GEOGRAPHY

AND
HISTORY
1º ESO

IES VALDEBERNARDO
YEAR 2022-23
Teacher: Jaime J. Alonso Cervera

NAME:
This textbook has been planned and designed to be used together with
the website http://jaimegeografiaehistoria.wordpress.com. You will be
expected to use both resources together during the year.

If you have doubts, ask the teacher in the classroom, leave a comment
in the blog or e-mail him to jaime.alonso@educa.madrid.org.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 0 – History and historians

UNIT 1 – The origins of Humanity: the Prehistory

UNIT 2 – The First Civilisations. The Civilisation along the Nile: Ancient Egypt.

UNIT 3 – Greece and the Hellenistic World.

UNIT 4 – Rome: from City to Empire.

UNIT 5 – The Iberian Peninsula during the Prehistory and the Ancient Age

UNIT 6 – Planet Earth and its representation

UNIT 7 – What is the Earth made of? Lithosphere and Hydrosphere

UNIT 8 – The Atmosphere: weather and climate

UNIT 9 – The natural environment of Europe and Spain

ANNEXE I – Political maps

ANNEXE II – Physical maps of the world

ANNEXE III – How to..

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 A HISTORY OF A DAY
And then, on the stroke of midnight, the people had the world to themselves. For a long while,
so far as we know, they were very quiet. All through the morning and all through the afternoon,
they just wandered around in small caves, dressing themselves in skins. At about six o'clock in
the evening they began to learn about seeds and manure and so on, and about how to herd and
milk animals. By about half past seven, some of them were living in biggish cities and in the
countries between.
Moses came and went at about a quarter to nine. Buddha in India, Socrates in Greece, Confucius
in China, all came and went together, though they didn't know each other, at about ten past ten.
Christ was at half past ten as also give or take a minute or so, were the Great Wall of China and
Julius Caesar.
At around half past eleven there began to be biggish cities in northern Europe. From about a
quarter to twelve onwards, people went out from these cities, and they began stealing from the
rest of the world. They stole America, both North and South; they stole India; and just after four
minutes to midnight, they stole Africa too. At about two minutes to midnight, they had a big war
amongst themselves, and then had another big war only fifty seconds later.
During the last minute before midnight these people from northern Europe were pushed back
out of India and Africa, and also back out of many other countries, though not out of North
America, where they had become very settled indeed.
Also, during this last minute these people invented nuclear weapons; they were responsible for
almost doubling the world's population; they used up more oil and more metal than had been
used in all previous twenty-three hours and fifty nine minutes put together.
Ernst H. Gombrich, A Little History of the World.

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 UNIT 0
HISTORY AND
HISTORIANS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. HISTORY AND HISTORIANS
1.1. The study of the past
1.2. The stages of History

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HISTORY: science which studies past events of humanity.
It consists in analysing the causes (reasons of the historical event) and consequences (what is caused by
the historical event) of the events, not just the event itself.
Historian: person who studies History.
Archaeologist: historian who works mostly on physical sources.
As in any investigation, a historian must ask the 6 W’s of journalism: what, how, when, why,
where and who.

Chronology:
- one of the tools of historians.
- for ordering the events in order, generally from the oldest to most recent.

Division into stages or periods:

o PREHISTORY  from the appearance of humans (2,5 million years ago) to the written word
(3500 BCE)
o ANCIENT AGE  from the appearance of the written word to the Fall of Rome (476 AD).
o MIDDLE AGES  from the Fall of Rome to the discovery of America (1492).
o MODERN AGE  from the discovery of America to the French Revolution (1789).
o CONTEMPORARY TIMES  from the French Revolution to the present.

Another basic division in History is based on Christianity and the Gregorian calendar (our calendar since
1582), since we chose the birth of Christ as a marking point. Therefore, any date we use can be either:
- BCE  Before Common Era (before Christ).
- AD  Anno Domini (after Christ).

CONVERSION FROM YEARS TO CENTURIES.

Having any given year, we must follow the following steps:
1. We add 1 to the hundreds.
2. If BCE, add it (like we do with negative numbers: you have to specify if it is negative, but it is not
necessary if the number is positive).
3. In English, the ordinal numbers (1st, 3rd, 11th, 14th, etc.) are used. In Spanish, Roman numerals (I, III, XI,
XIV, etc.).

GLOSSARY
History Ancient Age Modern Age
Prehistory Middle Ages Contemporary times

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 INVESTIGATE ABOUT DIFFERENT CALENDARS
Other cultures have other calendars, changing from the duration of the months and years to the event which
marks the beginning. For instance, the Islamic calendar regulates Muslim life, and it uses lunar years of 354 or
355 days. The beginning of this calendar is the Hegira or Hijrah –a relevant event in the life of Muhammed
(prophet of Islam)–, which took place in the year 622 AD. You can look for information about it in
https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/islamic-calendar.html  Look for information about the Chinese or
Jewish calendar.
Read more – The Maya calendar (in the blog).

EXERCISES
1. Convert the following years to centuries:
756 BCE 395 1898
400 BCE 989 2010
27 BCE 1000
56 1322

2. When do these centuries begin and end?

11th BCE 1st AD 17th
6th BCE 6th 23rd
2nd BCE 12th

3. Link these dates with their stage of History.

7849 BCE
875
1499
Prehistory
509 BCE
1889 Ancient Age
404 BCE
6th millennium BCE Middle Ages
711
35000 years ago Modern Age
2250 BCE
Contemporary Times
27 BCE
313
1660
1992

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 COMPLETE THE TABLE
Complete the following table with the periods of History.

INITIAL
PERIOD INITIAL EVENT
DATE

HISTORY

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 UNIT 1
THE ORIGINS OF
HUMANITY: THE
PREHISTORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. HUMAN ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION: THE PROCESS OF HOMINIZATION
2. PREHISTORY
3. THE PALAEOLITHIC
3.1. Time and space
3.2. What did they eat?: economy
3.3. Social organisation, beliefs and art
4. THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD
4.1. Chronology and natural environment
4.2. From predators to producers: Neolithic economy
4.3. The first sedentary societies: society and beliefs
5. THE AGE OF METALS
5.1. Chronology
5.2. Metallurgy
5.3. Economic and social organisation
6. ART IN THE PREHISTORY
6.1. Palaeolithic
6.2. Neolithic
6.3. Age of Metals

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Hominization: the process of modification of the physical changes of the apes for becoming humans which
occurred over millions of years. All the apes walking upright and their descendants are called hominids, and the
only surviving one is the homo sapiens sapiens.
Physical features of hominization and their consequences:
- Bipedalism: walking upright, on two extremities and straight spine.
o Changes in the feet and legs.
o Changes in the pelvis (consequence: give birth with pain, premature childbirth and )
o Straight spine
o Free hands.
o Changes in the neck  Position of the larynx  Made speech possible.
o Broader visual field.
- Opposable thumb:
o Holding better and stronger.
o Making objects.
- Skull and brain:
o Bigger, and more complex brain  Speech
o Weaker jaw and smaller teeth.
o The forehead and the chin appeared.

