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CONTENTS
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxvii
About the Authors xxxi
NFPA 1033 Correlation Matrix xxxii
Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Grid xxxiv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Fire Investigation 2
The Fire Problem 4
Fire Statistics in the United States 4
Fire Statistics in the United Kingdom 5
Role of the Fire Investigator in Accurately Reporting the Causes of Fires 5
The Detection of Incendiary Fires 6
Reporting Arson as a Crime 6
Problems Associated with Estimating Incendiary Fires 8
Scientifically Based Fire Investigation 10
Comprehensive Methodologies for Fire Investigation 10
The Scientific Approach to Fire Investigation 11
Applying the Scientific Method 11
Steps in the Scientific Method 12
Levels of Confidence 15
Legal Opinions Regarding Science in Investigation 16
Chapter Review 17
Review Questions 17
References 17
Chapter 2 The Elementary Chemistry of Combustion 19

Elements, Atoms, and Compounds 20
The Oxidation Reaction 21
Carbon Compounds 22
Other Elements 22
Organic Compounds 23
Hydrocarbons 23
Petroleum Products 25
Carbohydrates 26
Pyrolysis of Organics 28
Conclusions about Organic Compounds 28
State of the Fuel 28
Significance of State of Fuel 29
vii
Difficulty in Classifying Some Hydrocarbons 29
Solids 30
Liquids 30
Chapter Review 31
Summary 31
Review Questions 31
References 31
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Fire Behavior and Building

Construction 32
Basic Combustion 33
Flaming Fire 34
Structure of Flames 36
Smoldering Fire 38
Explosive Combustion 41
Heat 42
Heat and the Rate of Reaction 42
Heat and Temperature 43
Heat Release Rate 43
Heat Transfer and Heat Flux 45
Direct Flame Impingement 50
Flame Plume 51
Sequence of a Room Fire 54
Beginning or Incipient Stage 54
Growth, a Free-Burning Stage 56
Fire Growth to Flashover 56
Post-Flashover Stage 61
Decay Stage 62
Flow of Hot Gases 63
Effects of Environmental Conditions 65
Temperature 65
Humidity 66
Wetness of Fuel (Fuel Moisture Content) 67
Wind 68
Oxygen Content 68
Elements of Building Construction 69
Structural Shell 69
Fire Resistance Ratings 72
Internal Structure 73
Chapter Review 82
Summary 82
Review Questions 82
References 82
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Combustion Properties of Liquid
and Gaseous Fuels 85
Types of Fuel 86
Gases 86
Liquids and Their Vapors 86
Solids 86
Physical Properties of Fuels 87
Vapor Pressure 87
Flammability (Explosive) Limits 88
Flash Point 91
Flame Point/Fire Point 94
Ignition Temperature 94
Ignition Energy 97
Boiling Points 98
Vapor Density 99
Heat of Combustion 104
Hydrocarbon Fuels 104
Natural Gas 104
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 105
Petroleum 106
Gasoline 106
Kerosene and Other Distillates 107
Diesel Fuel 107
Lubricating Oils 107
Specialty Petroleum Products 108
Nonhydrocarbon Liquid Fuels 108
Alcohols, Solvents, and Similar Nonhydrocarbons 108
Alternative Fuels or Biofuels 108
Combustion of Liquid Fuels 109
Pyrolysis and Decomposition of Liquids 112
Fuel Gas Sources 112
Gas Lines 112
Natural Gas 113
LP Gas 113
Chapter Review 121
Summary 121
Review Questions 121
References 121
Chapter 5 Combustion Properties of

Solid Fuels 123
Pyrolysis 125
Crown Fires and Fireballs 126
Nonpyrolyzing Fuels 127
Contents ix
Combustion Properties of Wood 127
Components of Wood 127
Ignition and Combustion of Wood 128
“Low Temperature” Ignition of Wood 131
Charcoal and Coke 137
Wood Products 138
Paper 140
Plastics 143
General Characteristics 143
Behavior of Plastics 145
Special Considerations for Fire Investigators 149
Paint 156
Metals 158
Magnesium 159
Aluminum 159
Coal 160
Dust Explosions 160
Combustion Products of Solid Fuels 161
Flame Color 161
Smoke Production 162
Chapter Review 164
Summary 164
References 164
Chapter 6 Sources of Ignition 167

Introduction to Ignition Sources 168
Primary Ignition Sources 168
Matches 169
Lighters 171
Torches 171
Candles 173
Secondary Ignition Sources 173
Sparks/Arcs 174
Hot Objects/Hot Surfaces 174
Friction 176
Radiant Heat 177
Chemical Reaction 178
The Role of Services and Appliances as Ignition Sources 179
Gas Appliances as Ignition Sources 179
Portable Electric Appliances 186
Kerosene Heaters 187
Stoves and Heaters 187
x Contents
Oil Storage 187
Electricity 188
The Role of Hot and Burning Fragments in Igniting Fires 188
Windblown Sparks 189
Fireplaces and Chimneys 190
Long-Term Heating (“Low-Temperature” Ignition) 194
Trash Burners, Incinerators, and Bonfires 197
Hot Metals 197
Mechanical Sparks 198
Firearms Residues 200
Smoking as a Fire Origin 201
Cigarettes 201
Bedding and Furnishings 203
Cigarettes and Flammable Liquids and Gases 205
Pipes and Cigars 206
Plantings 206
Spontaneous Combustion (Self-Heating) 207
Characteristics of Self-Heating 207
Self-Heating Oils 209
Self-Heating of Vegetation 213
Other Materials Subject to Self-Heating 215
Implications for the Fire Investigator 215
Other Sources of Ignition 215
Lightning 216
Ignition by Electric Lighting 219
Ignition from Discarded Batteries 223
Animal Interaction with Sources of Ignition 223
Assessing Ignition Sources at the Fire Scene: The Ignition Matrix 225
Chapter Review 227
Summary 227
References 227
Chapter 7 Structure Fires and Their Investigation 231

