CHAPTER 2:

THE PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF

COMMUNICATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After the learning engagements, the learners will be able to:
1. Identify the elements of communication in various texts; and
2. Illustrate the communication process.

COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS
In a survey conducted by the Katz Business School at the University of
Pittsburg, organizations rated communication skills as the most important
factor used in selecting their management staff. The study found that oral
and written communication skills were important in predicting job success,
as was the ability to communicate well with others in the workplace (Mtd
Training, 2010).

This result makes sense after all since communication is innate to us.
Therefore, for us to be able to communicate well is important. If we are not
able to communicate well, the messages we send get lost in translation (Mtd
Training, 2010). Similarly, Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) stated that
when the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot
make themselves understood, then communication fails.

Communication is the art and process of creating and sharing ideas.

Effective communication depends on the richness of those ideas.

So how do we communicate effectively?

We must consider a deeper understanding of the process and elements

of communication. Communication process may be simple to complex
depending on the situation. To understand the process there is a need to know
the elements or components of the process.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1. Speaking and listening are vital elements of communication. Therefore,
in any communication situation, you are both speaker and listener.
(Villamarzo, 2003)

2. Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in the cycle of

communication. These are:

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 1

  Thinking
 Symbolizing
 Expressing
 Transmitting
 Receiving
 Decoding
 Reacting, and
 Monitoring

3. Roman Jacobson mentions the following as components of

communication:
 Addressor (speaker)
 Addressee (listener)
 Context (situation)
 Contact
 Code, and
 Message

4. Gronbeck defines model as ―a picture or a representation of a thing or

process that identifies the key parts or elements and indicates how each
element affects the operations of all of the elements.

5. Communication Model, therefore, is a sketch that shows the basic

elements of the communication process, and how each element affects
the other elements in the entire communication process as a system.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. SPEAKER/ SENDER
 A person who sends the message
 A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphs or visual aids) to
convey the message and produce required response.
 Sender maybe an individual or a group or an organization
 The views, background, approach, skills, competencies and
knowledge of the sender have great impact on the message.
 The communication process begins with the sender, who is also
called the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of
information – a command, request, or idea – that he or she wants to
share with others. In order for the message to be received, the sender
must first encode the message in a form that can be understood and
then transmit it.

2. MESSAGE
 Is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate?
 It is a sign that elicits the response of the recipient.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 2

  Communication process begin with decoding about the message to
be conveyed.
 It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.
 Message is what you communicate verbally or non –verbally
 The message or content is the information that the sender wants to
relay to the receiver. It is relayed between the parties. Put all three
together and you have the communication process at its most basic.
 It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or information that you convey
to your listeners.
Verbal delivery of messages includes:
 Elements of voice (rate, volume, pitch, and quality)
 Articulation, and
 Pronunciation
Verbal message consists of three variables:
 Content (is everything you say about something: referential or
relational) Ref- all relevant to your topic; Rel – a suggestion of
any relationship to your listeners
 Structure (the pattern of organization you follow
 Style (how you express your ideas)

3. CHANNEL OR MEDIUM
 Is the means used to exchange or transmit the message?
 The channel or medium is the language you use.
 The means through which the sender must choose an appropriate
medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be
conveyed.
 It is also called channel; the medium is the means by which a
message is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted
through the medium of cell phones.

4. RECEIVER OR LISTENER
 A person for whom the message is intended, aimed or targeted
 The degree to which the decoder understands the message is
dependent upon various factors such as: knowledge of recipient,
their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of the encoder
on the decoder.
 The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or
the interpreter. In order to comprehend the information from the
sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender ‘s
information and then decode or interpret it.

5. FEEDBACK
 Is the main component of the communication process as it permits
the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message?
 It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of
message by the decoder.
 Feedback maybe verbal or non-verbal.

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  The communication process reaches its final point when the
message has been successfully transmitted, received, and
understood.
 The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating
comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as written or verbal
response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.
 The communication process is not always simple or smooth, of
course. Two other elements may affect how the message is
transmitted, received, and interpreted.

6. NOISE
 This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being
sent, received, or understood.
 It can be as literal as static over a phone line or esoteric as
misinterpreting a local custom.

