UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Jaka Jeram

The city and sound: urban soundscape

Ljubljana, 2020
 1. Introduction

The city is a complex environment build by the human being for their optimal survival and
leisurely life, that optimizes the chance of life necessities being close by, always at ones
reach of hand. The city consists of the infrastructure, human population, human artefacts,
animal population and segments of nature brought in the city or has the city build around it.
But there is a component, a lot of times overlooked that plays a crucial structural part of the
city. That is sound. Sound of the city consists of the noise produced by traffic, sounds of
people, sounds of city animals and the sounds that are produced by establishments as cafes,
restaurants, shops, churches, sounds of the industry and construction and more. All of these
produce sound or reproduce it by projecting prerecorded to achieve specific affects. All this
sound is in the wider picture an element of the urban soundtrack, that is constantly playing,
constantly changing and in the longer timeframe staying averagely the same.

Sound is one of the major factors which determine human behavior, wellbeing and
emotionality of people. The lack or contrary, the surplus of sound can affect a person in a
certain way. In this essay I will to discuss the connection between sound and urban space.
From defining and outlining the structure of urban sound, to interpretation of space based
on sound, the sound production of space, the sound determinism of place choices, the
intention behind different sound options, to the sound specter of different spaces, meaning
behind certain sounds and the relation between power and sound.

2. Sound of the urban

To define the sound of the city, the urban environment, we first have to establish the
primary sound – the sound of nature. Nature’s sound is organic. It is produced by organisms
and the non-living side of nature. The sounds that are constantly appearing in the natural
soundscape are generally of the approximately the same volume and have tendency to
blend together easily. In many cases sound is relational, it generates by the existence and
the collision of two ore more entities of objects – for example the sound of the wind is
heard when it reaches our ears of it makes a sound when hitting a tree. On the other hand,
there are sounds generated bi single objects or entities – for example birdsong, the sound of
grasshoppers. Sounds like thunder, with high loudness, appear less frequent and are not
part of the daily soundscape. But then aging this depends of the geographical location and
environmental condition of an observed place.

To conclude nature’s sound consists of sound of lower volumes that appear regularly and
high volume sounds that appear less regularly. As a whole the sound is organic, it creates a
harmonic soundscape, which fluctuates in the day-night rhythm.

The next step to defining urban sound is to define rural sound, the round of rural
settlements. Rural sound is constructed by a high degree of nature’s sound and a lesser
degree, but seemingly noticeable anthropic sound. The anthropic sound of the rural consists
of the sound of people, the sound of material artefacts, more and more present in the
modernity. The sound of nature and anthropic sound are somewhat evenly distributed
throughout the soundspectre. “Rural areas is said to be characterized by its depth clarity
and balance, allowing each sound to be heard distinctly.” (Oddie, 2019, p. 164) This is
derived from rural sound being composed of a lot of nature sound.

The urban sound is the mixture of nature’s sound and anthropic sound, but here the
anthropic sound dominates the soundscape. Nature’s sound is limited to certain areas
(parks), where it can be heard, but not without the anthropic sound or in the strictly urban,
where nature’s sound infiltrates via animals or individual natural entities such as trees or
rivers. The urban sound consists mainly of traffic sound, people sound, sound of industry
and construction, publicly played music… It does not have and evenly distribution of sound
volume. There are omnipresent sounds of high volume and sound of lower volumes that
occur daily and hourly. The complete soundscape or the city is not wholly heard from the
center of it, as in nature, it is best heard from a distance where all structural sound parts are
connected into the urban soundscape as a whole. As contrary to the nature’s sound urban
sound is more rhythmical, it follows specific rhythms consistently. This rhythm is not just da-
night – natural rhythms, but is divided in artificial rhythms that don’t follow natural rhythm.
Different sound emitters follow own rhythmic patterns that layer on-top of each other
creating polyrhythmic sounds structures which are by definition inorganic and not found in
nature. This rhythm basis is the reflection of the human life pattern rhythmic basis. It
replicates the rhythmic day path and temporal rituals that give structure to daily life.
This structures are time defined activities that follow each other as the day comes to an end.
In the urban these activities are sounds. The rhythmic and always the same (clicking of
sidewalk cross-light buttons, the morning sound of rush hour on the streets that start
around the same time every day, the opening of cafes (the playing of music), the ringing of
church bells, the noise of trains coming regularly…). Another distinguishable characteristic of
urban sound is the texture, the tone of the sound. The urban sound noticeably are the
products of artificial, they are the side-products Urban sound is defined by some as noise,
that is sound out of place or sound at an inappropriate volume but noise is not a term
appropriate for generalizing urban sound. The more appropriate term would be “sound
wall” used by Oddie (2019, p. 164) when describing the monolithic structure of urban
sound, sound which is constructed of many sounds but to a degree where individual sounds
are not recognizable and which tends to have connotations of the unpleasant. “When
individuals enter a different place, they expect a change in the sound environment.” (Jo and
Jeon, 2020, p. 1) With the possibility of quick and easy change of surroundings and area, it is
expected since the surroundings change and are driven by different activities, the sound
should undergo a change in its character. In the urban this is not achievable in the
immediate change of places, since sound of the neighboring areas leaks into the occupied
and so not allowing a place having a distinctive sound.

