DOI: https://doi.org /10.18860/ua.v24i1.

19858 65

THE EPISTEMOLOGY OF ISLAMIC

PHILOSOPHY: A Chronological Review

Amril ,* Ahmad Khoirul Fata,** & Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor***

*Universitas Islam Negeri Imam Bonjol Padang, Indonesia
**Institut Agama Islam Negeri Sultan Amai Gorontalo, Indonesia
***University of Malaya, Malaysia
Email: amrilmag@uinib.ac.id

Abstract
This article describes the various forms of Islamic philosophy because some
scholars claim that philosophical thought in Islam became stagnant after
Ghazâlî's criticism. This library research uses qualitative method and
historical approach, and focuses on examining the distinctive characteristics
of each school of Islamic philosophical thought by emphasizing its
epistemological aspects. This article shows that philosophy in Islamic world is
very dynamic and not in a single character. In each period, the Islamic
philosophy reveals a variety of patterns. To facilitate the discussion, this
article is elaborated on a series of times and examines the distinctive patterns
of epistemology that developed in each epoch. Although ontologically they are
similar, there are epistemic differences in the philosophy developed by Muslim
philosophers: Peripateticism, which dominated during the classical Islamic
period (850-1250); 'Irfânâyah and two schools of wisdom (al-h}ikmah al-
ishraqîyah/illumination theosophy and al-h}ikmah al-
muta'âlîyah/transcendent theosophy), which dominated in the medieval
Islamic period (1250-1850); and the school of al-h}ikmat al-
ladunîyah/perennialist theosophy and al-'aqalîyah in the contemporary
Islamic period (1850-present). This diversity emerged as a response to
different challenges and adaptations to local situations.

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66 The Epistemology of Islamic Philosophy...

Artikel ini membahas berbagai bentuk Filsafat Islam karena beberapa

cendekiawan menyatakan bahwa filsafat pemikiran dalam Islam menjadi
stagnan setelah kritikan Ghazâlî. Penelitian kepustakaan ini menggunakan
metode kualitatif dan pendekatan historis, serta fokus pada analisa karakter
yang berbeda dari setiap mazhab Filsafat Pemikiran Islam dengan
menekankan aspek epistemologinya. Studi ini menunjukkan bahwa filsafat
dalam dunia Islam sangat dinamis dan tidak berkarakter tunggal. Di setiap
era, Filsafat Islam mengungkap berbagai pola. Untuk mendukung diskusi
tersebut, artikel ini dielaborasi berdasar rangkaian waktu dan menganalisa
perbedaan pola epistemologi yang berkembang di setiap era. Meski secara
ontologi sama, ada perbedaan epistemic dalam filsafat yang dikembangkan
filsuf Muslim: Peripatetisme, yang mendominasi selama periode Islam klasik
(850-1250); 'Irfânâyah dan dua aliran hikmah (al-h}ikmah al-ishraqîyah/
teosofi iluminasi dan al-h}ikmah al-muta'âlîyah/teosofi transendental) yang
dominan di periode Islam pertengahan (1250-1850); dan mazhab al-h}ikmat
al-ladunîyah/teosofi perenial and al-'aqalîyah di periode Islam kontemporer
(1850-sekarang). Keragaman ini timbul sebagai respon atas tantangan yang
berbeda dan adaptasi terhadap situasi lokal.

Keywords: epistemology; al-h}ikmah; irfâniyah; Islamic philosophy;

peripateticism

Received: February 21, 2023; Revised: May 6, 2023; Accepted: May 25,
2023

Introduction
Some scholars said that science in the Islamic world has declined due
to al-Ghazâlî 's criticism on philosophy, significant growth of Ash'arism and
Syafiism, stagnation of Islamic kingdoms' authority, and Mongol aggression
on Baghdad (Abidin 2012, 21–42). According to Luthfie Assyaukanie, the
establishment of Nizâmiyah Madrasah under the leadership of al-Ghazâlî
during the Seljuk Dynasty has spread Ash'arism which is less appreciative of
human autonomy among Muslims. The enthusiasm for change among
Muslims declined and became more critical when al-Ghazâlî wrote Tahafut
al-Falasifah, which strongly condemned philosophy (Total Politik 2022).

