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Chapter

Heavy Metals in Cosmetics

Tamara Attard and Everaldo Attard

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive insight into the content of five heavy metals
found in cosmetics and their effects at the site of application and on several organs
via the dermal route of administration. Regulation of these products is very limited
with little information on limits of these metals at the disposition of manufacturers.
Lead and arsenic are considered to be contaminants in cosmetics whereas cadmium
may be present as a coloring agent besides being a contaminant. Nickel is notorious
for its association with allergic chronic dermatitis. Though mercury is rarely present
in cosmetics, it has been found in significant quantities in skin lightening creams. A
multi-variate meta-analysis was conducted to determine the relationships between
the five metals and any possible differences between the sixteen categories of formu-
lations used for facial and body skin care and cosmetic purposes. In general, lipsticks,
eye shadows, face paints, make-up foundation and skin lightening creams exhibited a
high amount of heavy metals superior to the levels of these metals in other facial and
body products. The outcome of this analysis urges regulators and manufacturers to
consider routine monitoring for the presence of these metals in cosmetics.

Keywords: lead, cadmium, nickel, mercury, arsenic, metallokinetics, metallodynamics

1. Introduction

A cosmetic is any product that is intended to be applied superficially to the human

body to keep the treated part in good health. In this process, the cosmetic should not
alter the physiological functioning of the body [1]. The use of cosmetics has been
practiced since antiquity as apart from cleansing, cosmetics also beautify and alter the
appearance hence making the individual more appealing and attractive. There are a
plethora of ingredients that were and are used in the formulation of cosmetics. The gen-
eral intended purposes of cosmetics have not changed throughout centuries and mil-
lennia, the formulation of these cosmetics has undergone significant transformations,
some of which include the processing and the ingredients used for their formulation.
The processing has changed from a domestic/small scale production to cater for a small
number of individuals to industrial/large scale production to cater for a wider consumer
population with the use of worldwide advertising and social media. On the other hand,
the constitution of cosmetics has also changed with time. With industrialization and the
use of petrochemically-derived substances, the cosmetic formulation changed from one
based on natural products to one which is mainly based on petrochemicals. However,
during these past decades, there was a change in the constitution of cosmetics, to
include more natural ingredients, due to the great interest and concern by consumers.
1
Heavy Metals - New Insights

As a consequence, the massive production of cosmetic products with a wide range

of ingredients, has raised several health and safety concerns. Nowadays, cosmetics are
generally regulated [2]. One major concern is that cosmetics overlap in use and func-
tionality with topical medicines. Several regulatory bodies attempted to devise a proper
definition for cosmetic products with the intent to segregate cosmetic products from
topical medicinal products. Within the European Union (EU), Council Directive 93/35/
EEC [3] amending Council Directive 76/768/EEC, a definition for cosmetic products
was laid down in article 1 of the directive. In the first part of the definition, the external
body parts which may be treated with cosmetics are mentioned. Other body parts are
excluded and this eludes to the understanding that cosmetic products should not be
applied to these other body parts. The second part is related to the ‘activities’ which are
allowed for a product to be considered as a cosmetic. These distinguish cosmetics from
topical medicinal products which are intended for the control or treatment of condi-
tions or else in making a medical diagnosis [4]. However, whereas topical medicinal
products are meticulously scrutinized before their placement on the market, cosmetics
do not undergo rigorous testing. Nevertheless, for cosmetic products, the manufactur-
ers, distributors and importers are responsible for the safety of cosmetic products being
placed on the market [5]. The latter regulation also states clearly what ingredients are
prohibited for their presence in cosmetic products. Amongst the prohibited ingredients
several heavy metals are also included. Whereas some metals and their salts are com-
pletely prohibited (e.g., tin, arsenic, cadmium, nickel and lead), other metals and their
salts are either allowed with a specific limit or else only specific salts for such metals are
allowed (e.g., cobalt, chromium, gold, mercury and selenium amongst others). Such
additions may not be intentional as the addition of some minerals may originate from
a natural source. Heavy metals, such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), arsenic
(As) and mercury (Hg) were also detected in numerous other raw materials which can
be used for the production of cosmetics considered as natural products. These include
honey [6], argan oil [7], and olive oil [8] as well as citrus essential oils [9].
Because of this, some authorities also impose limits on the presence of certain
metals in cosmetics. For example, The Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel
established by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA issued limits on
As (5 ppm), Pb (5 ppm) and other heavy metals (20 ppm) [10]. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) set limits for Pb (10 ppm), Cd (0.3 ppm) and Hg (1 ppm). The
EU’s limits for Pb, Cd and chromium are 0.5, 0.5 and 1.0 ppm, respectively, while the
Canadian authorities set limits for Pb (10 ppm), Cd (3 ppm) and Hg (3 ppm) [11].
However, there tends to be inconsistency in the type of metals and the limits for the
metals by different authorities. As a consequence, this lack of harmonization leads to
confusion amongst authorities as regulators, several manufacturers as producers and
the general population as consumers. Despite all this, several researchers investigated
the potential presence of heavy metals in a wide range of products. This review aims
at compiling a large number of studies related to the presence of heavy metals in
cosmetics and their potential harm in human beings.