Beginning the Investigation 233
During the Fire 233
Immediately After the Fire Is Extinguished 234
During the Clearing of the Scene 234
After Cleanup 235
Investigative Information during Suppression 236
Responsibility of the Firefighters 236
Minimizing Post-Fire Damage 237
Overhaul 237
Salvage and Security Concerns 238
Contents xi
Documenting the Fire Scene 238
Photography and Photographic Equipment 238
Digital Images 239
Enlargements and Film 240
Photography for the Fire Investigator 240
Sketching 243
Measurement and Scanning Systems 245
Notes 245
Reconstructing the Pre-Fire Conditions 249
General Principles of Fire Behavior 249
Fire Patterns 249
Tracing the Course of the Fire 250
Examination of a Structure Fire Scene 252
General Considerations 252
Interviews with Firefighters 253
Interviews with Witnesses 254
Search Patterns and Practices 255
Fire Behavior Indicators 257
Burn Patterns 258
Heat Level (Heat Horizon) 265
Smoke Level (Smoke Horizon) 268
Low Burns and Penetration 268
Floor Burns and Penetrations 276
Char Depth 279
Appearance of Char Surface 281
Surface Effects 282
Displacement of Walls and Floors 282
Spalling 283
Ghost Marks 286
Calcination of Gypsum Board 288
Annealed Furniture Springs 289
Glass 290
Melting Points of Materials 295
Clean Burn 296
Myths and Misconceptions about Indicators 296
Evidence (Documentary or Witnesses) of an Abnormally Fast Rate of Fire
Spread or Collapse 296
Evidence of Abnormally High Temperatures (Melted Metals, etc.) 296
Spalling of Concrete 296
Crazing of Glass 297
Irregular Damage to Floors and Floor Coverings 297
Black, Heavy, Oily Soot on Windows/Black Dense Smoke 297
Annealing of Steel Springs and Steel Structural Materials 298
Floor-to-Ceiling Heat Damage 298
Deep Char 298
Progression to Flashover 298
Alligatoring (Shiny or White) 298
Arson Evidence 298
Trailers 298
Containers 298
xii Contents
Contents Inventory 299
Ignitable Liquids 300
Detectors—Electronic and Canine 302
Protected Areas 304
Utilities 310
Elimination of Electrical Ignition Sources 310
Arc Mapping 311
Appliance Condition 312
Trash 312
Detection Systems Mapping 313
Interior Fires from Exterior Sources 314
Roof and Attic Fires 314
Timelines 315
Collection and Preservation of Evidence 316
Debris Suspected of Containing Volatiles 316
Other Solid Evidence 319
Liquids 319
Testing of Hands 319
Testing of Clothing 320
Chain of Evidence 320
Analysis and Hypothesis Testing 321
Chapter Review 323
Summary 323
References 324
Chapter 8 Wildland Fires and Their

Investigation 327
Fire Spread 329

Fuels 330
Fire Spread 331
Moisture Content 331
Intensity of Wildland Fire 331
Fire Behavior 332
Effect of Wind 333
Effect of Tall Fuels 333
Other Effects 333
Determination of Origin 333
Investigation Methodology 334
First Evaluation 334
Other Sources of Information 335
The Scene Search 335
Burn Indicators 338
Documentation 344
Contents xiii
Sources of Ignition 345
Power Lines 346
Lightning 346
Burning or Hot Fragments 349
Campfires 349
Cigarettes 349
Incendiary Fires 349
Modeling 353
Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence 354
Cigarettes, Matchbooks, and Other Fragile Evidence 354
Shoe and Tire Impressions 355
Charred Matches 355
Debris Suspected of Containing Volatiles 355
Containers 355
Weather Data 355
Chapter Review 357
Summary 357
References 357
Chapter 9 Automobile, Motor Vehicle,

and Marine Fires 359
Automobiles and Motor Vehicles 360

Fuel Tanks 360
Fuel Tank Connections 361
Fuel Pumps, Fuel Lines, and Carburetors 361
Fuel Injection Systems 361
Vehicle Fuels 362
Other Combustible Liquids 363
Engine Fuel System Fires 364
Electrical Systems 367
Miscellaneous Causes 369
Considerations for Fire Investigation 371
Combustible Materials 372
Miscellaneous Ignition Mechanisms 372
Vehicle Arson 373
Protocol for Vehicle Examination 373
Safety 373
Photography and Sketches 376
Importance of Scene Preservation 377
Exterior Examination 378
Evidence of Stripping 378
Motorhomes and Other Recreational Vehicles 387
Characteristics of Motorhomes 387
Fire Risk 387
xiv Contents
Propane Tanks 388
Mobile Homes (Manufactured Housing) 390
Construction and Materials 390
Heavy Equipment 392
Boats and Ships 393
Ships 394
Tankers 395
Ship Construction and Firefighting Techniques 396
Motives for Vehicle and Marine Arson 397
Chapter Review 399
Summary 399
References 399
Chapter 10 Electrical Causes of Fires 401

Basic Electricity 403
Static Electricity 403
Current Electricity 404
Direct and Alternating Current (DC and AC) 407
Electrical Units 407
Electrical Calculations 408
Series and Parallel Circuits 410
Electrical Systems 412
Conductors and Insulators 412
Current-Carrying Capability (Ampacity) 413
Protection—Overcurrent and Short Circuit 416
Fuses 416
Circuit Breakers 418
Thermal Protectors 419
Surge Protection Devices 419
Overcurrent Devices and Fire Investigation 420
Ground Fault Interrupters 420
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters 421
Open Neutral 422
Electrical Service Distribution 422
Service Entrance 423
Receptacles 424
Ignition by Electrical Means 425
Conduction Heating 426
Overheating by Excessive Current 426
Overheating by Poor Connection 427
Insulation Breakdown (Degradation)—Carbon Tracking 429
Arcs and Sparks 435
Contents xv
Aluminum Wiring 437
Electric Transformers and Motors 438
Fixed Heaters 440
Appliances 440
Electric Lighting 443
Electric Blankets 448
Extension Cords 448
Heat Tapes and Heat Cable 448
Batteries 449
Investigation of Electricity-Related Fires 449
Post-Fire Indicators 450
Mapping of Arc Faults 454
Arcing Through Char 457
Laboratory Examination 458
Chapter Review 464
Summary 464
References 465
Chapter 11 Clothing and Fabric Fires 467