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Amril, et al. 67

That al-Ghazâlî and Ash'arism teachings were the cause of the

deterioration of the Islamic world, including in the fields of philosophy
and science, is refuted by other scholars. Ulil Abshar Abdalla acknowledges
the fact of the stagnation of science in the current Islamic world but to say
that al-Ghazâlî and Ash'arism are the causal factors is not justified. Abdalla
explains that if it were true that the teachings of these two scholars made
their followers exclusive and rejected new ideas, then why in Indonesia, the
group that highly value new ideas is the NU teenagers claiming as the
supporters of al-Ghazâlî and al-Ash'ari? (Abdalla 2021).
Budi Handrianto appeals on behalf of al-Ghazâlî. He states that, it is
a fact that after al-Ghazâlî’s period, natural sciences in the Islamic world
did not decline, but are dynamic, especially in Arithmetic and Astronomy.
It is evident that in the thirteenth century, there were approximately 20
Astronomers working at the Maragha observatory. Handrianto also states
the fact that the scientific revolution in the Western world in the sixteenth
century was influenced by the dynamism of Islamic natural sciences in the
13th to 14th centuries. Furthermore, al-Ghazâlî's criticism on philosophy in
Tahâfut al-Falâsifah was actually a stimulus for the development of
mechanical philosophy, which was subsequently developed by David Hume
and became the foundation of progress in natural sciences in the West
(Handrianto 2021; Ali 2012, 14).
Handrianto argues that the error in the accusation against al-Ghazâlî
originates from Western scientists who compared the conflict between
religion and science with their history. This error is also rooted in their
argument that Islamic philosophy is only scholastic philosophy (Corbin
1983, xiv). However, Islamic philosophy is not uniform but has distinct
characteristics that contradict one another. They also accused al-Ghazâlî as
the catalyst for the stagnation of natural sciences and philosophy in the
Islamic world, and had the mistaken attitude towards Islamic philosophy.
Studies on Islamic philosophy in a more comprehensive manner
have been conducted by many scholars. Henry Corbin, in his book "The
History of Islamic Philosophy," discusses the development from post-Ibn
Rushd to the development of philosophy among the Shia, such as Mullâ
Sadrâ and Mir Damad. In this book, Corbin interprets Islamic philosophy
broadly, not only as rational thinking in the Greek tradition but also
including other aspects such as Kalam and Sufism. However, Corbin's
study is characterized by a chronological approach that emphasizes the

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regional origin of the philosopher and the style of their religious school
(Corbin 1983, xv). Similar studies have also been conducted by Majid
Fakhry. While Corbin's study finished on the development of philosophy
in the Shia world, Fakhry goes further by examining the development of
Islamic thought in the modern era. Fakhry's study focuses on the
chronological aspect of history rather than the philosophical schools of
thought (Fakhry 1983). Studies on Islamic philosophy have also been
conducted by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Leaman. Unlike Corbin and
Fakhry, they wrote the history of Islamic philosophy by emphasizing the
thought of the involved figures (Leaman & Nasr 2001).
The study of Islamic epistemology is conducted by Safi and M.
Azram. They explain the meaning of knowledge and its sources from an
Islamic perspective. Their study still serves as a fundamental for
epistemology discussion (Azram 2011, 178–89; Safi 1997, 39–56). Another
study by Akyol discusses the epistemology of Jâbir Ibn Hayyân (Akyol 2018,
11–22). Certainly, those differ from this current study which goes further
to discuss various schools of Islamic philosophy from the perspective of
each epistemology.
This article is a concise version of the three aforementioned works
since they serve as the primary references for this writing. Unlike the
previous ones, this article examines the aspect of epistemology in each
school of Islamic philosophy. This article begins by assuming that Islamic
philosophy is not singular. Islamic philosophy is not solely scholastic
thought, but a variety of philosophical tradition with distinct epistemic
characteristics that appear to be in conflict with one another. By examining
its epistemological characteristics, this article seeks to describe the
distinctive features of each school of Islamic philosophy.

Research Method
To match the objective of this study, the authors implement a
descriptive-qualitative study and present it in a chronological-historical
manner. Therefore, this is a literature study as it examines various sources
(books and scientific articles) analyzed with a social-historical approach,
especially the history of thought. The approach is used because this writing
examines the thoughts, ideas, and concepts of the past. Some of the
primary sources include the works of Henry Corbin, Majid Fakhry, Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, and Oliever Leaman, as mentioned in the Introduction. The

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secondary sources are used to enrich the discussion, such as the writings of
Rabi’, Nadvi, Golparvar-Roozbahani, Fata and Noorhayati, Ceylan,
Kertanegara, etc. The collected data are then analyzed hermeneutically to
obtain a comprehensive understanding.