2. Heavy metals

Heavy metals are elements that are primarily found in the d and p-blocks of the
periodic table showing a metallic character and an ability to form salts. Some sources
specify that heavy metal should have a high density [12]. Such metals include lead,
cadmium, nickel, mercury and arsenic amongst others.
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The main concern is that heavy metals are ubiquitous and are present in several
matrices both living and non-living. Particularly in living matrices, heavy metals may
interfere with beneficial metals some of the latter being replaced by heavy metals that
would result in the erratic physiological functioning of bodily systems. This is not
an issue related only to mammals and humans, but such erratic behavior, in terms of
morbidity and mortality has been observed in other animals, such as insects [13], and
also in plants. Some of these heavy metals accumulate in biological systems and one
source for such accumulation is the daily and/or repeated use of cosmetic products
such as face powders, lipsticks and eye shadows [2]. Some heavy metals are commonly
found in cosmetics [14–20].

3. Metallokinetics and metallodynamics within the body

The absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and interaction of heavy

metals with bodily systems are complex processes that are not yet fully understood.
This is even more complex when considering that some cosmetics are applied and
rinsed shortly after (such as toothpastes, shampoos and conditioners and cleansers),
others are applied and allowed for a few minutes to hours (such as body creams,
lotions and facial makeup) and those that are applied and remain in contact with the
skin for several hours (such as nail polish and hair dyes). The kinetics and dynamics
of metals present in these cosmetic products, vary significantly in their fate and their
extent of effects [21].
With the application of cosmetic products, the mode of entry of heavy metals in
the body is via dermal or topical application. These metals may have either topical
and/or systemic effects in humans [22]. At the site of application, heavy metals may
accumulate in the stratum corneum causing local effects, that may be exhibited as
allergic contact dermatitis associated with an excess of a metal (such as Ni, cobalt and
chromium) at the site [23, 24] because of their binding to keratin [22]. In the case of
Ni, this metal has a high affinity to the histidine component of the filaggrin in the
stratum corneum [25]. Although, the mechanism by which heavy metals damage
the skin is not yet fully understood, it is believed that this may be provoked by the
formation of free radicals and/or by an inflammatory effect [26]. It was discovered
that metals may accumulate with repeated application of contaminated cosmetics.
Consequently, such areas would serve as reservoirs and hence lead to long-term
exposure of the individual to the metal, even when such cosmetics are no longer
applied [27]. The exposure of the skin to heavy metals may extend the dermal inflam-
mation to the systemic system [26]. Ni can only penetrate and reach the general
circulation, when damage is provoked by other metals [28]. Other metals such as Hg,
Pb and Cd may enter the general circulation through the skin layers and transported
to various organs within the body [29, 30]. This permeation can occur via sweat
glands and hair follicles. Besides direct contact, oral ingestion of heavy metals may
occur by the application of cosmetic products either to the lips (e.g., lipstick, lip gloss
and lip balms) or within the buccal cavity (toothpastes, mouthwashes and breathe
sprays) or by hand to mouth transfer of any cosmetic applied to any body part [31].
Thinner facial skin is more permeable than skin elsewhere [32]. Several studies show
that certain heavy metals (such as Pb, Hg and Cd) found in topical cosmetics are
found in high concentrations in the blood, urine and internal organs of individuals
who use cosmetics when compared to individuals who do not [33–40]. Cosmetics that
are applied directly to the skin may contain moisturizing agents that increase skin
3
Heavy Metals - New Insights

permeation that may allow the entry of xenobiotics, to which some heavy metals may
be bound, into the general circulation [41]. Apart from the binding of heavy metals to
exogenous substances [42], these may also bind to endogenous biological molecules,
hence replacing the beneficial metals. These metals may bind to several functional
groups such as the amine, carboxylic and thiol function groups present in several
proteins, some of which have functional roles (such as enzymes), while others have
structural roles (such as collagen, keratin, actin and myosin). These metals can also
bind to nucleic acids which may lead to defective DNA and RNA synthesis that may
result in carcinogenesis. The application of underarm products has been hypotheti-
cally associated with the possibility of breast cancer [43]. Therefore, heavy metals
provoke several toxic effects at the cellular and molecular levels [44, 45].
Several authors reported the presence of heavy metals in cosmetic products.
This review gives an insight into the presence and effects of the most notorious and
underestimated heavy metals in cosmetics products. The metals under discussion are
lead, cadmium, nickel, mercury and arsenic.