Types of Fabric 468
Natural Fibers 469
Petroleum-Based Synthetic Fibers 469
Non-Petroleum-Based Synthetic Fibers 471
Fire Hazards 471
Influence of Weave and Fiber 471
Clothing Ignition 472
Regulation of Flammable Fabrics 472
Regulation of Flammable Fabrics 472
Furniture Testing 476
Flammability Testing 478

Flammability Tests for Federal Regulations 478
Flammability Tests for California Regulations 481
General Observations 482
Considerations for Fire Investigators 483
Chapter Review 485
Summary 485
References 485
Chapter 12 Explosions and Explosive Combustion 487

Chemical Explosions 488
Key Terms and Concepts 489
Diffuse-Phase Explosions 490
xvi Contents
Gases 490
Vapors and Vapor Density 498
Deflagrations 501
Ignition 503
Condensed-Phase Explosions 505
Chemical and Physical Properties 506
Types and Characteristics of Explosives 507
Propellants or Low Explosives 507
High Explosives 509
High Explosive Categories 511
Components 512
High-Order/Low-Order Explosions 513
Mechanical Explosions 514
Acid, Gas, or Bottle Bombs 515
BLEVEs 517
Electrical Explosions 518
Investigation of Explosions 519
The Scene Search 520
Speed and Force of Reaction 523
Scene Evaluation and Hypothesis Formation 530
Evidence Recovery 530
Laboratory Analysis 532
Incident Analysis 533
Chapter Review 536
Summary 536
References 536
Chapter 13 Chemical Fires and Hazardous Materials 539

Gases 540
Hydrocarbons 541
Other Gases 542
Liquids 543
Solvents 543
Miscellaneous Liquids 546
Solids 546
Incendiary Mixtures 547
Oxidizing Salts 548
Reactive Metals 549
Clandestine Laboratories 549
Clandestine Drug Laboratories 550
Marijuana Cultivation 554
Clandestine Explosives Laboratories 555
Contents xvii
Warnings 555
NFPA 704 System 555
Federal Hazardous Materials Transportation System 556
Chapter Review 558
Summary 558
References 558
Chapter 14 Laboratory Services 559

Availability of Laboratory Services 560
Forensic Laboratories 560
Fire Testing Laboratories 561
Expert Qualifications 561
Identification of Volatile Accelerants 562
Gas Chromatography 562
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) 566
Sample Handling and Isolation of Volatile Residues 569
Identification of Volatile Residues 573
Interpretation of GC Results 582
Chemical Incendiaries 585
Improvised Mixtures 585
Laboratory Methods 586
General Fire Evidence 587
Identification of Charred or Burned Materials 587
Burned Documents 588
Failure Analysis by Forensic Engineers 589
Evaluation of Appliances and Wiring 590
Miscellaneous Laboratory Tests 591
Spoliation 595
Non-Fire-Related Physical Evidence 596
Fingerprints 596
Blood 599
Impression Evidence 600
Physical Matches 603
Trace Evidence 603
Chapter Review 606
Summary 606
References 606
Chapter 15 Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries 611

The Team Effort 613
Species of Remains 614
Identity of the Victim 614
xviii Contents
Cause of Death 615
Manner of Death 616
Victim Status at Time of Death 616
Death Due to Fire versus Death Associated with Fire 616
Pathological and Toxicological Examination 616
Destruction of the Body 619
Effects of Fire 625
Other Pathological Findings 632
Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiation 635
The Carbon Monoxide Hazard 637
Effect of Rate of Absorption 639
Sources of Carbon Monoxide 640
Investigation of Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiations 642
Other Toxic Gases 643
Hydrogen Cyanide and Other Toxic Gases 643
Toxic Gases from Sulfur-Containing Polymers 644
Other Mechanisms 644
Burn Injuries 645
Manner of Death 649
Chapter Review 650
Summary 650
References 651
Chapter 16 Arson as a Crime 655

The Crime of Arson 658
Arson Law 659
Elements of Proof 659
Direct and Circumstantial Evidence 660
Motive 661
Profit 662
Vandalism 664
Juvenile Fire Setting 665
Excitement and Thrill Seeking 665
Revenge, Retaliation, or Spite 667
Concealment of another Crime 668
Extremism (Social Protest and Terrorism) 669
Mixed Motives 670
Irrational Fire Setting 670
The Arson Set 671
Arranging the Fire—Location 672
Fuels 673
Method of Initiation 681
Contents xix
Deductions from the Interpretation of Evidence 687
Criminal Investigative Analysis or Profiling 688
Analytical Reasoning 689
Elimination of Accidental or Natural Causes 690
Chapter Review 692
Summary 692
Court Citations 692
References 693
Chapter 17 Other Investigative Topics 695

Safety and Health 696
Fire Modeling 698
Mathematical Fire Modeling 698
Zone Models 699
Field Models 699
Models for Specialized Applications 700
ASTM and Critical Modeling Issues 701
What Should We Ask about Any Model We Use? 701
Fire Assessment 702
Documentation 702
Model Evaluation 703
Testing Complex Computer Models 706
Critical Analysis of Cases 707
Search and Seizure 708
Search and Seizure Court Decisions 710
Sources of Information 713
Spoliation 714
Public-Sector Investigators and Spoliation 715
Private-Sector Investigators and Spoliation 715
Consequences of Spoliation 715
Chain of Evidence 718
Report Writing 718
Report Summary 719
The Scene 719
The Investigation 720
Report Conclusions 720
Report Writing Basics 720
Courtroom Testimony 721
The Expert Witness 721
Pretrial Preparation 726
Testimony 727
Scientific Method 727
Chapter Review 732
xx Contents
Summary 732
Court Citations 734
References 735
Suggested Reading 737

