SOPY 3005

Diversity and Social Structure of Modern States

Lecture 3

Urbanization and Differences between Cities and Rural Areas

21 Sep 2018

Dr. CHAN Bing-Kwan

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 1
1. What is Urbanization?

Urbanization is masses of people moving to cities and these

cities have a growing influence on society. (Henslin 2009:410)
City is a place in which a large number of people are
permanently based and do not produced their own food. (Ibid)

Increase or decrease in number and size of city: e.g.

• Migration into or out of a city
• Change in geographic area of a city
City life: e.g.
• Interpersonal relationship, norm, community, and people’s
background (class, occupations, etc) in a city.

Urban problem & social policy: e.g.

• Suburbanization: people move from cities to suburbs, the
communities located just outside a city.
• Economic Change: deindustrialization – factories move out of a city
• Urban renewal

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 2

Henslin 2009:406-22
2. Urban and rural areas
• There is no single consensual definition of urban and rural areas. Even in
a single nation, the definition of urban and rural areas may vary across
different departments.
• However, the delineation between urban and rural areas is on the basis of
population size / density and land uses.
In the US:
• The term ‘‘urban area’’ refers to urbanized areas of at least 2500 population in an
area, or group of clusters each with population density of at least 500 person per
square mile (ppsm).
• Rural" encompasses all population, housing, and territory not included within an
urban area.
Department of Commerce, US (2011) Federal Register, Part II

In the UK
• The definition of urban area is land with an irreversibly urban use and it is
independent of administrative area boundaries. In this boundaries, there are
settlements with a minimum population of 1,000 and a minimum land area of 20
hectares.
• All smaller settlements, together with all other land, are treated as rural areas.
However, in some cases, rural areas can be defined according to social and
economic dimensions of 'rurality‘.
Department for Communities and Local Government,UK (2006) Urban and
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 rural area definitions: a user guide 3
3. Urbanization in developed countries
3.1 Since 1800
Among the developed countries, Britain, as the first industrialized
society, was the earliest to move from a rural to a urban country.

Proportion of population living in cities in the UK

1800: 20% 1900: 74%

Urbanization in other European countries and the US took place later,

but in some cases, accelerated even faster.

• In this process, the expansion of cities resulted from natural

population growth and immigration of outsiders from towns and small
village in other countries.
• Due to the their poor and farming backgrounds, these immigrants were
attracted by jobs, wealth, a wide of goods and services in cities.
• In addition, entrepreneurs created new urban areas in order to develop
their financial and industries opportunities.

Since then, several types of urban areas were born.

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 4

Giddens 2001:572-3
3.2 Metropolitan era: 1860-1950
Jobs created by industrialization further pushed urban population ever
higher. As a result, metropolis were born.
e.g. Chicago
1860: 100,000 1900: 2 million

Metropolis is a central city surrounded by smaller cities and their suburbs

which are linked by transportation and communication, connected
economically, and sometimes politically through governing bodies.

3.3 Suburbanization: after early 1900s

•Since the middle of 20th century, people moved to suburbs because of lower
living costs, better environment for family life. In the US, the whites
dominate most suburbs.
•In this case, residential population growth in cities slows down or even stop
while that in suburban areas increase rapidly
•Meanwhile, there is a decline in economy of inner cities.

Suburbanization or urban decentralization refers to the process by which

people leave downtown areas to outlying suburbs, urban areas beyond the
political boundaries of a city..
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 5
Giddens 2001:579-81 Macionis2008: 584
3.4 Megalopolis / megalopolis / megaregion (City of cities):
The growth of suburban area led to the overlapping of metropolises. As a
result, there are more and more megalopolises or the so-called supercities.
Megalopolis refers to an overlapping area consisting of at least two
metropolises and their suburbs.
Examples:
The US:
• North-eastern seaboard, from Boston to Washington DC.
• East Coast of Florida, Cleveland west and Chicago
• Northern California
• Southern California
China:
• Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Bay Area
• Pearl River Delta Region: Southern region of Guangdong Province, Hong Kong,
Macau, Zhuhai, etc
• Yangtze River Delta Region: Shanghai, Jingjiang Province & Jiangsu Province