Results and Discussion

The History of the Islamic Philosophy Development
Generally, historians see that the development of science and
philosophy in the Islamic world occurred when Muslims came into contact
with major civilizations around Arabia, such as Persia and areas influenced
by Greco-Roman culture (Hellenism), as well as India (Fauzan & Fata
2018; Rusli 2018; Grant 2008; Stavig 2000; Nadvi 2012). Regarding the
contact with Hellenism, Montgomery Watt explains that it happened
during the Abbasid dynasty, around the mid-8th century AD. This is what
he called the first wave of Hellenism. In this period, the intellectual
struggle between Islam and Hellenism was not deep yet, it was only for the
purposes of debating methods, both among Muslims and non-Muslims.
The progress of Islamic philosophy only occurred in the second wave of
Hellenism in the 10th-11th centuries AD. This period is what Watt called as
“the flowering of philosophy”—the flowering season of the Islamic
philosophy dialectic and Hellenism (Watt 1985, 44-74).
In contrast to Watt, Majid Fakhry stated that the contact of Islam
with Hellenism had been going on since the Umayyad Dynasty in the 7th
century AD. During the Umayyad era, the Muslim intellectual struggle with
Hellenism was not yet perfect, but that does not mean it did not exist at all.
Fakhry also mentioned Prince Khalid bin Yazid as a significant figure in
introducing philosophy to the Arab-Islamic community (Fakhry 1983, xviii,
4-5). Fakhry's opinion was supported by Philip K. Hitty who referred to
Prince Khalid as "the Philosopher of Marwanid-the Muslim who first
commanded the translation of books on Chemistry, Medicine, and
Astrology from Greek and Coptic" (Hitty 1974, 255).
The Greek philosophy included in Islamic thought has encouraged
the rapid development of Islamic philosophy. However, according to Oliver
Leaman, it is a big mistake to assume that before getting acquainted with
Greek philosophy, Muslims did not have a rational-philosophical method
of thinking. Prior to the translation of Greek books, philosophical rational
thought had run well in the Islamic scholarly tradition, particularly in

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theological and legal studies. The existence of this scientific field, according
to Leaman, helped prepare the basis for the conformity and development
of Greek logic and philosophy in Islam, not the other way around (Nasr
2001a, 17).
The Islamic philosophy development is getting faster and richer
along with the encounter of Muslims with the philosophical thoughts of
other nations, including Persia/Iran, and India. In this position, Muslims
do not just act as consumers of thoughts, more than that they accept all of
it critically and process it into products of a new philosophical thought by
referring to Islamic values as a guideline. These endeavors are visible in
various critical debates among Muslim thinkers, for example the debate
between al-Ghazâlî and Ibn Rushd (Fauzan and Fata 2018, 406-32). In
modern times, Islamic philosophical thought increasingly gets new inputs
when Muslims come into contact with modern Western philosophy and
science which tend to be positivistic (Fata 2012, 2056-72; Fata &
Noorhayati 2016, 215-28; Husaini 2005, 41-46; Hasbullah & Murad 2018,
78-96).
The varied elements cause Islamic philosophy to have different
colors of mazhab/schools. If a categorical map is made, the development of
Islamic philosophy can be generally typified in several dominant
epistemological models: first, mazhab peripatetic (masyâ'îyah) which was the
dominant philosophical school in the Islamic classical era (850-1250);
second, mazhab 'irfânîyah and two schools of h}ikmah (wisdom): namely al-
h}ikmah al-ishrâqîyah (illumination theosophy) and al-h}ikmah al-muta'âlîyah
(transcendent theosophy), dominated the development of Islamic
philosophy in the medieval Islamic era (1250-1850); and last, the schools of
al- h}ikmah al-ladûnîyah (perennial theosophy) and al-h}ikmah al-'aqalîyah in the
modern/contemporary Islamic era (1850-present).

The Concept of Islamic Epistemology

Epistemology questions how we know, what we know, and what we
are able to know. This involves critical thinking about sources of
knowledge such as experience, perception, reason, and authority.
Epistemology also addresses issues such as objectivity, truth, rationality,
and probability in the process of knowledge formation (Russell 2014, 43).
Islamic epistemology is a branch of study within Islamic philosophy
exploring sources of knowledge and how to acquire them in the context of

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Islamic belief and religious practice. Islamic epistemology encompasses

thoughts on how humans gain knowledge about Allah, the Quran, and the
overall Islamic religious tradition (Safi 1997, 39-56).
The main concept in Islamic epistemology is Tawhid or belief in
one God which refers to the belief that all knowledges are from Allah. In
Islam, Allah is considered the highest source of knowledge and humans
can acquire knowledge through revelation or inspiration from Allah,
reason, and experience. Islamic epistemology also includes the study of
methodologies in acquiring knowledge and establishing truth. In Islamic
epistemology, truth is considered an achievement that can be attained
through correct and proportional thinking. Overall, Islamic epistemology
teaches that knowledge should always be linked to moral and ethical values
of religion and that knowledge gained should be used for good and
beneficial purposes for humanity (al-Faruqi 1992, 5-8).
Islamic epistemology has various perspectives and approaches, thus,
it is diverse. This is due to the fact that Islam does not teach a single theory
or model for acquiring knowledge, but allows various perspectives and
approaches used to achieve understanding of truth and knowledge. Some
examples of perspectives and approaches in Islamic epistemology include
Rational methods referring to the logical and philosophical tradition of
thought in Islam that is greatly influenced by Greek philosophy;
Theological methods that base the understanding of knowledge on
religious teachings and revelation, so the main source of knowledge is the
Quran and hadith; Mystical methods that attempt to achieve an
understanding of knowledge through spiritual experience and self-
introspection. In Abid al-Jabiri's concept, these three methods are known
as Burhani, Bayani, and Irfani (Rabî 2003, 65).
In practice, Islamic scholars have developed various theories and
models on how humans acquire knowledge in the context of Islamic belief
and practice. This shows that Islamic epistemology has high diversity and
complexity, making it an interesting subject of study for scholars and lovers
of knowledge. The following section explains the epistemic diversity in
Islamic philosophy.