Glossary 745
Index 751
Contents xxi
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PREFACE
The last 25 years have seen a dramatic change in the standards of performance expected of
fire and explosion investigators. Such changes have been brought about by Supreme Court
decisions, a development of professional standards including several certification pro-
grams, and acceptance of published texts and guides such as NFPA 921. These years have
also seen a dramatic improvement in the frequency and quality of interactions among fire
investigators, fire scientists, and engineers involved in fire safety and fire protection.
The intuitive extrapolation or interpolation of data to explain fire development or fire
indicators had been standard practice among fire investigators, and it has been faulty far too
often. The scientific method has finally been recognized as the core analytical process that
leads to accurate and defensible conclusions in fire investigations. That method, however,
requires reliable data and information, which often have been lacking in fire topics. The
integration of the wealth of information, knowledge, and experience of fire engineers and
of those scientists involved in the chemistry and physics of fire development into fire inves-
tigation has proceeded along many paths—personal, educational, and professional—and
on an international basis. The ATF Fire Research Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland; the
Center for Fire Research at NIST; the Fire Research Station in the United Kingdom; and
numerous private researchers have all contributed significantly to fire investigations for
many years. Recently, Vyto Babrauskas published a virtual encyclopedia of information
about the ignition and combustion of materials. The Ignition Handbook is a comprehen-
sive summary of decades of fire research in an accessible, fully referenced source. This
seventh edition of Kirk’s Fire Investigation includes new material reflecting “new” knowl-
edge from that remarkable book. Fire engineers are now involved directly in investigations
and also teach investigators how to apply fire engineering principles.
The National Fire Protection Association’s NFPA 921: Guide for Fire and Explosion
Investigations has focused the attention of investigators and the legal profession on the
scientific principles behind investigation. Coauthors David Icove and John DeHaan were
active technical consultant members in the development of NFPA 921 (DeHaan from 1991
to 1999, and Icove from 1990 to date), and this seventh edition of Kirk’s Fire Investigation
reflects a closer parallel between practices and information in both sources that can only
enhance the accuracy and reliability of all investigations. Correlations are also offered to
information in NFPA 1033: Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator.
Eight years ago, a companion book for this text was released. Forensic Fire Scene
Reconstruction was created to explore more of the engineering principles behind fire
behavior and the mechanisms of production of many of the post-fire indicators that Kirk’s
describes. Taken together, these books provide a sound basis for the fire expert to use when
evaluating fire scenes, preparing reports, or offering testimony. Today’s investigators are
being held to a higher standard of professional practice than ever before. It is no longer
adequate to claim expertise based on years of experience alone. A professional must demon-
strate that what he or she is doing follows the practices and the knowledge base of the
relevant professional community. Such knowledge and practices are based on texts such as
this one, Fire Scene Reconstruction, and NFPA 921, which are continuously peer reviewed
and revised to reflect the most current knowledge. The revisions in this edition follow the
same path as in previous editions but include many new photographs, published experi-
mental data, and case examples. There is revised material on ignition and fire dynamics,
supported by new references and color photos. This text reflects an international database
as offered by fire and explosion investigators, scientists, and engineers from all over the
world. It is offered in the hope it will augment the knowledge and improve the skills of
investigators everywhere and help them find the right answers for the right reasons.
xxiii
It is hard to believe that it has been 30 years since John DeHaan took over responsi-
bility for the text that what was then Fire Investigation by Dr. Paul Kirk. So many years
have passed that a whole new generation of fire investigators is now practicing, many of
whom have asked, Why is it called Kirk’s Fire Investigation? It is clear they are not aware
of Professor Kirk’s contribution to the discipline. Paul L. Kirk was a professor of bio-
chemistry and criminalistics at the University of California at Berkeley, but it was his spe-
cialty of microchemistry that focused his attention on physical evidence and its analysis.
Professor Kirk was part of the Manhattan Project (where separation and identification of
trace quantities of particular chemicals was a critical step in the development of the
atomic bomb). After the war, he focused on analytical chemistry as an adjunct to criminal
investigation. He was in charge of the criminalistics program at Berkeley until his death in
1970 and launched the careers of many criminalists who now practice around the world.
He wrote the landmark text Crime Investigation in 1953 and maintained a private crimi-
nalistics consulting practice. It was this practice that led to his involvement in fire and
arson investigation, where he was consulted in a wide variety of fire and explosion cases.
He published Fire Investigation in 1969 as the first textbook on fire investigation written
by a scientist rather than a field investigator. It became a standard reference and was still
in print some 11 years after his death. His concern with using science to solve the puzzles
of fire and explosion presaged the current emphasis on using the scientific method to
investigate fires by more than 30 years. It is clear that good, knowledgeable investigators
have been using that approach for years, even if they were not aware of it.
In honor of Dr. Kirk’s pioneering work in bringing science to fire investigation, his
name is included in the title, and the spirit, of this text.
J. D. DeHaan, Ph.D., F-ABC, IAAI-CFI, FSSDip, CFEI-NAFI

D. J. Icove, Ph.D., P.E., CFEI
What’s New
The Seventh Edition is one of the most adventurous editions over the last decade. John
DeHaan has been joined by David Icove to produce the keystone textbook in the fire
investigation field. The following highlights are changes to this edition that set it apart
from previous ones.
■ Completely updated chapters with learning objectives
■ Reference tracking of the National Fire Academy–developed Fire and Emergency
Services Higher Education (FESHE) curriculum
■ New case examples and results of recent fire tests
■ Substantial new artwork and photographs, many in color
■ Updated bibliographic references and appendices, which can be found on the
MyFireKit for this text
For additional review materials, appendices, and suggested

readings, visit www.bradybooks.com and follow the MyBradyKit link
to register for book-specific resources.
Register for MyFireKit by following directions on the MyFireKit
student access card provided with this text. If there is no card, go to
www.bradybooks.com and follow the MyBradyKit link to Buy Access
from there.
xxiv Preface
As an added bonus, Kirk’s Fire Investigation, Seventh Edition, features a MyFireKit,
which provides a one-stop shop for online review materials, appendices, suggested read-
ings, chapter support materials, and other resources.
You can prepare for class and exams with multiple-choice and matching questions,
Web links, study aids, and more! To register for MyFireKit for this text, please visit www.
bradybooks.com and follow the MyBradyKit link.
Scope of This Book