4. The presence of typical heavy metals in cosmetics and their effects

4.1 Lead

One of the most studied heavy metals is lead. Lead is not normally used for its
potential properties but it is rather considered as a contaminant with serious effects
on human health. When a lead comes in contact with vital organs, it is neurotoxic,
nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic [46, 47] and may provoke effects also on the reproduc-
tive system [48]. Lead can also affect fetal development through its passage via the
placenta [49, 50]. Some studies have shown that it is considered a potential carcinogen
to humans [51]. It has been reported that the level of Pb in the blood of consumers
who use eye cosmetics was threefold higher than that of non-consumers [52]. Lead
is acquired from industrial dust and fumes, car emissions, industrial chemicals such
as old paints and pesticides, and a burning of fossil fuels. Food contamination may
occur from some of these sources. Authorities worldwide are in a continuous struggle
to establish permissible limits for Pb. The World Health Organization established a
limit of 10 ppm [53]. The permissible level according to [54] is 0.1 mg/l. The FDA
established a maximum permissible content of 10 ppm for Pb in color additives for
the manufacture of cosmetics using Good Manufacturing Practices [10]. However, in
color additives, the Pb content should not exceed 20 ppm [55]. Lead and its salts are
prohibited in any cosmetic product within the EU [5]. Health Canada established a
limit of 10 ppm for lead in cosmetic products [11].
As shown in Tables 1–3, several researchers investigated the presence of lead
in several cosmetic products. The lipstick group is one of the most widely investi-
gated groups with over fifteen citations. Only one study reported the absence of Pb
in lipsticks [67, 70] whereas three other studies reported negligible Pb content in
lipsticks [56–58] as their lower limit. Four studies showed a significantly high lead
content (73.1–3760 ppm) [14, 16, 18, 57]. Most studies reported a Pb content that is
within the 20 ppm permissible limit established by the FDA [59]. Some studies also
tried to establish any differences between the high- and low-priced lipsticks (0.06–
0.106 ppm) [60]. Eyeshadows ranks second in terms of investigated groups for Pb
content. Four studies reported negligible Pb content in eyeshadows [31, 71–73] as their
lower end. Whereas some studies have reported low Pb content as their lower end, the
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102406

Pb Cd Ni Hg As

Lipsticks <DL-252.4 ND-60.20 ND-22.8 <DL to 80.00 0.01–6.931

[14, 18, [14, 18, [18, 45, 56, [58, 61–63] [58, 62, 63]
45, 56–66] 45, 56, 58, 60–62, 64,
0.27–3760 [16] 60–69] 66, 70]
Eye-shadows <DL-81.5 <DL-55.59 < 0.5–359.4 <DL-181.00 <DL-1630
[16, 19, 31, [19, 58, 61, [19, 31, 61, 62, [58, 62] [58, 62, 75]
58, 61, 62, 65, 62, 65, 71, 71, 72, 74]
71–74] 72, 74]
Eyebrow 0.109–61.22 ND-1.12 2.1–10.52 [62] ND-67.42 ND-2.071
pencils and eye [58, 59, 62, 63] [58, 62, 63] [58, 62, 63] [58, 62, 63]
liners
Mascaras ND-12.51 ND-0.034 ND-0.028 ND-0.002 0.050–1.656
[58, 59, 73] [58] [76, 77] [58] [58]
Make-up <DL to 190 <DL to 17 <DL to 13.1 48.99–60.77 0.12–1.0 [63]
foundation [60, 61, 63, [45, 60, 61, [60, 61, 64] [63]
64, 78] 63, 64]
Face paints 0.02–370 [79] 0.01–19.2 7.6 ppm [79] ND-0.004 0.125.0 [79]
[79] [69]
Face cream ND-1.9 [62] ND-0.37 ND [70] ND-1.27 [62] ND-0.171
[14, 62] [62]
Toothpaste ND-18.092 ND-2.490 0.025–18.535 ND-13.14 0.06–26.94
[21, 80, 81] [80–82] [80–82] [81, 83] [83]

Table 1.
The content of heavy metals in face products; cosmetics and face care products.