The Prehistory is the first period of History, which comprises from the appearance of the first human beings
2,5 million years ago to the invention of writing in 3500 BCE.
It is divided into:
- Palaeolithic  2,5 million years ago – 10 000 BCE.
- Neolithic  10 000 – 4 000 BCE.
- Age of Metals  4 000 BCE – Romanisation.
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Palaeolithic  Paleos (Old) + lithos (Stone)  OLD STONE AGE
From the appearance of hominids (2,5 million years ago) until 10 000 BCE (end of the latest glaciation,
discovery of agriculture and livestock). We focus in the Upper Palaeolithic, which developed from 40 000
to 10 000 BCE.
Mostly in Africa, but later in Asia, Europe, America and Oceania.
Climate: Ice ages, with milder periods. There were periods (called glaciations) in which there was permanent
ice caps all over Europe.

Palaeolithic people had a hunter-gatherer economy, in which hunting, fishing and gathering were their main
sources of finding food. They were also scavengers (carroñeros). These four activities imply that Palaeolithic
people were predators, which means that they did not substitute the resources they consumed from nature.
The tools of the Palaeolithic we have evidences about were mostly made of stone (axes, bifaces, arrows,
knives, etc.), but bones and antlers (‘horns’ of deer) were also used for spears, needles, flutes, etc. However,
wood was probably the most used material, but it has not been preserved. Fire started to be used around 1,5
million years ago by the Homo erectus, but mastered much later. It had many uses for the Palaeolithic people,
such as giving light, providing a source of heat, scaring animals and it was necessary for cooking.

Palaeolithic societies were nomadic, which meant not having a permanent place to live, changing depending
on the seasons and the available food resources. That is a direct cause of their predator economy, since they
had to move when they extinguished the resources of a place. Also, they were forced to move with the change
of the seasons.
Housing: caves and shelters (made up with branches, bones, skin of animals, etc.)

Their social structure or hierarchy (that is, the way groups are internally organised) was horizontal.
Therefore, no great differences were to be found among the members of a group. However, there were some
people who were more important, such as the strongest warrior, the witch doctor and the oldest members.
Even though there were no great differences, there were different social roles for the men and the women. The
men they hunted, fished and made tools, while the women gathered fruits, looked after the children and tended
the fire.
These Palaeolithic groups were hordes of around 20 to 30 people maximum, which allowed them to move
and to feed everyone easier. Each member of the group was linked by familiar relationship.

Religion  Animism: worshipping the forces of nature (attributing them a soul), such as rain, the Sun, thunder,
etc.
 Magic rituals for promoting fertility, help them in hunting, commemorate their dead, etc.

Chronology: from the appearance of agriculture in 10 000 BCE to the beginning of metalwork in 4 000 BCE.

Natural environment: The end of the latest glaciation led to a global climate change due to the increase in
the Earth’s temperature. Among other consequences, there were transformations in fauna and flora, so hunter-
gatherer Palaeolithic people had to adapt to the new situation, to migrate or to become extinct.

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 The modification of the way of life -adapting to the recent changes- meant the start of the Neolithic
Revolution, which implied changes at every level of human life: economy, society, culture, politics, etc.
The Neolithic Revolution began in the Fertile Crescent (Middle East, between Egypt and the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates [Mesopotamia]), and then it spread towards Europe, China and India. America, on the other hand,
developed its own Neolithic Revolution in an independent way.

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
From predators (consumers) to FOOD PRODUCERS (AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK)

Agriculture  it began producing mostly cereal: rice (Eastern Asia), wheat and burley (Europe, Fertile Crescent),
maize (Central America), potatoes (South America), etc.
Processes:
 Preparing the soil, doing furrows – plough (arado) and hoe (azada)
 Planting
 Growing  irrigated or dry farming.
 Recollecting (harvesting)  hoe (hoz)
 Processing (making flour from wheat, oil from olives, etc.)  mortars.
 Storing  pottery, baskets, etc.
** Any new activity and the appearance of new techniques imply the appearance of new tools and
improvements of previous tools**
Palaeolithic  Lithic reduction ---------- Neolithic  Polished stone.

Livestock farming  it started when people kept animals in case hunting was scarce.
Domestication is required  Modification of the behaviour.
 Not all animals are suitable for domestication, so they are generally herbivores which grow fast,
accept captivity and acknowledge human leadership. Aggressive animals, carnivores (because of
competing for resources) and those with lower possibilities were not domesticated.
 First domesticated animals: cats, dogs, pigs, cattle (cows, bulls, oxen), sheep, goats, horses,
poultry (chicken, hens, etc.), etc.  for meat, milk, wool, security, skin, dung, etc.

Bartering  Beginning of the exchange of products (from the surpluses of what is produced). It consists of the
exchange of products without money.

Sedentary  Because people don’t have to look for food constantly  Agriculture and livestock.
Permanent settlements near rivers.
First houses  clay, mud, branches, straw, etc.
After  Adobe and stone.
More population in the settlements  more food implies more people.

Division of labour  the appearance of new activities imply the appearance of new jobs, so each member of
the group does different activities (agriculture, livestock, building, textiles, pottery, etc.)
Social organisation  Horizontal hierarchy  still very equitable.
However, appearance of inequalities  because some accumulate power and wealth.

BELIEFS  Cult of the stars (animism), Mother Earth (fertility), cult of the dead.
First necropolises  Burial sites, with the possessions of the person.

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4000 BCE – 1000 BCE (Appearance of metallurgy – common use of iron)
In some places  Later start, later finish. Around 3500 BCE some cultures began to write.
Divided into:
- Copper Age  4000 – 2200 BCE.
- Bronze Age  2200 – 1500 BCE.
- Iron Age  1500 – 1000 BCE (or until Romanisation in some places)

It is the extraction and treatment of metals for their use. It makes possible better and more resistant tools. The
most important uses were for fighting (shields, swords, lances, axes, etc.), agriculture (hoes, sickles, etc) and
jewellery (for decoration and as symbol of power).
There are different techniques:
- Hammering the metal (copper and gold, only)
- Forge: heating the metal, and hammer it for shaping it.
- Smelting: the most complex metallurgic technique.
o Heat the metal until it smelts (you need a powerful oven)
o When liquid, you may do alloys
o Pour it in a mould  Let it cool  Polish it.

The economic and social organisation in the Age of Metals kept the same base as during the Neolithic. The main
differences were:
- ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES  Favoured by new inventions and techniques.
o Agriculture: the animal-pulled plough is invented  More production for the same work.
o Trade  Exchanging products with metals  Use of metals as money.
 Commercial routes, thanks to the invention of the wheel and the sail.
o Craftwork  Textiles, pottery
- There were also important inventions in this period:
o Wheel: better for land transportation.
o Sail boats: better for sea transportation.
o Potter’s wheel  For pottery
- Larger towns (even the first ‘cities’).
- Precious and strategic metals led to the increase of violent conflicts.
o Cities needed defensive systems: palisades, walls, etc.
o There is a new social group: soldiers and their military chieftains. They started to control the
decision making processes, so they became the first kings.
- The control over the metals implied an element of power.

