservation
B) object permanence
C) overregularization
D) centration

51. The Piagetian term for a particular type of centration in which a child thinks about the
world only from his or her personal perspective is _____.
A) static reasoning
B) egocentrism
C) irreversibility
D) conservatism

52. Rose and her mother were shopping for a birthday gift for Rose's older brother. “How
about this? My brother would love it!” Rose exclaimed, showing her mother a pink and
purple toy horse with flowing mane and tail. Beverly's belief that her teenage brother
would enjoy a toy that she herself would enjoy is an example of _____.
A) static reasoning
B) egocentrism
C) irreversibility
D) conservatism

53. A young child thinks a tall 20-year-old man is older than a short 40-year-old man. This
is an example of _____.
A) egocentrism
B) static thinking
C) focus on appearance
D) symbolic thinking

54. After her haircut was complete, Tania began crying inconsolably. “You turned me into a
boy!” she cried. Which obstacle to logic was Tania demonstrating?
A) egocentrism
B) static thinking
C) focus on appearance
D) symbolic thinking

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55. Seeing his third-grade teacher in the grocery store shocks Armand because he is used to
seeing her only in school. This is likely due to Armand's _____.
A) static reasoning
B) abstract reasoning
C) concrete thinking
D) irreversibility

56. When children assume that the world is unchanging, they are engaging in _____.
A) magical thinking
B) static reasoning
C) centration
D) a focus on appearance

57. The characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing
changes is called _____.
A) animism
B) conservation
C) static reasoning
D) centration

58. Evelyn dropped ketchup on her pants during lunch. Although her teacher was able to
remove the stain completely, Evelyn cries hysterically, saying that she wants to go home
because her outfit is ruined. Her behavior demonstrates the characteristic of
preoperational thought known as _____.
A) irreversibility
B) centration
C) egocentrism
D) conservation

59. Irreversibility refers to the preoperational child's tendency to _____.

A) focus on something other than appearances
B) use deductive reasoning to solve a problem
C) believe that what has been done cannot be undone
D) engage in centration when another solution is needed

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60. Tyrell's father takes him to the barber for his first real haircut. At first, Tyrell is excited,
but when the barber makes the first cut, he becomes very upset and tells his father to
make the barber stop. Despite his father's efforts to assure him that his hair will grow
back, Tyrell is exhibiting the characteristic known as _____.
A) animism
B) centration
C) egocentrism
D) irreversibility

61. A child's inability to understand that undoing a sequence of events will bring about the
original situation is called _____.
A) concrete operations
B) conservation
C) irreversibility
D) symbolic thought

62. Four-year-old Mac is sitting at the lunch counter next to his sister Tori. They are having
hot dogs for lunch. When his Mom cuts his hot dog into five pieces and Tori's into six
pieces, Mac protests, “Tori has more than me!” Which ability does Mac not yet
demonstrate?
A) animism
B) centration
C) egocentrism
D) conservation

63. Daryl has a ball of Silly Putty. His 6-year-old son, Mason, watches as Daryl flattens the
Silly Putty into a thin “pancake.” When Daryl asks Mason if there is now more Silly
Putty, Mason replies “Yes” because he has _____.
A) an understanding of scaffolding
B) not mastered the concept of conservation
C) an understanding of object permanence
D) demonstrated fast-mapping

64. A child is shown two identical tall containers, both half-filled with water. The contents
of one container are then poured into a short, wide container. If the child states that both
containers still have the same amount, then the child understands the concept of _____.
A) classification
B) conservation
C) centration
D) transformation

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65. Researchers now believe that Piaget _____ cognition in infancy and _____ cognition in
early childhood.
A) overestimated; overestimated
B) underestimated; underestimated
C) overestimated; underestimated
D) underestimated; overestimated

66. According to Vygotsky, guided participation requires that a child _____.

A) interacts with a mentor to accomplish a task
B) is told instructions for a task only once
C) discovers the solution to a task on his or her own
D) be taught new skills by other children

67. Each time Juan puts a puzzle together, his father gives him a little less help. Which
theorist would be MOST pleased with Juan's father?
A) Piaget
B) Vygotsky
C) Skinner
D) Freud

68. Skills that the child can accomplish with assistance but can't yet perform independently
are part of _____.
A) private speech
B) the gap between heredity and learning
C) distal development
D) the zone of proximal development

69. A child who is unable to read a picture book independently accomplishes the task with
the help of an adult. This assistance will be effective only if the _____.
A) assistance is offered in a warm and gentle manner
B) child is at least 6 years old
C) child is in the period of preoperations
D) skill is within the child's zone of proximal development

70. According to Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development, _____.

A) there is a certain place in a school where most learning occurs
B) children can only reach a certain level of intelligence
C) children can master some tasks with the help of others
D) certain parts of the brain need to be activated

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71. Sydney helps her 2-year-old daughter to make hot chocolate. She helps the child to
measure teaspoons of cocoa into a cup, add water, stir the contents, and then use the
microwave. Sydney is providing _____.
A) scaffolding
B) overstimulation
C) conservation skills
D) the zone of proximal development

72. According to Vygotsky, a teacher who carefully plans each child's participation in the
learning process within the zone of proximal development uses _____.
A) reinforcements for good behavior
B) scaffolding
C) peer mentoring
D) skill construction

73. Which is an example of scaffolding?

A) David helps his son build a model airplane by assembling it while his son watches.
B) Howard and Priscilla buy a Wii game system for their 5-year-old daughter
Rebecca. They set it up for her and then allow her to figure out how to turn it on
and use it.
C) Richard buys a do-it-yourself kite kit for his 6-year-old daughter Angela. He lays
all of the pieces out for her and then allows her to read the instructions and follow
them herself.
D) Miriam helps her son Ben to make cookies. She measures all the ingredients out
and places them on the counter in small bowls. She reads the recipe aloud as Ben
places the ingredients in the bowl and mixes them together with a spoon.

74. Which capability is demonstrated when young children imitate adult actions that are
irrelevant, time-consuming, and inefficient?
A) observing
B) scaffolding
C) modeling
D) overimitation

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75. Benjy is 5 years old. He can put a dish into the microwave and press the “2” button to
cook for 2 minutes. One day, he sees his mother wipe the front of the microwave with a
damp paper towel before she presses a number button. After that, Benjy rubs the front of
the microwave with a napkin before he presses the number button. Why?
A) He is overimitating his mother.
B) He has forgotten how the microwave works.
C) He is providing scaffolding for his mother.
D) He is engaging in guided participation.

