The Exceptional Child Inclusion in Early Childhood Education 8th Edition
The Exceptional Child Inclusion in Early Childhood Education 8th Edition
The Exceptional Child Inclusion in Early Childhood Education 8th Edition
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xxi
About the Authors xxiii
Section 1 Section 4
Early Intervention and Public Policy Implementing Inclusive Early Childhood
Programs
Chapter 1 An Inclusive Approach to Early Education 3
Chapter 2 Federal Legislation: Early Intervention Chapter 12 The Developmental-Behavioral
and Prevention 29 Approach 305
Chapter 3 Inclusive Programs for Young Children 55 Chapter 13 Arranging the Learning Environment 329
Chapter 14 Facilitating Self-Care, Adaptive,
Section 1 Wrap Up Early Intervention
and Independence Skills 361
& Public Policy 75
Chapter 15 Facilitating Social Development 383
Chapter 16 Facilitating Speech, Language,
Section 2 and Communication Skills 413
Likenesses and Differences among Children Chapter 17 Facilitating Pre-Academic
and Cognitive Learning 441
Chapter 18 Managing Challenging Behaviors 473
Chapter 4 Normal and Exceptional Development 79
Chapter 19 Planning Transitions to Support Inclusion 503
Chapter 5 Developmental Disabilities: Causes
and Classifications 97 Section 4 Wrap Up Implementing Inclusive Early
Chapter 6 Sensory Impairments: Hearing and Vision 119 Childhood Programs 524
Chapter 7 Physical Disabilities and Health Problems 143 APPENDIX A Culminating Activities 530
Chapter 8 Learning and Behavior Disorders 173 APPENDIX B Skill Profile (0–72 Months) 533
APPENDIX C Resources for Teachers and Parents 536
Section 2 Wrap Up Likenesses and Differences
APPENDIX D Early Learning and Developmental Diversity 538
among Children 206
APPENDIX E Sample IFSP Form 543
Glossary 547
Section 3 References 557
Planning for Inclusion Index 577
v
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Contents
vi
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2-4a Sacramento Unified School District v. Holland 3-6b Teaching to Enhance Development
(1992) 44 and Learning 71
2-4b Oberti v. Board of Education of Clementon 3-6c Constructing an Appropriate Curriculum 71
School District (1993) 45 3-6d Integrated Curriculum 71
3-6e Guidance of Social-Emotional Development 71
2-5 Public Policy and the Gifted 45
3-6f Assessing Learning and Development 72
2-6 Prevention 47 3-6g Reciprocal Relationships with Parents 72
2-6a The Timing of Prevention 47
Summary 73
2-6b Prevention of Secondary Disabilities 48
Key Terms 73
2-6c Prevention and Federal Legislation 49
Student Activities 73
Summary 51 Review Questions 74
Key Terms 52 Helpful Websites 74
Student Activities 52
SECTION 1 WRAP UP Early Intervention &
Review Questions 52
Helpful Websites 53 Public Policy 75
What Is a Team? 75
Special Focus: A Preschool Teacher’s Thoughts 76
Chapter 3 Inclusive Programs for Young
Children 55
3-1 Types of Inclusive Early Childhood Programs 56
TeachSource Video Connections Quality of Childcare 57 Section 2
3-1a Child Care Programs 57 Likenesses and Differences among
3-1b Preschools 58
3-1c Head Start 59 Children
3-1d School-Age Children 59
3-1e Recreation Programs 59 Chapter 4 Normal and Exceptional
3-2 System of Supports and Services 60 Development 79
3-3 Recommended Practices for Programs 60 4-1 What Is Normal, or Typical, Development? 81
3-3a Research-Based or Value-Based Practices 60 4-1a Developmental Sequences 81
3-3b Family-Centered Practices 61 4-1b Developmental Milestones 82
3-3c Multicultural Practices 61 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
3-3d Cross-Disciplinary Practices 61 Brain Research Experiences and Brain Development 83
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Aspects TeachSource Video Connections Language Development
of Culturally Competent Early Childhood Programs 61 for Early Childhood, from 2–5 84
3-3e Developmentally/Chronologically Case Study Why are they so restless? 86
Age-Appropriate Practices 62
4-2 What Is Atypical or Exceptional Development? 86
3-3f Normalized Practices 62
4-2a Developmental Disabilities and Delays 88
3-4 Inclusive Programs for Children from Birth 4-3 Children at Developmental Risk 88
to Age Two 63 4-3a Children with Special Gifts and Talents 89
3-4a Relationships among Caregivers and Children 63 Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Gifted
3-4b Environment and Experiences 63 Minority-Language Children 91
3-4c Equipment 64
TeachSource Digital Download Appropriate Toys Summary 93
for Very Young Children 65 Key Terms 93
3-4d Health, Safety, and Nutrition 65 Student Activities 94
3-4e Reciprocal Relationships with Families 66 Review Questions 94
Additional Resources/Readings 94
3-5 Inclusive Programs for Children Ages Three Helpful Websites 95
to Five 67
3-5a Creating a Caring Community of Learners 67
3-5b Teaching to Enhance Development
Chapter 5 Developmental Disabilities:
and Learning 67 Causes and Classifications 97
Case Study A caring community of learners 67 5-1 Causes of Developmental Differences 99
3-5c Constructing an Appropriate Curriculum 68 5-1a Biological Factors 99
3-5d Assessing Children’s Learning TeachSource Digital Download Typical Fetal
and Development 69 Development 100
3-5e Reciprocal Relationships with Parents 70 5-1b Abnormal Gene Disorders 102
3-6 Inclusive Programs for Children Ages 5-1c Prenatal Infections and Intoxicants 103
Six to Eight 70 5-1d Birth Complications 104
3-6a Creating a Caring Community of Learners 70 5-1e Complications Following Birth 105
5-1f Poverty 106
CONTENTS vii
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5-2 Classifications of Developmental Disabilities 108 7-2a Team Efforts 149
Case Study Jodie revisited 109 7-2b Adaptive Equipment 150
5-2a Categories of Disability under the IDEIA 109 7-2c Adapting Materials 151
TeachSource Digital Download Specific Disability Terms TeachSource Digital Download Classroom and Material
from the IDEIA Regulations 109 Adaptation 153
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections 7-2d Adaptations in the Classroom 155
Disproportionality in Special Education 111 Case Study Helping Clarissa 156
TeachSource Video Connections Kristina: Modifications for 7-3 Health Problems 156
a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Student in an Inclusive 7-3a Asthma 156
Elementary Classroom 112 7-3b Cystic Fibrosis 157
5-2b A Final Thought on Categories 115 7-3c Hemophilia 157
Summary 116 7-3d Leukemia 158
Key Terms 116 7-3e Sickle-Cell Anemia 158