Japan:
• Tokyo-Nagoya-Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe mega-region (60 million people)
http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/zhuanti/qy/550016.htm
Giddens 2001: 571-2; Macionis 2008:585
UN Habitat 2010: State of the World's Cities 2010/2011 - Cities for All: Bridging the Urban Divide
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 6
Giddens 2001:572-3 Macionis2008: 585-6
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 7
http://www.america2050.org/images/2050_Map_Megaregions2008_150.png
3.5 Edge cities:
The decline of inner city also led to the development of edge cities. Differ
from suburbs which are mainly composed of residential areas, edge cities
provide jobs and entertainment to people.
Edge cities is a part of expanding urban area with of a mix of corporate
office buildings, shopping malls, hotels and entertainment complexes.
Examples:
New Center of Detroit; New Center & the Miracle Mile of Los Angeles

3.6 Rural rebound since the 1990s

• Since the 1990s, there has been population growth in some (NOT ALL)
rural areas resulted from the immigration from urban areas. This trend
refers to “rural rebound”.
• People move to rural area because not only of the better environment, but
also of life style.
• Due to the development of communication technology, some business
activities can also take place in rural area.
逾65%市民贊成鼓勵農地復耕 增本地蔬菜自給率
Apple Daily 1 Mar 2015

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 8

Oct 2009
www.rhythmsmonthly.com
3.7 Summary of history of urban development

Since 1800 Increasing population urban area in Britain, subsequently in

other European states.

1860-1950 Metropolitan era: The rise of metropolises (central city

surrounded by smaller cities)

After early Suburbanization: residential population growth in cities slowed

1900s down while more and more people moved to suburbs

Late 1900s The rise of megalopolis: overlapping of metropolises

Decline of inner cities

The rise of edge cities which provides jobs and entertainment

to people.

Since the Rural rebound: population growth in some rural areas.

1990s

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 9

 The US The UK

Hong Kong

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 10

4. Urbanization in developing countries
4.1 Overview
In the past few decades, there was a high level of industrialization in
developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. As a result, a large
number of people moved from the rural area to cities, leading to an urban
revolution in these developing countries.

Developing countries

Developed countries

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 11

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division (2012) World Urbanization Prospects, The 2011 Revision, Highlights
 China India

Vietnam

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 12

4.2 Problems of urbanization in developing countries
Due to the lack of planning and regulations, most developing countries
face challenges of urbanization.
4.2.1 Economic problems:
• Unskilled workers from rural areas usually find it difficult to find a formal
work. As a result, those workers are absorbed by informal economy
which is the unregulated sectors offering manufacturing, construction or
other unskilled jobs.
北京“蚁族”
2008-2010農村及民工調查 调查：很多来自农村 多是高学历贫困
…農村的凋敝導致青壯農民不得不出外打工；另一方面， 廉思给“蚁族”一个新的定义就是城市中的“在职
在戶口制度下，他們的農民身份的烙印又是無法磨滅的— 贫困者”，因为这些人首先是代际性贫困，“蚁族
儘管 在年輕民工中，真正長時間耕過田的很少。這種烙印 ”很多来自农村，从父母学历来看，受访者父亲初
表現在城市管理者對民工的種種歧視…7億農民的處境， 中以下占49.2%，父母大多务农，因此，“蚁族”
簡單來說，就是前無去路，後有追兵。一方面，依靠那一 很难从家庭获得更多的经济收入和社会资源。更值
小塊土地根本不可能脫貧，另一方面，出外打工的工資日 得关注的是，“蚁族”多是高学历贫困，该比例以
益不夠改善生活。 大专和大学为主，大部分来自普通高校和民办高校
，合计81.4%。Chinanews.com, 8 Sep 2014
…許多研究表明，民工以至一般工人，過去20年的實際工
資是不斷下降的，工資占國民收入的比例也是不斷下降。
根 據《2006－2007中國農村情況報告》第十三章的調研
顯示，有一半民工認為自己的工資偏低。其實他們絕對沒
有奢望，一半人只期望工資達到1000元水 準，另外三成也
僅僅期望達到1500元而已。但是，即使是這樣卑微的期待
，許多人也得不到。或者即使暫時得到，結果又往往被日
益騰貴的物價所抵消。
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 13
(Globalmon.org.hk, 1 July 2011)
Giddens 2001:587-90
4.2.2 Environmental problems:
• Pollution, housing shortage, traffic congestion, public health, water
supplies, etc.