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Epistemology Model of Classical Islamic Philosophy

In the Islamic classical era (850-1250), Islamic philosophy was
dominated by Peripatetic epistemology (masy{â'îyah). The term peripateticism
comes from the Greek word peripatein (to go around) and peripatos (to
veranda), while -ism means to flow. In Arabic, the word peripatetic is
known as masyâ'î (walking around). While the flow is called masyâ'îyah (Nur
2022, 61). In Greek literature, this word refers to a sports hall in Athens
used to teach philosophy by walking around and surrounding the students
(Drajat 2007, 27). Peripateticism also means “one who walks round or
around”. It refers to Aristotle's habit of always walking around his students
when teaching philosophy (Kartanegara 2006a, 26).
In Islamic philosophy, Peripatetic mazhab/school was first introduced
by al-Farâbî, then al-Râzî, and reached its peak on a large scale in Ibn Sînâ
period. Furthermore, this mazhab was used by Ibn Bajjah and Ibn T}ufayl in
a broader philosophical context after the criticism of al-Ghazâlî (Mhire
2013, 733; Rusli 2018, 161). In tracing the epistemology of Peripateticism
in Islamic philosophy, it can be reviewed in the following methodological
aspects.
First, expression mode or discursive (bah�t{i) argumentation
explanation is using formal logic based on rational reasoning. The
reasoning procedure used is “syllogism”, which is a well-known method of
drawing conclusions from knowledge or called the premise (major and
minor); it is done after finding the term that mediates the two premises
which are usually called the “middle term” or al-h}add al-wasat{.
Second, due to its discursive nature, the developed philosophy is
indirect because symbols are used to capture objects, either in the form of
words, concepts, or representations. The knowledge mode (epistemology) is
called h}us}ûlî or acquisition obtained indirectly through intermediaries.
Third, strong emphasis on the powers of reason and influenced by the
authority of earlier Philosophers. Peripatetic philosophers depend more on
their power of philosophy or reason, thus, they deserve to be called Islamic
rationalists (Kartanegara 2006a, 27-28).
Based on the elaboration above, it can be concluded that peripatetic
epistemology in the Islamic philosophical tradition relies on the potential
of reason to acquire knowledge. Due to the prominent position of reason
for the Peripatetic mazhab, this group is then called the Islamic rationalists

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and “the deductionists” (Kartanegara 2007, 94). The reason is that the
characteristic of this method is its exclusive (strong) reliance on deductive
reasoning and rational proof. This happened due to the many influences of
Greek philosophical thought, especially Aristotle, on Islamic philosophers
at the beginning of the Greek civilization to the Islamic world, especially in
methodology or epistemology. This shows the openness and good
acceptance of Muslim philosophers toward Greek philosophy (Drajat 2007,
76-78).

Epistemology Model of Medieval Islamic Philosophy

Map of the Islamic philosophy development in the Middle Ages
(1250-1800) changed in epistemology style and patterns of thought. If in
the classical era, Islamic epistemology was dominated by Peripatetic mazhab,
then in medieval Islam, there was a synergy between philosophy and
tasawuf/Sufism (gnosis). There were two mazhab in Islamic epistemology
that were dominant in the Middle Ages, namely ‘irfânîyah and h}ikmah
epistemologies.

'Irfâniyah Epistemology

'Irfânî, also known as tasawwuf, is a term used by the Iranians for the
development of Islamic philosophy after Ibn Rushd. In the realm of Islamic
intellectuals, it is often not categorized as part of philosophy as it relies
more on the processing of the senses in qalb (heart/intuition) and mystical
experiences that are supra-rational in nature. However, in the Islamic
philosophy development after Ibn Rushd, tasawwuf is tightly inseparable
from philosophy. According to Ibn Khaldûn, both theology ('ilm al-kalâm)
and tasawwuf have basically been mixed up in such a way with
philosophical issues. The two branches of Islamic science which are
naqlîyah are now shifting to the area of 'aqlîyah (Kartanegara 2006a, 57).
The epistemology of 'irfânî is based on an introduction to mystical or
religious experiences. The Sufis (experts in tasawwuf) call this mode of
recognition by the term ma'rifah, namely knowledge which is a direct gift
from God (Fata 2011, 2054), or recognition based on the qalb which can
pierce directly into the object’s “heart”. The method of gnostic knowledge
(al-manhâj al-'irfânî) takes the theory of prophetic epistemology in obtaining