Student Activities 116 7-3f Heart Problems 159
Review Questions 117 7-3g Diabetes 159
Helpful Websites 117 7-3h Seizure Disorders 160
7-3i AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Chapter 6 Sensory Impairments: Syndrome) 162
7-3j Obesity (Overweight) 162
Hearing and Vision 119 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
6-1 Deafness and Hearing Loss 121 Brain Research Recess and Brain Development 163
6-1a Types of Hearing Loss 121 7-3k Undernourishment 165
6-1b Warning Signs of Hearing Loss 122 7-3l Schools Play a Critical Role 165
TeachSource Digital Download Possible Signs of TeachSource Video Connections Childhood Obesity
a Hearing Impairment 123 and School Nutritions 165
6-1c The Impact of Hearing Loss 7-4 Health Problems and Classroom Practices 167
on Development 123 7-4a Health Records 167
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Bilingual 7-4b Administering Medication 167
Education 126 7-4c Emergency Considerations 168
6-1d Early Intervention 126 7-4d Confidentiality 168
6-1e Guidelines for Teachers 126
Summary 169
6-1f Assistive Technology 128
Key Terms 169
Case Study Helping a new student 128
Student Activities 169
6-2 Blindness and Vision Impairments 129 Review Questions 170
6-2a Types of Vision Problems 130 Additional Resources/Readings 170
6-2b Identifying Vision Problems 131 Helpful Websites 171
6-2c The Impact of Vision Problems on
Development 133 Chapter 8 Learning and Behavior
6-2d Early Intervention Programs 135
6-2e Teaching Children with Vision Loss 136 Disorders 173
Summary 138 8-1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Key Terms 138 (ADHD) 174
Student Activities 139 8-1a History of ADHD 175
Review Questions 139 8-1b Current Attempts at Defining ADHD 175
Additional Resources/Readings 140 8-1c Causes and Prevalence of ADHD 176
Helpful Websites 141 8-1d Intervention Strategies 176
8-2 Learning Disabilities 179
Chapter 7 Physical Disabilities and 8-2a Learning Disabilities Defined 180
Health Problems 143 TeachSource Digital Download Risk Indicators for
Learning Disabilities 181
7-1 Physical Disabilities 145 8-2b Risk Indicators 182
7-1a Cerebral Palsy 145 8-2c Response to Intervention (RTI) 186
7-1b Hypotonicity 146 TeachSource Video Connections Autism Therapy
7-1c Spinal Cord Injuries 147 and Insurance 186
7-1d Muscular Dystrophy 148 TeachSource Digital Download The Response to
7-1e Hip Dysplasia 148 Intervention Model 187
7-1f Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis 148 8-2d Program Considerations 187
TeachSource Video Connections Including Children
8-3 Behavior Disorders 189
with Physical Disabilities: Best Practices 148
8-3a Definitional Issues 189
7-2 Program Implications 149 8-3b Prevalence 189
viii CONTENTS
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8-3c Depression 190 9-5e Photos and Videos 236
8-3d Anxiety 190 9-5f Class Websites and E-mail Updates 236
9-5g Newsletters 236
8-4 Autism Spectrum Disorder 191
9-5h Parent and Teacher Meetings 237
8-4a Prevalence 192
TeachSource Video Connections Communicating with
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Lower Rates
Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood
of Autism in Hispanic Children? 193
Setting 238
8-4b Advances in Autism Research 194
9-5i Parent Support Groups 239
8-4c Problems that May Accompany ASD 194
9-5j Parent Feedback 239
8-4d Other Forms of Autism Spectrum Disorder 195
9-5k Home Visits 240
Case Study A new student 195
8-4e Intervention 196 Summary 241
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to Key Terms 241
Brain Research Early Intervention Model Helps Normalize Student Activities 242
Brain Activity in Children with Autism 198 Review Questions 242
Additional Resources/Readings 242
8-5 Eating and Elimination Disorders 200 Helpful Websites 243
8-5a Pica 200
8-5b Soiling and Wetting 201
A Final But Important Note 202 Chapter 10 Assessment and the IFSP/IEP
Summary 203 Process 245
Key Terms 203 10-1 Assessment of Young Children 246
Student Activities 203 10-1a Criterion-Referenced Assessment 247
Review Questions 204 10-1b Norm-Referenced Assessments 247
Helpful Websites 204 10-1c IQ Tests 248
SECTION 2 WRAP UP Likenesses and Differences 10-2 The Process of Early Identification 248
among Children 206 10-2a Case Finding 248
Special Focus: Inclusion Experience At JCC—A Parent’s 10-2b Screening 250
Perspective 206
10-3 The Family’s Role in Assessment 252
Inclusion Experience: Updated for Second Grade 208
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Avoiding
Inclusion Experience Updated for Fifth Grade 209
Cultural Bias during the Assessment Process 253
10-4 Teachers’ Role in Early Identification 254
10-4a Teachers’ Qualifications 254
10-4b Types of Observations 255
Section 3 TeachSource Digital Download Teacher Observation
Planning for Inclusion Form and Checklist for Children 3–5 Years 256
TeachSource Video Connections Progress Monitoring: Using
Chapter 9 Partnership with Families 215 Transitional Time in an Early Childhood Classroom 259
TeachSource Digital Download Guidelines for
9-1 Historical Perspectives on Family Involvement 217 Teacher Observations 260
9-2 Family Uniqueness? 218 TeachSource Digital Download Time Sampling of
9-2a What Is a Family? 218 Free-Play Activities 262
9-2b Families of Children with Disabilities 220 TeachSource Digital Download Teacher’s Dos
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Cultural and Don’ts 264
Self-Awareness and Cultural Competence 221 10-4c Some Cautionary Notes for Teachers 264
9-2c Family Adjustment 222 10-5 Individualized Family Service Plan 264
9-3 Family-Centered Practice 224 10-5a IFSP Requirements 265
9-4 Parent Participation 227 10-6 Individualized Education Program (IEP) 269
9-4a Rationale for Parent Participation 228 10-6a The IEP Team 269
9-4b Degree of Participation 228 10-6b Requirements of the IEP 270
9-4c Types of Parent Participation 229 Case Study An IEP dilemma 274
TeachSource Digital Download Sample Form for Parent 10-7 504 Plans 275
Observation 230 10-7a Requirements of the 504 Plan 275
9-4d Establishing Trust 231 TeachSource Digital Download Comparative Table for
9-5 Communicating with Parents 232 IFSP, IEP, and 504 Plans 276
9-5a Informal Exchanges 232 Summary 277
9-5b Telephone Calls 233 Key Terms 277
Case Study Sofia’s mom 233 Student Activities 278
9-5c Written Notes, Including E-mails 234 Review Questions 278
9-5d Texts 235 Helpful Websites 279
CONTENTS ix
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Chapter 11 Characteristics of Effective Case Study Marie’s behavior 314