The urban sound tends to be invasive, not only the sound of distinct areas leeks into others
and disables the possibility of personal soundscapes of individual places, it quietens nature’s
sound in the city and it spreads outside the city limits, making the urban soundscape’s
square footage larger that the city’s square footage. Urban sound can be heard in its non-
primary environment, something we cannot say about nature sound. It tends to stay in its
limits, but urban sound has very little to no limits in larger spatial dimension.

3. Sound determination and interpretation of space and place

Specific spaces and places can be or rather are distinguished or recognizable by the sound
type that is present in a place. Oddie (2019, p. 163) distinguishes between “soundmarks,
sounds that characterize a particular community, while keynotes designate the dominant
background sound.” The soundscape of a space or place consists of the foreground and the
background sounds. The foreground sounds generally distinguish the characteristics of
space. These soundmarks are imprinted in the memory of a person, who begins to associate
a specific place with specific sound. “The representation of sound objects in memory is
more long-lasting than visual objects.” (Dalirnaghadeh and Yilmazer, 2022, p. 3) This is how
places with distinguishable sound are formed. Some cafes and venues are for example
known by the music selection, churches are known by the silence or church singing or
communal prayer, parks are known by nature’s sound, and so on. Certain spaces gain wider
recognition by the public and can be known by their sound mainly. “Some of this sounds
may attract the listeners attention more than the others, based on the and the meanings
they carry”. (Papadopolous and others, 2012, in Dalirnaghadeh and Yilmazer, 2022, p. 2) 1
Certain sound, or more specifically music, attract different people, since people have
different tastes in music. A person interprets a place partly by its sound. Sound is meaning –
it transmits messages. And by that meaning, place is interpreted. The meaning in sound
applies meaning to space and the activities it enables. Since sound contains political,
ideological and cultural content it is connected with spaces, which are categorized in their
representation of fundamental ideas and motives of its existence. These underlying ideas
then resonate with people and form a imaginary construct what the space is. Consequently,
the sound attracts people or induces a level of resentment.

Sometimes the lack of sound determines space and places. Quiet spaces are determined by
the lack of sound, which is the appeal of this spaces. Sacred spaces share this lack of sound.
From religious institutions to sacred sights are defined by the lacks of sound or have a
predominant sound that has connotations of the sacred. This sacred sound is most of the
time the only sound in that space. Sacred sound is produced to induce specific ideas of
behavior. In the church, for example, the lack of sound is a tool of making space feel empty,
amplifying sounds that people make in order to enforce self-control over sound emittance,
by that making a person aware of oneself and the surrounding space.

In my personal experience I have noticed, that certain spaces embody specific sound that is
non-compatible with certain interests or sound preference that people have. Consequently,
some spaces are avoided or visited on the basis of their sound. Specifically, a café or bar can