Pb Cd Ni Hg As
Body lotions <DL to 47.5 ND [62] ND-0.003 <DL to 47.5 ND-0.007 [62]
[61, 62] [62] [61, 62]
Hair shampoos 0.66–54.56 ND [14, 62] 0.01–0.06 ND-21.08 0.002–0.2
and conditioners [14, 62] [62] [62, 83] [62, 84]
Cleansers 0.04–22.14 ND [14] ND-0.08 ND-0.72 ND-0.009 [62]
[14, 62] [62] [62]
Lotions 0.068–8.29 0.007–2.13 0.012–6.29 18.98–19.02 1.537–1.543 [83]
[64] [64] [64] [83]
Hair dyes and 0.402–17.70 0.001–1.11 0.081–4.167 53.74–90.32 0.16–0.71 [63]
creams [17, 63, 64] [63, 64] [64] [63]
Tonic creams 0.35–0.55 0.35–0.55 3.40–4.70 — —
[85] [85] [85]
Beauty cream 14.38–50.39 2.40–6.27 0.0175–5.09 47.17–124.8 5.08–10.74 [83]
[14, 86] [86] [87, 88] [83]

Table 2.
The content of heavy metals in body products.

higher end exceeded the 20 ppm limit established by FDA [16, 19, 61, 71, 74]. Other
eye products include eyebrow pencils (0.109–18.60 ppm) [58, 62, 63] and mascaras
(ND-12.51 ppm) [58, 59, 73], all within the 20 ppm limit established by the FDA.
5
Heavy Metals - New Insights

Pb Cd Ni Hg As

Skin lightening <DL-143 0.1–1.276 2.59–11.17 <DL-126,000 0.7–12.30

creams [21, 60, 61, [60, 64, 89] [60, 64] [15, 53, 61, 70, [53, 89]
64, 89] 89–94]
Sunblock ND-6.889 ND-0.155 ND-12.37 ND-1.62 [62] ND-0.01 [62]
cream [62, 64] [62, 64] [62, 64]

Table 3.
The content of heavy metals in face and body products.

There is only one study that reported Pb levels of 61.218 ppm in mascaras [59]. Face
products vary significantly in their Pb content. Make-up foundation and face powders
contain negligible Pb content up to 190 ppm as reported by [61]. Other studies did not
exceed a content of 22.57 ppm [60, 63, 64], although one study reported a maximum
of 41 ppm [78]. Face washes exceed the FDA limit (24.06–40.61 ppm) [14] and face
creams contain minimal content of Pb (0.77 ± 1.13 ppm) [62]. Cosmetic face paint
is a potential threat to frequent consumers as reported levels go up to 16.6 ppm [79].
Most hair products do not pose a potential problem as reported for hair shampoos,
conditioners and dyes [17, 62–64]. Only one study reported a level of 54.56 ppm in hair
products [14]. Several studies investigated body products that are applied over a larger
surface area than those mentioned previously. Beauty creams contain a considerable
amount of Pb with levels reaching 50.39 ppm [14, 86]. Although, somebody lotions
contain low Pb levels [62], one study shows also high Pb content in such products
[61]. This same study also reports a high Pb level in skin-lightening creams (up to
43.04 ppm) alongside another study showing a maximum level of 143 ppm [89]. On
the other hand, two studies show low Pb contents (<4.015 ppm) [60, 64]. Cleansers
and lotions also contain low Pb levels (< 22.14 ppm) [14, 62, 64]. Products that are
applied to the buccal cavity include toothpaste. These may pose a problem in addition
to mucosal absorption, Pb can be also ingested and absorbed via the gastrointestinal
tract. In some studies, the level of Pb in toothpaste is minimal (0.036 ppm) [80],
however, in other studies, the highest levels were 12.04 ppm [81] and 18.092 ppm [21].
Lead is considered as a contaminant that is present to different extents in various
cosmetic preparations. Several authorities recognize Pb as a toxic metal by setting up
limits for its presence in cosmetics.