TeachSource Digital Download Examples of
Teachers in Inclusive Programs 281 Incompatible Behaviors 315
11-1 Teachers As Members of a Team 282 12-3 Punishment 316
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Preparing 12-3a Side Effects of Punishment 316
Teachers to Work with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 12-3b Discipline versus Punishment 317
Children 283
11-1a Teachers’ Concerns 284 12-4 Step-By-Step Learning 319
11-1b Supplemental Professional Development 285 12-4a Observation and Task Analysis 319
11-1c Teacher and Program Self-evaluation 286 TeachSource Digital Download Blank Task Analysis
Data Sheet 320
11-2 The Applied Developmental Approach 286 12-4b Prompting, Fading, and Cueing 321
11-2a A Child Is a Child 286 12-4c Amount and Timing of Reinforcement 322
11-2b Review of Developmental Principles 287 12-4d Praise 322
11-2c Teachable Moments 289 12-4e Shaping 323
11-2d Milieu Teaching 290
12-5 Learning By Imitation 323
11-3 Characteristics of Effective Teachers 291 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
TeachSource Digital Download Characteristics of Brain Research Imitation and Mirror Neurons 324
Effective Teachers 291 12-5a Competition Is Inappropriate 324
11-3a Enthusiasm 292
11-3b Sense of Humor 292 Summary 325
11-3c Patience 292 Key Terms 326
11-3d Consistency 292 Student Activities 326
11-3e Flexibility 293 Review Questions 326
TeachSource Video Connections Teaching as a Profession: Additional Resources/Readings 326
An Early Childhood Teacher’s Responsibilities and Helpful Websites 327
Development 294
11-3f Trustworthiness 294 Chapter 13 Arranging the Learning
11-3g Provides Limits 294
11-3h Facilitates Experiences 295
Environment 329
Case Study One preschool teacher’s inclusion experience 296 13-1 The Inclusive Classroom Environment 330
11-3i The Teacher as Mediator 297
13-2 Preventive Discipline 331
Summary 298
Key Terms 299 13-3 Arrangements for Learning 332
Student Activities 299 13-3a Types of Learning 333
Review Questions 299 Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections
Additional Resources/Readings 300 Individualism versus Collectivism—What a Teacher
Helpful Websites 300 Learned 337
Section 3 Wrap Up Planning for Inclusion 301 13-4 Planning Early Learning Environments 339
Special Focus: Creating a Community of Caring 13-4a Safety 339
Learners 301 13-4b Visibility 342
13-4c Matching Children and Equipment 343
13-4d Ease of Movement 344
13-4e Promoting Independence 344
Section 4 TeachSource Video Connections Preschool: Appropriate
Implementing Inclusive Early Learning Environments and Room Arrangements 344
13-4f Teachers’ Availability 345
Childhood Programs 13-4g Offering Choice 345
13-4h Novelty versus Familiarity 345
Chapter 12 The Developmental- Case Study Preventive discipline in action 346
Behavioral Approach 305 13-4i Structured Flexibility 346
x CONTENTS
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13-6 Transitions 355 15-3a Temperament and Emotions 387
13-6a Procedures 355 15-3b Social Reinforcement 388
13-6b Considerations for Infants and Toddlers 356 15-3c Impact of Developmental Problems 389
13-6c Considerations for Early Elementary Years 357 15-3d Social Skills in Sequence 391
Summary 358 15-4 The Role of Early Learning Programs 392
Key Terms 358 15-4a Play 394
Student Activities 358 TeachSource Video Connections Young Children’s Stages
Review Questions 359 of Play: An Illustrated Guide 395
Additional Resources/Readings 359 15-4b Incidental Social Learning 398
Helpful Websites 359 15-4c Imitation and Modeling 402
15-5 Teacher-Structured Peer Interactions 402
Chapter 14 Facilitating Self-Care, 15-5a Peer Tutoring and Peer Mediating 403
Adaptive, and Independence Skills 361 Case Study Extra practice 404
15-5b Additional Ways Teachers Can Structure
14-1 Self-Care Skills and the Curriculum 363 and Facilitate Learning 404
14-1a Assessment 363 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
TeachSource Digital Download Examples of Self-Care to Brain Research Cognitive, Emotional, and Social
Skills for Various Age Groups 364 Capacities 406
14-1b Embedding Self-Care Learning 365
14-1c Individualizing Self-Care Programs 365 15-6 When More Intervention Is Needed 406
TeachSource Digital Download A List of Critical Social
14-2 When and How to Teach Self-Care Skills 367 Skills Required to Succeed in a Classroom Setting 407
14-2a Let the Child Do It 367 15-6a One-to-One Shadowing 408
14-2b How Much Assistance? 368
Summary 409
14-2c When to Help 369
Key Terms 409
Case Study Too much help 371
Student Activities 409
14-2d Game-Like Assistance 371
Review Questions 410
14-3 A Systematic Approach to Teaching Additional Resources/Readings 410
Self-Care 373 Helpful Websites 411
14-3a Specifying a Goal for Learning 373
14-3b Breaking the Skill into Small Steps 374 Chapter 16 Facilitating Speech,
14-3c Using a Systematic Teaching Approach 374
14-3d Using Data to Evaluate Progress 375 Language, and Communication Skills 413
14-3e Modifying the Teaching as Needed 375 16-1 Defining Speech, Language,
TeachSource Video Connections Preschool Health and Communication Skills 414
and Nutrition 375
TeachSource Digital Download Classroom Toileting 16-2 Language Acquisition 415
Data Sheet 376 16-2a Environmental Perspective 415
16-2b Innateness Perspective 416
14-4 Snack Time: An Opportunity to Teach so
Many Skills 377 16-3 Sequences in Language Acquisition 417
16-3a Pre-Linguistic Communication 417
14-5 Maturation and Learning: Toilet Training as 16-3b First Words and Sentences 418
an Example 378 TeachSource Digital Download Sequences in Language
14-5a Toilet-Training Programs 378 Acquisition 419
14-5b Special Considerations 378 16-3c Early Sentences 420
TeachSource Digital Download Toileting 16-3d Language Complexity 421
Sequence 379
16-4 Alternative Language Systems 422
Summary 380 16-4a Nonverbal Communication 423
Key Terms 380 16-4b Augmentative and Alternative Communication
Student Activities 380 Systems 423
Review Questions 380 Case Study Communicating with Tommy 424
Additional Resources/Readings 381 TeachSource Video Connections Assistive Technology in
Helpful Websites 381 the Inclusive Classroom: Best Practice 425
TeachSource Video Connections Tyler: Augmentative
Communication Techniques for a Kindergarten Student
Chapter 15 Facilitating Social
with Autism and Language Issues 425
Development 383
16-5 The Naturalistic Language-Learning
15-1 Social Skills and Overall Development 385 Environment 426