THE ART SECTION OF EVERY UNIT MUST BE COMPLETED WITH THE PRESENTATION IN THE BLOG

A. CAVE PAINTINGS
 On the walls and ceilings of caves
 Representing mostly animals (for helping them in hunting), symbols, etc.
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  Very realistic representations.
 Altamira caves (Cantabria, Spain), Lascaux caves (Dordogne, France)

B. VENUS FIGURINES
 Small female figurines, carved out of stone
 They represent fertility and abundance:
o Wide hips and thighs.
o Exaggerated abdomen.
o Large breasts.
o Disproportionate vulva.
 Venus of Willendorf, Venus of Laussel.

A. ROCK PAINTINGS
 Schematic
 Symbols, people, hunting scenes, dances.
 Religious meaning.

B. POTTERY
 First with geometrical inscriptions, and later also painted.

A. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS
Mega  Great, large; Lithos  Stone.
Religious meaning  worshipping the sun, celebrate solstices and equinoxes, tombs, etc.
 Menhir: big stone standing vertically on the floor.
 Alignment: menhirs arranged in lines
 Cromlech: menhirs arranged in circles
o Stonehenge (Salisbury, United Kingdom). 3rd millennium BCE.
o Solar cults  Summer solstice
 Dolmen: several vertical stones holding a flat horizontal stone

GLOSSARY:
Hominization Palaeolithic Nomadism
Prehistory Hunter-gatherer economy Animism
Neolithic Sedentary Smelting
Fertile Crescent Age of Metals
Bartering Metallurgy

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 VIDEO - HUMAN ORIGINS: ONE SPECIES, LIVING WORLDWIDE

1. Where did the first humans appear?

2. What do you think that happened to species that did not adapt to their environment?
3. When did humans first spread outside Africa?
4. When did the Homo sapiens appear? Where?
5. Why do humans have differences in skin colour and hair textures?
6. Complete: you are a part of a 6-million year history of ___________________________

VIDEO – THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION: CAUSES AND IMPLICATIONS

1. What was the ‘nomadic lifestyle’ about? What were its implications?
2. What are the advantages of meat and grain?
3. What is being a farmer about?
4. What is one of the consequences of having more food?
5. What is the ‘positive feedback loop’ about?
6. What is the link between agriculture and the Roman Legions fighting the Barbarians?

REVISE:
1. Link the three main physical changes of the process of hominization and their consequences.
a) Greater visual field
b) Make tools
1) Bipedalism c) Free upper extremities
d) Weaker jaw
2) Opposable thumb e) Appearance of the forehead
f) Greater size and complexity
3) Skull and brain g) Straight spine
h) Grab things
i) Changes in the pelvis
j) Possibility of articulated language

2. Copy this diagram in your notebook and complete it with the information of the unit.

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 3. Fill the gaps.

The longest period in History is the Palaeolithic, since it began ___________________________ and
finished with the appearance of ____________________, approximately in the year ______________. It is
divided in several stages, and we are going to focus on the ______________ Palaeolithic, which is the last of
them and it is associated with the appearance of the first artistic works.
The lifestyle in this period was characterised by the obtaining of resources found in nature, without
substitution or production. Therefore, we say that they had a __________________ economy. For finding food
men mostly __________________ and _________________, while women mostly __________________. The
men also made tools, mostly using ______________ and __________ as main materials, even though they also
used vegetable fibres and tendons. The women, on the other hand, looked after the children and tended the
fire.
Because of this way of survival, groups –called ____________- were small, of about 20 to 30 people, and
they were ________________ because of the extinction of the resources in an area and the change of the
seasons. That is why they did not live in houses and they lived in _______________ and
_______________________.

4. Copy this diagram in your notebook and complete it with the information of the unit.

5. Classify the following activities in economy or society.

Pottery Hierarchy
Valuing the opinion of the elderly Storing grain
Meeting for making decisions Feeding animals
Agriculture Division of labour
Making cloth Grinding seeds

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 6. Fill the gaps.

The ________________ Revolution implied great changes in all levels of life. It all began around the year
________________, when after the end of the latest ___________________ and the climatic change it caused,
societies started producing food: ____________________ for plants and ___________________________ for
animals.
These changes began in the area known as _________________________, which stretches from Egypt
to Mesopotamia. But not only there, since other areas of the world such as India, China or America also saw the
articulation of ________________________ economies, that is, not only predator.
Among the modifications that took place, once people commenced working the land for producing
mostly __________________ such as wheat, barley, maize and _________, groups needed to become
_______________________ and leave nomadism. The first ______________________ were established near
rivers, and the first houses were made of _________________ and ___________________.
Both circumstances allowed a growth of population, so groups organised in a different way, and
__________________ and social differences appeared because of the accumulation of wealth.
For the new tasks that appeared in this period there was need of new type of tools such as the
____________________ for doing the furrows in the land, the sickle for ____________________ and the
_________________ for grinding the seeds and making, for example, flour. Also, this type of economy requires
planning, and they needed to keep food for the whole year, so __________________ appeared for storing grain.

ASSIGNMENT – A HUNTER-GATHERER IN A NEOLITHIC VILLAGE

You live in a period of transition between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic. And you were one of the few
remaining nomadic hunter-gatherers in your area. Because of a set of different reasons (you can explain them
if you want) your life changed and you ended up living in a sedentary Neolithic settlement, following a Neolithic
lifestyle.
That was some years ago, and even today, every now and then, you look back and you remember how your life
was and the many ways it has changed for good and bad over these years.
****
Your assignment consists on writing your thoughts in first person as though you were that hunter-gatherer that
changed his life. It can be in the format of a diary, memoirs, etc. The minimum allowed is one page (about 250-
300 words), and you can include some images, drawings or anything you consider relevant.
The objective of this exercise is to value the changes that happened between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic
regarding the ways of life. Therefore, be creative, but include elements of comparison between both lifestyles.
Also, remember that you do not live by yourself, alone, but you used to be a member of a horde and then you
settled with a settlement group.

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 STONEHENGE
Stonehenge is situated in the South West of
England in Salisbury. It is an ancient stone circle
that was built between 3000 and 2000 BCE.
Nobody really knows who built it or why. Some
people think it was to worship the sun or the moon,
but there are also many burial mounds around it.
The stones used are huge, weighting 4 and
5 tonnes. They are called bluestones and they come
from Wales, more than 200 miles away.
Archaeologists think that the builders placed the
stones on rafts and sailed around the coast to bring
them to Salisbury. However, the idea of bringing
stones from such a distance baffles everyone who
studies the site.
[…] Archaeologists think that the ancient builders had some knowledge about astronomy. On June 21st
(the summer solstice, that is, the longest day of the year), the sun rises directly above the heel stone and then
enters the circle through an arch and goes directly through the central trilithon, which is a structure consisting
of two vertical stones as posts with a horizontal one across the top. Because of this, many thousands of people
go to Stonehenge on June 21st to observe this phenomenon.
As soon as some people hear the word ‘Stonehenge’, they think of druids, who were some sort of priests
in Celtic religions. For many years, druids held their religious ceremonies at Stonehenge. They are mysterious
people who wore white cloaks. We don’t know much about their past because they didn’t write things down.
We know they had a lot of knowledge because famous people wrote about it, like Julius Caesar.