Kirk’s Fire Investigation is divided into the following chapters.
Chapter 1, “Introduction,” describes the field of fire investigation, which is the for-
mal process of determining the origin, cause, and development of a fire or explosion.
Chapter 2, “The Elementary Chemistry of Combustion,” describes how a fire is a
chemical reaction that produces physical effects. This chapter also introduces some of the
concepts and terms that the fire investigator might encounter when reviewing laboratory
reports or meeting with experts.
Chapter 3, “Fundamentals of Fire Behavior and Building Construction,” describes
fire as an exothermic oxidation reaction that proceeds at such a rate that it generates
detectable heat and light. This chapter also describes the basic elements of building con-
struction and materials to give the fire investigator an understanding of how they can
affect fire growth and patterns.
Chapter 4, “Combustion Properties of Liquid and Gaseous Fuel,” discusses some of
the concepts that are basic to understanding how gaseous and liquid fuels burn, the con-
ditions and limitations that apply to the combustion of such fuels, and the conventional
methods of expressing combustion properties in terms of laboratory tests.
Chapter 5, “Combustion Properties of Solid Fuels,” describes the more complex igni-
tion and combustion of solid fuels, which usually depend on pyrolysis to create com-
bustible gases and vapors.
Chapter 6, “Sources of Ignition,” describes a wide variety of heat sources and their
thermal properties. This chapter also discusses the fundamental processes of heat transfer,
heat release rate, fire propagation, and assessment that must be applied to each possible
situation.
Chapter 7, “Structure Fires and Their Investigation,” describes the principles of fuels,
ignition, and fire behavior with which investigators should be reasonably familiar before
undertaking the probe of a fire. This chapter also discusses the necessity of having a clear
understanding of the purposes and goals of the investigation and a rational, orderly plan
for carrying it out to meet those purposes, as well as the value and limitations of post-fire
indicators and the basic physical processes that create them.
Chapter 8, “Grass and Wildland Fires and Their Investigation,” describes how the
investigator who understands fuels, fire behavior, and the effects of environmental condi-
tions is in a better position to interpret the subtle and sometimes delicate signs of fire pat-
terns in wildland fires and therefore is better able to identify the origin and cause, no matter
what type of fire is involved.
Chapter 9, “Automobile, Other Motor Vehicle, and Ship Fires,” describes the fuels,
ignition sources, and dynamics as encountered in vehicles with which vehicle fire investi-
gators must be familiar to carry out correct investigations.
Chapter 10, “Electrical Causes of Fires,” describes the basics of electricity, its con-
trol, uses, and measurement of which the investigator must have a working knowledge to
accurately assess its effects on fuels in the fire environment. The chapter also discusses the
many ways in which electrical power can cause fires and diagnostic indicators of use to
investigators.
Chapter 11, “Clothing and Fabric Fires,” describes how despite governmental regula-
tions, fires in which fabrics are the first materials to be ignited are still a very common
Preface xxv
occurrence. The chapter discusses the nature of common fabrics and upholstery materials
and their contributions to both ignition hazard and fuel load in current studies.
Chapter 12, “Explosions and Explosive Combustion,” describes the range of explo-
sion violence—from the diffused type of rolling, progressive flame resulting from the com-
bustion of a rich mixture of flammable gases or vapors in air, to the violent, almost
instantaneous detonation of condensed-phase explosives. The chapter also discusses the
chemical structure and mechanisms of low and high explosives, as well as mechanical and
electrical explosions.
Chapter 13, “Chemical Fires and Hazardous Materials,” describes how to identify
the common causes of fires involving chemicals and hazardous materials.
Chapter 14, “Laboratory Services,” describes the role of laboratory services in fire
and explosion investigation and the types of examinations that can be requested. These
include not only fire debris analysis but the application of a wide range of physical, chem-
ical, optical, and instrumental tools on a variety of substances.
Chapter 15, “Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries,” identifies the common causes of
(and factors contributing to) fire-related deaths and injuries and describes indicators and
postmortem tests. Postmortem fire effects on the body are a primary focus.
Chapter 16, “Arson as a Crime,” explains the basic concepts of arson as a crime along
with its common motives, and describes common incendiary devices and mechanisms.
Chapter 17, “Other Investigative Topics,” identifies specialized tools that are relevant
and useful in fire investigation, including fire modeling. The chapter also discusses on-scene
safety considerations for the fire investigator and the implications of the scientific method
in analyzing fire events.
xxvi Preface
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Peer review is important for ensuring that a textbook is well balanced, useful, authoritative,
and accurate. The following agencies, institutions, companies, and individuals provided
invaluable support during the peer-review process of this edition.
Vyto Babrauskas, Ph.D.
Fire Science and Technology Inc.
Issaquah, WA
Nick Carey
Fire Investigation Group, London Fire Brigade,
London, UK
Detective Mike Dalton
Knox County Sheriff’s Office/Fire Investigation Unit
Knoxville, TN
Gary Edwards
Fire Science Program Director/Instructor
Montana State University–Billings College of Technology
Billings, MT
Tom Goodrow
ATF National Academy (Retired)
West Chatham, MA
Gary S. Hodson, IAAI-CFI
Sgt., Provo UT Police Department (retired)
Adjunct Instructor, Utah Valley University
Special Investigator, Unified Investigations and Sciences
Provo, UT
Jeffrey Lee Huber
Professor of Fire Science
Lansing Community College
Lansing, MI
Judith Kuleta
Bellevue College
Bellevue, WA
John E. Malooly
President of Malooly & Associates, Inc.
Senior Special Agent (Retired), U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of ATF
Chicago, IL
Matthew Marcarelli
Lieutenant, City of New Haven Fire Department
Adjunct Instructor, Connecticut Fire Academy
J. Ronald McCardle
Major, Florida Bureau of Fire & Arson Investigations (Retired)
Currently Instructing, Consulting, & Researching in Fire and Explosion Causation
Florida
xxvii
C. W. Munson
Chemeketa Fire Technology
Salem, OR
J. Graham Rankin, PhD
Forensic Science Program
Marshall University
Huntington, WV
Steve Riggs
Public Agency Training Council
Indianapolis, IN
James P. Ryan
Fire Investigator, Arson Bureau
New York State
Department of Homeland Security and Emergency Services
Academy of Fire Science
Montour Falls, NY
Nathan Sivils
Director, Fire Science
Blinn College
Bryan, TX
Aaron S. Woolverton
Adjunct Professor
Austin Community College
Austin, TX
Rather than extend an already substantial list from previous editions, we focus on
those persons who contributed the most to this Seventh Edition. As with any other evolu-
tionary process, the result is the product of many generations. You know who you are from
those earlier lists. Rest assured that your contributions are still greatly appreciated. We
want to acknowledge the following individuals who reviewed and generously offered coun-
sel and new material to improve this edition: Doug Wood; Morris Polich & Purdy, San
Francisco, CA; Daniel Madrzykowski, P.E., National Institute of Standards and Technol-
ogy, Gaithersburg, MD; Major Ron McCardle, Florida State Fire Marshal’s Office (retired);
Dr. Niamh Nic Daéid, University of Strathclyde; Kim R. Mniszewski, P.E., FX Engineering;
Jeff Morrill, MorrFire Investigations; Gordon Damant, Sacramento, CA; Steve Riggs, Pub-
lic Agency Training Council; Senior Special Agent Paul Steensland (retired), United States
Forest Service, Susanville, CA; Luis Velazco, Luis Velazco Investigations, Ltd., St. Simons
Is., GA; and Special Agent Dino Balos and Steven J. Avato, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Firearms and Explosives, Falls Church, VA. Your efforts were substantial, and your ideas
were greatly welcomed. Our special appreciation is offered to Doug Wood and his staff for
all the new material on spoliation and other legal issues.
Vyto Babrauskas, Mick Gardiner, Gary White, Steve Mackaig, Ron Parsons, Chris
Korinek, Rick Korinek, Bob Svare, and Mark Svare all reviewed critical portions of text
and contributed significantly to the accuracy of this book. In addition, Vyto Babrauskas
and Dan Madrzykowski always generously shared ideas, insight, and information when-
ever we asked, for which we are deeply grateful.
A number of people generously shared their case histories, test results, and photo-
graphs for this edition, including Jim Albers, Santa Ana Fire Dept. (retired); David Barber,
Goleta, CA; Steve Bauer; Dr. Roger Berrett; Lou Bilancia, Synnovation Engineering and
HTRI Forensics; Calvin Bonenberger, Fire Marshal, Lafayette Hill Fire Department; Dr.
Bernard R. Cuzzillo; Chris Bloom, CJB Consultants, Grants Pass, OR; Joe Bloom, Bloom
xxviii Acknowledgments
Fire Investigation, Grants Pass, OR; Helmut and Peter Brosz, Brosz & Assoc., Markham, On-
tario, Canada; Paul Carolan, Toronto Fire Department, Canada; Randy Crim, Fire Marshal,