76. Young children try to construct a reason for the things that they see and hear. This
tendency is known as _____.
A) reversibility
B) focus on appearance
C) theory-theory
D) logical reasoning

77. Humans seek reasons, causes, and underlying principles to explain the world around
them. The research term for this tendency is _____.
A) deductive reasoning
B) conservation
C) scaffolding
D) theory-theory

78. A few days ago, Hester's parents disciplined her because she refused to eat her green
beans. Today, when her parents announced that they were going to get a divorce, Hester
cried, “Is it because I was bad? I'll be good!” Hester's conclusion that her failure to eat
her green beans is the reason her parents are getting divorced displays Hester's _____.
A) deductive reasoning
B) conservation
C) scaffolding
D) theory-theory

79. According to theory-theory, why do children imitate irrelevant adult behaviors?

A) They mindlessly copy everything adults do.
B) They theorize that the irrelevant behavior must be important.
C) They theorize that the adult will reward them for correct imitation.
D) They derive pleasure from correctly imitating behaviors of all sorts.

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80. A person's understanding of the thoughts of other people is called _____.
A) intuitive psychology
B) psychological schemata
C) theory of mind
D) self-schemes

81. At what age do MOST children develop theory of mind?

A) 1 year
B) 2 years
C) 3 years
D) 4 years

82. Britney understands that her father is crying because his best friend died. This shows
that Britney has developed _____.
A) egocentrism
B) a script for crying
C) theory of mind
D) conservation

83. By the age of 2, a child will typically have a vocabulary of _____ words; by the age of
6, a child will typically have a vocabulary of _____ words.
A) 500; 10,000
B) 5,000; 10,000
C) 200; 40,000
D) 100; 2,000

84. Children typically understand the basics of grammar by the _____.

A) age of 2
B) time the child has a vocabulary of about 300 words
C) time the child has a vocabulary of about 600 words
D) age of 5

85. A child's ability to add new vocabulary words very quickly is called _____.
A) fast-mapping
B) word mapping
C) mental language
D) word charting

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86. When children hear a new word in a familiar context, they can simply add the word to
the general category without fully understanding the word. This is called _____.
A) lexical addition
B) categorical embellishment
C) vocabulary expansion
D) fast-mapping

87. Christopher's mother is considering different wallpapers for decorating his room. She
asks him, “Which one do you like better: the striped or the plaid?” Christopher's
vocabulary doesn't include the word “plaid,” but he's able to figure out what the word
must mean based on the context. Christopher is using _____ to add a new word to his
vocabulary.
A) lexical addition
B) categorical embellishment
C) vocabulary expansion
D) fast-mapping

88. Four-year-old Faisal and his mother were visiting Faisal's older sister's kindergarten
classroom. Faisal pointed at his sister's teacher and asked his mother, “What's that
mom's name?” Faisal's apparent assumption that all women are mothers is evidence of
his use of _____.
A) lexical addition
B) categorical embellishment
C) vocabulary expansion
D) fast-mapping

89. Logical extension involves _____.

A) linking a newly learned word to other objects in the same category
B) mentally charting new words
C) applying a new concept to a preexisting category
D) equilibration

90. Caitlin, age 4, visited the city zoo, pointed to a zebra, and exclaimed, “Look at the horse
with stripes!” In describing the zebra, she used _____.
A) logical extension
B) fast-mapping
C) overregularization
D) theory of mind

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91. The structures, rules, and techniques used to communicate meaning in language are
called _____.
A) inflections
B) logical extensions
C) grammar
D) theory-theory

92. When shown a novel object and told that it is called a “wug,” preschoolers know that
two of those objects would be two “wugs.” This ability to correctly add an –s when
pluralizing is evidence of their proper use of _____.
A) inflections
B) logical extensions
C) grammar
D) theory-theory

93. Overregularization in a child's speech patterns indicates that _____.

A) the child is entering a sensitive period of language development
B) the child can apply grammatical rules to vocalizations
C) logical extension is now possible
D) fast-mapping has occurred

94. “I catched two mouses in a trap” is an example of _____.

A) egocentric speech
B) overregularization
C) literal translation
D) past imperfect tense

95. Overregularization occurs because children _____.

A) tend to regress briefly before progressing to new forms of language
B) have no understanding of past, present, and future verb tenses
C) assume that the language is less regular than it actually is
D) assume their language always follows the rules they already know

96. Four-year-old Yvonne is putting on her shoes and says, “I need to put my shoes on my
foots.” She is exhibiting _____.
A) pragmatics
B) executive function
C) theory of mind
D) overregularization

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 97. Jane and her 4-year-old daughter, Michele, are visiting at a friend's house when Michele
blurts out, “This house is dirty.” Michele clearly does not fully understand the _____ of
polite speech yet.
A) overregularization
B) pragmatics
C) grammar
D) conservation

98. All of the following are common concerns that parents have about raising bilingual
children EXCEPT _____.
A) that the child will be only semilingual
B) that the child will master language later than his or her peers
C) that the child will surpass his or her parents in the second language
D) that the child will become confused by the two languages

99. Neuroscience has proven true which statement about young bilingual children?
A) Even though both languages reside in the same area of the brain, bilingual
individuals are able to activate one language and temporarily inhibit the other.
B) Different languages reside in different areas of the brain, thus allowing a bilingual
individual to activate only one area at a time.
C) Bilingual individuals of any age have difficulty with keeping the two languages
totally separate when speaking.
D) Since both languages reside in the same area of the brain, bilingual individuals
consciously inhibit one language while speaking the other.

100. Demetrius's family recently immigrated to the United States from the Ukraine. After he
attended kindergarten, his parents noticed that his English was more fluent than his
native language. Demetrius was exhibiting _____.
A) a language shift
B) accelerated bilingualism
C) a vocabulary explosion
D) linguistic egocentrism

101. Which early-childhood method has been found to aid reading later on?
A) code-focused teaching
B) teacher-directed programs
C) the “Hooked on Phonics” program
D) the “My Baby Can Read” program

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102. Jessica is reading a story aloud to her 3-year-old daughter, Abigail. Abigail's father says,
“Why are you bothering? It's not like she's going to learn to read from that.” What
would you tell Abigail's father about reading to preschoolers?
A) He's right; it doesn't matter whether parents read to their preschoolers.
B) He's right; children whose parents read aloud to them too early lose interest in
books.
C) He's wrong; children whose parents read to them as preschoolers tend to be better
readers in elementary school.
D) He's wrong; children whose parents read to them by age 3 learn to read by the age
of 4.