1. Match up the words (with letter) and its meaning/description (with number).

a. Ancient 1. Praise
b. Circle 2. Small hill
c. Huge 3. Simple boat
d. Worship 4. Before Common Era
e. Baffle 5. Surprise
f. Build 6. Grave
g. Burial 7. Round
h. Raft 8. Massive
i. Mound 9. Construct
j. BCE 10. Very old

2. True or false? Explain why the false ones are not true by giving the accurate information.
a. Stonehenge is a modern monument.
b. It was built about 2000 years ago.
c. The stones are marble from Italy.
d. They placed the stones on rafts.
e. Stonehenge is an ancient stone circle.
f. It was a place of burial and you can still see the mounds (small hills).
g. We are certain about Stonehenge’s function.
h. The labours of the druids are mostly unknown to us because of lack of evidence.

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 UNIT 2
THE FIRST CIVILISATIONS.
ANCIENT EGYPT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE FIRST WRITTEN CIVILIZATIONS: THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION
2. THE CIVILISATION ALONG THE NILE: ANCIENT EGYPT
2.1. Geographical environment
2.2. Historical context
3. THE PHARAOHS AND THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION
3.1. The Pharaoh: a messenger from the gods
3.2. The Egyptian people: society
3.3. Egyptian economy
4. EGYPTIAN RELIGION
4.1. Egyptian gods Chronology
4.2. Afterlife in Egypt Metallurgy
5. EGYPTIAN ART
5.1. Architecture
5.2. Sculpture and painting

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RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS:
 4th millennium BCE
 first historical civilizations  Used writing
 first urban civilizations

These civilisations shared certain characteristics, and they all began because of the use of irrigation
techniques for agriculture, which led to the production of greater harvests. That meant the availability of more
food supplies, which therefore implied a population growth. When a town grows it becomes a city.

 GREAT TRANSFORMATIONS:
- Territorial expansion  Cities and city-states  Kingdoms  Empires
- Political  for organising coexistence and labour, control of the territory, etc.
o Division of labour  Government officials (soldiers, tax collectors, judges, etc.).
o Kingdoms and empires  Political, economic and even religious power (could be considered
gods).
- Economic  Agricultural base. Increase in trade.
- Social  More complexity  Greater internal division.  HIERARCHICAL SOCIETY.
o Differences: power, wealth (money) or prestige.
o Ruling privileged minority, and working unprivileged majority. Also slaves.
- INVENTION OF WRITING (h. 3500 BCE)  It began for administration and trade
o Laws  Code of Hammurabi (mid-18th century BCE)

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 It is considered the birthplace of civilization
and the origin of the first empires, writing,
codified law, etc.
Located in the Middle East between the rivers
Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia means
“Land between rivers” in Greek), it was a very
fertile area. That led to disputes for the
control over the area, even from foreign
peoples.
The history of Ancient Mesopotamia
stretches between 3500 and 226 BCE, and it
is divided into multiple periods depending on
what culture or civilisation controlled the
area. The most important were:
- Sumerians (Lower Mesopotamia) 
3500-2300 BCE. Organised in independent city-states (Ur, Uruk, Lagash): the cities and their surroundings have their
own political system. They are considered the first civilisation in history. They invented writing.
- Akkadians (Central Mesopotamia)  2300-1800 BCE. Sargon I of Akkad conquered Sumer  First empire in
history. Capital in Akkad.
- Babylonian Empire  1800-1300 BCE. Babylon: city-state in Lower Mesopotamia. They created a great empire.
King Hammurabi (1810-1750 BCE)  Greatest splendour. Code of Hammurabi  First set of laws.
- Assyrian Empire (Upper Mesopotamia)  1300-612 BCE. Great empire, from the Mediterranean to the Persian
Gulf. They used iron for making weapons, cavalry and war chariots, so they could impose their rule onto the
neighbours. Ashurbanipal: king who invaded Egypt. Capital cities: Assur and Nineveh. Large palaces.
- Neo-Babylonian Empire  612-539 BCE.
- There were foreign invasions from 539 BCE onwards: the Persian Empire, the Greeks (Alexander the Great), the
Persian Empire again, and then the Romans.
Each of these had different political systems, and
Mesopotamian society was generally divided into
different groups depending on the political and economic
organisation. However, the main social divisions were
among ruling classes (kings, royal family, nobles and
priests) with political, economic, military and religious
power, free people (scribes, traders, clerks, farmers,
artisans, etc.) and slaves (war prisoners or people with
unpaid debts).
Their religion was polytheistic, and their gods ruled the
Earth while humans were to serve them. The priests were
intermediaries between gods and humans and managed
the temples, which were the home of the gods.

Mesopotamia had a great artistic production which

evolved over time. In architecture we have to underline the
ziggurats (terraced pyramids that were sanctuaries and
astronomical observatories) and the palaces (Nineveh, for
example), made with adobe and bricks covered by stone.
We have also sculpture of rulers, important people and
gods, used for decoration of palaces and temples. The most
significant examples are the Patesi Gudea of Lagash, the
Victory Stele of Naram Sin, the Ishtar Gates of Babylon, the
Winged Bulls of the palace of Nineveh and the Wounded
Lioness of the palace of Nimrud).

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Egypt  North-eastern Africa
Banks of the river Nile (black lands) and desert areas (red lands).
River Nile  Source of life for the Egyptians (Lake Victoria - Mediterranean Sea [from south to north).
Egypt was divided into:
- Upper Egypt: South. Mountains, arid land.
- Lower Egypt: North. Fertile, with the delta of the river.

4th millennium BCE  Neolithic settlements  Irrigation systems (hydraulic works, such as canals and dykes)
 Development of agriculture  Larger population  Independent cities and kingdoms.
Around 3100 BCE  King Menes (Narmer) (Upper Egypt)  Unified Upper and Lower Egypt  He became
the first pharaoh of Egypt.
The History of Ancient Egypt is divided into different periods:
 Early dynastic period (3100-2600 BCE) – First unification.
 Old Kingdom (2600-2200 BCE)
o Capital: Memphis (Lower Egypt)
o Greatest splendour
o Great pyramids  Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura
 First Intermediate Period (2200-2000 BCE). Egypt was divided.
 Middle Kingdom (2000-1800 BCE)
o Capital: Thebes (Upper Egypt)
o Expansion towards the South  Nubia.
 Second Intermediate Period (1800-1600 BCE). The Hyksos conquered Lower Egypt (Capital at Avaris).
 New Kingdom (1600-1100 BCE)
o Capital: Thebes.
o They conquered Syria and Palestine.
o Famous pharaohs: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ramesses II, etc.
 Late Period (1100-30 BCE)
o Division and conflicts, and control of foreign civilizations: Assyrians, Neo-Babylonian Empire,
Persian Empire
o Greeks (332 BCE)  Alexander the Great. Ptolemaic dynasty (mix of Egyptian and Greek culture).
o Romans (30 BCE)  Last pharaoh: Cleopatra.

King of Egypt  Pharaoh (When Upper and Lower Egypt are unified).
He concentrated all the powers  Absolute power.
- Religious  Related with Horus, god of the sky (Horus on Earth)  considered a god.
- Political  Government, laws, justice, organising his properties, irrigation systems, control of tax
collection and external trade.
- Military  Head of the army.
- Economic  He possessed all the lands
They formed dynasties, which are succession of kings of the same family.