7. SITUATION or CONTEXT
 It refers to the time and place in which communication occurs
 This is the setting and situation in which communication takes
place.
 Like noise, context can have an impact of the successful exchange
of information.
 It may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The goal of communication is to convey information—and the
understanding of that information—from one person or group to another
person or group. This communication process is divided into three basic
components: A sender transmits a message through a channel to the receiver.
(Figure shows a more elaborate model.) The sender first develops an idea,
which is composed into a message and then transmitted to the other party,
who interprets the message and receives meaning. Information theorists have
added somewhat more complicated language. Developing a message is known
as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.

Figure 1: Communication Model

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 The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When two people
interact, communication is rarely one‐way only. When a person receives a
message, she responds to it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is the same
as the sender‐receiver feedback noted in Figure 1. Otherwise, the sender can't
know whether the other parties properly interpreted the message or how they
reacted to it. Feedback is especially significant in management because a
supervisor has to know how subordinates respond to directives and plans.
The manager also needs to know how work is progressing and how employees
feel about the general work situation.

The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is

common understanding. Understanding exists when all parties involved have
a mutual agreement as to not only the information, but also the meaning of
the information. Effective communication, therefore, occurs when the
intended message of the sender and the interpreted message of the receiver
are one and the same. Although this should be the goal in any
communication, it is not always achieved.

The most efficient communication occurs at a minimum cost in terms

of resources expended. Time, in particular, is an important resource in the
communication process. For example, it would be virtually impossible for an
instructor to take the time to communicate individually with each student in
a class about every specific topic covered. Even if it were possible, it would be
costly. This is why managers often leave voice mail messages and interact by
e‐mail rather than visit their subordinates personally.

However, efficient time‐saving communications are not always effective.

A low‐cost approach such as an e‐mail note to a distribution list may save
time, but it does not always result in everyone getting the same meaning from
the message. Without opportunities to ask questions and clarify the message,
erroneous interpretations are possible. In addition to a poor choice of
communication method, other barriers to effective communication include
noise and other physical distractions, language problems, and failure to
recognize nonverbal signals.

Sometimes communication is effective, but not efficient. A work team

leader visiting each team member individually to explain a new change in
procedures may guarantee that everyone truly understands the change, but
this method may be very costly on the leader's time. A team meeting would be
more efficient. In these and other ways, potential trade-offs between
effectiveness and efficiency occur.

The Communication Process

There are many communication models that can be used to visually
describe different communication situations.

Here are some models that will allows us to get a deeper understanding
of the communication as process.

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 I. ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL (1)

Figure 2: Aristotle’s Communication Model

Aristotle proposed the model before 300 B.C. He found the

importance of the audience role in communication chain. This model is
more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication.

Aristotle ‘s Model of Communication is formed with five (5) basic

elements, namely: 1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. Occasion, 4. Audience, and
5. Effect.

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience

on different time (occasion) and for different effect.

II. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (2)

Aristotle defined communication (called RHETORIC in his time)

as “the faculty of observing, in any given case, the available means of
persuasion.” The model shows the process which the speaker must
follow to communicate his idea or message to his intended listener. This
process involves four steps:
1) A Speaker discovers some logical, emotional and ethical
proofs;
2) He arranges these materials strategically;
3) He clothes the ideas in clear, compelling words; and
4) He delivers the resulting speech appropriately.

IMPORTANT SKILLS OF A SPEAKER

The Aristotelian model seems to emphasize four important

“faculties” or skills of a speaker, which he must use (observe) as a
means of persuading his listeners (audience) to act according to his
please or intentions. These skills are as follows:
1) Logical reasoning skills coupled with the ability to present
ethical and emotional proofs of ideas he advances or proposes;
2) Skills in organizing or positioning his speech materials
strategically (or simply put, the proper ordering or sequencing
of materials in order to help the listener follow the speaker ‘s
thoughts to an effective close or ending);

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 6

 3) Skills in presenting his ideas/ messages in clear and
compelling words; and
4) Skills in delivering his resultant speech in appropriate
oratorical style (e.g. correct pronunciation, volume of voice,
rate of speed, gestures or body language, timing, etc.).

Figure 3: Aristotle’s Communication Model (2)

Although not specifically indicated in the model above, it is clear

that the communication process has these elements:
1) a Speaker,
2) an Idea or Message, and
3) an Audience or Listener (s).

It can also be safely assumed that there is a channel chosen – the

means to carry the idea or message across to the listener; and the
channel chosen is the human voice – the public speech instrument.

