SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OFAGRICULTURE

COURSE: Reference Services and Resources

(IRM 103)

(Semester 1: 2017/2018)

TOPIC: EVALUATION OF INFORMATION

SOURCES

Instructor: Prof. M. J. F. Lwehabura

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 EVALUATION OF INFORMATION SOURCES

Introduction

Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using

criteria governed by a set of standards. Evaluating information sources is an important
undertaking for any kind of information use including doing assignments, research as well as for
other general endeavor. In the course of information use, not all information is reliable or true,
nor will all information be suitable for every kind of information need. On the other hand print
and Internet sources vary widely in terms of their authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and
coverage. Users must critically evaluate the appropriateness of all types of information sources
prior to relying on them.

The Internet, especially the World Wide Web, has surpassed most libraries in the quantity of
information it makes available. However, the Web has not surpassed libraries in the overall
quality of information it makes available. Traditionally, a main component of library collections
has been print (paper) materials. Today, however, many online resources are being added to
supplement collections, replace printed (paper) items, or improve access. Although online
sources are accessible via the Internet, many originated in paper form and follow the same
publication criteria. Therefore the quality of print and online information sources are similar,
however they have to be evaluated in order to identify their quality.

Evaluation of information sources is therefore intended to analyze in order to assess their

credibility. In the contemporary information environment in which information users operate in,
the ability to assess different sources of information is highly relevant. This because of
developments in Information Technology (IT), information is presented in many formats and in
abundance such as:

 Textual or literary sources: journal articles, books, brochures, pamphlets.

 On-line information from web page, on-line journals, on-line e-books etc
 Audio sources: audio-interviews, sound clips.
 Audio-visual sources: TV-programs, Documentary movies.

This situation creates complexity to the users. It is therefore important to evaluate the suitability
of the information source right from the outset for its use.

Information evaluation can begin by evaluating a physical information source (a book or an

article) by first examining the bibliographic citation. The bibliographic citation is the written
description of a book, journal article, essay, or some other published material that appears in a
catalog or index. Bibliographic citations characteristically have three main components:

 Author
 Title, and
 Publication information. (Publisher, place and year)

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These components can help you determine the usefulness of this source for your task or
assignment. In the same way, you can appraise a Web site by examining URL on the home page
carefully. The Universal Resource Locator or Uniform Resource Locator ( URL) is an Internet
address that identifies the source of a particular file on the Internet. However the following
general criteria should be considered as a way of evaluating information sources:

GENERAL CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING INFORMATION AND ITS SOURCES

There are five general; criteria that should be considered in order to evaluate information and
information sources in general.

1. Scope.

What is the breadth of the article, book, website or other material? Is it a general work that
provides an overview of the topic or is it specifically focused on only one aspect of your topic.
Does the breadth of the work match your own expectations? Does the resource cover the right
time period that you are interested in?

2. Authority

 Who is the author/creator of the information?

 Evidence to show that the author is knowledgeable, reliable, and truthful.
 The reputation of the organization behind that information.
 There should be author’s credentials such as:
o Education, training, and/or experience in a field
o Author's title or position of employment.
o Author's reputation or standing among peers.

3. Date/Currency

 Is the publication date clearly stated?

 How current is the information?
 Is the web page maintained and updated regularly?

4. Objectivity

 Does the source present a balanced view on the topic?

 Is the bias of the author/creator obvious?
 Is the source trying to convince the user on a particular point of view?
 Is the publication in which the item appears published, sponsored, or endorsed by a
political or other special interest group?

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5. Intended audience / Level of information

 Who is the intended audience? General public? Educated ones? Layperson?

Professionals? Practitioners? Scholars?
 Is it written at a level that is understandable? Does it make sense? Consider the
vocabulary used.
 Does it build on what you already know? Does it include a bibliography or links to
additional sources to consult?
The above listed criteria for evaluating information can be applied to any type of resource
(books, articles or websites etc.) However, the nature of information from the Web provides
distinctive attention for evaluating them.

EVALUATING SOURCES WITH CRAAP

Information sources can also be evaluated using a CRAAP approach.

Currency: the timeliness of the information

 When was the information published or posted?

 Has the information been revised or updated?
 Is the information current or out-of date for your topic?
 Are the links functional?

Relevance: the importance of the information for your needs

 Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?