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Very rigid hierarchy  Depending on social importance.
Privileged minority.
 Upper level: pharaoh, royal family, priests and nobles
o Political, religious and economic power.
o Priests: lived in temples, led religious ceremonies, managed temples, etc.
o High-ranking civil servants: army officials, high administration.
 Scribes: knew how to write and do maths. Managed taxes, supervised construction, etc.
Unprivileged majority.
 Soldiers.
 Artisans and traders: lived in cities, worked in workshops or businesses.
 Peasants: great majority.
 Slaves: foreigners, with the hardest jobs.

Nile  Source of life  Importance of agriculture and trade

Different activities:
- Agriculture: the most important activity.
o Irrigated agriculture  systems  Basin irrigation, canals and dams.
o Land  Belonged to the pharaoh. Part given to nobility and priests.
o Main crops: cereals (wheat, barley), linen, papyrus, legumes, cotton, etc.
- Livestock farming:
o Animals: also used in agriculture.
o Cows, donkeys, sheep, poultry, etc.
- Handcrafts:
o Pottery, metallurgy, textiles, jewellery, etc.
o Stone  From Upper Egypt.
- Trade: very important.
o Exports: cereals and handcrafts.
o Imports: wood, metals, slaves.

Polytheist religion
Gods  Human and animal features (zoomorphic)
 Lived in the temples.
Temples  They held the statue of the god, and place for rituals and offerings.
Egyptian gods: Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus, Amun, Hathor, Anubis, Sekhmet, Thoth, Set.

Life after death  The soul had to pass the Judgement of Osiris  The heart and a feather were weighted in a
balance  If the heart weighed less, eternal life. If more, eaten by Ammit.

THE BOOK OF THE DEAD  Sacred book of the Egyptians. It included formulas for guiding the soul to the eternal
afterlife. The process of mummification was also written there.

MUMMIFICATION Process in which the body of the dead is treated for avoiding decomposition, for its
journey to eternal life. Mummy: “Eternal home for the soul”.

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Main characteristics:
- Material: stone
- Columns for holding the buildings.
- Flat roofs
- Types: tombs and temples.

TEMPLES: religious architecture.

Dedicated to the gods.
Different parts: Avenue of the sphinxes – Pylons – Courtyard (open space, enclosed on all its sides) – Hypostyle
hall (room with columns) – Shrine (with the image of the god).
Karnak and Luxor. Debod (Madrid).

Speos: rock temples (carved in the mountain)

Abu Simbel: Ramesses II and Nefertari.

TOMBS: funerary architecture.

They changed over time.
 Mastaba:
o Flat-topped pyramid with a chamber underground.
 Pyramid:
o For pharaohs and family.
o Passageways and corridors inside.
o Giza: Khufu, Khafra, Menkaure (Cheops, Chefren and Mykerinos)
 Hypogeum (PL: hypogea)
o Carved in the mountain, with corridors and funerary chamber.
o New Kingdom.
o Tutankhamen.

SCULPTURE: statues (free-standing) and relieves

Funerary and religious functions.
Pharaohs, gods, nobles.
Idealization, rigidity, arms attached to the body, inexpressive face.

PAINTING: religious and decorative functions, in temples and tombs.

Frontality: arms, legs and head in profile, chest and eye as seen frontally.

GLOSSARY:
River Valley Civilisations King Menes (Narmer) Alexander the Great
Mesopotamia Old Kingdom Pharaoh
Egypt Middle Kingdom Book of the Dead
River Nile Second Intermediate Kingdom Mummification
Upper Egypt New Kingdom
Lower Egypt Late Period

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 COMPLETE THE GAPS

VIDEO - THE HISTORY OF WRITING:

1. What sort of daily activities does writing help us to perform?
2. Where were the earliest examples of clay writing found and when?
3. What sort of things were written down in these civilisations?
4. What is the name of an ancient form of writing and where did it originate?
5. What was the name of the paper they wrote on and what tool(s) did they write with?
6. Why are some types of writing no longer able to be read?
7. Which ancient script (type of writing) is still in use today? Give a characteristic of it.
8. What does understanding written messages from the past enable us to do?
9. In what ways do we benefit from being able to record different ideas, emotions and messages?

TIMELINE OF ANCIENT EGYPT:

Elaborate a timeline with the following periods and dates. Follow the instructions given (ANNEXE I and blog)
about how to do a timeline.
Periods:
3200-3100 BCE – Coloured in grey 1800-1600 BCE – Second Intermediate Period.
3100-2600 BCE– Early dynastic period 1600-1100 BCE – New Kingdom.
2600-2200 BCE – Old Kingdom. 1100-30 BCE – Late Period.
2200-2000 BCE – First Intermediate Period. 30-1 BCE – Coloured in grey
2000-1800 BCE – Middle Kingdom. Also, mark the year: 332 BCE.

26
 VIDEO - THE CODE OF HAMMURABI:
1. Imagine a world without law… what do you think it would happen?
2. Why do you think the video says “law is one of society’s most basic institutions”?
3. Why did Hammurabi “tried to institutionalise law”?
4. Were the laws only Babylonian?
5. Why do you think that the code was and is important?
6. What are the topics treated in the code?
7. Why do they mention Napoleon in the video?
8. Why do you think that young people were prosecuting, defending and sitting in the jury of the Texan
town?

TEXT - THE CODE OF HAMMURABI:

6. If any one steals the property of a temple or of the court, he shall be put
to death, and also the one who receives the stolen thing from him shall be
put to death.
8. If any one steals cattle or sheep, or a pig or a goat, if it belong to the
temple (to god) or to the palace, the thief shall pay thirty fold (30 times); if
they belonged to a servant of the king he shall pay tenfold (10 times); if the
thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.
53. If any one be too lazy to keep his dike in proper condition; if then the
dike breaks and all the fields are flooded, he must replace in money the
crops destroyed by the flood.
54. If he be not able to replace the crops, then he and his possessions shall
be divided among the farmers whose wheat was lost in the flood.
195. If a son strikes his father, his hands shall be cut off.
196. If a man puts out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.
197. If he breaks another man's bone, his bone shall be broken.
198. If he puts out the eye of a freed man, or breaks the bone of a freed man, he shall pay one gold mina [Gold coin].
200. If a man knocks out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.
202. If any one strikes the body of a man higher in rank than he, he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-whip in public.
203. If a free-born man strikes the body of another free-born man or equal rank, he shall pay one gold mina.
205. If the slave of a freed man strikes the body of a freed man, his ear shall be cut off.
229. If a builder builds a house for someone, and he does not construct it properly and the house falls and kills its owner,
then that builder shall be put to death.
230. If it kills the son of the owner, the son of that builder shall be put to death.
231. If it kills a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house.
282. If a slave says to his master: "You are not my master", his master will convict him, and he shall have his ear cut off.

1. Look for the underlined words in the dictionary. Also, look any word you don’t understand.
2. Do you think that this code reflects an egalitarian society? Justify your answer.
3. Do you think that these laws are fair or unfair? Which ones are unfair? Justify your answer.
4. Which of these laws are more relevant for the economic activities?
5. Are any of our laws today similar to these laws?
6. Why do you think that it is important to write the laws?

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 MAP OF THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILISATIONS:
Complete the maps with the Early River Valley Civilisations, colouring their area, naming them and specifying
their rivers. Check the blog for finding a reference.