1
Papadopoulos K., Papadimitriou K. and Koutsoklenis A. (2012)
The role of auditory cues in the spatial knowledge of blind individuals
Int. J. Spec. Educ., 27 (2). p. 169-180
be avoided by people who dislike the kind of music that is being played. As Atkinson states,
music and sound can “invite, deter and otherwise subtly influence patterns of sociability,
modes of transport and interactions in urban space.” (2007, p. 1907) An approximate
picture of a place can be made on the basis of sound. Certain past experiences of places
with similar or identical sounds and their characteristics are connected with the sounds that
are being heard in the moment of place and space interpretation. In the urban this sound in
most cases is muzak. “Not as mere background music, but a psychologically active sonic
accompaniment.” (Radano, 1989, p. 450) Muzak is low volume music that serves as sound
presentation of the establishment. Certain musical genres are connected with certain
activities and the social class. “For the particular groups the soundscape has a profound
effect on patterns of social association and configuration of physical movement and
interaction.” (Atkinson 2) This then can lead to an immediate identification with a place or
space. Most used sounding the urban is commercial sound, commercial music, used to
induce consumerism. Places where consumerism takes places share mostly identical sound.
Places that don’t have a strictly consumeristic intention, turn to other sound, other music to
bring out the conceptual idea. Sound is one of the optimal tools of representation and even
behavior control. It influences physical movement, social interaction, personal thought in
decision making and the production of space perception. Sound impacts the same segments
which power affects and by that it becomes power

4. The power of sound

Sound is in many cases a neglected ingredient of the environment. It is also one of the
primary segments of sensory perception. Sound is a tool of transmitting messages and
notion. So the one who controls the sound of the environment or a segment of it has more
power than the one who just take in sound without vividly transmitting it in the
environment to consciously produce change of it.

In the urban sound, commercial sound, sound with intention is used to achieve certain
goals, not sound as a byproduct like traffic noise, and those who control the sound are the
holders of power. The power of sound is not indicated only in the volume of sound as the
primary indicator of power. Power depends on the commerciality of the sound, its
attractiveness and the ability to hold the listener in attention. By doing this they have
portrayed power and have subdued all other sound sources. Atkinson has named the ability
to stretch and emit sound over a certain area acoustic territory. “Acoustic territories so far
can be taught of as spaces defined, owned or contested by those who control the
soundscape of public spaces. Such spaces serve territorial functions rather that being merely
the result of randomly operating environmental or natural sounds.” (Atkinson, 2007, p.
1910) By producing sound, it spreads over a specific area over which it still has an impact.
Mostly different sound territories overlap creating a cluster of sound, where it is hard to
define the borders of one sound territory. In nature the most powerful sound it that that is
the loudest, cans silence others and can carry a direct message to the listener. But since
cities have certain limits and regulations over sound, the volume aspect is taken out of the
equation. By volume not being the primary factor of sound power the rest transfers in the
ability to catch attention and distract the listener from other sounds and stimuli, pull him in
the targeted activity most notably consumption. As known, music was used to encourage
hard work in factories or other work places. But in the urban city “the use of music has been
supplanted by the idea that it can be used to encourage hard shopping.” (Atkinson, 2007, p.
1912) Music has been striped of its initial purpose of entertainment and art and has
mutated to a tool of social control and behavior dictation.

Since sound and music is not limited only to private spaces, it stretches and infiltrates over
public space, that is intended to be ownerless or owned by everyone. Sound claims space
where it can be heard. Public space should be the space of free choice and this includes the
choice of listening or not listening. We have no control over the private sound, sound of
cafes, bars, that leeks in the public sound in public space. “Public space remains outside our
democratic control.” (Oddie, 2019, p. 170) There is little option in democratizing the public
or “privatized” public soundscape. The one who has ownership, control and legal permission
to produce sound is in the higher in position of the power hierarchy. In the city the group of
people who fall into this category are owners of establishments. Their power is in some
degree transferred to their employees who in the operating hours gain control of sound.
One solution that has become the norm in insolating one from sound in the use of personal
soundscapes. The use of personal sound which result in urban soundscape alienation, has
taken away the power from sound territories and has given it to the individual. Mobile
phone technology has given power of declining urban sound in favor of personal sound. The
power shift in favor of individuals has benefited them, but on the other hand intensive use,
to some degree, alienates a person from the urban soundscape lowering the level of
environmental perception.

The other not on the level of individual is sound regulation. City management files decrees
that prohibit sound at a certain volume, making those who wish to exercise or extend their
power via sound, subdue to set rules. This is exemplified in the commonly agreed “silent
periods” of nights, where it is commonly excepted that loud sound that extends over the
limits of one’s private property is not acceptable.