 Who is the intended audience?
 Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your
needs)?
 Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
 Would you be comfortable using this source for a research paper?

Authority: the source of the information

 Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?

 Are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations given?
 What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations given?
 What are the author's qualifications to write on the topic?
 Is there contact information, such as a publisher or e-mail address?
 Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source?
o examples:
 .com (commercial), .edu (educational), .gov (U.S. government)
 .org (nonprofit organization), or
 .net (network)

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Accuracy: the reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the content

 Where does the information come from?

 Is the information supported by evidence?
 Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
 Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
 Does the language or tone seem biased and free of emotion?
 Are there spelling, grammar, or other typographical errors?

Purpose: the reason the information exists

 What is the purpose of the information? to inform? teach? sell? entertain? persuade?
 Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
 Is the information fact? opinion? propaganda?
 Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
 Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases?

THE RATIONALE FOR EVALUATING WEB PAGES

The World Wide Web can be a great place to accomplish research on many topics. But putting
documents or pages on the web is easy, cheap or free, unregulated, and unmonitored. One of the
important advantage that has been brought by the Internet is the ability for people to express
themselves, find one another, exchange ideas, discover possible peers worldwide they never
would have otherwise met, and, through hypertext links in web pages, suggest so many other
people's ideas and personalities to anyone who comes and clicks.

However in the cause of using the Internet, there is rationale for evaluating carefully whatever
you find on the Web. It the burden and responsibility of the reader to establish the validity,
authorship, timeliness, and integrity of what is found. Some of the reasons/factors that
necessitate evaluation of Web sources include:

(i) Almost anyone can publish on the Web while at the same time many Web resources are
not verified by editors and/or fact checkers because web standards to ensure accuracy are
not well developed

(ii) Authorship of Web resources is often difficult to determine but even when author’s name
is listed, his/her qualifications is frequently absent

(iii) In terms of dates, they are not always included on Web pages while when included, a date
may have various meanings; including:
 when first created
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  when placed on Web or
 when last revised.

(iv) Documents can easily be copied and fabricated or copied with omissions and errors --
intentional or accidental.

In the general World Wide Web there are no editors (unlike most print publications) to proofread
and "send it back" or "reject it" until it meets the standards of a publishing house's reputation.

Most pages found in general search engines for the web are self-published or published by
businesses small and large with motives to get you to buy something or believe a point of view.
Even within university and library web sites, there can be many pages that the institution does
not try to oversee. The unfiltered, free-form nature of the Web provides unique challenges in
determining a website's appropriateness as an information source. In addition, the short-lived
nature of much Web content means that what is found on the Web today may vanish or being
changed tomorrow. Unfortunately, there is neither established publishing process nor umbrella
organization to ensure some kind of quality control of the Web content

For this reason there is great importance for every individual using the internet information for
serious works especially in academics and research to cultivate a behavior of critical questioning
and evaluation for all internet information found on the Web.

TYPE OF WEB PAGES

1. ADVOCACY WEB PAGE

An Advocacy Web Page is one sponsored by an organization attempting to influence public
opinion (that is, one trying to sell ideas). The URL address of the page frequently ends in .org
(organization).

Examples:
 Political party web pages
 NGOs

2. BUSINESS/MARKETING WEB PAGE

A Business/Marketing Web Page is one sponsored by a commercial enterprise (usually it is a
page trying to promote or sell products). The URL address of the page frequently ends in .com
(commercial).

Examples
 Azam
 IPP Media

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  Voda Com
 Coca Cola

3. NEWS WEB PAGE

A News Web Page is one whose primary purpose is to provide extremely current information.
The URL address of the page usually ends in .com (commercial).

Examples
Newspaper
Broad casting
 Radio
 TV

4. INFORMATIONAL WEB PAGE

An Informational Web Page is one whose purpose is to present factual information. The URL
Address frequently ends in .edu or .gov, as many of these pages are sponsored by educational
institutions or government agencies.
Examples
 Government agencies
 Academic institution

5. PERSONAL WEB PAGE

A Personal Web Page is one published by an individual who may or may not be affiliated with
a larger institution. Although the URL address of the page may have a variety of endings (e.g.
.com, .edu, etc.), a tilde (~) is frequently embedded somewhere in the URL.