The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-CENTERED. But, of course,

during his time, the emphasis was the training of speakers – public
speakers called orators, skillful in the art of reasoning and persuasion.

III. SHANNON’S MODEL

This model argues that communication can be broken down into
6 key concepts: sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver.
A later version of the theory by Warren Weaver added a 7th concept
(‘feedback’) which changed the model from a linear to cyclical model
(Drew, 2020).

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 7

 Figure 4: Shannon’s Communication Model

It is known as the ―mother of all models‖ because of its wide

popularity. The model is also known as “information theory” or the
“Shannon theory” because Shannon was the main person who
developed the theory. The model ‘s primary value is in explaining how
messages are lost and distorted in the process of communication (Drew,
2020).

IV. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL

Drew, C. (2020) explains that the Shannon-Weaver model follows
the concept of communication in a linear fashion from sender to
receiver with the following steps:

Figure 5: Shannon-Weaver Communication Model

1. Sender (Information Source)

The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or
object, or thing) who has the information to begin with (the
“information source”). The sender starts the process by choosing a
message to send, someone to send the message to, and a channel
through which to send the message.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 8

 A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may
be orally (through spoken word), in writing, through body language,
music, etc.

Example: A sender might be the person reading a newscast on

the nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it
before the newscast begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)

The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea
into signals that can be sent from the sender to the receiver. The
Shannon model was designed originally to explain communication
through means such as telephone and computers which encode our
words using codes like binary digits or radio waves.

However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea

into spoken words, written words, or sign language to communicate
an idea to someone.

Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts

our voice into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines
(the channel). Another encode might be a radio station, which
converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone.

3. Channel

The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets

information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder
and receiver. We sometimes also call this the “medium”.

Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide

web (internet) as a medium. A person talking on a landline phone is
using cables and electrical wires as their channel.

If we’re face-to-face, perhaps we don’t have a channel, except

the sound waves from our voice that carry the sound from the
sender’s mouth to the receiver‘s ear.

4. Noise

Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the

sender to the receiver. It’s named after the idea that “noise” could
interrupt our understanding of a message. There are two types of
noise: internal and external.

Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake

encoding a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the
message. Here’s the two points where it can happen: At the point of

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 9

 encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a text message);
At the point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets
a sentence when reading an email)

External noise happens when something external (not in the

control of sender or receiver) impedes the message. So, external
noise happens:

At the point of transmission through the channel (for example,

when we’re having a conversation by a busy highway and the
receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound of cars) One of the
key goals for people who use this theory is to identify the causes of
noise and try to minimize them to improve the quality of the
message.

Examples of external noise may include the crackling of a

poorly tuned radio, a lost letter in the post, an interruption in a
television broadcast, or a failed internet connection.

Examples of internal noise may include someone having a

headache so they can‘t concentrate, someone speaking with a heavy
accent, or when the sender mumbles when speaking.

5. Decoder

Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and

Weaver made this model in reference to communication that
happens through devices like telephones. So, in this model, there
usually needs to be a device that decodes a message from binary
digits or waves back into a format that can be understood by the
receiver.

If we’re talking about direct communication between people

without the use of technology, there may still be a need for decoding.
For example, you might need to decode a secret message, turn
written words into something that makes sense in your mind by
reading them out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the
meaning behind a picture that was sent to you.

Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary

packets of 1s and 0s into pixels on a screen that make words, a
telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves back into
sounds, and cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable (and
listenable) messages.

6. Receiver (Destination)

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 10

 The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver’s original
linear framework. This is the step where the person finally gets the
message, or what’s left of it after accounting for noise.

Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end

of a telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an
automated payments system online that has received credit card
details for payment, etc.

7. Feedback

The “feedback” step was not originally proposed by Shannon

and Weaver in 1948. Norbert Weiner came up with the feedback step
in response to criticism of the linear nature of the approach.
(“Linear” means that the messages are only going one way).

Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds

to the sender in order to close the communication loop. They might
respond to let the sender know they got the message or to show the
sender:

Whether they got the message clearly without noise How well
they understand the message Nonetheless, the “feedback” elements
seem like a post-hoc add-on to the model, and is the subject of a lot
of criticism (see later in this article on “disadvantages of the model”
for details).

Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations.