103. In terms of early-childhood learning, research has found that if the home learning
environment is poor, then _____.
A) a quality preschool will help health, cognition, and social skills
B) attendance at preschool is detrimental
C) day care will be more beneficial than preschool
D) a child-centered program will be more beneficial than another approach

104. Preschool programs are called “child-centered” when they stress children's _____.
A) gross motor skills
B) fine motor skills
C) development and growth
D) language development

105. Child-centered programs are often influenced by the theories of _____ and _____.
A) Piaget; Freud
B) Piaget; Vygotsky
C) Vygotsky; Skinner
D) Skinner; Freud

106. Sunnymont Preschool has plenty of opportunities for the children to play dress-up,
dance, build with blocks, finger-paint, and be creative. Sunnymont is most likely a
_____ program.
A) Vygotsky-based
B) child-centered
C) teacher-directed
D) bilingual

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107. Learning Circle Preschool emphasizes individual pride and achievement while focusing
on teaching young children literacy-related tasks. Learning Circle's approach seems to
most closely resemble a(n) _____ program.
A) intervention
B) Montessori
C) Reggio Emilia
D) bilingual

108. What was Maria Montessori's objective when she created her preschool?
A) individual achievement
B) the development of math skills
C) creative expression
D) obedience to a teacher

109. The Reggio Emilia early-childhood program focuses on _____.

A) reinforcement for academic accomplishments
B) assimilation and accommodation skills
C) children's creativity and artistic talent
D) self-esteem and self-concept

110. Micah's preschool has a high teacher/child ratio and ample opportunity for creative
expression. He has chosen to make dinosaurs out of clay as his long-term art project.
Which child-centered approach does Micah's preschool most closely resemble?
A) Reggio Emilia
B) Montessori
C) Head Start
D) teacher-directed

111. Most teacher-directed preschool programs stress _____.

A) academics
B) arts and music
C) social skills
D) dual languages

112. The goal of most teacher-directed preschools is to _____.

A) promote individual achievement
B) encourage informal social interaction
C) make all children ready to learn when they enter elementary school
D) teach children to read by the end of the year

Page 21
113. Salim is in a teacher-directed preschool. Which activity would his parents NOT expect
him to be doing?
A) listening to a story read aloud during circle time
B) forming the letter M in a tray filled with shaving cream
C) gluing pieces of macaroni on a paper plate to form a number
D) working on a long-term individual project about birds

114. In the United States, low-income children are offered a free preschool education through
_____.
A) the War on Poverty
B) the Public Broadcasting System
C) the Women, Infants, and Children program
D) Head Start

115. An evaluation of Head Start found that benefits were MOST apparent for children
_____.
A) without disabilities
B) with the lowest family income
C) living in urban areas
D) living in suburban areas

116. Compared with children who did not attend an intensive early intervention program,
longitudinal studies showed that the children who did participate _____.
A) had higher aspirations, more pride, and were less likely to be abused
B) had higher IQ scores in high school and were more likely to attend college
C) had lower scores on math and reading assessments
D) experienced no significantly improved outcomes

Page 22
Answer Key
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. D
5. A
6. A
7. D
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. D
12. B
13. B
14. A
15. A
16. B
17. D
18. A
19. B
20. A
21. B
22. A
23. A
24. D
25. B
26. B
27. B
28. B
29. A
30. C
31. B
32. A
33. D
34. A
35. B
36. C
37. C
38. C
39. B
40. A
41. C
42. B
43. C
44. A

Page 23
45. D
46. C
47. C
48. C
49. D
50. D
51. B
52. B
53. C
54. C
55. A
56. B
57. C
58. A
59. C
60. D
61. C
62. D
63. B
64. B
65. B
66. A
67. B
68. D
69. D
70. C
71. A
72. B
73. D
74. D
75. A
76. C
77. D
78. D
79. B
80. C
81. D
82. C
83. A
84. A
85. A
86. D
87. D
88. D
89. A
90. A

Page 24
 91. C
92. C
93. B
94. B
95. D
96. D
97. B
98. C
99. A
100. A
101. A
102. C
103. A
104. C
105. B
106. B
107. B
108. A
109. C
110. A
111. A
112. C
113. D
114. D
115. B
116. A