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 MAP OF ANCIENT EGYPT:
Complete the map with the following elements, taking into account the image in the blog.
Colour the seas in blue and name them. Memphis.
Mark the river Nile darker. Thebes (Tebas/Luxor).
Colour the green area around the Nile. Alexandria
Colour the deserts (very light yellow or so). Nubia.
Lower Egypt. Abu Simbel
Upper Egypt. Giza

INVESTIGATE:
Look for information about Egyptian gods and goddesses.
For looking for information about Egyptian gods and goddesses, visit the website about Ancient Egypt of the
British Museum (London)
1. Choose one god or goddess among the following: Ra, Osiris, Isis, Horus, Amun, Hathor, Sekhmet, Anubis,
Thoth and Set.
2. Write his/her name in your notebook.
3. Write his name in hieroglyphs.
4. Describe how he/she is represented (how is his/her appearance). Does he/she have any particular
symbol or symbols? In addition to that, you should draw or print an image of the god or goddess.
5. What powers did he/she have?
There is going to be a question about the god or goddess you have chosen in the test, so you better do it great!

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 TEXT - THE FIRST PHARAOH:

“Excavators working in the ancient town of Hieraconpolis in southern Egypt found an unusual object. Among a cache of
sacred relics buried in the remains of an early temple lay a oversized (60 cms) slate cosmetic palette. With carved pictures
and rudimentary writing it told the story of the unification of Egypt. One side shows a large figure grasping an enemy by
the hair with one hand while raising a mace menacingly with the other. Hieroglyphs over the scene call the man “Narmer”.
The reverse side shows Narmer leading a procession of tiny figures carrying banners, while a little man behind him dresses
as a priest cradles a pair of sandals.
Most significantly, Narmer wears one kind of crown on one side of the palette and a different crown on the other –
distinctive royal hats known as the Red Crown of the North and the White Crown of the South. The pictures narrate
Narmer’s leadership of a southern confederation (with processional banners representing various communities) to its
successful conquest of the north, a conquest that made Narmer the first ruler of a unified Egypt. Except for a relatively
brief period of instability, the country remained a single entity throughout its 3000-year history, but Egyptians never
forgot their origins. They always referred to their country as the ‘Two Lands’, and their ruler as the ‘Lord of Upper and
Lower Egypt’, a way of acknowledging the indispensable role of the pharaoh in holding a divided country together. Other
Egyptian records assign the original pharaoh the name Menes, a different designation for the same man – every pharaoh
had at least two names”. B. Bryer, H. Hobbs, Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians (Greenwood Press, 2008)

VIDEO – ANCIENT EGYPT: CRASH COURSE WORLD HISTORY #4:

1. Why does he say that we think of Egypt when speaking about ancient civilisations?
2. What influence did the River Nile had on the vision of life of Egyptians?
3. Did the River Nile make agriculture easy or difficult?
4. Where did Egyptians live?
5. What does "the River Nile was easily tamed" mean?
6. This easy agriculture implies...?
7. Why was people buried with useful things?
8. What could you say about the Old Kingdom?
9. How was the pharaoh for Egyptians?
10. Who built the pyramids?
11. Why was Ra important?
12. What did the Hyksos do after conquering Egypt?
13. Why was Hatsepsut different from male pharaohs?
14. Why is Tutankhamen famous?
15. Tutankhamen live more or less at the same time as the pyramids, no?

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 VIDEO AND TEXT - MUMMIFICATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT:
Video "I was mummified”
1. How long does it take for a body to start decomposing?
2. Is there any written formula? How was it transmitted?
3. Why was the process of mummification considered necessary for the well-being of Egypt?
4. What is a mummy, according to the video?

The Book of the Dead speaks highly of mummification. Many of the ancient Egyptians followed the Book of the Dead,
therefore mummification was necessary when someone passed away to go on to the next world.
Preserving one's body was needed and was a basic funeral practice in ancient Egypt. If the body was not reserved,
then the ka (vital essence) would not be able to return to the body and find sustenance. If the body had gone through the
normal process and decayed, it would become unrecognizable, therefore the ka would starve and the afterlife of the one
who died would be in jeopardy. This means the ancient Egyptians used mummification in order to prevent the body from
decaying.
Many look at mummification as just being a technical process in order to fill the body, but the truth is that it was also
a ritual process. They were always looking into recreating Osiris, whom was the first original mummy. The “hery seshta”
was the individual who was in charge of performing the mummification; this is the one who took the part of Anubis who
is the jackal god. The assistant of the mummification process is the “hetemw netjer.” The individual who read the magic
spells during the mummification process was known as the “hery heb.” The one who did the actual removal of the internal
organs along with bandaging up the body was called the “wetyw.”
When someone died, he would be taken to the place of purification. This is where he would be washed in natron,
which is a solution of carbonate and sodium bicarbonate. After this, he would be taken to the “per nefer” which means
the ‘house of beauty’, where the mummification process would be performed. The internal organs of the dead person
were taken out, dried, rinsed and then bandaged. The internal organs were put in jars, which would be placed next to the
body in the tomb. They would decorate the jars with the “four sons of Horus.” Hapy is the god that had a baboon head
and he protected the lungs, Imety protected the liver and he was the human headed god, Duamutef was a jackal headed
god and he protected the stomach and Qebehsenuff was a falcon headed god that protected the intestines. Hapy would
be pointing North, Imsety pointed South, and Duamutef pointed East and Qebehsenuff pointed to the West.
After the organs were removed and preserved, the natron would cover the corpse and maybe even inserted into the
body cavity. During mummification the body was left for about forty days to dehydrate. When the body dried, the stuffing
would be removed and the body would be packed with bandages that had been soaked in resin along with other sweet
smelling perfumes. After this process, they bandaged up the body, which created the mummy, as we know it today.
(From Egyptian Diamond: http://www.egyptiandiamond.com/ancient-egyptian-mummification.php)

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 REVISE
1. Associate the stages of Ancient Egypt and their characteristics.

Expansion towards Nubia

Rameses II
Period of splendour
Early Dynastic Period
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
Old Kingdom Controlled by foreign empires
1600-1100 BCE
Middle Kingdom
Ended with the invasion of the Hyksos
New Kingdom King Menes (Narmer)
Capital in Memphis
Late Period Capital in Thebes
Alexander the Great
Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura
Expansion towards Palestine and Syria
Tutankhamen.

2. Fill the gaps.

 The leader of Ancient Egypt was the ____________________, that is, he controlled both Upper Egypt
(located in the _____________ part) and Lower Egypt (located in the ____________). His powers were
unlimited since he was considered a __________, representative of Horus on Earth. Therefore, his powers
were not just political and military, but also _______________. He also owned all the lands and the peoples
of Egypt, so he held _________________ power. These leaders formed _______________, that is, a succession
of kings and queens of the same family.
 The Egyptians used ___________________ writing, in which each sign or ‘drawing’ represented one
idea. However, they also used a type of syllabic writing called ‘demotic’. They wrote on _______________
scrolls. One of the most important books was the ____________________________, which is a religious text
and where the mythological explanation of the process of embalming dead bodies or
_____________________ is explained.
 Their religion was ___________________, and some of their gods were Ra, Horus, Osiris, Isis and Anubis.
They were all represented with ________________ and _________________ features, and they were involved
in mythological stories and lived in the ___________________. Among other beliefs, the Egyptians believed
in the afterlife, and for having access they had to go through the ________________
_______________________________, where the heart of the person was weighted with a feather in the
presence of a god for determining whether he would go to paradise or not.