4.2 Cadmium

Cadmium is one of the metals that has been used in cosmetics for its colored salts,
ranging from deep yellow to orange [2]. It has been associated with several toxicities
in humans, mainly attributed to its absorption after topical application of several
cosmetics [49, 86, 95] though this is very low (0.5%). Topically, it may cause irritant
dermatitis [96]. The main concern with Cd is that it tends to accumulate in human tis-
sues and then release slowly into the general circulation. However, it normally binds
to the keratin. Systemically, it mainly affects the skeletal, reproductive, metabolic
[88], respiratory and renal systems [97, 98]. It has been associated with osteoporosis,
diabetes, lung cancer and kidney damage [99]. It contributes also to skin ageing as
it may provoke oxidative stress [25]. Despite of its presence in cosmetics, it may be
found in several sources such as industrial wastes, agrochemicals (pesticides and
fertilizers) and batteries. According to the WHO, the permissible limit for cadmium

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102406

is 0.3 ppm [53]. The permissible level according to [54] is 0.06 mg/l. The oral limit
for Cd is 0.09 μg/kg to 3 ppm as given by USP for nutritional supplements. Cadmium
and its salts are prohibited in any cosmetic product within the EU [5]. Health Canada
established a limit of 3 ppm for Cd in cosmetic products [11].
Cadmium is another metal, which is banned by several authorities but still found
in several cosmetics, as reported by several researchers (Tables 1–3). One of the
studies that reports the absence of Cd in lipsticks was conducted by [67]. Several
other studies reported levels that were lower than 0.002 ppm and levels that reached
content of 60.20 ppm. Despite this, only two studies showed levels of Cd higher
than 5 ppm [65, 68]. Due to possible ingestion, lipstick use may be linked to systemic
toxicity. A study established a difference between high-priced (0.34 ± 0.20 ppm) and
low-priced (0.89 ± 0.58 ppm) lipsticks [60]. Although, eye shadows may contain the
deep yellow to orange pigments more than lipsticks, the Cd content of eye shadows
as reported by several researchers did not exceed 3 ppm [19, 58, 62, 63, 71, 72, 74].
However, levels of 8.89 ppm [71] and 55.59 ppm [65] were reported for eye shadows.
Another eye make-up was reported to contain low Cd content by three studies. For
eyebrow pencils, the maximum content of Cd was 1.12 ppm [63], whereas the content
of Cd in mascaras was reported to be lower, i.e., 0.034 ppm [58]. Other facial cosmet-
ics were also reported to contain a low amount of Cd, with levels less than 0.96 ppm
[45, 60, 63, 64]. The highest level was expressed to be that of 17 ppm [61] in the
make-up foundation. Similarly, Cd levels did not exceed 0.67 ppm and 0.37 ppm in
face washes and face creams, respectively [14]. Tonic creams did not exceed a level of
0.55 ppm [85]. In face paints, the average level reported was 0.6 ppm [79]. Cadmium
was also absent in hair shampoos and conditions, with levels being below the detec-
tion limit [14, 62]. Negligible Cd content was also present in hair dyes with levels not
exceeding 1.11 ppm [63, 64]. Body cosmetics are also generally low in Cd with levels
not exceeding 0.92 ppm in skin lightening creams [60, 64, 89], 0.121 ppm in sunblock
creams [62, 64] and 2.13 ppm in lotions [64]. No cadmium was detected in body
lotions [62] and cleansers [14]. The level of Cd in most toothpastes did not exceed
0.058 ppm [80, 81] but a maximum of 2.49 ppm was reported [82].
Although, Cd is considered one of the most common and noxious heavy metals, it
seems that its use in cosmetics is very limited. It may be concluded that Cd presence
in cosmetics is considered to be a contaminant rather than an ingredient, as a coloring
agent.

4.3 Nickel

Nickel is one of the metal impurities which is inevitably found in several natural
ingredients used in cosmetic products. Most of the salts containing nickel are green
in color, hence also its potential use as a colorant. However, nickel is considered to be
a contact allergen that may provoke dermal sensitization, allergies, and dermatitis
[100] by direct and often prolonged exposure. Persons have been diagnosed with Ni
allergy due to its presence in topical cosmetic products and jewelry [101]. Nickel may
also affect the respiratory system which may result in nasal and lung cancer [98].
Despite of the potential use of cosmetics to maintain the skin in a rejuvenating state,
Ni in such products may lead to oxidative stress and hence promote skin aging [25].
This may be due to the overexpression of collagenases in the skin leading to the weak-
ening of the skin matrix and a subsequent loss in elasticity [102]. The International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified metallic Ni as a potential

7
Heavy Metals - New Insights

carcinogen to humans (Group 2B) and its compounds as carcinogenic (Group 1)