Page 25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The man, however, who has crowned with his acumen the
written science of war is Jomini, who first became known as a young
staff-officer of Marshal Ney’s, and died but twenty years ago. Though
he rose to the highest rank in the Russian service, his career was as
military adviser rather than as commander. His chief value to us lies
in his having collated and so plainly set down the lessons taught by
the great captains, particularly Frederick and Napoleon, that all may
now study them, as during the last century they could not be studied,
—were not even understood. He has enabled us to assimilate the
history of war. Other military students have since written with equal
profundity. But our debt to Jomini is not lessened thereby.
Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm, in 1594, the son of
Charles IX. of Sweden, but at a time when his cousin Sigismund III.
occupied the throne. He was a lad of great personal beauty and
strength, and his naturally bright mind profited well by the careful
training he received. His boyhood showed all the traits of strong
earnestness, clean-cut courage, and deep religious feeling which
later characterized the Champion of the Reformation. Of naturally
quick temper, in youth a blow followed a word; in manhood he
acquired exceptional self-control. His education was largely under
the direction of Oxenstiern, who later became his prime-minister,
general, and greatest intimate. He was a constant reader, an
eloquent and persuasive speaker, a poet whose religious verses are
still sung in every household of Sweden. He was famous in athletics,
and was both a noted rider and able swordsman.
The Swedish government was an elective-hereditary monarchy.
Sigismund, a bigoted Catholic, was deposed when Gustavus was
ten years old, and the lad’s father made king. Sigismund retired to
Poland, of which country he was also monarch, and remained
thereafter the sworn enemy of Charles and of Gustavus.
The young prince went through every step of military rank and
training, and at seventeen was declared of age and participated with
distinguished credit, and rare skill and enterprise, in a war with
Denmark. In this same year (A.D. 1611) his father died, and, against
all precedent, Gustavus Adolphus was chosen king. During his reign
of twenty-one years, his people and he were an unit. The world has
never seen a more striking instance of mutual love and confidence,
justly earned, between king and people.
Sweden was at war with Denmark, Russia, and Poland.
Gustavus determined to finish each war, if possible, singly and in
turn. From the very beginning he showed in his military conduct that
his intelligence ranged beyond the conventional method of
conducting war, which he had been taught with so much care. In
1613 he conquered a peace with Denmark.
In 1614 he began war with Russia, making, meanwhile, a two
years’ truce with Poland. In this year, and the next, he drew the
attention of all Europe to his bold invasion of the Russian territory, at
the point where now stands St. Petersburg, and was for the first time
approached by the Protestants of Germany with a request to aid
their cause. In 1617 Gustavus conquered a peace with Russia.
Sigismund would not hear of peace, but under the curious habit
of that day, of conducting war on a sort of picnic system, he did
extend the existing truce for five years. At its expiration, in 1621,
active war began. Gustavus, with twenty-four thousand men, making
Livonia his objective, landed at Riga, took the place, and from thence
as a base, conducted his campaign.
Sigismund represented the Catholic element; Gustavus was the
most prominent Protestant prince, and as such received many
urgent petitions for help from the harassed Protestants of Germany.
The eventual necessity of taking a share in the religious war was
clearly foreseen by Sweden. With the advice and consent of the
ministry and people, Gustavus reorganized the army and created a
distinctly national force of eighty thousand men, and based its
discipline and character on the most intelligent foundation. Sweden
thus acquired the first modern regular military organization. Other
nations, as a rule, whenever a war was imminent, raised troops from
the crowds of soldiers of fortune, with whom all Europe swarmed,
and discharged them after its expiration. The Swedish organization
consisted of one-quarter regular troops for service out of the country,
and three-quarters landwehr for the defence of the Fatherland and
for filling gaps in the regulars. Recruitment was by districts on a well-
settled plan of quotas. The troops in service and the militia were
scrupulously drilled and taught, uniformed, well armed and fed, and
regularly paid.
The Polish war lasted until 1629, the campaigns being annual,
but varying in scope. Gustavus invariably took the offensive, and
was habitually successful. He was always head and front of every
movement, full of intelligence, activity, and courage, ran constantly
great personal danger, and suffered from frequent wounds. No
character of modern history exhibits the qualities of the ancient hero
so distinctly as Gustavus Adolphus. Cautious and intelligent to a
marked degree in his campaigns, he was in battle a very Alexander
for audacity and chivalrous bearing. Always in the thickest of the fray,
he led his men in person, and, despite the protests of his generals
and suite, could never be restrained from exposing himself at the
point of greatest importance. He was unwisely reckless of his own
safety, though never losing for a moment his cool calculation or
power to gauge the situation. His army partook his enthusiasm, as it
shared his earnest religious feeling, and was devotedly attached to
him as man and king.
In 1628, Wallenstein, the distinguished commander of the
Imperial forces, had won great success in northern Germany, and
had laid siege to Stralsund. The German Protestants again turned
with piteous appeals to Gustavus. The king well knew that sooner or
later Protestant Sweden must, in self-defence, enter the lists against
the Catholic Empire, and threw a Swedish garrison into Stralsund,
which, gallantly backed by the citizens, held the place against
Wallenstein’s best efforts.
In the campaign of 1629, the Emperor sent an army to reënforce
the Poles. This the more impelled Gustavus to actively embrace the
Protestant cause. At the end of this campaign, Sigismund, largely
under the influence of Richelieu, was prevailed on to agree to a six
years’ truce. France could not openly join the Protestants in their
struggle against the Catholic Emperor, but was glad to see Gustavus
do so in order to check such success by Ferdinand as might disturb
the balance of power.
 This truce ended the Swedish-Polish wars, which had lasted
eight years (1621–1629). The king had conducted six campaigns
against Poland, and two against Denmark and Russia. These were
to him what the Gallic campaigns were to Cæsar, a practical school
of war, in which both he could learn his trade, and his army be
disciplined and toughened. He had observed the practical working of
his new army organization, and learned the weak points of the
existing system of war. Comparison showed the advantages of his
own conceptions. In the three remaining years of his life he moulded
these into a new art, which pointed the way back to a system full of
intellectual and moral force as well as more consonant with common
Christian charity. The king, during this period, gleaned varied
experience. He learned the habits of different leaders and armies,
and how to adapt his own ways to theirs. His infantry underwent a
good schooling. His cavalry he gradually improved by imitating the
admirable Polish horsemen, and by adding discipline and ensemble
to it. His artillery gave a good account of itself. Under Gustavus’
careful eye, every branch of the service during these campaigns
grew in efficiency. Equipment, arms, rationing, medical attendance,
drill and discipline, field-manœuvres, camp and garrison duty,
reached a high grade of perfection. Each year added to the skill and
self-poise of the Swedish forces. They were distinctly superior to any
European army of the day.
Not only had Gustavus learned to know his generals and men,
but these had gauged their king. There had arisen between them
that mutual confidence, esteem, and affection which only great souls