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 3. Complete the parts of the temple and explain their function.

5. Link each art form with its characteristics.

Frontality law
Use of columns
Decoration of tombs and palaces
Painting
Speos
Sculpture Relieves and free standing
Massive dimensions
Architecture Tombs and temples
Idealization
Flat colours
Hierarchical perspective
Mastaba

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- 34 -
- 35 -
 UNIT 3
GREECE AND THE
HELLENISTIC WORLD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE GREEKS
2. THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ANCIENT GREEECE
2.1. The origins of Greek civilization
2.2. The Archaic period (8th-6th BCE)
2.3. Classical Greece (5th-4th BCE)
2.4. The Hellenistic period (338-30 BCE)
3. THE PHARAOHS AND THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION
3.1. Political systems in ancient Greece: Athenian democracy
3.2. Life in the poleis
3.3. Social organisation in ancient Greece Egyptian economy
4. GREEK CULTURE AND RELIGION
4.1. Gods, heroes and myths: Greek religion
4.2. Greek culture
5. GREEK ART
5.1. Architecture
5.2. Sculpture

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Ancient Greece  South-eastern Europe
 Eastern Mediterranean.
Greek territories:
- Southern Balkan peninsula.
- Peloponnese peninsula.
- Islands in the Aegean and Ionian Sea.
- Coasts of Asia Minor (Anatolian Peninsula)

Influence of the natural environnment:

 Close to the sea  Important for Greek life, communications, trade, etc.
 Very mountainous  Difficult land communications, difficult for agriculture, and organization into
different independent city-states (poleis).
o Poleis (SG: polis): independent city-state, formed by the urban centre and the land around it.
o Each had a different system of government, laws, army, currency, etc.

They were never a unified state, but they shared elements: geographical space, way of life, culture, language,
religion, etc.  Helladic culture.

Eλλάς - Hellas
They spread across the Mediterranean Sea  Colonies.
West – Iberian peninsula: North – Southern Europe and Black Sea; East – Palestine; South – North
Africa  Origin of Western civilization

Greek civilization  8th to 1st centuries BCE.

Three periods: archaic, classical, hellenistic.

 Bronze Age: Minoan Civilization (3000-1500 BCE)

o Crete.
o Splendour  King Minos at the Palace of Knossos.
o Economy based on trade.
 Iron Age: Mycenean Civilization (1500-1200 BCE)
o Around Mycenae (city-state in the eastern Peloponnese).
o Focused on war, with fortified cities.
o Trojan War in this period.
 1200-750 BCE  Greek Dark Age
o Little information about the period.
o Political, cultural and economic decline.
o Dorian invasion.

Development of the poleis, evolution of social groups and colonisation of the Mediterranean.
 Social groups:
o Aristocrats (Aristoi – The best, the richest). Economic and political power.
o Free people: majority. Lived modestly.
- 37 -
 o Foreigners and liberated (freed slaves): limited rights.
o Slaves: not free.
 Colonisation: great migrations  Established along the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
o Causes: Higher population  Not enough farmland to feed everyone and poor distribution of
land.
o The colonies installed the same social and political system of the metropolises. Based on trade.
o Consequences  Greek culture spread  Use of iron, currency, the alphabet, urbanism, arts,
etc.

Greatest splendour of Greek civilisation, and the poleis of Athens and Sparta were the most important.
490 and 338 BC

Military conflict
Greeks Vs Persians
For the control of Asia Minor.
Greeks  United against the Persians. Athens (led by Pericles) very important.
Battles: Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE) Salamina (480 BCE).
Greeks won.
After the war  Two groups around the main poleis sprang: Delian League (controlled by Athens) and
Peloponnesian League (Sparta)  Their rivalry (control over other poleis, resources, etc.) led to war.
Period of greatest Athenian splendour (Pericles)

The rivalry between Athens and Sparta led to a civil war between the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues.
Sparta won  Imposed its system of government in Athens.
Greece was weakened.

4th century BCE  Kingdom of Macedon (North of Greece)  Territorial expansion in Greece.
359 BCE  Philip II of Macedon conquered the Balkans and the Peloponnnese. In 338 BCE he finished
the conquest.

- 38 -
 336 BCE  Philip II died, and Alexander the Great succeeds his father to the throne (hereditary
succession to the throne)  He continued the territorial expansion.
Egypt, Anatolia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, until India  Greatest empire of the ancient world.
323 BCE  Alexander died in Babylon, but without a successor  Division into Hellenistic kingdoms
(hereditary monarchy).
Egypt (Ptolemaic), Macedonia and Greece, and the rest (from Syria to India).
They developed industry and trade, founded cities, and expanded Greek culture.

146 BCE  Macedon is conquered by the Romans  Greece under Roman control.

There were different political systems in ancient Greece. The most important were those of Athens and Sparta:
democracy and oligarchy.

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY
Demos (people) + krátos (power)  Power by the people
Created to avoid the abuses of the aristocracy after numerous social revolts by Solon the lawmaker (6th century).
Institutions in Athenian democracy:
- Assembly (Ekklesia)  Held power.
o Meeting formed by Athenian citizens (male, older than 18, sons of Athenians, etc.). No women,
foreigners (metics), slaves or children.
o They discussed and voted the laws.
o They chose representatives: Boule and magistrates.
- Boule (Council of the 500)
o Chosen among the members of the ekklesia by drawing lots (sortition).
o They prepared the law and issues to discuss in the assembly.
- Magistrates (Judges): they executed the decisions of the assembly, and they were in charge of
administration and the army.
o Archons (courts of justice), strategoi (military issues) and treasurers.
- Heliaia (Supreme Court) – For delivering justice.

OTHER POLITICAL SYSTEMS:

Sparta  Oligarchy  Oligos (The few  The rich) + arkhos (Rule)  The rule of the few
Power  Minority of people with large properties (aristoi  The best)

Characteristics of the Greek poleis:

Parts:
 High city: Acropolis  High place, where the city was founded. Defensive (walls) and religious (temples)
functions.
 Low city: housing, economic, political and social activities.
o Agora: main public space in Greek poleis. Open square with different functions: economic
(market), political (place for the assemblies) and social (gathering place).
 Surrounding territories: settlements, farmland and pastures.

Divided into two basic groups, depending on their rights: citizens and non-citizens.
 Citizens: they could participate in political life.
- 39 -
 o Athens: free men, older than 18, with Athenian parents.
o Sparta: involved in military training.
 Non-citizens: they could not participate in political life.
o Women: they could be free or slaves. Always subjected to the male (father or husband).
o Foreigners: they were free, they worked as artisans or merchants. Metics in Athens, perioicoi in
Sparta.
o Slaves: not free, no rights.