15-2 Defining Appropriate Social Skills 386 16-5a Arranging a Language-Learning
Environment 426
15-3 Acquiring Social Skills 387 16-5b Direct Assistance 428
CONTENTS xi
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Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to Summary 469
Brain Research Parent’s Use of Technology and Its Impact Key Terms 469
on Their Child’s Development 430 Student Activities 470
Review Questions 470
16-6 Speech Irregularities 430
Additional Resources/Readings 470
16-6a Articulation Errors 431
Helpful Websites 471
16-6b Lisping 431
16-6c Dysfluency 431
TeachSource Digital Download How to Keep Common
Speech Irregularities from Becoming Major Problems 432
16-6d Referral 433 Chapter 18 Managing Challenging
16-6e Intervention 433 Behaviors 473
16-7 English language learners (ELL) 434 18-1 When Is a Behavior a Problem? 474
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections What 18-1a Temperament 475
Is the Most Effective Method for Improving ELL 18-1b How Much Is Too Much? 475
Achievement? 435
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Total
18-2 A Tiered Framework for Intervention 476
TeachSource Video Connections Emotional
Physical Response (TPR) 437
Development 477
Summary 437 18-2a Designing Interventions 478
Key Terms 438
Student Activities 438 18-3 A Functional Approach to Managing Problem
Review Questions 438 Behaviors 478
Helpful Websites 439 TeachSource Digital Download A Functional Approach
to Managing Problem Behaviors 479
18-3a 1. Identify the Problem Situation 479
Chapter 17 Facilitating Pre-Academic 18-3b 2. Assess the Child and the
and Cognitive Learning 441 Environment 479
18-3c 3. Specify an Objective for the
17-1 Cognitive Development and
Intervention 480
Emerging Literacy 442 18-3d 4. Assess the Function of the Behavior 480
17-1a Defining Pre-Academics 442
18-3e 5. Identify a Replacement Behavior 480
17-2 What Brain Research Tells Us 444 18-3f 6. Plan the Intervention 481
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to 18-3g 7. Implement the Plan and Ensure that It Is
Brain Research Learning and the Brain 445 Carried Out as Planned 481
17-3 Banning Academics: ILL-Advised? 446 18-3h 8. Monitor the Child’s Progress and Continue to
Monitor Implementation 481
17-4 Developmentally Appropriate Pre-Academic
18-4 Data Collection and Monitoring
Experiences 447
17-4a Direct Teaching 447 Progress 482
17-4b Embedded Learning 448 18-4a Types of Data Collection 482
17-4c Computers and Assistive Technology 449 18-4b Collecting Data 482
17-4d Fostering Eagerness to Learn 451 18-5 Common Behavior Problems
17-4e Engaging Children’s Minds 451 and Solutions 485
17-4f Valuing Today’s Learning 452 18-5a Aggression 485
17-4g Readiness Skills 452 18-5b Disruptive and Destructive Behaviors 487
17-4h Fine Motor Skills 456 Case Study Reading time in Jessica’s classroom 488
17-4i Memory 459 18-5c Noncompliance 489
17-4j Following Directions 460 18-5d Temper Tantrums 492
17-4k Emerging Literacy 460 18-5e Separation Problems 493
TeachSource Video Connections English Language 18-5f Over-Dependence 494
Learners: Partnering with Parents to Promote Oral 18-5g Withdrawal 495
Language and Early Literacy 463 18-5h Inability to Share 496
17-4l Support for Emergent Reading 463 18-5i The Family’s Involvement 497
17-4m Support for Emergent Writing 463 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
17-4n Shared Book Experience 464 to Brain Research Executive Function Skills and Social
17-4o Integrated Content Focused Activities 464 Problem Solving 498
Case Study Supporting emerging literacy 465
Summary 499
17-5 Planning and Presenting Pre-Academics 465 Key Terms 500
17-5a Grouping Children 466 Student Activities 500
17-5b Arranging Pre-Academic Review Questions 500
Group Activities 466 Additional Resources/Readings 501
17-5c Enjoying Teacher-Directed Activities 468 Helpful Websites 501
xii CONTENTS
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Chapter 19 Planning Transitions to TeachSource Digital Download Some Activities That
Help Prepare the Child for a Transition from Preschool
Support Inclusion 503 to Kindergarten 519
19-1 Transitions During Early Childhood Services 504 Summary 521
19-2 Steps in the Transition Process 505 Key Terms 522
19-2a Developing a Planning Team 505 Student Activities 522
19-2b Setting Goals 505 Additional Resources/Readings 522
19-2c Roles of Team Members 506 Helpful Websites 523
19-2d Writing the Transition Plan Section 4 Wrap Up Implementing Inclusive
and Procedures 508 Early Childhood Programs 524
TeachSource Digital Download Information That Special Focus: My Role in Supporting Inclusion 524
Families May Wish to Share with Providers 509
19-2e Reviewing the Outcome of the Transition and
the Child’s Adaptation to the New Program 509 APPENDIX A Culminating Activities 530
TeachSource Video Connections Preschool: IEP and APPENDIX B Skill Profile (0–72 Months) 533
Transition Planning for a Young Child with Special APPENDIX C Resources for Teachers and Parents 536
Needs 509
APPENDIX D Early Learning and Developmental
19-3 Transition From Early Intervention Services to Diversity 538
Preschool Services 510
19-3a Changes in Service Delivery Models APPENDIX E Sample IFSP Form 543
and Plans 511 Glossary 547
19-3b Legal Requirements of Transition 511
Case Study Planning for a smooth transition 514 References 557
19-3c Specific Considerations for Children Moving Index 577
to Inclusive Settings 514
19-4 Transition to Kindergarten 515
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
to Brain Research Redshirting and Readiness 516
19-4a Transition Planning 516
CONTENTS xiii
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
A Comprehensive and
Accessible Guide
This eighth edition of The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in Early Childhood Education
provides a comprehensive guide for teachers, two- and four-year college students,
and for early childhood teachers and child care personnel in in-service training
programs—all of whom will be working in inclusive early childhood settings. It
is an equally valuable guide for parents, as well as for clinicians working with
teachers to provide a viable setting for children both with and without special
needs. The clinicians most commonly involved with teachers are speech and lan-
guage therapists, audiologists, physical and occupational therapists, nutrition-
ists, psychologists, social workers, behavior analysts, pediatricians, and nurses.