ever evoke and keep. And as there was no danger or labor of which
Gustavus did not bear with them his equal part, so the Swedish army
saw in its king a harbinger of victory, a sure protection in disaster.
Gustavus’ own character, his bravery, religious ardor, honesty, and
humanity infused itself into every soldier in the Swedish ranks.
Gustavus Adolphus was now in a position to afford efficient aid
to the German Protestants. The efforts of the latter had been noble,
but far from systematic, and they were fast being driven to the wall.
The war had been marked by barbarities characteristic of religious
struggles, and by the adoption of happy-go-lucky plans of campaign.
Armies had moved into a province, not because it was strategically
important, but because it was rich in plunder. Manœuvres were
conducted without reference to base or communications. There was
no aim beyond temporary expediency in any one’s movements. A
fortress would arrest the march of an army, which would sit down
before it without the remotest conception of whether its capture
would have an effect on the general result. Lack of system was
supplemented by religious fanaticism, which made everything
redolent of atrocity. No general but was characterized by some
fearful vice. Gustavus Adolphus was destined to change all this in a
short two years.
As a soldier Gustavus is less noted for his battles than for the
conduct, in 1630, 1631, and 1632, of a campaign on one broad,
intelligent, far-seeing plan, from which he never swerved. This of
itself was an entire novelty in this period of shallow operations. In
lieu of detailing one of his manœuvres, I will give a hasty sketch of
his entire plan of campaign in Germany. This was the first crisply
strategic series of operations since the days of Cæsar.
It was clear that if the Emperor overcame the Protestants of
Germany he would turn on Sweden. To await attack was the
preference of the Swedish ministry. But Gustavus pointed out the
advantages of an immediate offensive war in Germany. The struggle
would be kept from Swedish territory. The Emperor would not gain
so much headway as to lay Sweden open to an exhausting war.
They owed a duty to their oppressed Protestant brethren. He
convinced his people and gained their support. He took with him
fifteen thousand men. This number he expected to, and did in fact,
largely increase in Germany by recruitment and the aid of Protestant
allies.
Gustavus landed in Rügen in June, 1630. He added five
thousand men of the Stralsund garrison to his army, and took
possession of all the islands at the mouths of the Oder. He then
captured Stettin and extended his grasp right and left along the
coast. He proposed to base himself on the Baltic, as Alexander had
done on the Mediterranean. He took and garrisoned many seaboard
towns and others lying not far inland. His army, reënforced by
German allies and recruitment, soon rose to twenty-five thousand
men, and he established a firm footing on the Oder, which river was
an excellent line for operations into the heart of Germany. The
imperial Field Marshal Conti, who had ten thousand men in his front,
was unable to interfere with his operations. Garrisoning Stettin,
Gustavus moved into Mecklenburg to encourage its Protestant
princes, further secure his base, increase his supplies and forces,
and gain active allies. He relied on collecting seventy to eighty
thousand men. Count Tilly had been put in supreme command of the
Imperial forces, in place of Wallenstein, against whom the Catholic
princes had conceived a marked prejudice. This resulted in
disbanding a large part of Wallenstein’s soldiers, who considered
themselves only in his personal service, and left Ferdinand for the
nonce but unimportant armies to oppose to the Swedish advance.
 CAMPAIGN OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS IN
GERMANY, 1630–1–2
Having substantially rescued Mecklenburg from the Imperialists,
Gustavus left a force to operate there and returned to Stettin,
purposing to move with the main army up the Oder (Dec., 1630). The
end of the year was at hand. The Imperial army in his front was in no
condition for a winter campaign, either from habit, discipline, or
equipment. For this very reason Gustavus moved against it, his own
troops being well clad and equipped, and inured to cold. He soon
drove the enemy back to the line of the Warta, and then sat down in
an entrenched camp at Bärwalde till he could recruit his army up to a
standard equal to larger operations. The Protestant Elector of
Brandenburg meanly refused his help to the cause, but Catholic
France subsidized the king, and the Protestants called an assembly
at Leipsic to agree on new measures of defence.
 Tilly now appeared on the scene, thirty-four thousand strong.
The king had but twenty-five thousand men and would not risk a
battle, neither would Tilly assault the Bärwalde camp. But Gustavus
had a better scheme in his head. He planned to draw Tilly into
Mecklenburg, and then quickly return and capture the enemy’s line
on the Warta. He made forced marches into that province, fell on the
Imperialists and again defeated them. Tilly, alarmed, followed with
twenty-four thousand men. Gustavus, by occupying the direct road,
had compelled Tilly to resort to a long circuit. When Tilly was fairly on
the way, Gustavus moved rapidly and secretly back to Stettin,
advanced on Frankfort, took it after a seventeen days’ siege, and
thus broke up the enemy’s line. The Warta fully protected his left
flank in advancing into Germany. Gustavus had completely baffled
his adversary. But Tilly took bitter revenge by the capture of
Magdeburg, which, though it cannot perhaps be charged to Tilly
himself, was given up to sack, and suffered a horrible fate at the
hands of his unbridled soldiery. Gustavus had been unable to cross
neutral Brandenburg to its assistance.
The barbarous treatment of Magdeburg enraged instead of
disheartening the Protestants. Two able allies, Hesse Cassel and
Saxony, joined the king’s train. And by able manœuvring, restless
energy, and clear-headed method he swept Pomerania and
Mecklenburg of Imperial troops.
The pusillanimous conduct of the Elector of Brandenburg, under
the plea of neutrality, finally constrained Gustavus to dictate terms to
him. He marched on Berlin and compelled the Elector to allow free
passage to the Swedes over his territory, as well as to refrain from
damaging the Protestant cause, if he would not help it.
Thus in one year from his landing in Germany, Gustavus had
occupied Pomerania and Mecklenburg, and had neutralized
Brandenburg (June, 1631). By holding the lines of the Havel, the
Spree, and the Oder, he controlled all the territory to the confines of
Poland and Silesia, and with a sufficiency of reënforcements he
could safely advance on central Germany.
 Tilly invaded Hesse Cassel. Gustavus tried a diversion to lure
him away from his new ally. Count Pappenheim opposed him at the
Elbe. Gustavus stole a clever march on him, crossed and went into
an entrenched camp near Werben. These entrenched camps, it will
be perceived, were a feature of this period which Gustavus still
affected. They continued in use until he himself in part, and
Frederick wholly, demonstrated that entrenchments could be taken
by vigorous assault. At this time it was considered the height of
foolhardiness to attack entrenchments.
Tilly vacated Hesse Cassel and moved on the Swedish camp.
Gustavus had but ten thousand men there; Tilly had twenty-seven
thousand; but the king waylaid Tilly’s isolated cavalry, handled it
roughly, and returned safely to camp. Tilly, despite his excess of
force, did not care to risk an assault. Large reënforcements soon
reached both armies. Gustavus’ diversion had accomplished all he
sought. By defending the line of the Elbe and Havel, he prevented
Tilly from making any compromising advance.
Tilly was ordered to Saxony. The cruelties here perpetrated by
his troops made the Elector all the better ally. He offered Gustavus
the support of his army of eighteen thousand men. The king again
crossed the Elbe, at Wittenberg, and joined the Saxons at Düben.
This gave him a force of forty thousand men, of which twelve
thousand were cavalry. Tilly had arrived at Leipsic, and promptly
advanced to meet Gustavus with thirty-two thousand under the
colors. But, at the battle of Breitenfeld, he suffered a stinging defeat,
with the loss of six thousand men.