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knowledge or as a continuation of prophecy carried out through the qalb

purification and enlightenment (Harb 2003, 267).
The epistemology of tasawwuf is different from the epistemology of
philosophy (Peripatetic). Mulyadi Kartanegara explained, if intellectual
perception in philosophy requires an “intermediary” in recognizing the
object, for example in the form of letters, concepts, or representations,
then intuitive perception does not require the “intermediary”. Because of
its dependence on an “intermediary”, according to the Sufis, reason will
not have essential knowledge about its object as a true reality (Kartanegara
2006a, 58). As the rhetorical question formulated by Jalâl al-Dîn al-Rûmî,
"Can you edit a rose from R.O.S.E?" "No, you just said the name," Rûmî
said, "Find one with a name!" The answer from this dialectic shows the
weakness of reason in reaching the reality of its object. The introduction of
'aqlîyah is like knowing roses from the word R.O.S.E or the letters. In fact,
there is an essential difference between a real rose in a garden, and the
letters R.O.S.E (Kartanegara 2006b, 97).
According to Jalâl al-Dîn al-Rûmî, reason is like a wooden leg.
Prosthetic legs are the weakest legs. “Love”, for example, according to the
Sufis cannot be comprehended by discursive reason. No matter how many
books of love theory we read, it can only be understood by experiencing it
directly. This is what is meant by intuitive direct recognition, also called
ladûnî science. In 'irfânî's epistemology, the process of recognizing object is
not analyzed as something distinguishable from its subject. The object is
precisely present in the researcher’s soul because it is inseparable from the
subject. Because the object is present, this mode of recognition is also
known as h{ud}ûrî knowledge, namely knowledge obtained through a process
of enlightenment by the presence of Divine light in the qalb (Yazdi 1992,
47). Thus, ma'rifah cannot be gained through reasoning or senses, but only
achieved by heart and intuitive experience.
Furthermore, al-Jabiri explained, 'irfânî epistemological system is
based on the principle of dichotomy between dhâhir (exoteric) and bât{in
(esoteric). Bât{in has a higher status in the hierarchy of 'irfânî knowledge.
The 'irfânî analogy is different from the indication analogy (qiyas bayân) and
the logical syllogism because both are based on direct similarities. However,
because the 'irfânî analogy is based on similarities, it is not bound by rules
and can get an infinite number of forms and levels (infinite number and

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level). The analogy of 'irfânî can take the form of a figure of speech (tamthîl)
or metaphor and become a representation (Al-Jabiri 1991).

H}ikmah Epistemology
The synergy between philosophy and tasawwuf in the Islamic
philosophy body is realized in the form of the school of h}ikmah
(theosophy). In medieval Islam, there were two dominant schools of h}ikmah
in Islamic philosophy, h}ikmah al-ishrâqîyah (illumination theosophy) and
h}ikmah al-muta'âlîyah (transcendent theosophy).
According to Sayyed Hossein Nasr, the history of the term h}ikmah al-
ishrâqîyah/illumination refers to Plato and the Neo-Platonist tradition. The
Illuminates were followers of the Egyptian Saints (Seth) who were the
children of Hermes' sister (Nasr 1997, 62). The epistemological method in
the Neo-Platonist philosophical tradition is done by intellectual cleansing
and soul purification, so as to achieve an inner (bât{in) revelation
(enlightenment). This method is implemented through the process of
intuitive introspection and the use of symbols. Illuminationists think that
the deduction and rational thinking methods are not adequate for the
Philosophy Study, especially when it comes to h}ikmah ilahiyah (God's
wisdom), and about “the path of the heart”, asceticism and purification of
the soul, which will only happen after one experiences a realization of
bât{in.
In Islamic philosophy, the school of illumination was founded by
Suhrawardi al-Maqtûl, an Iranian Islamic Philosopher. According to Seyyed
Hossein Nasr, Suhrawardi created a knowledge-based philosophical
synthesis through illumination (enlightenment) and reconciliation efforts
of rational mind training and soul purification. The centrality of the
synthesis between rational knowledge and mystical experience is an ideal
doctrine for the ishrâqî Suhrawardi (Nasr 2001a, 664; Habib 2018).
In illumination epistemology, knowledge is divided into two parts
i.e., dhâhir and bât{in. The knowledge of bât{in is given a higher place.
Although the illumination epistemology relies on “divine inspiration and
supernatural guidance”, directly capturing things that are “bât{in”, it still
needs demonstration (prove) to develop them further into more detailed
understandings (Bagir 2017, 81). For this reason, the epistemology of
illumination does not only rely on the bât{in strength in gaining knowledge