The combination of theory, philosophy, and best practices that comprise this
text will help to ensure that inclusion in early childhood programs is carried out
in the best sense of the concept:
That children with special needs attend school, child care, and recreational pro-
grams with their typically developing peers; that inclusion is much more than a
place, a curriculum, or teaching strategy; that inclusion is about belonging, being
valued, and having options; that inclusion is about accepting and valuing human
diversity and providing the necessary support so that all children and their families
can participate in programs of their choice.
In this edition of The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in Early Childhood Education,
we address many basic issues facing teachers, parents, and individuals working
in an inclusive setting. These issues include how to:
work effectively with a group of young children, one or more of whom
may be significantly challenged in physical, cognitive, language, social, or
behavioral development.
apply the developmental-behavioral approach to make classroom
management effective and positive.
arrange the environment so that every child has developmentally
appropriate learning opportunities.
translate significant research findings about the relationship of early brain
and language development into classroom practices.
ensure that every child, with his or her own interests and capabilities, is both
included with and accepted by other children.
xv
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arrange optimal learning activities at both the individual and the group
levels.
include parents and caregivers in ways that incorporate and value their
firsthand knowledge in planning for their child’s learning.
facilitate optimum speech, language, and communication development.
facilitate pre-academics and cognitive learning, as well as overall intellectual
development.
facilitate adaptive, self-care, and independence skills.
plan and facilitate transitions to other programs in ways that support
inclusion.
Text Philosophy
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is emphasized as basic to effective
teaching. Research findings in reinforcement theory and early childhood special
education give teachers well-tested and developmentally appropriate teaching
strategies. The focus of these strategies is on the intentional teaching of skills
that put a child’s physical, cognitive, or social development back on track. For
these strategies to be DAP-compatible, teachers must use them in the context
of ongoing assessment of a child’s developmental status, interests, and learning
styles.
Language Usage
Both vocabulary and language in this text will be familiar to most teachers and
students, despite overlapping terms. For example, terms such as exceptional, spe-
cial, and atypical are used interchangeably, reflecting the mixed usage within the
field. The same holds true for words commonly used, such as normal and typical,
to describe the vast majority of children who are more similar than different in
their development.
Words that may be unfamiliar, or that have special meaning, appear in bold-
face in the text and are defined in the glossary. Use of person-first language re-
flects respect for individuals with developmental disabilities.
Both the acronyms of IDEA and IDEIA are used interchangeably in this text
to refer the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendment of 1997, and
most recently renamed as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improve-
ment Act of 2004, PL 108-446.
Text Organization
The nineteen chapters that comprise the eighth edition are grouped by content
into four major sections.
Section 1 gives an overview of early intervention and public policy, providing
the background and foundation material for the text as a whole. Chapters 1, 2,
and 3 set the scene for the chapters that follow by defining inclusion. These
chapters also provide an updated review of public policy related to early inter-
vention and describe the major types of inclusive early childhood programs.
xvi Preface
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Section 2 concentrates on children and their similarities, as well as their dif-
ferences. Chapters 4 and 5 offer a detailed exploration of typical and atypical
development; an overview of types and causes of developmental disabilities; and
an expanded look at genetic, chromosomal, and metabolic disorders.
Section 3 concentrates on planning for inclusion. The chapters focus on
partnerships with parents and their participation in the inclusion process, as
well as their participation in the writing of the individualized education program
and/or individualized family services plan (IEP/IFSP). This section also includes
information on the preparation of teachers for working in inclusive classrooms
and functioning on an interdisciplinary child-study team.
Section 4, comprising most of the second half of the text, focuses on what
teachers do in their classrooms on a day-to-day basis. This is the heart of the
book—the “how to”—and it provides teachers with information they need in
order to apply the philosophy, principles, and strategies that make inclusion
work for all children.
Preface xvii
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The text also contains a description of current legislative activities on
behalf of young children and their families, including an update on the
reauthorization of IDEA and No Child Left Behind. Current coverage of
Response to Intervention (RTI) is also included.
The text includes updated and expanded information on many topics,
including universal learning design, childhood obesity and school health
guidelines, the appropriate use of technology in early childhood programs,
quality indicators of an inclusive classroom, family-center practices,
augmentative and alternative communication systems, and English language
learners.
Comprehensive and up-to-date website listings are included at the end of
each chapter.
New “Section Wrap Ups” have been added to this edition. These Section
Wrap Ups include “Special Focus” features written by parents and
professionals that provide a real-life, first-person perspective on inclusion.
There are application questions at the end of each Special Focus piece.
The full-color photos in this edition illustrate key concepts within the text.
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes
The eighth edition of The Exceptional Child has been updated in a myriad of
ways. The most significant of these revisions are:
Chapter 1: Information on the importance of nurturing relationships to
brain development in infants and children.