4.2.3 Social problems:

•Due to the overcrowded and under-resourced conditions as well as rapid
population movement and economic change, social service cannot meet
the demands for education, health service, family advice.
•Consequently, there are numerous social problems, crime, family issues,
disease, etc.
Social structure (policy, including planning, regulations and
social security system) matters.
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 14
Giddens 2001:587-90
5.1 Problems faced by urban governments in developed countries
In addition to crime, social and environmental problems, most urban
governments, especially those in developed countries face some challenges.
5.1 Deindustrialization and decrease in tax revenue
• Under the economic globalization, some enterprises, especially those from
manufacturing industries, offshore their production lines to other developing
countries. This process of deindustrialization raises the unemployment of
unskilled labours who lack training in other new industries.
• Due to high living cost, compact environment and lack of job, people
continually moves their residences to other cities. The deterioration of
population leads to the declining tax revenue of city.

5.2 Disinvestment
• As a result, bank may refuse to make loan to housing or business in some
areas. This disinvestment make the economy further declines.

Detroit files for

bankruptcy
CNN 18 July 2013

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 15

Henslin 2007:418-23
5.2 Example of deindustrial societies

Industrial structure of Hong Kong

Employed persons by industry group in 2010

Industry group ‘000 (%)
Manufacturing 132.8 (4.0)
Construction 264.9 (7.6)
Import/export trade & wholesale 547.0 (15.7)
Retail, accommodation & food services 557.9 (16.1)
Transportation, storage, postal & courier services, 422.1 (12.1) Service
information & communications Industry:
Financing, insurance, real estate, professional & 641.4 (18.5) 87.9%
business services
Public administration, social & personal services 884.6 (25.5)
Other industries 23.4 (0.7)
All industries 3474.1
(100.0%)
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 Source: Census and Statistics Department 16
http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_1149/T04_10_C03.xls
Discussion

What is the problem with town planning in developed countries?

四個鐵路上蓋 項目規模過大過高過密 變成社區內的「怪物」

屏風效應影響週邊超過18萬人的通風及健康
為補貼西鐵及馬鐵的建築開支，九鐵逐步落實已批出鐵路上蓋項目，包括南昌站、元朗站、大圍站及大圍
車廠上蓋。
本會認真審視上述四個項目的建築藍圖，發現有數個共通點，包括…
由於地盤是在鐵路上蓋，地盤是長而窄，因而建成項目是一排的樓宇屏風，座與座之間接近沒有距離
，密不透風…
項目距離其週邊住宅極近，部分相距少於10米，嚴重影響附近樓宇通風，並減弱天然光線…
…本會估計，這四個項目受影響的附近區內人口達18萬人…
Green Sense 23 July 2006