EVALUATING A WEB PAGE

To evaluate a Web page and to determine if you should use it for your needs look for:

(i)Purpose:
Why was the page created? To:

o Inform
For example: laws, regulations, and services (governmental sites), available
collections and services (library sites), available courses, programs, and services
(educational sites).
o Entertain
For example: games, puzzles, pictures (with various ratings), books, magazines,
gossip, information about television or radio shows, celebrities, fictional
characters.

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 o Share information
For example: hobbies (genealogy (family history), stamp collecting), fandom
(actors, celebrities, shows, soccer)
o Advertise/Sell a product or service (business/marketing)
For example: almost any product imaginable from flowers to automobiles.
o Influence views, beliefs, elections (advocacy)
For example: pro/con {issue}, actual and parody candidate/ballot issue pages.
o Provide up-to-the-moment news
For example: current events, play by play sports, television and radio stations,
newspapers. Related to advertising, because the pages want readers to continue
accessing them or to watch or purchase another version.
o Personal enjoyment
For example: pages created by individuals (child or adult) who are not affiliated
with any group or organization. These may have some or many of the above
mentioned purposes (and occasionally provide excellent information and/or links
to other pages), although most of them are for fun.

(ii) Sponsor/Owner: On what type of Internet provider or organization does the page
reside? (Provenance/Domain name)

o Government agency: (address frequently includes .gov)

Governmental sites have "official" information intended for the general public in
all sectors..
o Educational: University, college, high school (address frequently includes
.edu)
Educational sites give "official" representation for organizations that offer
education information. Courses, syllabi, faculty and staff, admissions information,
libraries, etc. are detailed online for current and prospective students and parents.

In addition, many educational sites have pages that highlight the faculty's
research. Departmental pages (including the library) frequently have links to sites
by subject--a good way to find pages recommended by someone who has
expertise in the field. Educational sites may include pages created by students for
personal enjoyment.

o Business/Company (address frequently includes .com)

These sites are created to promote a company's goods and services. Some
companies have links to their annual reports. It is extremely unlikely that an
official site will include negative information about that company.
o Association: Professional, Trade, Entertainment (address frequently includes
.org)
Association sites are designed to recruit and provide information to current
members.
o News bureau: television, newspaper, radio (address frequently includes .com)
News sites promote the network (shows), station (often the local news), or print

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 publication. An increasing number of publications are available online only.
Currency is very important. Sites online help researchers access news locally and
from abroad.
o Personal (Individual)
These pages are created for the enjoyment of the creator and his/her family and
friends. There are instances where a personal interest page will have information
or links to information that is scholarly or otherwise highly credible, but
remember, "any idiot can create a Web site--and has" so you must be careful
when accessing these pages.

iii) Organization and Content:

Is the page organized and focused? Is it well designed? Is the text well written? Are the
links relevant and appropriate? Are the links evaluated?

i) Bias--political or issue stance (of the author or sponsor):

Some web pages have an inherent bias that will impact everything that appears on them.
Is the author or sponsor:
o left/liberal?
o right/conservative?
o center?
o a political action (PAC) group or association?
o a business

ii) Date of Production/Revision: When was the web page produced? When was it last
revised? How up-to-date are the links? Are the links still viable/active?

iii) Usefulness: Is the Web page relevant and current to address the needs? A well-
researched, well-written, etc. page is not going to be helpful if it does not address the
topic at hand. Ask, "is this useful to me?" If it is useful, does it:
o support an argument
o refute an argument
o give examples (survey results, primary research findings, case studies, incidents)
o provide "wrong" information that can be challenged or disagreed with
productively

iv) Authority/author
o Who is responsible for the page? Is the author an expert in this field? What else
has he/she written or produced?
o Does the page have an identifiable, respectable author and/or sponsor? If not, the
page must be used with caution. Information found "on the Web" has as little
credibility as information found "in a book" or "in an article." Vague ownership
frequently means that it is not a credible research source. [The Web has less
editorial control]
o Does the author provide an e-mail address? How accurate is the provided
information? Is a bias evident?
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 v) What is it?
o Journal article; accessed either directly on the Web or through an index or other
type of database (for example, articles found full text on LexisNexis Academic and
Academic Search Premier)
o Government source; some "Web equivalents" are PDF files that reproduce the
print version's appearance, page by page
o text (or presentation software outline) of a presentation given at a workshop or
conference
o creative writing (poem, novel, short story)
o E mail message
o Listserve or usernet posting
o School project
o Blog
o Wiki
o Library catalog record, etc.
Journal articles, government sources, workshop/conference presentations, and creative
writing pages may or may not have a print equivalent.

vi) Audience:
To what type of reader is the Web page directed? Is the level appropriate for your needs?
Is the page for:
o general readers,
o students (elementary, high school, college, graduate),
o specialists or professionals,
o researchers or scholars?
vii) Coverage:
Does the page cover the topic comprehensively, partially or is it an overview?

viii) Illustrations:
Are the graphics clear in intent, relevant and professional looking? Do the graphics add to
or enhance the content?