Chapter 2: Expanded information on a child care center’s responsibility
under the ADA. Updated information on No Child Left Behind and the
Vaccines for Children’s program.
Chapter 3: Information on the aspects of culturally competent early
childhood programs.
Chapter 4: Research showing the importance of everyday experiences to
brain development.
Chapter 5: Expanded information on categories of disabilities under IDEIA.
Updated content for intellectual and emotional disorders.
Chapter 6: A reference chart for signs of a hearing impairment as well as
description of sign language around the world.
Chapter 7: Expanded information on universal design for learning (UDL).
A discussion of research demonstrating the connection between physical
activity and brain development. Information on the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s School Health Guidelines to Promote Healthy
Eating and Physical Activity.
Chapter 8: Updates on the autism spectrum and attention deficit
disorders, based on DSM-5, as well as a discussion of advances in the area
of autism research.
Chapter 9: Additional content on family-centered practice and the
importance of family involvement.
Chapter 10: New content on the role of the family in the assessment
process, including information on cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
differences. Expanded information on how to write IEP Goals.
xviii Preface
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Chapter 11: Material on preparing teachers to work with culturally diverse
children.
Chapter 12: A review of research on mirror neuron networks and their
relation to learning by imitation.
Chapter 13: A checklist that can be used by parents when looking for a program
or by program staff to determine if their program is effectively including every
child, as well as a checklist for age-appropriate design for outdoor play.
Chapter 14: A description of how visual cues can be used to support self-care
routines. A discussion of how snack time provides an opportunity to practice
many skills in addition to self-care.
Chapter 15: An explanation of how the Tiered Framework for Intervention
provides a model for supporting the social and emotional development of
all children, while also providing the systematic intervention that some
children need to acquire social and emotional skills.
Chapter 16: Additional information on augmentative and alternative
communication systems. Updated information on English language
learners (ELL).
Chapter 17: Expanded information on the appropriate use of technology and
interactive mediation tools in early childhood programs.
Chapter 18: A discussion of the importance of children’s executive function
skills as the foundation for learning and social interaction, and the link
between early school success and social-emotional development.
Chapter 19: Updated information on transitional kindergartens and the
practice of red-shirting kindergarten-aged children, as well as additional
information on the role of service providers and parents during transitions.
TeachSource Videos
The TeachSource videos feature footage from the classroom to help students relate
key chapter content to real-life scenarios. Critical-thinking questions provide op-
portunities for in-class or online discussion and reflection.
Preface xix
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tool that monitors student engagement in the course. The accompanying instructor
website, available through login.cengage.com, offers access to password-protected
resources such as PowerPoint® lecture slides and the online Instructor’s Manual with
Test Bank. CourseMate can be bundled with the student text. Contact your Cengage
sales representative for information on getting access to CourseMate.
xx Preface
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Acknowledgments
The authors express their great appreciation to the following lifelong friends,
family, and colleagues who gave generously of their time, energy, and talent in
making the eighth edition of this text the best yet.
John, Henry, and Callie Cowdery, who, although patient, were very happy
when the book was complete
Kim Crane, friend and third-grade teacher
Clarie Peterson, preschool teacher
Ann Gordon, consultant, retired professor
Leslie Kowitz, parent
Lynn R. Marotz, R.N., Ph.D., assistant professor and associate director of the
Edna A. Hill Child Development Center at the University of Kansas
Susan R. Sandall, Ph.D., associate professor, College of Education, University
of Washington at Seattle
Eileen would especially like to give equally heartfelt words of appreciation to
her coauthor, Glynnis Cowdery, who enabled this text to go to press.
Finally, the authors want to acknowledge the help of the following reviewers,
who provided useful input during the revision process:
Marnie Anderson, Harrisburg Area Community College
Rashida Banerjee, University of Northern Colorado
Deborah Bruns, Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Mary Cordell, Navarro College
Christine Davis, Triton College
Jennifer Dobbs-Oates, Purdue University West Lafayette
Elizabeth Elliott, Florida Gulf Coast University
Cyndra Gasperini, Pitt Community College
Kelly Hantak, St. Charles Community College
Dana Hilbert, Cameron University
Sharon Hirschy, Collin County Community College
Shari Johnson, Southwest Wisconsin Technical College
Abigail Kelley, Baystate College
xxi
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Holly Kirk, Itawamba Community College
Sharon Little, South Piedmont Community College
Suzanne Mira-Knippel, Southwestern Community College
Charlynne Murphy, Woodland College
Esther Ntuli, Idaho State University Pocatello
Tiffany Paine, Trinidad State Junior College
Dorothy Phalen, Adelphi University
Megan Purcell, Eastern Kentucky University
Karren Streagle, Virginia Commonwealth University
Sara Wasserman, Montclair State University
Chun Zhang, Fordham University
xxii Acknowledgments
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About the
Authors
xxiii
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Throughout her career, Eileen has been active in national and international
organizations focused on the development of young children and their families.
For more than fifty years, she has been an active member of the National Associa-
tion for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), beginning in those long-ago
days when it was called NANE (the National Association of Nursery Education,
pronounced “nanny”). Eileen was also an original member of the NAEYC Com-
mission on Developmentally Appropriate Practice, helping to draft the first DAP
handbook. She served on the Commission on Early Childhood Teacher Educa-
tion and participated in drafting the first set of published guidelines. Also, as a
founding member of National Association of Early Childhood Teacher Educators
(NAECTE), an affiliate of NAEYC, she became its second president. The Council
for Exceptional Children (CEC) was another focus for Eileen in the 1960s; she
served as a member of its governing board. During these years, she was a found-
ing member of DEC (the Division of Early Childhood, an affiliate of CEC) and
was elected as one of its early presidents.
While teaching at the University of Kansas, Eileen became active in the
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD), serving on the editorial
board and as chairperson of the national interdisciplinary committee. At this
time she was selected to be a congressional science fellow, and she devoted her
energy to children, youth, and family issues in the 101st Congress.
In 1987, Eileen retired from the University of Kansas and returned to her
home in Seattle, Washington. She continued to write and to advocate for chil-
dren and families well into her eighties when her loss of vision become too
limiting. Consulting as a child development specialist was also a part of her re-
tirement activities. (Eileen considers her two years as a consultant to Microsoft’s
efforts to design developmentally appropriate programs for toddlers and pre-
schoolers a highlight of her retirement.) Now in her nineties and with severely
limited vision and mobility, she most recently coauthored a book with Judith
R. Starbuck entitled I Like Being Old: A Guide to Making the Most of Aging. Eileen
spends as much time as possible at her peaceful cabin on the shore of the Hood
Canal, enjoying retirement with fewer external demands.