5. Temporal and spatial fluctuation of sound

The life in the urban as anywhere else temporally fluctuates. Certain activities happen in
specific times of the day, which is dictated by the daily routine. Just as traffic jams occur in
certain times, city center streets are fuller some time that other, bars fill up at a specific
time, so does sound fluctuate, as it accompanies or is produced by the activities or objects.
More specifically the fluctuation of sound is expressed in the change of volume and
presence, noticeability of individual sound in the soundscape. Sounds “often change
according to the temporal rhythms of each day and according to other cycles.” (Atkinson,
2007, p. 1905-1906) The most general temporal cycle is day-night. In the view of the whole
city, as morning starts, so do people start their activities – they start to produce sound. The
level of sound gradually increases and gains its peak when the activity of the city is the
largest. Then it, for some time sustains its level and gradually lessens when the day comes
to an end. The next sub-cycle is the work-cycle. People’s work activities produce sound
which is rhythmical. As work shifts change so does sound gradually appear in grater
quantities and at the end dies down making space for other sound to come into the
foreground.

As does the activity vary in place during the time of the day, sound follows activity. Most
notably is this caused by the movement and daily migration of people from work to home
and vice versa. In the time of sound is most present and loudest in work environments –
industrial zones, city centers and as work shifts end all the sound as the population in
moved away from industrial areas to living areas where it settles down. In the night the
sound is at the lowest point, since the city has come to a “stall”.

There appears to be a “relative stickiness of sound in place.” (Atkinson, 2007, p. 1906)

Sound depends of place activity. To be heard, to come in existence, it needs to be produced
by an active environment. But with the surplus of sound, individual sounds lose their
noticeability, it blends in the soundscape to the point of unrecognizability. “The constant
presence of excessively loud sound diminishes our capacity to distinguish individual sound
and the meanings they convey.” (Oddie, 2019, p. 164) But as the level of sound changes in
certain time periods of the day individual sounds which are constant – drone sounds or
sounds that appear in shorter time intervals come in the focus. This happens most notably
in the night or in the time that the soundscape has fluctuated to its minimum level, by which
it has reveled constant sound. These are not human activity dictated rather they appear to
dictate human activity. An example is church bells. They appear regularly, are most
noticeable in the night and in its essence should dictate human behavior and activity, it
being the signal for communal mass. Nature’s sound falls into this category. The sound of
rivers and the wind hitting treetops. Nature’s sound can be heard in the time when urban
sound is at its minimum.

Most spaces fluctuate in sound volume and presence, but there are some who have
constant sound more specifically constant lack of sound. As mentioned before these quiet
oases most notably are embodied as sacred spaces – spaces where sound or lack of it is
greatly cherished, since it represents certain states of consciousness. They serve as fixed
points in otherwise everchanging bit still mostly identical soundscape. Quiet spaces are
foundations for the constructions of soundscapes. The act as contradiction to soundful
spaces in being their opposite – containing negative sound – being without personal sound
or a very small amount of it. They are the basis for evaluating which places have sound and
to what extend sound is present. In broader sense the city is constructed from areas that
are soundful and those who are soundless. The sound presence of soundful spaces
fluctuates in temporal patterns while soundless places have fixed sound form. Their sound
of soundless spaces depends on soundful spaces and their temporal fluctuation. Soundless
spaces gain noticeability in their sound structure when soundful spaces are in the state of
sound minimum. The city is in this sense made from points (large areas) that pulsate in
sound intensity giving the opportunity of sound recognition of other spaces when they are
in a certain state of sound.

6. Conclusion

Sound is one of the crucial structural elements of the city, existing in the non-physical realm.
Because of that the component of sound can overlooked and dismissed when studying
urban. It does not carry an obvious message, it oftentimes takes form as non-verbal.

Urban sound embodies some unique characteristics such as being largely induced by human
activity, existing in rather high volumes, following constant rhythmical patterns, fluctuating
temporally and spatially and being invasive to its non-native environment – nature. Sound
determines spaces and places in the urban by the form it takes and the content it transmits.
Spaces and places partly get meaning by the sound it is submerged in. This determinism of
sound is vivid and reflect itself in the interpretation of space and place of urban population.
As sound molds interpretation, it holds power, or those who control sound have power, is
some degree, over the urban ecosystem. Power is shown by the size of the acoustic territory
and the presence of sound in the soundscape.
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