Sometimes, like when watching TV, we don’t tend to let the people
talking on the TV know what we’re thinking … we simply watch the
show.

Some times when feedback will occur include: During a chat

between friends When you write a reply email Through your facial
expressions and body language during a conversation Etc.

V. BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL

Berlo‘s model follows the SMCR model. This model is not specific
to any particular communication.

Berlo‘s model includes a number of factors under each of the

elements:

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.

Communication skills - It is the skill of the individual to communicate.

For example, the ability to read, write, speak, listen etc.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 11

Attitudes - This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and
towards oneself. For example, for the student, the attitude is to learn
more and for teachers, it is to help teach.

Knowledge - Communicating also means that the person needs to be

knowledgeable about the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to
know about the subject in detail that he or she teaches so that they can
communicate properly such that the students understand here.

Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of

the subject that the person is communicating and their familiarity with
it.

Social system - The social system includes the various aspects of

society like values, beliefs, culture, religion and a general
understanding of society. It is where the communication takes place.

For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like

people’s behaviors and how they communicate, etc.

Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system
allows. When we communicate, we take the social system into account.

Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social

system.

According to this model, people can communicate only if the

above requirements are met in the proper or adequate proportion.

Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message

originates, is referred to as the encoder. So the source encodes the
message here.

Message

Content - The body of a message, from the beginning to the end,

comprises its content. For example, whatever the class teacher teaches
in the class, from beginning to end, is the content of the message.

Elements - It includes various things like language, gestures, body

language, etc. They constitute all the elements of a particular message.
Any content is accompanied by some elements.

Treatment - It refers to the packing of the message and the way in

which the message is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or
delivered.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 12

Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go
smoothly.

Structure - The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged;

the way people structure the message into various parts.

Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged
then the receiver will not understand the message.

Code - The code of the message refers to the means through which it is
sent and in what form. It could be, for example, language, body
language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is a code. Through this,
people give and receive messages and communication takes place.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong
usage may lead to misinterpretation.

Channel - It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five
senses:
 Hearing
 Seeing
 Touching
 Smelling
 Tasting

Communication occurs through one or more of these channels.

Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally
transmitted messages, interpersonal communication etc. Seeing:
Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is
conveyed through the scene/film.

Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to

communicate. For example, we touch, buy food, hugging our loved
ones, etc.

Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example,

perfumes, food, fragrances etc. Charred smell communicates something
is burning. People can deduct which food is being cooked by its smell
etc.

Tasting: The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste
food. For example, while a food is being shared, the communication can
happen regarding its taste.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 13

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as
communication is taking place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or
combination.

Decoder: The person who receives the message and decodes it is

referred to a decoder.

Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of
the source, so as to communicate/responds to sender effectively.;

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take

place, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.
Only then communication will happen or take place properly.
Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the
receiver should have equally good listening skills.

It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message
because even though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret
its meaning. For effective communication, the source and the receiver
need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the

person should consider the receiver, speak accordingly and give them
what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.

2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective
communication to happen. However, that rarely happens in
everyday life.
7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth
sense as a channel of communication, which is an asset to
human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 14

 Figure 6: Berlo’s Model of Communication

VI. SCHRAMM’S MODEL, 1954

Figure 7: Schramm’s Model of Communication

Janse (2019) in his article explains that the Schramm

Communication Model is a cyclical communication model containing
all basic principles of communication. The Schramm Communication
Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of communication.
It can be used to determine how communication between two people
works when they’re exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.

The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and

belief that communication is a two-way street. This means there’s at
least a sender and a recipient. The model contains at least one other
element as well; the message itself. Usually communication takes
places along the traditional path with a wasteful recipient and sender.
The recipient and sender can also be one and the same. This is called
intra-personal communication. The former is called interpersonal
communication. Where several other models and theories about
communication are linear in nature, the Schramm Communication
Model is circular. This means at least two parties are required to send
and receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient have to encode
and decode the message to interpret the message correctly.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 15

 Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in
1954, several years after Lasswell’s communication model was
published. Schramm wrote and spoke about the communication
model—based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood— in his book
“The Process and Effects of Mass Communication”. He later made some
changes, including introducing the field of experience, or commonality.
This refers to what is mutually understood between the recipient and
the sender. A physics professor can teach mathematical principles to a
class of psychology students, but it won’t be easy as the students don‘t
share a field of experience that would have made it easier to understand
the message.