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The
Exceptional
Child
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An Inclusive
Approach to 1
Early Education
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1-1 provide a definition of inclusion.
1-2 describe an overview of the history of inclusion.
1-3 provide a rationale for inclusion in early childhood education.
1-4 discuss the implications for teachers and their responsibilities to ensure effective inclusion.
1-5 outline the potential benefits of inclusion.
1-6 identify concerns and challenges about inclusion for children with and without disabilities.
Jim Craigmyle/Comet/Corbis 3
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CONNECTIONS
●
Chanda, a young child with Down syndrome, attends a local child care program
while her parents are at work. A speech-language pathologist and physical therapist
come to the program every week to work with her and meet with her teacher.
●
After preschool, in a class with six children with disabilities and six children
without disabilities, Devon, a little boy with autism, takes swimming lessons
at the local community center.
●
Jonathan, a second grader with severe communication delays, participates in the
youth choir at his church.
● All of these children are involved in inclusive programs.
This book is about inclusion in the lives of young children such as Chanda,
inclusion children with special Devon, and Jonathan. Inclusion means that children with special needs attend
needs attend preschool, child preschool, child care, recreational programs, and school with typically develop-
care, and recreational
programs with their typically
ing peers. In an inclusive program, all participants are accepted by their peers
developing peers and other members of the community and are supported in an appropriate manner
that ensures that their needs are met (Stainback & Stainback, 1996).
Inclusion is not merely a place, or an instructional strategy, or a curriculum;
inclusion is about belonging, being valued, and having choices. Inclusion is also
about accepting and valuing human diversity and providing the necessary support
so that all children and their families can participate successfully in the programs
of their choice. Furthermore, inclusion is about accepting all children and their
families and supporting their participation in the program. This means that pro-
grams must be sensitive to and respectful of different cultural values, beliefs, and
practices. Program staff need to change their practices to accommodate the cultur-
al beliefs and practices of children and families; these accommodations will result
in programs that facilitate belonging and promote optimal child development.
A major change in public
educational policy came about
with the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act
(PL 94-142) in 1975. (This
law was renamed the Indi-
viduals with Disabilities Ed-
ucation Act [IDEA] when it
was reauthorized in 1990 as
PL 101-476 and amended
as PL 105-17, the Individu-
als with Disabilities Edu-
cation Act Amendment
of 1997, and most re-
cently as the Individuals
with Disabilities Educa-
tion Improvement Act
so of 2004, PL 108-446.
p o rt n ecessary
ing the s
u p Both the acronoyms
a ti o n is on provid of IDEA and IDEIA are
edu c
h a s is in inclusive used interchangably to
The emp a n particip
ate.
d re n c ng refer to this law.) This
that chil e Le ar ni
© Cengag
law entitles every-
one with a disability,
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from birth to age twenty-one, to a “free and appropriate public education” (FAPE).
In addition, this federal law requires every child with a disability to be educated
in the least restrictive environment. This means that children should be educated least restrictive environment
in the environment most like the educational environment of their peers who are (LRE) the most normalized
environment in which the needs
typically developing, where the child can be successful with appropriate supports
of a child with disabilities can
in place. Chapter 2 includes more information on legislation and policy. be met appropriately; often,
For more than three decades, parents and professionals have been working to the LRE is interpreted as the
provide free and appropriate education for all children in the least restrictive envi- environment in which typically
developing children function
ronment. The first attempt at implementing this vision was called mainstreaming.
The term integration also has been used to describe the inclusion of children mainstreaming enrolling
with disabilities in programs for typically developing children. children with disabilities along
with typically developing
Some educators argue that there are clear-cut differences between integration children in the same classroom
and mainstreaming; others use the terms interchangeably. Both terms refer to
integration children with
children with disabilities being placed in full-time or part-time programs designed
disabilities and typically
for typically developing children. You may also encounter the terms reverse developing children enrolled
mainstreaming or integrated special education. These terms are used to describe in the same program
special education classes that also include some typically developing children. In reverse mainstreaming spe-
a reverse mainstreaming or integrated special education class, the majority of the cial education classes that
children have identified special needs, the lead teacher has special education train- also include some typically
ing, and only one-quarter to one-third of the children are typically developing. developing children
The difference between mainstreaming and inclusion is philosophical. In main- integrated special education
streaming, children with disabilities had to “be ready” to be integrated into the including a few typically
developing children in classes
mainstream. The emphasis was placed on helping the child with disabilities meet
where the majority of children
the existing expectations of the classroom. Often the child with disabilities was have special needs
regarded as a visitor in the classroom and was actually assigned (according to school
records) to a special education class (Schorr, 1990). In inclusive education, children
with disabilities are full-time members of the general education classroom. The em-
phasis in inclusive education is on providing the support necessary so that the chil-
dren can participate in ongoing classroom activities. Support may include adaptation
of the curriculum, materials, or instructional practices. Support may also include addi-
tional staff, consultation, or specialized training for the existing staff. Support services,
such as speech therapy and physical therapy, are conducted in natural places in the
school environment, including the classroom, gym, and playground.
This chapter focuses on current perspectives on inclusive education for
young children. A brief overview of effective practices will be given; the specifics
of what to do are reserved for the remaining units of the text. The outcomes of
inclusive education, the benefits of inclusion, and some of the barriers to inclu-
sion will also be discussed.
Chapter 1 | AN INCLUSIVE A
PPROACH TO EARLY EDUCATION 5
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Inclusion is not a set of strategies or a placement issue. Inclusion is about
belonging to a community—a group of friends, a school community, or a neigh-
borhood. Ehlers (1993) describes three ways to view inclusion: through beliefs
and values, through experiences, and through outcomes.
The beliefs and values that every family brings to inclusion reflect the unique his-
tory, cultural influences, and relationships of that family (Harry, 1998; Luera, 1993).
Family choices must drive the inclusion process. The family identifies the commu-
nity to which it belongs and in which the child is to be included. The concept of
“goodness of fit” (Thomas & Chess, 1977) is essential when developing inclusive pro-
grams. An inclusive program must consider the uniqueness of every child and family
and how it can address the child’s strengths and needs as well as family priorities.