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but also relies on demonstrative abilities. Strictly speaking, the illumination

epistemology is based on discursive reasoning and intellectual intuition, the
formal training of mind, and the purification of soul (bât{in) (Nasr 1997,
64).
As one of schools in Islamic philosophy, the methodology or
epistemology characteristic used by illumination philosophy is to give
prominent place for the intuitive method ('irfân), as a companion or basis
for rational reasoning. Here, the illumination school synthesizes two
approaches: burhân and 'irfân in a solid and holistic system of thought. In
illumination school, a seeker of truth (science/epistemology) can be
classified into four groups: 1) those who feel thirsty for knowledge, thus,
decide to search and gain it; 2) those having formal knowledge and
perfecting discursive philosophy but are still unfamiliar with gnosis
(mystics), such as Ibn Sinâ and al-Farâbî; 3) those who have no knowledge
of discursive philosophy, but have cleansed their souls to achieve
intellectual intuition and inner enlightenment, such as al-Hallâj, Abû Yâzid
al-Bustâmi, and Tustârî; and 4) those who perfected discursive philosophy
and acquired gnosis, such as Pythagoras, Plato, and Suhrawardi
(Saidurrahman 2014, 100; al Walid 2020, 165; Abdullah 2013, 17; Habib
2018, 208).
Mystical experience is the direct experience of seeing the genuine
reality. It is very important, so it does not only rely on the authority of the
past because in mystical experience, the research “object” is ”present”
inside oneself. Mystical experience is very urgent for the search for truth
because a person (a philosopher or a Sufi) can directly witness the truth (al-
h}aqq) through the experience, which cannot be gained in the same way
through the senses or reason. Otherwise, their philosophy will be
influenced by inaccessible expressions of shat}ahat. For this reason, the truth
of mystical experience must be tested through discursive language.
In the theory of illumination epistemology, there are two
fundamental problems in logic, first, universal propositions (al-qad}âyâ al-
kullîyah) in illuminationist logic in which the obtained conclusions using
formally established syllogisms do not have epistemological value as starting
point in philosophical construction. Illuminationist logic rests on the
"definite" mode (al-d}arûrî) and the “eternal” mode (dâ’iman). By introducing
the mode of "possibility" (imkân), universal affirmative propositions might
not be “constantly true”. This is due to the impossibility of “knowing” all

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that is possible. The epistemological implication of illuminationist formal

logic is that formal validity has a lower degree than certainty achieved by a
subject that merely know. Therefore, philosophical intuition precedes
deductive reasoning. Second, Illuminationist logic rejects the universal
definition formulated by Aristotle and Ibn Sinâ. For the Illuminationists,
true knowledge cannot be gained from a formula that unites the summum
genus and the differentia. Knowledge must depend on “something else”
defined in one's self-awareness when the individual recognizes what he
defines (the definiendum) (Leaman & Nasr 2001, 875).
While the epistemology of h}ikmah al-muta'âlîyah (transcendent
theosophy) criticizes the Peripatetic school which only relies on the power
of reason (ratio) (Açikgenç 2009). The transcendent theosophical school
also believes in discursive reason and mystical experience and thus, it is
similar with the belief of Illumination school. As mentioned in the
preceding paragraph, the illumination school is based on mystical
experience, and after that, it is conveyed in a philosophical-discursive
language. More so the transcendent theosophical epistemology, as stated by
Bagir, emphasizes that mystical experience is not only ”possible” to be
expressed discursively-logically, but ”must” be expressed for the purposes of
public verification (Bagir 2014, 89).
Mulla Shadra, a transcendent theosophical philosopher, expressed
gus approach in knowledge completion, 1) that knowledge is gained
through processing mental power after being in contact with intelligence;
2) that understandable objects of knowledge must undergo ontological
changes in order to be recognized; 3) that knowing is a combination of the
existence of clear sources and methods; and 4) knowledgeable and
educated people are identical in terms of existence (Ceylan 1990, 43;
Golparvar 2017, 69; Rizvi 2012, 35).
According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, the school of transcendent
theosophy believes that conceptual knowledge is gained through concepts
inside one’s mind about what is known. Meanwhile, knowledge with
presence implies the reality saved in human mind/intellect without the
mediation of mental concepts, such as when a person knows his own self
or Divine reality. This knowledge is illuminative and transcends the realm
of reason, but that does not mean it is without intellectuality. All
knowledge on these philosophical and theosophical matters are based on
revelation (Nasr 2001b, 45).

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78 The Epistemology of Islamic Philosophy...

According to Haidar Bagir, the epistemology of h}ikmah al-muta'âlîyah

believes that religious feelings as a source of truth can be expressed in
rational and logical languages. Thus, these feelings can be verified because,
first, verification is only done based on the principle of coherence (rational-
logic); second, a thought must be in accordance with acquisition through
other levels of thought, both imaginative and rational-logic; third, by
verifying rationally and logically, an idea is put into the "free market", so it
can be discussed, debated and agreed on its value (Bagir 2017, 60).