Tilly’s soldiers were in action much what their commander was,
—a stiff, dense, unwieldy mass, still hide-bound in the Spanish
school, which won its way by mere weight of men in the old
phalangial manner. The Swedes were quite a different body.
Gustavus had reduced the number of their firing-ranks to three,
placed reliance on their individual intelligence, which was marked,
and had drilled his musketeers, as well as his gunners, to fire as
much more rapidly than the enemy, as Frederick’s men with their iron
ramrods, or the Prussians of this generation with their needle-guns.
In this, his first great battle, the result was, despite the ignominious
flight of the Saxons, predetermined by the condition of the respective
armies and their leaders. Here, as on all occasions, the king, in
personal conduct, was an Alexander in audacity; a Cæsar in
intelligence.
Gustavus Adolphus had been only fourteen months in Germany,
but he had by his broad, prescient, cautious, and well-digested
scheme, crowned by the victory of Breitenfeld, completely changed
the prospects of the Protestants. He had got a firm footing in
northern Germany, where he now held most of the strong places. He
had secured his communications with Sweden by the possession of
the sea. He had grown in strength by his treaties with Hesse Cassel
and Saxony, and by accessions of troops from all quarters. He had
gained enormously in moral weight, and his army in aplomb and
confidence. His operations had been slow and cautious,—though
rapid when measured by the times,—but they had been sure, and
were justified by the event. The late victory had placed him on a
totally different footing. The Catholic party no longer looked down on
the “Snow-king,” as Wallenstein had jeeringly called him. The
Imperial army had lost in spirit and organization that which he had
gained. Its present retreat to the Weser opened the heart of the
Emperor’s possessions to the king’s advance. The former’s authority
had received its first severe blow, and the Protestants of north and
west Germany, lately cowed into submission, now rose and joined
Gustavus’ standard. These fourteen months had shifted the moral
superiority from the Catholic to the Protestant cause. But the work
was far from ended. It required the same wise and cautious action,
coupled with vigor and intelligence, to complete what had been so
well begun.
The advisers of Gustavus strongly urged an advance on Austria,
believing that such a course would bring Ferdinand to terms. But so
far Gustavus’ successes had come from a systematic plan of
campaign which embraced the whole of Germany in its scope. He
had secured each step and had risked nothing unnecessarily. He
saw the chances pointed out, but he also saw that if he advanced
south, his right rear would be threatened by Tilly, who had, after his
defeat, retired toward the Rhenish provinces and there made a new
base. The king preferred his own plan of first gaining a firm footing in
western Germany. He held interior lines and saw that he could
operate against his enemies in detail. To complete his plan would
secure him from the lower Elbe to the middle and upper Rhine, and
he could then turn against Bavaria and Austria from the west, as his
advisers would now have him do from the north, and with distinctly
better effect. Meanwhile the Saxons could operate towards Silesia
and Bohemia to secure Gustavus’ left in his advance, and Hesse
Cassel could hold head against Tilly on Gustavus’ right. The scheme
was wise and far-sighted, took into calculation all the political and
military elements of the situation, and was based on broad, sound
judgment. For seventeen hundred years, no one had looked at war
with so large an intelligence.
It may be said that war is a game of risks. But to play a
gambler’s game was not Gustavus’ forte. When the occasion
demanded, he could disregard every danger. What he has taught us
is method, not temerity. His mission was to abolish the Quixotism of
his day.
The Saxon Elector, with a mixed army over twenty thousand
strong, accordingly marched into Bohemia and Silesia (Oct., 1631)
and pushed the Imperialists back from Prague on Tabor. Everything
promised success. But all at once the Elector appeared to lose heart,
arrested his advance, and opened negotiations with the Emperor,
who, seeing that threats had not succeeded, had tried conciliation.
This part of the operation was nullified.
Gustavus moved to Würzburg. Franconia joined the Protestant
cause as Thuringia had already done. Tilly, having recovered from
his late defeat, and his present position being no threat to Gustavus,
marched southerly. With allies he collected over fifty thousand men
and proposed to seek battle. But the Elector of Bavaria, fearful for
his territory, kept Tilly on the defensive.
Gustavus was now firmly established on the Main, and in
Thuringia and Franconia, and he presently moved down the river to
fully secure the Rhineland, leaving a sufficient force opposite Tilly in
Franconia. His men marched along both banks with the baggage on
boats. He crossed the Rhine, took Mainz and transformed it into an
allied fortress.
Germany was metamorphosed. The allies had one hundred and
fifty thousand men in the field. Recruiting was lively. All Protestants
were united in sentiment, purpose, and efforts. France was helpful in
keeping the Catholic princes along the Rhine in a condition of
neutrality, while Gustavus lay in a central position between the
Emperor and these same princes. Bavaria was an uncertain
element. The Emperor had a total of but eighty thousand men, and
of these the bulk were protecting the Danube instead of carrying
desolation into the Protestant territory.
Gustavus now concentrated on the middle Main to the number of
forty-five thousand men and marched on Nürnberg, where he was
received with enthusiasm. Tilly crossed the Danube and took up a
position over against Rain, behind the Lech, with forty thousand
effective. From Nürnberg Gustavus marched to Donauwörth, also
crossed the Danube and sent out a detachment to take Ulm.
The king was daring at the proper time. His whole campaign so
far had been cautious and systematic, neglecting no point in his
general scheme. He was now face to face with the army he had
driven from northern and western Germany, and was ready for
battle. He could not draw Tilly from his entrenched camp; and he
determined to impose on him by boldly crossing the river in his front
and attacking it,—then simply an unheard-of proceeding. He
believed that the moral advantage to be gained by a stroke of
audacity would more than compensate for the danger, and danger
was to Gustavus an incentive. He erected a battery of seventy-two
guns on the left bank of the Lech, opposite Rain, and under cover of
its fire set over a portion of the troops in boats, built in two days a
bridge and a bridge-head, led over the infantry, and sent the cavalry
up stream to ford the river above the enemy’s position (April, 1632).
Tilly and the Elector of Bavaria sought too late to interrupt these
fearless proceedings. They issued from their camp with a select
body of troops and attacked the Swedes, who were backing on the
Lech. But the crossfire of the admirably posted Swedish batteries
was severe; the Swedish infantry held its own, and the cavalry rode
down upon their flank. In this obstinate combat Tilly was mortally
wounded. His second in command suffered a like fate. The Imperial
troops lost heart and took refuge within their breastworks. Oncoming
darkness forestalled pursuit. But Gustavus had gained his object.
The Imperial army had lost morale and organization, and his own
had gained in abundant measure. This is the first instance of forcing
the passage of a wide and rapid river in the teeth of the enemy.
The Elector retired to Ratisbon. The Swedes took possession of
many towns in Bavaria, including Munich. But the country population
was so hostile that a permanent occupation seemed a waste of
energy; Gustavus retired to Ingolstadt.
A disturbing element now arose in a curious suspicion of the
ulterior motives of Gustavus. Both Protestants and Catholics—
Germans alike—began to fear that the king might be tempted by his
successes to make himself autocrat of Germany. This feeling soon
begot a half-heartedness among the king’s supporters. Richelieu
feared that Gustavus, instead of Ferdinand, was reaching a point
which might make him dangerous to France. The Emperor,