Lake Jackson, TX; Donna Deaton, U.S. Forest Service (retired); Andrew Derrick; Denise De-
Mars, Streich DeMars, Inc.; Jack Deans; Det. Richard Edwards, Los Angeles County Sheriff’s
Department (retired); Ryan B. Fields, Orca Fire Investigation, Medford, OR; Capt./Inv. Bruce
Fusselman, Phoenix Fire Department, Phoenix, AZ; Nick Carey, John Galvin, and Paul
Spencer, London Fire Brigade, London, UK; Edward Garrison, Fire/Explosion Investigator,
Raleigh, NC; Thomas Goodrow, Fire/Explosives Technical Specialist, ATFE (retired); Tony
Grissim, Leica GeoSystems; Don Perkins, Curt Hawk, and Diane Spinner, Fire Cause Analysis;
Gerald Haynes, Forensic Fire Analysis, LLC, Fredericksburg, VA; Dr. Robin Holleyhead;
Science &Justice; Chief Kurt Hubele, Richland Fire Department, WA; John Jerome; Capt.
Thomas Kinkaid, Knoxville, Fire Department; Chris W. Korinek, P.E., and Richard E. Ko-
rinek, P.E., Synergy Technologies LLC; Ken Legat, Christchurch, New Zealand; SA/CFI
Michael A. Marquardt, ATFE, Grand Rapids, MI; Vic Massenkoff, Contra Costa County Fire
Department; Marion Matthews, U.S. Forest Service; Lamont “Monty” McGill, retired Fire In-
vestigator and Bomb Technician (deceased); Wayne Moorehead, Forensic Consultant; Jamie
Novak and Cameron Novak, Novak Fire Investigations and St. Paul Fire Department; Dr. Said
Nurbakhsh, California Bureau of Home Furnishings, North Highlands, CA; Chief Mike
Oakes and Tony Hudson, Clallam County Fire Investigation Team, Port Angeles, WA; Keith
Parker, Marin County Fire Department, Woodacre, CA; David W. Powell, SYTEK Consul-
tants, East Syracuse, NY; Steve Riggs and Tim Yandell, Public Agency Training Council; Susan
Sherwin, Scottsdale, AZ; Stuart Sklar, Fabian, Sklar & King, P.C., Farmington Hills, MI;
Robert Toth, Iris Investigations; Inv. Jeff Weber, San Jose Fire Department, CA; and Capt. San-
dra Wesson, Little Rock Fire Department, AR. Our special thanks to Det. Michael Dalton and
Inv. Greg Lampkin, Knox County Sheriff’s Office, Knoxville, TN, for all their great photos.
We also want to offer our special acknowledgment to Jamie Novak, who seems to be
able to burn (and blow up) more buildings than anyone else. Jamie generously opened his
awesome collection of photos, and many were selected for this book. We all know that
fire and explosion investigation is largely a visual endeavor, and such photos are vital to
the usefulness of an investigation text. The Bureau of Home Furnishings and the Fire
Research Station (Garston, UK) have repeatedly provided us with opportunities to do
special tests and share the results.
Firsthand observations of fire behavior and patterns are a critical element in qualifi-
cations for every fire expert. Organizations such as Gardiner Associates (UK), the Euro-
pean Working Group on Fires & Explosions, ATF (Glynco, GA), Florida State Fire
Marshal, and various chapters of the IAAI are to be commended for the special efforts
they have made in providing “live burn” training and research. The efforts of Dan
Madrzykowski and his team from NIST at CCAI conferences were greatly appreciated for
the careful science they demonstrated. The Training Committee of the CCAI has done an
exemplary job of providing extraordinary opportunities for firsthand fire observations.
Its motto is “Build it and they will come—to burn it and learn.” The Forensic Fire Death
Investigation Courses provided recently by the San Luis Obispo Fire Investigation Strike
Team provided unique opportunities to observe the effects of fire on human cadavers.
These results will benefit investigators through the illustrations presented here.
Our very patient editors, Monica Moosang, Pam Powell, and Barbara Liguori, saw
this text through all manner of crises. John DeHaan’s office manager, Shirley Runyan,
performed exemplary work in myriad roles—text, proofreading, graphics, and especially
in unraveling the mysteries of electronic communication. Our deepest thanks to everyone.
Finally, we want to acknowledge the personal inspiration we gain from working with
fire investigators such as Monty McGill, Jamie Novak, Jack Malooly, Ross Brogan, Jeff
Campbell, Nick Carey, Randy Crim, Bob Toth, Wayne Miller, Jim Allen, Mike Dalton,
Jim Munday, and Mike Marquardt. Their dedication to finding the right answer through
scientific analysis is an example for all of us.
Acknowledgments xxix
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
This textbook is coauthored by two of the most experienced fire scientists in the United
States. Their combined talents total more than 80 years of experience in the fields of
investigation, fire behavior, fire protection engineering, criminalistics, fire science, and
crime scene reconstruction.
An internationally recognized forensic scientist, Dr. DeHaan is the senior author of Kirk’s
Fire Investigation and coauthor of Forensic Fire Scene Reconstruction, the two leading
textbooks in the field of fire and arson investigation. He is also a former principal mem-
ber of the NFPA 921 Technical Committee on Fire Investigations.
Dr. DeHaan has been a criminalist for more than 40 years and has gained consider-
able expertise in the analysis of fire and explosion evidence as well as shoe prints, and in
instrumental analysis and crime scene reconstruction. He has been employed as a crimi-
nalist by the Alameda County Sheriff’s Office, the U.S. Treasury Department, and the
California Department of Justice.
His research into forensic fire scene reconstruction is based on firsthand fire experi-
ments on fire behavior involving more than 500 observed full-scale structure, and 100
vehicle, fires under controlled conditions, as well as laboratory-scale studies. Dr. DeHaan
has testified as an expert witness in civil and criminal trials across the United States and John D. DeHaan, PhD,
overseas. He is currently the president of Fire-Ex Forensics Inc. and consults on civil and FABC, CFI–IAAI, CFEI-
criminal fire and explosion cases across the United States and Canada and overseas. NAFI, FFSS, FSSDip
Dr. DeHaan graduated from the University of Illinois–Chicago Circle in 1969 with a
BS degree in Physics and a minor in Criminalistics. He was awarded a PhD in Pure and
Applied Chemistry (Forensic Science) by Strathclyde University in Glasgow, Scotland, in
1995. Dr. DeHaan is a Fellow of the American Board of Criminalistics (Fire Debris), a
Fellow of the Forensic Science Society (UK), and holds Diplomas in Fire Investigation
from the Forensic Science Society and the Institution of Fire Engineers, and a Certified
Fire Investigator certification from the International Association of Arson Investigators.
He is also a Certified Fire and Explosion Investigator in the National Association of Fire
Investigators.
An internationally recognized forensic fire engineering expert with more than 40 years of
experience, Dr. Icove is coauthor of Kirk’s Fire Investigation and Forensic Fire Scene
Reconstruction, the two leading textbooks in the field of fire and arson investigation. He
is also coauthor of Combating Arson-for-Profit, the leading textbook on the crime of
economic arson. Since 1992 he has served as a principal member of the NFPA 921 Tech-
nical Committee on Fire Investigations. As a retired career federal law enforcement agent,
Dr. Icove served as a criminal investigator on the federal, state, and local levels. He is a
Certified Fire and Explosion Investigator (CFEI).
He retired in 2005 as an Inspector in the Criminal Investigations Division of the U.S. David J. Icove,
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Police, Knoxville, Tennessee, where he was assigned for PhD, PE, CFEI
the last 2 years to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Joint Terrorism Task Force
(JTTF). In addition to conducting major case investigations, Dr. Icove oversaw the devel-
opment of advanced fire investigation training and technology programs in cooperation
with various agencies, including the U.S. Fire Administration of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA).
Before transferring to the U.S. TVA Police in 1993, he served 9 years as a program
manager in the elite Behavioral Science and Criminal Profiling Units at the FBI, Quantico,
Virginia. At the FBI, he implemented and became the first supervisor of the Arson and
xxxi
Bombing Investigative Support (ABIS) Program, staffed by FBI and ATF criminal profil-
ers. Prior to his work at the FBI, Dr. Icove served as a criminal investigator at arson
bureaus of the Knoxville Police Department, the Ohio State Fire Marshal’s Office, and the
Tennessee State Fire Marshal’s Office.
His expertise in forensic fire scene reconstruction is based on a blend of on-scene
experience, conduction of fire tests and experiments, and participation in prison inter-
views of convicted arsonists and bombers. He has testified as an expert witness in civil
and criminal trials, as well as before U.S. congressional committees seeking guidance on
key arson investigation and legislative initiatives.
Dr. Icove holds BS and MS degrees in Electrical Engineering and a PhD in Engineering
Science and Mechanics from the University of Tennessee. He also holds a BS degree in Fire
Protection Engineering from the University of Maryland–College Park. He is presently a
Research Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at
the University of Tennessee, Knoxville; serves on the faculty of the University of Mary-
land’s Professional Master of Engineering in Fire Protection; and is a Registered Profes-
sional Engineer in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Maryland,
and Pennsylvania.
xxxii About the Authors