Epistemology Model of Modern/Contemporary Islamic Philosophy

The development of Islamic philosophy in the
modern/contemporary era was influenced by Western philosophy, classical
Islamic philosophy, and the tendency to revive Eastern philosophical
traditions in a Neo-Platonic style (ishrâqîyah). Hence, two epistemological
schools can be grouped in the modern/contemporary Islamic philosophy,
namely perennialism epistemology (h}ikmah al-ladûnîyah) and rationalism
epistemology (‘aqlîyah) (Rachman 2021, 186).
Perennial philosophy acts as a "countercultural spirituality" or a
reaction to the absence of Western spiritual (William 2018). This is
relevant to the spiritual crisis context of modern humanity which is the
main focus of perennial philosophy by considering the esoteric side of
religion as the solution. Philosophia perennis means an eternal truth at the
center of all traditions relevant to Sanatana Dharma in Hinduism, and al-
h}ikmah al-khâlidah or al- h}ikmah al-ladûnîyah in Islam (Nasr 1995, 7).
Mulyadi Kartanegara explained that perennialist philosophers took
the traditions of major religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and
Islam) and the religions of ancient societies (Indians, Mayans, and
Greeks/Hellenists), as sources of inspiration for their philosophical
thought. They deeply understand religious teachings on the
esoteric/mental aspect. Especially in Islam, perennialist Muslim
philosophers take the concept in the form of Sufism (Kartanegara 2006a,
174-78). Perennial philosophers divide knowledge into two types: 1)
absolute, perfect, and certain (yaqîn) knowledge that comes directly from
God, as written in the Quran; and 2) presumptive knowledge gained
through rational methods. Seyyed Hossein Nasr emphasized, these two
types of knowledge are reachable by human mind, because the mind

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Amril, et al. 79

consists of two components i.e., partial-rational reason ('aql juz'î) and global-
intuitive reason ('aql kullî). Partial mind can only see external phenomena,
exoteric or obvious things (z}âhir). Meanwhile, the global-intuitive mind is
deeper and reaches internal aspects or esoteric (bât{in) reality. The ability of
human mind on the partial and intuitive things is empowered by the
Divine Spirit (achieved through the practice of t}arîqah) (Guessoum 2014,
103).
Meanwhile, rational epistemology ('aqlîyah) refers to the human
ability to actualize the capability of thinking rationally to comprehend
everything. For rationalists, a sufficient and reliable source of knowledge is
ratio (reason) (Fata 2012, 2057). In expressing the concepts and ideas of
thought, rationalism carries it out through language relying on reasonable
procedures and confirmation according to logic (Rachman 2021, 188).
This process is done so that the truth appreciation can be rationally
accepted.
In rational epistemology, logic has a significant existence because
reason's ability to acquire knowledge can be flawed if it does not fulfill the
rules of proper (logical) thinking. Logic is a scientific method used by
reason in understanding physical (Physics) and non-physical (metaphysical)
objects (Fata and Noorhayati 2016, 215). Nevertheless, after knowing the
shortcomings of these epistemologists, Muslim philosophers formulated
several levels or types of logic, namely poetic (syi’ri), rhetoric (khitabi),
dialectic (jadali), sophistic/sophism (mughaithi), and demonstrative (burhani)
methods. The demonstrative method is considered by the Muslim
philosophers as the most scientific method that can precisely capture the
reality of the research objects because it avoids logical fallacies. Therefore,
Islamic philosophers use demonstrative methods in scientific, rational, and
philosophical research (Madjid 1994, 209).
According to Harun Nasution, since the 19th and 20th centuries AD,
rational religious thought developed in the Islamic world. In religious
rational thought, humans have freedom, and reason has a dominant
position in perceiving the Quran and Hadith teachings. The freedom of
reason is only tied to the absolute teachings of the two sources of Islamic
science, namely qat}'i al-wurûd and qat}'i al-dalâlah teachings. The meaning of
the Quran and Hadith is comprehended according to one’s reason. Thus, a
majâzî or metaphorical interpretation arises. In other words, in religious
rational thinking, comprehension on the Quranic verses and hadith must

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80 The Epistemology of Islamic Philosophy...

be in accordance with the opinion of reason, so long as they do not conflict

with the aforementioned absolute teachings (Nasution 1996, 8-9). Due to
this reason, the ability of reason according to the Islamic rationalism is to
recognize sensory objects by abstracting universal meanings from sensory
data and non-physical objects (ma'qûlat) by deducing from the unknown to
the known (Kartanegara 2005, 66). By using the method of demonstrative
or rational epistemology in the construction of philosophical thought, the
existence of ratios is very urgent in the contemporary Islamic philosophy
development (Azadpur 2011, 3).
In brief, the schools in Islamic Philosophy are presented in Table 1
which is arranged based on the characteristics of epistemology. In the
classical Islamic era (850-1250 AD), Islamic philosophy was predominantly
shaped by peripatetic epistemology, which was initially introduced by al-
Farâbî, followed by al-Râzî, and reached its peak through the works of Ibn
Sînâ. Peripatetism relied on formal logic and rational reasoning. In
medieval Islam, there existed a harmonious relationship between
philosophy and tasawuf/Sufism (gnosis). Two dominant schools of thought
in Islamic epistemology emerged during the Middle Ages: 'irfânîyah
epistemology and h}ikmah epistemology.