meanwhile, went back to Wallenstein, who had been so successful
before his deposition from command. Wallenstein made hard terms,
but he was a power which could no longer be disregarded.
Ferdinand, to gain his aid, gave him uncontrolled authority over the
army he should raise and all its operations.
Wallenstein began recruiting. He soon had forty thousand men.
The Catholics grew braver when the reconciliation of Wallenstein
and the Emperor became known. This, added to the suspicions of
the allies, constrained Gustavus to cease his successful offensive for
a cautious holding of what he already had.
Wallenstein marched into Bohemia, the Saxons offering no
resistance, and took Prague. He then moved to Bavaria and joined
the Elector. Seeing that Wallenstein by this manœuvre had gained a
position from which he might endanger his communications with
northern Germany, Gustavus marched summarily on Nürnberg,
which was the “cross-roads” of that section of the country, to head
Wallenstein off from Saxony, and ordered his outlying detachments
to concentrate there. He had under his immediate command but
one-third of Wallenstein’s total, and could not assume the offensive.
But he would not abandon southern Germany until driven from it. He
entrenched a camp near the town. Despite superior numbers,
Wallenstein did not attack. He could not rise above the prejudice of
the day. He deemed hunger a more efficient ally than assault. He sat
down before Nürnberg (July, 1632). The small-war indulged in
generally ran in favor of the king, who patiently awaited
reënforcements, having provided two months’ provisions for his army
and the town. Oxenstiern meanwhile collected thirty-eight thousand
men and advanced to the aid of his chief. Gustavus marched out to
meet him. Wallenstein did not interfere. The king was prepared for
battle should he do so. It was a grave military error that Wallenstein
took no means to prevent this junction.
Soon after Gustavus had received his reënforcements, he
determined to bring Wallenstein to battle, for famine had begun to
make inroads in Nürnberg and in both camps. He accordingly
marched out and drew up in the enemy’s front, but Wallenstein could
not be induced to leave his entrenchments (Aug., 1632). Failing in
this, the king at last resorted to an assault on the Imperial
fortifications. But after a gallant struggle he was driven back with a
loss of two thousand men. He has been blamed for this assault. He
deserves rather the highest praise for his effort to show the world
that gallantry and enterprise are among the best characteristics of
war. After him, Frederick proved that good troops can more often
take entrenchments than fail. His grenadiers were accustomed to
assault works held by two to one of their own number,—and take
them, too, under the king’s stern eye.
After ten weeks of this futile struggle, and much loss on both
sides, Gustavus, fairly starved out by want of rations and of battle,
determined to regain his communications with northern Germany. He
left five thousand men in Nürnberg, and marching past Wallenstein’s
camp unchallenged, moved to Würzburg. He had but twenty-four
thousand men left. Wallenstein, who again neglected an admirable
chance of falling on Gustavus’ flank, soon after marched to Bamberg
with the relics of his army, reduced to about the same number (Sept.,
1632).
Learning that Wallenstein had left Nürnberg, Gustavus, in the
belief that his opponent would seek repose for a period, marched
back to the Danube to resume the thread of his own work. The
Nürnberg incident had interrupted, not discontinued his general plan.
Wallenstein, as he had anticipated, sat quietly in Bamberg. He had
shown singular disinclination to come to blows with the king, and
exhibited far less activity, though, in truth, Wallenstein was both a
distinguished and able soldier.
On other fields the Swedes and allies were generally successful,
but finally thirty thousand Imperialists concentrated in Saxony, and
Wallenstein joined them and took Leipsic. Gustavus (Sept., 1632)
feared for his Saxon alliance, without which he could scarcely
maintain himself. He again put off the prosecution of his general
scheme, to go where lay the most imminent danger. Oxenstiern
again advised a summary march on Vienna, but Gustavus wisely
rejected the advice. At that day Vienna had not its importance of
1805. The king left a suitable force in Bavaria (Oct., 1632), marched
northward and entrenched a camp at Naumberg. Wallenstein turned
to meet him. His evident duty was to concentrate and attack. But,
according to the idea of that day, he parcelled out his army in
detachments, sending Pappenheim to Halle while he marched to
Merseburg. The Imperial general had blundered into a cardinal
position in the midst of the allies. The Swedes, twenty-seven
thousand strong, were at Naumberg, the Saxons, with eighteen
thousand, at Torgau, and ten thousand allies were marching up the
left bank of the Elbe. Wallenstein’s manifest operation was to fall on
each of these forces singly—on Gustavus first, as the strongest. But
he appeared to lose both head and heart when facing Gustavus. He
grew weaker as Gustavus grew more bold. He made no use of his
advantage, even if he comprehended it.
The king had got possession of the crossing of the Saale, but
Wallenstein stood between him and the Saxons. Gustavus’ generals
advised a manœuvre to join these allies, but the king was instinct
with mettle, and determined upon action.
 The ensuing battle of Lützen has little which is remarkable,
beyond the fiery ardor which ended in the death of Gustavus
Adolphus. It was a battle in simple parallel order, but the better
discipline of the Swedish army and the greater mobility of its
organization showed as marked superiority over Wallenstein’s
masses as the Roman legion, for the same reason, had shown over
the Macedonian phalanx eighteen centuries before. The Swedes
won the victory, but they lost their king, and Germany its protector
and champion.
As is the case with all great captains, Gustavus Adolphus gave
the impulse to every action while on the theatre of operations of the
Thirty Years’ War. For many centuries war had been conducted
without that art and purpose which Alexander, Hannibal, and Cæsar
so markedly exhibited. But in the operations of the Swedish king we
again find the hand of the master. We recognize the same method
which has excited our admiration in the annals of the noted
campaigns of antiquity, and from now on we shall see generals who
intelligently carry forward what Gustavus Adolphus rescued from the
oblivion of the Middle Ages.
The operations of the king, from his appearance in Germany,
showed his exceptional genius for war. He had no military guide,
except his study of the deeds of the ancients, for modern war up to
his day had altogether lacked depth and directness. During the first
fourteen months, he secured his foothold in the northern coast
provinces, in a most clear-witted and orderly manner. Every
circumstance was against him. He had weak forces to oppose to the
Emperor’s might. The half-hearted, fear-ridden Protestants yielded
him little aid and comfort; yet he reached his goal, step by step,
seizing and holding strong places at key points, and accumulating
supplies where he could count on their safety. But once, during his
entire German campaign,—at Nürnberg,—was he out of rations, and
this without ravaging the country. He carefully secured his
communications with the base he had established and with Sweden,
and never manœuvred so as to lose them. He gradually
strengthened himself with allies and recruits. Unlike the armies of the
day, who behaved as if the populations of the countries they
traversed were of less consequence than the beasts of the field,
Gustavus dealt with them in a spirit of kindliness and Christian
charity which won them over to his side. He kept his troops under
strict discipline, and by supplying all their wants and paying them
regularly, could rightfully prohibit marauding and plunder. He
understood how to avoid battle with an enemy too strong to beat,
how to lead him astray on the strategic field, how to manœuvre
energetically against an enemy, his equal or inferior in strength; how
to make the tactical mobility of his troops and his own ardor on the
battle-field tell; how to improve victory; and how to heighten and