NFPA 1033 Matrix
NFPA 1033 identifies the professional level of job performance requirements for fire
investigators. This standard specifies the minimum job performance requirements for
service as a fire investigator in both the private and public sectors. Job performance
requirements (JPRs) for each duty are the tasks an investigator must be able to perform to
successfully carry out that duty and are summarized in the following matrix:
Professional Levels of Job Performance for Fire Investigators

as Cited in NFPA 1033, 2009 Edition
General 4.1.2 Employ all elements of the scientific method as the operating analytical
Requirements process
for a Fire 4.1.3 Complete site safety assessments on all scenes
Investigator 4.1.4 Maintain necessary liaison with other interested professionals and entities
4.1.5 Adhere to all applicable legal and regulatory requirements
4.1.6 Understand the organization and operation of the investigative team
and incident management system
Scene 4.2.1 Secure the fire ground
Examination 4.2.3 Conduct an interior survey
4.2.4 Interpret fire patterns
4.2.5 Interpret and analyze fire patterns
4.2.6 Examine and remove fire debris
4.2.7 Reconstruct the area of origin
4.2.8 Inspect the performance of building systems
4.2.9 Discriminate the effects of explosions from other types of damage
Documenting 4.3.1 Diagram the scene
the Scene 4.3.2 Photographically document the scene
4.3.3 Construct investigative notes
Evidence 4.4.1 Utilize proper procedures for managing victims and fatalities
Collection/ 4.4.2 Locate, collect, and package evidence
Preservation 4.4.3 Select evidence for analysis
4.4.4 Maintain a chain of custody
4.4.5 Dispose of evidence
Interview 4.5.1 Develop an interview plan
4.5.2 Conduct interviews
4.5.3 Evaluate interview information
Post-Incident 4.6.1 Gather reports and records
Investigation 4.6.2 Evaluate the investigative file
4.6.3 Coordinate expert resources \
4.6.4 Establish evidence as to motive and/or opportunity