EVALUATING BOOKS

There are a number of questions you should ask about a book before using it as a resource.
These questions focus on two areas:
A. Authority (i.e. author/editor/publisher details)
B. Content

To evaluate a book look for:

A. AUTHORITY
i) Author:
Who is the author?
 Is the author an expert in this field?

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  Where is the author employed?
 With which institution, organisation or company is the author affiliated?
 What else has he/she written?
 What work or educational experiences does the author have?
 Has the author written other publications?

ii) Publisher

Who published the book?

o Is the publisher well known?
o A University Press
o Commercial Publisher
o Professional or Trade Association, Institution or Research Center?
o Government entity (Ministry, Agency, Department)?
o Vanity (self-published)?
o Does the publisher stand to benefit from the research or argument presented in the
book?
 University presses publish books by academics and experts, so the terms
"university" or "press" in a publisher name suggest a very reliable source.
 Books published by professional or trade associations, institutes, research
centers, and reputable commercial publishers are usually trustworthy
too. On the other hand, vanity presses allow authors to pay to have their work
published and are considered much less reliable.
You can find information about a publisher by searching for the publisher's web site using a
search engine like Google, and looking for links that say "About Us" or something similar

B. CONTENT

(i) Title
Does the title indicate that the book is too specific or not specific enough? Is there a
subtitle with more information?

(ii) Purpose:
Scan the preface or the introduction for a statement on why the book was written and what the
author hopes to accomplish with it. Often the author will also let you know what perspective of
bias he or she brings to the topic
o Why was the book written? To:
o Inform?
For example: sequence of historical events, results of lengthy study or
experiment
o Persuade?
For example: to change point of view, outlook, beliefs, or behavior
o Entertain?
For example: most fiction, humor, gossip

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 o Teach how to do something?
For example: Resumes, cover letters, business plans, needlework,
woodwork.
o Give an overview?
For example: textbooks, encyclopedias

(iii) Organization and Content:

Examine the table of contents and/or headings to determine what the book covers and if the book
is organized in a logical and understandable manner. Do the contents indicate that the book
contains the information you need? Is the entire book devoted to your topic? Is there a whole
chapter? Or just a paragraph or two? Look up one or two of your keywords in the index in the
back of the book to see if they're there Is there added material such as appendices?

iv) Date of Publication:

Some topics, such as those in the health sciences, require current information. Other subjects,
such as geology, value older material as well as current. Know the time needs of your topic and
examine the timeliness of the book; is it:
o Is the information current and up-to-date? Does it need to be?
o out-of-date, or
o timeless?
o When deciding if a book's content is current, check the publication date and the
dates of the references used in the book's bibliography.
o Exercise care when looking at a book's publication date. It can take up to two
years for a book to be published. Be aware that some dates represent the year a
book was republished (as a paperback, or after being out of print for some years).
v). Edition and revisions
Multiple editions indicate the book is well regarded enough to have been through revisions, and
has been updated

vi). Reference/Bibliography:
Scholarly works always contain a bibliography of the resources that were consulted. References
and/or a bibliography (may be called Works Cited, Sources, etc.). This list shows you what kind
of sources the author used to write the book. The references in this list should be in sufficient
quantity and be appropriate for the content. Look:
o What sources did the author use?
o if a bibliography exists,
o if the bibliography is short or long,
o if the bibliography is selective or comprehensive,
o if the references are primary sources (ex. journal articles) or only secondary
sources (ex. encyclopedias),
o if the references are contemporary to the book or much older, and
o if the citation style is clear and consistent.

vii). Usefulness:

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 Is the book relevant to the current research project? A well-researched, well-written, etc. book is
not going to be helpful if it does not address the topic at hand. Ask, "is this book useful to me"?
If it is useful, does it:
o support an argument
o refute an argument
o give examples (survey results, primary research findings, case studies, incidents)
o provide "wrong" information that can be challenged or disagreed with
productively
viii). Coverage:
o Does the book cover the topic comprehensively, partially or is it an overview?
o Does the book address a topic from a certain timeframe and/or geographic area?

ix). Audience:

For what type of reader is the author writing? Is the level of the book appropriate for your
needs? Is the book for:
o general readers,
o students (high school, college, graduate),
o specialists or professionals,
o researchers or scholars?

x). Illustrations:

Are charts, graphs, maps, photographs, etc. used to illustrate concepts? Are the illustrations
relevant? Are they clear and professional-looking?

EVALUATING JOURNAL ARTICLES

To evaluate a journal article look for:
(i) Purpose of Article: Why was the article written? To:
(v) persuade the reader to do something?
For example: vote a certain way, purchase an item, attend an event
(vi) inform the reader?
For example: results of a study/experiment, what happened at an event
(vii) prove something?
For example: that a behavior is bad/good, a method works/doesn't work
(ii) Type of Journal:
(viii) Scholarly Journals contain articles describing high quality research that has
been reviewed by experts in the field prior to publication.
(ix) Trade magazines may be useful for topics in business or where economic data
is needed. There are also good for learning what the current "hot topics" are in
an area.
(x) Popular magazines, such as Time and Newsweek, should be used sparingly, or
not at all.
(iii) Organization and Content:
Is the material organized and focused? Is the argument or presentation understandable?

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 Is this original research, a review of previous research, or an informative piece?

(iv) Bias (of the publisher):

Some publications have an inherent bias that will impact articles printed in them. Is the journal:
o left/liberal?
o right/conservative?
o center?
o an alternative press?
o published by a political action (PAC) group?

(v) Date of Article:

Some topics, such as those in the health sciences, require current information. Other subjects,
such as geology, value older material as well as current. Know the time needs of your topic and
examine the timeliness of the article; is it:
o up-to-date,
o out-of-date, or
o timeless?

(vi) Bibliography: Scholarly works always contain a bibliography of the resources that
were consulted. The references in this list should be in sufficient quantity and be
appropriate for the content. Look for:
o if a bibliography exists,
o if the bibliography is short or long,
o if the bibliography is selective or comprehensive,
o if the references are primary sources (ex. journal articles) or only secondary
sources (ex. encyclopedias),
o if the references are contemporary to the article or much older, and
o if the citation style is clear and consistent.

(vii) Usefulness: Is the article relevant to the current research project? A well-researched,
well-written, etc. article is not going to be helpful if it does not address the topic at
hand. Ask, "is this article useful to me?" If it is a useful article, does it:
o support an argument
o refute an argument
o give examples (survey results, primary research findings, case studies, incidents)
o provide "wrong" information that can be challenged or disagreed with
productively

(viii) Authority: Is the author an expert in this field? Where is the author employed? What
else has he/she written? Has he/she won awards or honors?

(ix) Coverage: Does the article cover the topic comprehensively, partially, or is it an
overview?

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(x) Audience: For what type of reader is the author writing? This ties in with the type of
journal, as popular magazine are geared to the general reader, while trade magazines
are for the specialist and scholarly journals are directed at researchers, scholars or
experts in the field. Is the article for:
o general readers,
o students (high school, college, graduate),
o specialists or professionals,
o researchers or scholars?

(xi) Illustrations: Are charts, graphs, maps, photographs, etc. used to illustrate concepts? Are
the illustrations relevant? Are they clear and professional-looking?

Bibliography

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American Library Association (1994) Evaluating Information: A Basic Checklist. Brochure.

American Library Association

Beck, S.E., (1997) The good, the bad and the ugly, or, why it’s a good idea to evaluate web
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Fitzgerald M. A. (1999)
Evaluating Information: An Information Literacy Challenge School Library Media Research
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Giles, J. (2005). Special Report: Internet encyclopaedias go head to head. Nature, 438, 900–901.
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Gudmundsson, David (2007). When the Goal is Critical Students. Teaching Source Criticism in
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Katzer, J, Cook, KH, Crouch, WW. (1998).Evaluating information: A guide for users of social
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Kirk, Elizabeth E. "Evaluating Information Found on the Internet,"
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