maintain the morale of his troops under victory and defeat alike.
When, by his cautious and intelligent plan, the king stood firmly
planted between the sea, the Oder, and the Elbe, with flanks and
rear well guarded, he at once altered his conduct. He crossed the
Elbe and boldly attacked the enemy, adding to his strength by
beating him; and, leaving the allies to protect his flanks and
communications, he advanced with spirit and energy. In thirty days
he had established himself firmly on the Main; in little over four
months more he had moved down the Main, and had possessed
himself of or neutralized the whole middle Rhine; and in twelve
weeks thence had crossed the Danube, beaten the enemy at the
Lech, and occupied almost all Bavaria. Thus in less than nine
months (Sept., 1631 to June, 1632) he had overrun a much larger
territory than he had previously gained in fourteen, and had added
vastly to his standing. He had been bold and decisive, and yet never
lacking in the method and caution which were his guide. He had
established himself as firmly in southern Germany as previously in
northern.
At the height of his reputation and success, he was now ready to
attack Austria from the west. But the policy of France changed, his
allies became suspicious, and Wallenstein moved toward his rear.
The scene changed. Gustavus had no longer the security of whole-
hearted allies to connect him with Sweden, and his policy at once
shifted to the cautious one he had first shown. The thing for him to
consider, if he was to be thrown on his own resources, was first and
foremost his communications. With forces inferior to Wallenstein’s,
he acted on the defensive. With the accessions which made his
army equal to Wallenstein’s, he again went over to an offensive at
that day startling in its audacity. This failing, and provision having
given out, he moved, not to Bavaria, but to the Main, to protect his
line of retreat, which naturally traversed Hesse Cassel. So soon as
Wallenstein retired to Bamberg, Gustavus, leaving a lieutenant to
observe him, felt at liberty to take up his old thread in Bavaria. He
had gauged his opponent aright. When again Wallenstein, by his
Saxon affiliations, threatened, and this time more seriously, the
king’s allies, and remotely the security of his advanced position,
Gustavus again resorted to decisive operations. His march to
Saxony and his attack on the enemy at Lützen were equally bold,
rapid, and skilful.
Herein is a peculiarly intelligent adaptation of work to existing
conditions. From the king’s landing to the passage of the Elbe, while
securing his base, a cautious, but by no means indecisive policy;
from crossing the Elbe to Nürnberg, while moving upon the enemy, a
singular quickness and boldness, but by no means lacking in
intelligent and methodical caution; from Nürnberg to Lützen an
alternation from caution to boldness as circumstances warranted.
After Cæsar’s day, Gustavus was the first who firmly and intelligently
carried through a campaign on one well considered, fully digested,
broad, and intelligent plan, and swerved therefrom only momentarily
and partially to meet exigencies which could not be foreseen. The
advice of his most trusted aides was often opposed to what he did;
but they could not see as far as he saw. Each variation had its
definite object, which attained, the general plan was at once
resumed. There was an entire freedom from blind subservience to
the rules of war as then laid down; an intelligent sequence and inter-
dependence of movement on a plan elastic enough to meet
unexpected obstacles; these produced a perfectly systematic whole,
in which the unity of plan was never disturbed; and with this broad
scheme went hand in hand a careful execution of detail upon which
depended the success of the whole. His occupation remained firm;
his victualling was sufficient to his needs; his movements
accomplished what he sought.
 In pursuance of his cautious plan he neglected no essential
fortress or city; he held the passages of important rivers by erecting
bridge-heads or occupying towns; he kept upon his line of operations
suitable detachments, or met descents upon it by a prompt
movement towards the enemy. He so managed the division of his
forces as not to endanger his strength nor to lose the ability to
concentrate. He used his allies for the work they could best perform.
He kept the main offensive in his own hands, generally so ordering
that his lieutenants should act on the defensive, unless they
outnumbered the enemy, and then made them push with vigor. He
uniformly did the right thing at the right moment.
The secret of Gustavus’ success lay in his breadth of plan, in his
constancy to the work cut out, and in his properly adapting boldness
or caution to the existing circumstances. As with Alexander,
Hannibal, and Cæsar, it was the man himself whose soul illumined
his work; and this man had those transcendent qualities which
produce incomparable results in war, whenever they coexist with
great events. Equal as monarch and soldier, he united in his one
person the art of both. His nation and army were devoted to him soul
and body. His motives were the highest and purest which have ever
inspired a great captain; his pursuit of them was steadfast and noble,
open-handed and above-board, prudent and intrepid. In weighing his
intelligence, sound judgment, strong will, elevated sentiment, energy
and vigilance, he is properly put in the highest rank. But though his
record cannot perhaps vie with the others in the brilliancy of his
tactics, in the splendor of his victories, in extent of conquest, in
immensity of ambition, in the surmounting of all but impossible
natural or artificial barriers, in resisting overwhelming disaster with
heroic constancy,—still, if we look at the man, upon the results of
what he did, at the purposeless and barbarous nature of war as
conducted up to his day; if we weigh the influence of his short
campaigns upon all modern war, and consider how his nobility of
character and his life-work has made toward civilization, we cannot
rate Gustavus Adolphus too high. His pointing out the importance of
key-points in holding a country; the value of feeding an army by
careful accumulation of supplies, instead of by ravaging every
territory it enters; the advantage of a carefully drawn plan extending
over the entire theatre of operations; and the propriety of waging war
in a more Christian and civilized spirit,—marks the first step towards
the modern system. Gustavus Adolphus must be called the father of
the modern art of war; and is acknowledged as the one of all others
who re-created systematic, intellectual war, and stripped war of its
worst horrors.
After his death, his lieutenants tried fruitlessly to carry on his
methods. They retained a part of what he gave them; in many things
they slid back into the old ruts; and war (except with masters like
Turenne, Prince Eugene, and Marlborough) resumed its character of
isolated raids, until Frederick once more elevated it and stamped
upon it a permanence which it cannot now lose.
Among his enemies, during the remainder of the Thirty Years’
War there was nothing but the extremity of barbarous methods, over
which it is well to draw a veil.
Gustavus Adolphus was tall, handsome, and strong. In his later
years he grew so heavy that none but well-bred horses of great bone
and endurance could carry him. But he rode fast and far. His bearing
was noble, full of simple complaisance, and genuine. His quick mind
robbed work of effort; his ideas were clear, and he expressed them
crisply and in happy words; his voice was rich, his manner
convincing. A remarkable memory served to retain the names and
merits of his subordinate officers and numberless worthy men. He
maintained stern discipline in a just and kindly spirit. His religious
fervor was as honest as his courage was high-pitched. The Bible
was his constant companion and guide. He began all his acts with
unaffected prayer, and ended with thanksgiving. The Christian
virtues never resided in a more princely soul. He was sober, of
simple habit, and upright life. Towering over all around him in mind
and heart, and inflexible withal, he was yet modest and ready to
weigh the opinions of others. A tireless worker, he demanded equal
exertion from his officials and aides. But in his intercourse with all
men were kingly condescension and dignity joined. He was more
than monarch,—he was a man.