[103]. Nickel may be found occurring naturally in soil and volcanic dust. This may be
acquired from industrial dust and fumes. Due to the potential skin sensitization, lim-
its for Ni presence in products have been proposed. Limits of 5 ppm [88] and 1 ppm
[104] were suggested for certain household products and detergents, respectively.
Likewise, in cosmetics, a Ni limit was also proposed particularly aimed for sensitized
persons. Most “nickel-free” products on the market, contain less than 1 ppm of Ni
[31, 105, 106]. The permissible level is 0.20 ppm according to [107] for oral consump-
tion. Nickel and a number of its salts are prohibited in any cosmetic product within
the EU [5]. These include nickel monoxide, dinickel trioxide, nickel dioxide, trinickel
disulphide, tetracarbonynickel, nickel sulphide, nickel dihydroxide, nickel carbonate
and nickel sulphate.
Due to its possible implications in allergenic reactions, the content of Ni in a num-
ber of cosmetic products was reported by a number of research groups (Tables 1–3).
The risks associated with Ni intoxication is more possible with cosmetics that are
potentially ingested. Lipsticks and lip products are amongst these candidates. Most
lipstick products investigated by research groups rarely contained less than 0.20 ppm
of Ni for oral consumption. Due to the short-term duration of lipstick on the lips,
these products are applied frequently by consumers. This may pose a further exacer-
bation if ingested. The maximum levels in most studies range from 1.61 to 22.8 ppm
of Ni in lipsticks [18, 45, 56, 61, 64, 66, 70]. However, in one study it was reported
that the mean Ni content was 0.10 ± 0.14 ppm [62]. It was demonstrated that the price
has no impact on Ni content of lipsticks (high-priced 8.24 ± 3.29 ppm and low-priced
5.15 ± 4.19 ppm) [60]. Oral consumption may be due to the accidental swallowing
of toothpaste. Studies have shown the range of Ni content in most toothpaste is
between 0.02 and 2.54 ppm [80, 81] but another study reported maximum levels of
18.535 ppm [82]. Dermal sensitization has been associated with eye cosmetic prod-
ucts. In this situation the 1 ppm threshold is applicable. Several studies have reported
levels of Ni which exceed 1 ppm. Only two studies show that the minimum level of Ni
in eye-shadows was less than 1 ppm [19, 31]. In several studies, maxima for Ni levels
ranged between 4.133 and 359.4 ppm [61, 62, 71, 72, 74]. Nickel has been found in a
green eye liner which provoked a form of contact dermatitis in a 47-year-old woman
[76] whereas another study reported contact allergy to a Ni-containing mascara
[77]. A study reported a mean Ni content of 6.31 ± 4.21 ppm in eyebrow pencils [62].
Most make-up foundation products seem to contain high amounts of Ni, quoting the
minimum values above 3 ppm and the maximum values to 13.01 ppm [60, 64]. Only
one study reported values being less than the detection limit [61]. In a study on face
paints, the average Ni content was 7.6 ppm [79]. However, in other facial formulations
such as face washes and creams, the content was reported to be very low with a mean
of 0.04 ± 0.11 ppm [14] or not detectable [70] for these formulations respectively.
Hair products are of no major concern, as the levels in shampoos and conditions do
not exceed 0.06 ppm whereas the highest content of Ni in hair dyes is 4.167 ppm [64].
Body products vary in Ni content. In general, Ni does not exceed 12.37 ppm, but the
1 ppm of Ni is exceeded for most products that include skin lightening creams, sun
blocks, tonic creams and body creams [60, 64, 85, 87, 88]. Body lotions and cleansers
seem to contain very low Ni contents (<0.08 ppm) [62].
Whereas Ni in mascaras and eye shadows has been implicated in its involvement
in allergic chronic dermatitis, several studies have reported that Ni allergy cannot be
considered as the main risk factor in patients reporting eye-lid dermatitis [108].