元朗公庵路日日塞爆
規劃失誤 原區就業僅9.4% 運輸署規劃失誤
政府當年為支援新機場，催生本港第九個新市鎮東涌，為機場島 …元朗白沙村村民張小姐稱，位
提供勞動力。東涌發展17年，規劃方向與原方案背道而馳，機場 處十八鄉明渠兩旁的公庵路及僑
工種無法配合人口需要，原區就業不足一成…居民只能跨區工作 興路狹窄，然而近年隨着人口急
，而留守區內人工也較低。 增，已有愈來愈多車輛進出…「
綜援數據也說明規劃失誤，逸東邨領取失業綜援宗數，在全港公 原本只係行10分鐘嘅路，有時會
屋排名第二；低收入綜援宗數更冠絕全港；單親綜援數字也位列 塞足半個鐘，唔明點解政府咁都
全港第二。全邨有4,868人依靠綜援生活，數字排全港第三… 唔肯擴闊呢2條路！」
Apple Daily, 20 Apr 2014 Hk.on.cc 11 Nov 2014

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 17

6. Features of City Life
5.1 Alienation
Alienation is a sense of that people’s ability, as human being, are taken over
by other entities.
5.1.1 Impersonality and self-interest
• In urban area, there is a large population size. Thus, people temporarily
share a public area are deal with strangers, and usually avoid unnecessary
interactions with others.
• Due to the high level of division of labour, people are absorbed by their
own affairs and their self-interest.
• People are alert to possible danger.
• As a result, human relations in city has become divided.
5.1.2 Noninvolvement & diffusion of responsibility
• People tend to use ‘urban props’ which allow them to enter their own
private world and turn others out.
• People use props such as newspapers and mobile phones to shield
themselves from others and indicate their inaccessibility for interaction.
• In a large group, people’s sense of responsibility also become diffused,
with each person assuming that another will do the responsible thing.
• These two factors, together with avoidance of possible danger, help explain
why
SOPOpeople can ignore
2130 - Lecture 3 the plight or the needs of others. 18
Henslin 2007:416-8
Will they offer their seats to disables and elders? A two-year-old girl Wang Yue, also known as
"Yue Yue", was run over by two vehicles in
Guangdong in October 2011. However, she was
completely ignored by more than 10 passers,
but was helped by a female rubbish scavenger.
5.2 Community
• Despite alienation, people so not simply isolated from one another.
• Rather, numerous communities (such as neighbourhood and friends in
various groups), have been developed in the social, working and living
environments.
• In these communities, people are identified with an area and with one
another. That satisfied the basic human needs.

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 19

Henslin 2007:416-8
Question
• Is it feasible, through legislation, to make people yield their seats to those
who in need?
• If so, how effective is the law? If not, what is the best solution?
中坑爭位 學生掛住玩 港鐵客當孕婦冇到 優先座變爭先坐
…《蘋果》記者陪同腹大便便的孕婦沿港鐵觀塘綫進行測試，結果發現少於一半人會主動讓座。有
「霸佔」優先座的中學生、壯男及玩電話的低頭族，對站在面前的「大肚婆」視若無睹，有男子更
離譜到與孕婦爭位坐。學者指港人逐漸遺忘讓座是傳統美德，年輕一代較自我中心、怕尷尬、怕俾
人笑而不肯讓座。 Apple Daily 20 Sep 2013

優先座別亂坐 應否立法來讓座？
田北辰在立法會上提到有英國的鐵路公司有「優先座位卡」計劃供長者、孕婦或有需要人士申請，憑
卡向坐優先座的乘客出示，但擺明車馬要求讓座，若對方視而不見也奈何不了。
英國倫敦市長Boris Johnson早年競爭連任時曾提出，要求有免費乘車卡的11至15歲的青少年簽署讓
座承諾書，若被發現不讓座，則免費乘車優惠會被禠奪。在加拿大安大略省，法例要求運輸機構標示
優先座是給予有需要人士，但遇到有人不讓座也別費心機投訴，因為運輸機構明言法例沒有提及執法。
HKET 11 Aug 2014
日韓台都有「關愛座」
不讓座同樣被網絡公審
…台灣亦有在捷運設有博愛座，但設置後爭議不絕
…有年青人縱使因有需要而坐在博愛座，亦被車內
較年長乘客責怪不讓座而大動干戈。當中較為矚目
的是今年年初，一名20多診、四肢過半燒傷的「八
仙塵爆」傷者，由於不能久站而坐在博愛座。但穿
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 上長袖衫褲的事主卻被錯認為「廢青」… 20
Hk01.com, 6 Oct 2016
7. Urban revitalization
In order to address the problem led by suburbanization and economic change,
some policy initiatives are needed.
• Urban renewal: Rebuild old areas
• Redesign of industrial structure, offering economic incentives (e.g. low tax rate
or low interest loans) to particular sorts of business.
In this case, several factors should be taken into account.
Scale
• Limited resources (jobs, facilities, etc) of a single small region usually end up
with unworkable solutions.
• Rebuilt area must be compatible with the surrounding area and facilities.
• Thus, regional and national planning is necessary.