Table 1
Schools in Islamic Philosophy according to Their Epistemological Characteristics
Period School of Epistemology Figures
Thought
The Classical Peripateticism Formal logic based on Al-Farâbî, al-Râzî, Ibn
Islamic Era (850- (masyâ’îyah) rational reasoning Sinâ, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn
1250 AD) (ratio) T{ufayl, Ibn Rushd
The Medieval ‘Irfânîyah based on an Jalâl al-Dîn al-Rûmî,
Islamic Period introduction to al-Jillî
(1250-1850 AD) mystical or religious
experiences
Al-h}ikmah al- based on discursive Suhrawardi al-
ishraqîyah reasoning and Maqtûl, al-Hallâj,
(theosophy of intellectual intuition, Abû Yazîd al-Bustamî
illumination) formal training of the and Tustârî
mind, and
purification of the
soul (bât{in)

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Amril, et al. 81

h}ikmah al- Based on truth of Mirdamad, Mulla

muta’âlîyah mystical experience Shadra, Mula Hadi
(teosophy of must be tested Sabziwari
transcendent) through discursive
language
The Modern- al-h}ikmah al- Based on division of Seyyed Hossein Nasr
Contemporary ladunîyah human mind to two
Islamic Period (theosophy of capabilities: 'aql juz'î
(1850-present) perrenialism) and 'aql kullî. ‘Aql juz’î
can only see external
phenomena, exoteric
or obvious things
(dhâhir). ‘Aql kullî
reaches deeper and
internal aspects or
esoteric (inner)
reality. Esoteric truth
is an absolute truth.
Al-‘aqaliyah Logic and scientific Jamal al-Dîn al-
(rationalism) methods are used to Afghanî,
understand physical Muhammad Abduh,
and non-physical Fazlur Rahman
objects.

'Irfânîyah epistemology was founded on mystical or religious

experiences, known as ma'rifah, which the Sufis regarded as direct
knowledge from God. The school of illumination was established by
Suhrawardi al-Maqtûl. He developed a philosophical synthesis that
emphasized knowledge which is gained through illumination
(enlightenment) and sought to reconcile the training of the rational mind
with the purification of the soul. Illuminationist epistemology relied on
discursive reasoning, intellectual intuition, and the formal cultivation of
the mind and inner spiritual purification. On the other hand, h}ikmah al-
muta'âlîyah (transcendent theosophy) criticized the Peripatetic school for its
exclusive reliance on reason (ratio). The transcendent theosophical school,
like the Illumination school, acknowledged the importance of discursive
reason and mystical experiences. However, it placed greater emphasis on
the necessity of expressing mystical experiences in a discursive-logical

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82 The Epistemology of Islamic Philosophy...

manner for the purpose of public verification. One prominent figure

associated with this school is Mullâ Sadrâ.
In modern/contemporary Islamic philosophy, two epistemological
schools are identified, they are Perennialism epistemology (h}ikmah al-
ladûnîyah) and rationalism epistemology (‘aqlîyah). Perennial philosophy
considered as a “countercultural spirituality” or a response to Western
spiritual dominance. Perennialists draw inspiration from various religious
traditions as sources for their philosophical ideas. They classify knowledge
into two types: 1) absolute, perfect, and certain (yaqîn) knowledge that
originates directly from God as revealed in the Quran, and 2) presumptive
knowledge acquired through rational methods. A prominent figure
associated with perennialism is Seyyed Hossein Nasr.
On the other hand, rational epistemology ('aqlîyah) pertains to the
human capacity to employ rational thinking in comprehending all things.
Rationalists seek to interpret verses and hadiths in accordance with
reasonable opinions, as long as they do not contradict absolute teachings.
Figures representing Muslim rationalists include Jamal al-Din al-Afghani,
Abduh, and others.

Conclusion
The epistemology of Islamic philosophy in the historical range of
Muslims has a variety of colors. All of this illustrates how Islamic
philosophy is not singular and rigid in the way of thinking. Therefore, one
cannot see Islamic philosophy with a single lens. A complete understanding
is needed in order to see the whole color of Islamic thought. Historical
dynamics from classical times to modern/contemporary times have had a
major influence in shaping Muslims’ way of thinking. The peripatetic
epistemology model developed in the classical era, the 'irfân and h}ikmah
epistemologies in the Middle Ages, as well as the perennial and rational
epistemology in the modern/contemporary era. This dynamic appears in
accordance with the socio-cultural context of science that develops in
Islamic society. This epistemic diversity is also the response of Muslims to
the challenges of the times they are experiencing; Muslims actively respond
to changes in each period. The epistemic diversity that occurs indicates a
shifting paradigm in Muslim’s thinking manner, thus, proves them as a
group of people who are continuously developing, dynamic, and not static.
Shifting paradigm in Islamic philosophy also ensures fundamental changes

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Amril, et al. 83

in the way of thinking. However, the above review shows that although
epistemologically they have various colors, Muslim philosophers and
thinkers are still trying to make Islamic basic values as a worldview. This
diversity in ways of thinking does not make Muslim philosophers and
thinkers forget their true roots as people who adhere to the values of
monotheism.

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