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4.4 Mercury

Mercury is one of the heavy metals that is widely used in cosmetic formulations.
Although, mercury is known as a shiny, silvery, dense liquid, it may occur in vari-
ous inorganic and organic compounds. In the inorganic form, such as ammoniated
Hg, it is used for its skin lightening properties, whereas in the organic form, such as
phenyl mercuric and ethyl mercuric salts, it is used as a preservative in mascaras and
eye makeup cleansing products [90, 109]. After dermal application, Hg penetrates
through the skin via the hair follicles and sweat glands [29, 96]. During this process,
part of the Hg is reduced to the metallic form that accumulates in the skin tissue. Hg
blocks tyrosinase in situ, inhibiting the melanin-forming enzyme [110], hence its use
in skin-lightening creams [22]. Only one study mentioned that cream had the abbre-
viation ‘precip blanc’ on the label, which should suggest that this product contains Hg
[36]. Systemically, Hg may exhibit a range of signs which include vomiting, nausea
and kidney damage, central nervous sytstem effect which include irritability, tremors,
weakness, nervousness, fatigue and memory loss. It may affect also the sensorial
systems, that is, loss in hearing, taste and vision. Finally, high Hg content may lead to
death [111, 112]. In some instances, following dermal absorption and systemic uptake,
Hg may induce autoimmune glomerulonephritis. Studies reveal significant accumula-
tion of mercury in several organs and body fluids, such as hair (22.5 ppm, twice that
in non-cosmetic users), blood (up to 233 nmol/l, more than four times than that in
non-cosmetic users] and urine (up to 2531 nmol/day, fifty times more than that in
non-cosmetic users) [39, 91, 113, 114].
Mercury is a metallic element that is naturally occurring in the environment and
its compounds are the most common form that exists naturally in the environment.
Due to its ubiquity, several authorities issued limitations for Hg use. For instance,
the FDA restricts its use and is regulated in cosmetic products. The FDA allows a
maximum level of 1 ppm of Hg in mercury-contaminated lead acetate when used as a
colour in cosmetics [10]. Within the European Union, mercury and its compounds are
not allowed in cosmetics, whereas phenyl mercuric salts are only allowed as preserva-
tives in eye care products at a maximum allowable level of 70 ppm [5] whereas in the
US it is allowed up to a level of 65 ppm by weight [10]. Health Canada allows a maxi-
mum Hg content of 1 ppm in cosmetics [11].
The main emphasis of analysis by researchers was conducted on skin-lightening
creams due to their interaction with melanin metabolism. Very few studies report
levels below the 3 ppm threshold [15, 53, 70] (Tables 1–3). Other studies reveal values
up to 126,000 ppm [61, 89–93]. Although, in some lipstick products, the Hg content
was below the detection limit [58, 61, 62], some of these same studies and others
reveal contents up to 80 ppm [63]. The status of Hg contamination in eye cosmetic
products varies significantly with levels of up to 181 pm in eye shadows [58, 62],
67.42 ppm in eyebrow pencils [58, 62, 63] but levels of up to 0.002 ppm in mascaras
[58]. Apart from the make-up foundation where levels of Hg reach a maximum
level of 60.77 ppm [63], other face products contain minimal amounts of Hg, such
as face creams (0.09 ± 0.37 ppm [62]), sunblock creams (0.41 ± 1.21 ppm [62]) and
face paints (<0.004 ppm [69]). In some studies, it was reported that the content
of Hg in hair products is below the detection limit [62] whereas in other studies, it
reached a maximum of 90.32 ppm [63, 83]. Body care products such as body lotions
and cleansers contain varied amounts of Hg [62], with products from the first group
with contents up to 47.5 ppm [61]. In some beauty creams, the Hg level reached a

9
Heavy Metals - New Insights

maximum of 124.8 ppm [83]. The presence of mercury in toothpaste has not been
widely investigated, but in two studies, the Hg level was reported to reach a maximum
of 13.14 ppm [81, 83].
As can be concluded from these studies, Hg is one of the least detected heavy
metals in most cosmetics [22], but not in skin-lightening products. Mercury is
found intentionally in face and skin care products rather than in products for purely
cosmetic use. Apart from skin-lightening properties, Hg compounds are claimed to
reduce and remove freckles, treat acne, and prevent and remove wrinkles [22].

4.5 Arsenic

Arsenic is a metalloid that is present ubiquitously as a major contaminant in the