Livability
•City must meet human needs, especially the needs of community.

Social justices
•Urban renewal must evaluate its influence on all people. In this case, it must not
consider the needs of selected groups of middle and upper class only. The needs
of the poor must be taken into account.

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 21

What problems are faced by rural areas? Henslin 2007:420-22
市區重建社區研究系列 I
深水埗K20-K23項目
研究的結果顯示，深水埗K20-K23重建區的
內的社區狀況…舊區的空間和文化本身衍生
了一種生活中基本的互助互惠態度、大量無
論對社區還是整體社會都有利的無形社區資
產(intangible community capital)...研究透
過比對深水埗K20-K23重建區與當代商業社
會生活的特質，發現在現今的彈性資本主義
社會中，保育一些具有深厚關係的社區網絡，
對整體社會在人文價值和維持社會和諧兩方
面，皆具積極和正面的意義……許多無法／
不願搬遷的人，都是基於無法量化的無形社
區資產…

http://sspstayplan.wordpress.com/category/%E7%A4%
BE%E5%8D%80%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E5%A0
%B1%E5%91%8A/

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 22

Question

Should we develop the

fringe of country parks
greenfield land ?

近60%人支持以補償原則 發展郊野公園邊陲 馬屎埔村民拒交農地 稱會死守到底

…有調查顯示，77%人認為有關住宅用地比例並 恒基兆業地產有限公司早前入禀收回粉嶺馬屎埔
不足夠，近60%人則支持政府以補償原則，將更 村的一幅地，上月委託執達吏收地，但一直留守
具生態價值土地納入郊野公園，以釋放生態價值 農地的村民指不見執達吏進入農地執行收地程序
較低、且鄰近市區的郊野公園地帶作發展之用… ，他們拒絕承認農地已完成收地程序；繼續留守
至今的約30名村民及市民，今日在村內舉辦請
107動力委託港大民調中心，於7月以電話訪問逾 願行動，高呼「中止原址換地」、「守護香港、
千名市民，撇除補償原則，依然有54%人認同開 保衞東北」等口號，抗議政府的新界東北發展計
發部分郊野公園建屋；與此同時，逾40%人認為 劃，要求立即撤回，又批評地產商在計劃開始前
應保存目前所有郊野公園用地。
SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 更早一步規劃東北。 23
Hk.on.cc, 22 Aug 2017 Hk.on.cc, 18 Apr 2016
Question

Which area should be developed first ?

採「先易後難」方式 絕不向惡勢力妥協 梁振英主動澄清 橫洲建萬七公屋不變

候任立法會議員朱凱 疑因一再質疑政府放棄發展橫洲貨倉興建一萬七千個單位
，涉「官商鄉黑」勾結，當選後接到恐嚇，現時需要警方人身保護。行政長官梁
振英昨日出席行政會議前，首次主動澄清，指在橫洲棕地興建一萬七千個單位的
目標沒有改變，只是採取「先易後難」的方式，先興建旁邊綠化地的四千個單位
。他又強調政府絕對不會與任何黑勢力、惡勢力合作或妥協。朱凱 則質疑政府
選擇搬遷綠化地上的非原居民村，做法是「欺善怕惡」。
(Singtao Daily 14 Sep 2015)

SOPO 2130 - Lecture 3 24