The beliefs and values that influence inclusion occur at the levels of the fam-
ily, the community, and society (Peck, 1993). A family’s belief system will have a
direct impact on its views about inclusion.
The sociopolitical context in which children and families live and work also im-
pacts inclusion. This includes how our society views high-quality early c hildhood
care and education for all children. In other words, if providing high-quality
child care for typically developing children is not a societal priority, providing
high-quality child care for children with disabilities will not be a priority either.
The experience of inclusion varies from child to child and from family to
family. The goal is to create a match between the program and the child and
family. Inclusive classrooms are caring communities that support the ongoing
development of participants (Salisbury, Palombaro, & Hollowood, 1993). Inclu-
sion requires planning, teamwork, and support. “Our values and beliefs will help
define our experience with inclusion; in turn, our experience will shape future
values and beliefs” (Odom et al., 1996).
The outcomes observed and reported by the parents and teachers of children
in inclusive educational programs are broad-based and holistic. These outcomes
include some of the developmental changes observed in segregated special educa-
individualized education tion programs (e.g., improved communication skills, improved motor skills). They
program (IEP) a document also include important changes in social behavior and a general sense of belonging.
that is mandated for every
student with a disability (ages
Many parents of children in inclusive educational programs report that their child
three to twenty-one) by PL 94- received his or her first invitation to a birthday party or to play at a friend’s house
142. The IEP is the blueprint for after being involved in inclusive education. Some parents report that they feel more
the services the child receives included in the community because their child is attending a “regular” school.
and must be developed every
year. It describes the child’s
Billingsley et al. (1996) propose three outcomes of inclusive education. These
current level of functioning and three interrelated concepts are membership, relationships, and development.
includes short- and long-term Membership includes the child’s interactions with groups: being a member of
goals and objectives. Parents a class, being a member of a small group within a class, and being a member of
must approve all IEPs.
non-school-related groups (e.g., children’s choir at church). The defining crite-
individualized family service rion is that other members of the group are willing to make accommodations for
plan (IFSP) similar to an IEP. the child with disabilities to support inclusion and membership.
The IFSP describes services
for very young children with The relationships concept looks at the different roles that children play in their
disabilities (ages 0–3) and their interactions with peers. For example, in the majority of interactions with peers,
families. The IFSP is mandated is the child with disabilities receiving help? Does the child with disabilities have
by PL 99-457. The IFSP is opportunities to be in the role of helping other children? Are there reciprocal or
written collaboratively and
describes the child’s current
play and companionship types of interaction? Looking at relationships this way
strengths and needs. The IFSP allows us to provide useful descriptions of the peers in the child’s social network.
describes what services will The development concept looks at more traditional types of early childhood spe-
be provided and the major cial education outcomes: changes in participation in classroom routine and rituals,
expected outcomes. Plans for
the transition at age three are
changes in social-communicative behavior, changes in functional skills, changes in
also included in pre-academic skills, and other goals that are included on a child’s individualized
the IFSP. education program (IEP) or individualized family service plan (IFSP) and plan for the
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
fi g ure 1 - 1
Definition of Early Childhood Inclusion The Division for Early
Childhood and the National
Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, policies, and practices that sup- Association for the Education
port the right of every infant and young child and his or her family, regardless of of Young Children Joint
ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members Position Statement on Early
of families, communities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experi- Childhood Inclusion
ences for children with and without disabilities and their families include a sense
of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and
© Cengage Learning
development and learning to reach their full potential. The defining features of
inclusion that can be used to identify high quality early childhood programs and
services are access, participation, and supports.
Chapter 1 | AN INCLUSIVE A
PPROACH TO EARLY EDUCATION 7
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1-2 Historical Perspective of Inclusion
1-2a ■ Early Attitudes
The number of children with disabilities in the educational mainstream has in-
creased steadily over the past thirty years. This is in marked contrast to the way
children with disabilities were viewed in the past. Caldwell (1973) gives the fol-
lowing description of the stages our society has gone through in its treatment of
people with disabilities.
Forget and hide Until the middle of the twentieth century, families, commu-
nities, and society in general seemed to try to deny the existence of people with
disabilities. As much as possible, children with disabilities were kept out of sight.
For example, families often were advised immediately to institutionalize an in-
fant with an obvious disability such as Down syndrome.
In 1950, the National Association for Retarded Children (now the ARC)
was founded. Efforts were put into motion to identify children with disabilities
and to bring them out of attics and back rooms. Members of President John F.
Kennedy’s family also were influential through their public acceptance of their
own family member with mental retardation.* The Kennedys’ acceptance went
a long way toward breaking down the social stigma attached to a family that
allowed a child with a disability (especially a child with mental retardation*) to
be seen in public.
Screen and segregate About the same time (1950), special education began in
public school systems. These first special education classes often provided little
more than custodial care. Caldwell describes it this way:
My first experience in lobbying was in Jefferson City, Missouri, where we
were trying to get classes for the educable and trainable mentally retarded.*
The children would be tested, labeled, segregated into a special facility,
and virtually isolated again. These special facilities would keep them out
of everybody’s hair . . . and [avoid] the irritation of not only the parents
but also the teachers. . . . It would also get them out of the way of other
children who would supposedly be held back by them. (p. 5)
The screen-and-segregate period lasted more than twenty years, at which
point the constitutional rights of people with disabilities began to be recognized.
Identify and help The identify-and-help period came about during the 1960s as a
result of political and social activities. Caldwell summed up this period thus: “We
have not abandoned concern with screening, with trying to find children who
need help. . . . We now try to make the search earlier in hopes of affording early
secondary prevention refers remediation or more accurately, secondary prevention” (p. 5; emphasis added).
to the early identification of
handicapping conditions (or Include and support Since Caldwell’s significant contribution, we have seen
potentially handicapping
conditions) and providing further change. In 1986, Madeleine Will, then assistant secretary at the Office
appropriate intervention of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (under the U.S. Department
services before the condition of Education), in an annual report regarding the status of special education
worsens or affects other areas programs, proposed what has been called the Regular Education Initiative. She
of development
cited concerns about some unintended negative effects of special education
“pull-out” programs. Her report suggested that greater efforts to educate
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.