environment. Although, it is redox inactive, its target functional groups are sulfydryl
groups on proteins which may lead to the depletion of glutathione [115], an essential
antioxidant of an amino acid origin, which prevents damage of cellular components
caused by radicals and heavy metals. On long-term dermal exposure, As can cause
hyperpigmentation and keratosis in situ, but systemically it may lead to carcinogen-
esis and vascular diseases [115, 116]. Though considered as a less significant contami-
nant in cosmetics than other heavy metals, authorities sought to establish limits for
its presence in cosmetic products due to long-term exposure. The problem with As
contamination goes beyond the legal cosmetic products placed on the market. It has
been found in high quantities in cosmetic products from the underground market
[58]. As with Hg, the FDA established a limit for As (up to 3 ppm) for lead acetate,
as a colorant, contaminated with this metalloid [10]. This acceptable maximum limit
goes also under the general limits set by Health Canada for all cosmetics [11]. Arsenic
and its salts are prohibited in any cosmetic product within the EU [5].
In general, several studies reveal that As is not a significant contaminant and levels
of this metalloid rarely exceed the 3 ppm limit (Tables 1–3). In lipsticks, although
most studies report a level of up to 0.34 ppm [62, 63], a study reported a maximum
level of 6.931 ppm of As [58]. In eye cosmetics, the maximum permissible limit
is rarely exceeded. In general, eye shadows, eyebrow pencils and mascaras do not
contain As levels more than 3.704, 2.071 and 1.656 ppm, respectively [58, 62, 63].
However, in a study, it was reported that in kohl, there was an alarming presence of
As (810–1630 ppm). Kohl is an ancient eye cosmetic still used nowadays [75]. The
danger with kohl is not solely because of its use as a cosmetic but there are claims that
falsely indicating its use for the treatment of eye conditions. Apart from the presence
of As in kohl, other face cosmetics, such as foundations and creams contain minimal
quantities of As, reported as up to 1.0 and 0.171 ppm, respectively [62, 63]. Less com-
monly used products include face paints particularly used by opera actors in China.
Levels of As reach a maximum of 25 ppm [79]. Shampoos, conditioners and dyes used
on the hair contain low As concentrations (<0.71 ppm) [62, 63, 94]. Likewise, in a
study, the As content for cleansers and sunblocks does not exceed 0.010 ppm [62] but
higher levels were reported for body lotions (1.543 ppm) [83]. There are some con-
cerns with skin-lightening creams as some exceed the 3 ppm threshold [53, 89] and
other creams with levels up to 10.74 ppm [83]. In some toothpaste, the As content was
26.94 ppm [83]. Most likely, As is present as a contaminant with other heavy metals
used for this purpose. In spite of these findings, As is one of those elements that is
rarely found in cosmetics [22]. However, its presence may raise concerns particularly
in legal products that are used on a long-term basis and in illegal cosmetic products on
the underground market.
10
Heavy Metals in Cosmetics
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102406

5. General considerations

The studies discussed in the previous sections highlight the importance of specific
metals as contaminants and additives in cosmetic products. To determine any particu-
lar relationships between formulations, a multi-variate meta-analysis was carried out
using Spearman correlation and Principal Component Analysis, taking into account
the maximum levels obtained for the various cosmetic formulations. Pearson correla-
tion statistics (Table 4) reveal a relationship between all five metals (r > 0.466). Two
latent factors had an eigenvalue greater than 1, which together explained 80.54% of
the total variance. The factor loadings demonstrated the different groups of variables
(Figure 1). Factor 1, displayed on the horizontal axis, weighed heavily on Pb, Cd,
Ni and As with lipsticks, eye shadows, face paints, make-up foundation and skin

Variables Cd Ni Hg As
Pb 0.538 0.495 0.527 0.579
Cd 0.779 0.334 0.750

Ni 0.446 0.641
Hg 0.465

Table 4.
Spearman correlation matrix for the five metals.

Figure 1.
Observations plot for the formulations. Legend: Lp = lipsticks; Es = eye shadows; Ep = eyepencils; Ma = mascaras;
Mf = foundation; Fp = face paint; Fc = face cream; Tp = toothpaste; SLc = skin-lightening creams; Sb = sunblock;
Hp = hair products; Hd = hair dyes; Bl = body lotion; Cl = cleansers; Lo = lotions; and Tc = tonic creams.

11
Heavy Metals - New Insights

lightening creams exhibiting high levels of these metals. These formulations were dis-
criminately different from the rest. On the other hand, F2, displayed on the vertical
axis, weighed heavily on Hg with skin lightening creams having superior quantities
of this metal for the other formulations. This multi-variate analysis consolidates the
findings from previous studies. The findings of such research works are at the disposi-
tion of authorities and policy makers for the formulation of high-quality cosmetic
products.

Author details

Tamara Attard1 and Everaldo Attard2*

1 Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta,

Msida, Malta

2 Division of Rural Sciences and Food Systems, Institute of Earth Systems,

University of Malta, Msida, Malta

*Address all correspondence to: everaldo.attard@um.edu.mt

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
12
Heavy Metals in Cosmetics
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102406

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