Three Elements

According to the Schramm Communication Model,

communication is circular and the sender and recipient of the message
can be the same person. A message is encrypted and passed on to the
same person or to a different person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt
the message, interpret it, and then encode it again before sending the
message to a new recipient (circular). There is no fourth element, such
as the in Berlo‘s SMCR communication model.

Source (Encoder)

The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the
message. The source has to be clear when sending the message and has
to be able to show why it is important that the recipient reads it. This
is why the sender of a message has to make sure that the information
he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.

In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the

message, it has to be encoded. This means it is necessary for the
recipient to know the sender. The success of the attempt at
communication will depend on the ability to bring across the
information in a simple but clear way. The way in which the message is
encoded is influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge,
attitudes, experiences, and skills.

Recipient (Decoder)

The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the

message has been sent. Whether the recipient is able to decode the
message depends on a number of factors. For instance, how much does
the individual know about the topic of the message, but also how open
are they for a message and do they trust the source. The interpretations
of the recipient are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions,
knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills as well.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 16

 Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message
has been received, the stimulus is immediately sent to the brain for
interpretation. This is where the message is given meaning, if at all.
This processing phase is also called decoding. Communication is
successful when the recipient correctly interprets the message from the
source.

Message

In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is

defined as information. This information is communicated through
words or other characters and symbols. A message, either verbal or
non-verbal, is the content of the communication process and plays an
important role in the Schramm Communication Model. A message may
contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails,
WhatsApp messages, or phone calls. A message can also consist of non-
verbal content, such as behavior, gestures, body language, eye contact,
physical contact, timing, and even artefacts.

Feedback and Organizations

Although it’s not clearly indicated in the Schramm

Communication Model, recipients play an important role throughout
the communication process. They are not only supposed to absorb the
message, but they also receive the message and respond to it. The reply
from the recipient to the sender’s message is called feedback. Feedback
can be both verbal and non-verbal. Sometimes it’s a verbal response,
sometimes it‘s just a sigh or a nod. Feedback is often expressed in
writing, an email for instance.

Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has

received the message. This enables the sender to improve the
effectiveness of the way messages are composed and sent. If the
audience doesn’t understand the message, the source of the message
can refine it based on the feedback.

It’s essential for effective communication in an open

communication environment to offer the opportunity to provide
feedback. A manager in a business environment should therefore create
an atmosphere that stimulates feedback. Questions such as “Do you
get it?” and “What do you think?” should be asked a lot more regularly.
Moreover, organizations can gather feedback from employees in
countless ways; surveys, open-door policy, newsletters, memos, and
meetings.

Universal Law of Communication

One of the first people who came up with a communication theory

was Aristotle. A number of thinkers followed in his footsteps, including

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION : CHAPTER 1 17

 Lasswell, Berlo, and Shannon & Weaver. There is one universal law of
communication that applies to all these theories, and it was written by
S.F. Scudder in 1980. Scudder wrote that all living beings on planet
earth have the ability to communicate. Communication takes place
through different means, such as physical changes, language,
breathing, movements, sounds, or by changing color.

In this law of communication, Scudder emphasized that

communication was an essential survival tool for creatures, as well as
enabling them to share information about their presence and
conditions. According to the universal law of communication,
communication is used to express biological needs as well as feelings,
thoughts, and other kinds of information that are necessary to bring
across the condition of a living creature.

As in the Schramm Communication Model encoding and

decoding also happens in the universal law of communication. In this
law the recipient does the decoding. The universal law of
communication also states that the communication process can be
interrupted in a number of ways. The reason for this is barriers.
Barriers can alter the meaning of a message and lead to the recipient
interpreting it incorrectly.

VII. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Transactional model of communication is the exchange of

messages between sender and receiver where each take turns to send
or receive messages.

Figure 8: Transactional Model of Communication

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 Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and
their role reverses each time in the communication process as both
processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time.

The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are

taken as communicators in this article to analyze general
communication between humans. The model is mostly used for
interpersonal communication and is also called circular model of
communication.

Transactional model is the process of continuous change and

transformation where every component is changing such as the people,
their environments and the medium used. Due to this, it assumes the
communicators to be independent and act any way they want.

Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the

communication alive in transactional model, the communicators are
also interdependent to each other. For example, transactional
communication is not possible if the receiver is not listening to sender.

The transactional model is the most general model of

communication. Every day talk and interactions are also a form of
transactional model communication. It is more efficient for
communicators with similar environment and individual aspects. For
instance, communication between people who know each other is more
efficient as they share same social system.

In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated

message also depends on the medium used. For example, the same
message might not be perceived by a person the same way when it is
send through a phone and when it is provided face to face. It is because
of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of gestures.

Factors Affecting Transactional Model

There are many factors directly or indirectly affecting the

communication process in transaction model. These can be
environmental noise or communication barriers. Environmental Noises
can be Physical noise, physiological noise or psychological noise.

Transactional model relates communication to social reality of an

individual or a group of people in social, cultural and relational
contexts. Their responses cannot be predicted because they all have
different backgrounds and mental conditions. Communication pattern
depends on various factors such as physical, cultural, environmental,
social, psychological, emotional, etc.

Cultural systems, social systems and relational situations are the

most overpowering elements of the communication in transactional

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model, while physical and psychological context has considerable effect
on the communication, enhancing or undermining it.

Social Context

Social context in communication refers to the norms, values, laws

and other restrictions of a society to communicate within a specific
limit. It also includes rules that bind people’s ability to communicate.
Society shapes the way a person communicates. Some of the examples
are: greeting people when meeting, thanking, apologizing, etc.

People can also learn communication from trial and error

method, and its consequences ranges from social exclusion to
embarrassment. This model also adds that it’s not just social reality
that help people in the communication process but communication also
shapes self and social reality in return. Communication is not only for
exchanging messages but also to create and establish relationship
helping people in the formation of a community.

Cultural Context

Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a person. Caste,

class, race, ethnicity, gender, etc are the contexts which promotes
communication. If two people are from the same cultural group, they
will have better communication with each other.

Cultural identities are made by communication. It changes the

communication pattern of a person. Marginalization of cultural groups
oppress their communication with the other parts of the society. People
become unsure of themselves when they communicate with
intercultural groups. Some people also take it as unacceptable.

People have a closed mind-set about the other groups of people

they communicate with displaying the trait of Ethnocentrism.
Experiences, attitudes, moods, cultural beliefs, social up-bringing,
mind-set, their sense of reality and many other factors affect the
responses and the message exchange.

Relational Context

Relational context of communication relates to relationship

history and manners.

A person talks with an old friend differently than a stranger.

Manners take the role of communication when it is with strangers.
Manners come from pre-established norms and values, and are more
scripted making interaction difficult. Type of relationship and the roles
of people create differences in the way people communicate.

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 Communication always occurs on the common systems of both the
parties.

Criticisms of Transactional Model

 Without verbal response, the sender cannot be sure that the

receiver got the message as intended. Feedback is an important
component in the communication process, especially in
interpersonal communication as it gives a space to clarify
misunderstandings.
 The transactional model gives the opportunity for a lot of noise
because the communication is simultaneous. For example, when
many people are talking at the same time in a meeting, the
objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.

Differences Between Transactional and Other Communication

Models
TRANSACTIONAL MODELS OTHER MODELS
Used for interpersonal Used for Intrapersonal,
communication interpersonal, group or mass
communications
Senders and Receivers are known Senders and receivers are
as Communicators, they different people
interchange their roles
Includes the role of context and Role of context and environment
environment are not mentioned in other
models
Includes noise and Not necessarily have the concept
communication barriers as of noise
factors
Talks about non-verbal Ignores non-verbal
communication communication
Simultaneous feedback Feedback comes later in
interaction model and is not
included in linear model

SUMMARY

1. Communication as process involves key components for it to be

successful. These key components are:
a) Speaker/ Sender;
b) Message;
c) Channel/ Medium;
d) Listener/ Receiver;
e) Feedback;
f) Noise, and;
g) Context/ Situation

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2. Communication Models show how different situations vary the kind of
communication that we use. Among these models is Aristotle’s linear
model that explains the type of communication that happens in public
speaking. Some also explains the role of feedback, and noise or barriers
to communication and more.

3. Additional reference for communication barriers: Watch this Youtube

video about communication barriers: Communication Coach Alex
Lyon. (2018, January 15). Communication Barriers [Video file]. In
YouTube. Retrieved from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsl468Hwr4o

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