4.6.5 Formulate an opinion concerning origin, cause, or responsibility for
the fire
Presentations 4.7.1 Prepare a written report
4.7.2 Express investigative findings verbally
4.7.3 Testify during legal proceedings
4.7.4 Conduct public informational presentations
Sources: NFPA 1033, 2009 ed.; S. Sklar presentation, 2008.
xxxiii
Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education
(FESHE) Grid
The National Fire Academy-developed Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE)
curriculum serves as a national training program guideline which is a requirement for many fire
service organizations and training programs. The following grid outlines the needs for Fire Investi-
gator I and II levels and where specific content can be located in this text:
Course 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 App App

Requirements E H
Identify and explain the responsibilities of the fire X X
department from a firefighter’s perspective when
responding to the scene of a fire, including the
possibility of incendiary devices often encountered. (FI-I)
Define criminal law and explain the constitutional X X X
amendments (4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 14th) as they
apply to fire investigations. (FI-I)
Analyze the precedents set by constitutional law case X X
studies that have affected fire investigations. (FI-I)
Define and explain the common terms used in fire X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
investigations
Describe the basic elements of fire dynamics and how X X X X
they affect cause determination including fire behavior,
characteristics of fuels and methods of heat transfer.
(FI-I)
Analyze the relationship of building construction X
on fire investigations including types of constructions,
construction and finish materials. (FI-I)
Evaluate fire protection systems and building X X
services and discuss how their installation affects
the ignition of fires in buildings. (FI-I)
Discuss the basic principles of electricity. (FI-I) X
Explain the role of the fire investigator in recognizing X X
health and safety concerns including potential
hazardous materials awareness. (FI-I)
Describe fire scene investigations and the X X
process of conducting fire investigations using the
scientific method. (FI-I)
Explain how an investigator determines the point of X X X X X
origin in a room. (FI-I)
Identify the types of fire causes and differentiate X X
between accidental and incendiary causes. (FI-I)
Describe and explain the basic procedures used for X
investigating vehicle fires. (FI-I)
Identify the characteristics of arson and common X
motives for the firesetter. (FI-I)
Identify and analyze the causes involved in line of X X X
duty firefighter deaths related to structural and
wildland firefighting, training and research and the
reduction of emergency risks and accidents. (FI-I)
Explain the rule of law as it pertains to arrest, search X X X
and seizure procedures and their application to fire
investigations. (FI-II)
Recognize and interpret fire scenes common to X X X X X X X X
various types of fires. (FI-II)
Describe the chemistry of combustion and the X X X X X
relationship of atoms, elements, compounds, and
organic compounds on fire. (FI-II)
Explain the nature and behavior of fire including the X X X X X
effects of heat. (FI-II)
xxxiv
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Kirk’s Fire Investigation (Brady Fire) 7th

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Chapter 2 The Elementary Chemistry of Combustion 19

Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Fire Behavior and Building

Chapter 5 Combustion Properties of

Chapter 6 Sources of Ignition 167

Chapter 7 Structure Fires and Their Investigation 231

Chapter 8 Wildland Fires and Their

Fire Spread 329

Chapter 9 Automobile, Motor Vehicle,

Automobiles and Motor Vehicles 360

Chapter 10 Electrical Causes of Fires 401

Chapter 11 Clothing and Fabric Fires 467

Flammability Testing 478

Chapter 12 Explosions and Explosive Combustion 487

Chapter 13 Chemical Fires and Hazardous Materials 539

Chapter 14 Laboratory Services 559

Chapter 15 Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries 611

Chapter 16 Arson as a Crime 655

Chapter 17 Other Investigative Topics 695

Suggested Reading 737

J. D. DeHaan, Ph.D., F-ABC, IAAI-CFI, FSSDip, CFEI-NAFI

For additional review materials, appendices, and suggested

Scope of This Book

xxxii About the Authors

Professional Levels of Job Performance for Fire Investigators

4.6.4 Establish evidence as to motive and/or opportunity

Sources: NFPA 1033, 2009 ed.; S. Sklar presentation, 2008.

Course 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 App App

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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