Polytheistic religion.
Mythology  Collection of myths and tales about the gods and heroes.
Gods: They lived on Mount Olympus, and had supernatural powers: inmense power over nature and
man’s destiny
Anthropomorphic. Also, they possesed virtues and defects as humans, but were immortal.
Heroes: more than humans, less than gods (born of a deity and a mortal).
Mortal, and able to perform incredible deeds.
Heracles (Hercules), Achiles, Perseus, Theseus, Ulysses, etc.
RITUALS:
Worship at home, in the temples and in sanctuaries.
- Home: prayers to the household goddess (Hestia)
- Temples: Offerings, prayers and sacrifices directed by the priests and magistrates.
o Each polis had a founding god and guardian spirit  Athens: Athena.
- Sanctuaries: meeting of several Greek poleis. Theatre and sports.
o Olympic Games  In Olympia, from 776 BCE every four years.
 In honour of Zeus.
- Oracles: messages of advice of the gods. Interpreted by priests and priestesses.

LITERATURE:
 Epic poems: The Iliad and The Odyssey (Homer)
 Theatre: tragedies and comedies.
o Public spectacles, free. Very important in Greek life.
PHILOSOPHY (Love for knowledge) and SCIENCE:
Rational thinking, not only religious  Science  Method for reaching knowledge.
- Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
- Mathematics: Pythagoras
- Physics: Archimedes
- Astronomy and Geography: Eratosthenes
- Medicine: Hippocrates
- History: Herodotus

Main characteristics:
- Proportion  Relationship between the parts of a whole.
- Visual balance.
- Reference  Human body.
- Looking for beauty.
- 40 -
Main characteristics:
 Human scale  Not massive dimensions
 Material: marble
 Double-sloped roofs
o Tympanum (space in the centre of the triangle  decorates)
 Columns  Orders: rules for the distribution and proportions of the parts of the building.

DORIC: IONIC: CORINTHIAN:

Simple, column with no base Lighter, and decorated. Very ornate, decorative. Capital
with acanthus leaves.
PEDIMENT  With tympanum PEDIMENT  With tympanum. PEDIMENT  With tympanum

ENTABLATURE  Cornice, frieze ENTABLATURE  Cornice, smooth ENTABLATURE  Cornice, smooth

with trigliphs and metopes (with frieze with relieves and architrave. frieze with relieves and architrave.
relieves), and architrave.

COLUMN  Smooth capital, shaft, COLUMN  Capital with volutes, COLUMN  Capital with acanthus
no base. taller shaft, base. leaves, taller and thinner shaft,
base.
PLATFORM PLATFORM PLATFORM

 Types of buildings:
o Temples: dedicated to the gods.
 Most important building.
 Held the statue of the god.
 Rectangular floor plan, on a stepped platform.
 Parts: Platform, colonnade (peristyle), pronaos, naos (Cella), opistodomos.
If surrounded by one row of columns: peripteral.
If 4 columns at the front: tetrastyle; 6 hexastyle; 8 octastyle…

Examples:
 Acropolis (Athens): Parthenon, Erechtheum, Athena Nike – 5th c. BCE.
 Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens) - 2nd c. BCE.
 Temple of Hera (Paestum, Italy).
o Tombs: Mausoleum in Halicarnassus.
o Theatres:
 On a hill.
 Stands, orchestra (for choir) and stage.
Examples:
 Theatre of Delphi.
 Theatre of Epidaurus.
o Stadium (PL: stadia): Panathenaic stadium; Stadium at Olympia.

Main characteristics  Human form  Ideal of beauty, proportion and balance  Canon.
Themes: gods, heroes, athletes, mythological scenes, fights, etc.
Material: Stone (marble).
a. Archaic sculpture (7th-6th centuries BC)
o Rigid figures, schematic.

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 o Archaic smile  Flat, unnatural.
o Kouroi (athletes) and kourai (female).
b. Classic sculpture (5th-4th centuries BC)
o Naturalism, realism, balanced movement… looking for beauty.
o 5th BC: Myron (Discobolous), Phidias (Parthenon  Tympanum and Frieze) and Polycletus
(Diadumenus).
o 4th BC: Lysippus (Hermes), Scopas, Praxiteles (Venus Braschi, Hermes and Dionysus)
c. Hellenistic sculpture (From 3rd century BC)
o Greater movement and emotions. Dramatic scenes.
o Laocoon and his sons, Aphrodite of Milos, Nike of Samothrace.

GLOSSARY
Hellas Greco-Persian Wars Acropolis
Polis Peloponnesian Wars Agora
Minoan civilisation Hellenistic Age Citizens
Mycenean civilisation Alexander the Great Mythology
Greek Dark Age Democracy Olympic Games
Archaic Age Ekklesia Temple
Colonisation Boule
Classical Age Oligarchy

TIMELINE:
Draw a timeline with the following periods and dates of ancient Greece. Follow the instructions given in the
blog about how to do a timeline.
800 – 776 – 490 – 480 – 431 – 404 – 338 – 323 – 146 – 100 BCE.
Since it just comprises from 800 to 100 BCE, it’s only 700 years. Therefore, use about 4 cms per century when doing the timeline in
your notebook. Use one colour for the Archaic Period, another for the Classical Period, and another for the Hellenistic period. In
addition to that, add two or 3 main characteristics of each of the periods.
Specify what happened in each of the dates whenever it is possible.

VIDEO – THE PERSIANS AND THE GREEKS: CRASH COURSE WORLD

HISTORY #5:
1. Why is the image we have of the Persians so negative? Does it correspond with how they actually
were?
2. What were the Greeks in Anatolia called? What war began because of trying to control them?
3. What was the name of the Persian religion? How was it?
4. What are the symbols of the moment of splendour in Ancient Greece?
5. How were the Greeks politically organized?
6. What can you say about the Persian Wars?
7. How was the organization of Sparta? Why did they fight the Athenians? In what conflict?

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 MAP:
Complete the map with the following elements. Check the blog for reference.
 Seas (in blue): Ionic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara
 Landforms: Balkan Peninsula, Peloponnese Peninsula, Asia Minor, Crete, Mount Olympus.
 Cities: Sparta, Myceneae, Athens, Thebes, Delphi, Troy, Knossos, Miletus.

VIDEO – WHAT DID DEMOCRACY REALLY MEAN IN ATHENS?

1. What does “democracy” mean to ancient Athenians?
2. Who could attend the Athenian assembly, or ekklesia?
3. What was the role of the Council of 500?
4. How was the Council of 500, or Boule, selected?
5. Which office was filled by election and why?
6. Who was eligible to hold political office and who was not?

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 REVISE:
1. Fill the gaps

The political system of ancient Athens during the _______________ period (________ - 338 BCE) was
the ___________________, which means “the power of the people”. This political system was characterised by
the participation of Athenian ____________________; this social category, therefore, excluded women,
foreigners and _________________. Each _______________ (city-state) had its own system of government,
and this one and the one in Sparta, the ___________________ (‘the rule of the few’) were the most important
ones.
Created to avoid the abuses of the _________________ (the power of the best) after numerous social
revolts by _____________ the lawmaker in the 6th century, it was organised into different institutions, each
one with a different role.
The most important one was the __________________ (the assembly), which held power. This open
meeting was closed for those not meeting the criteria previously mentioned, but there were about 30 000
Athenians who could discuss and vote the ____________ (legislative power) and choose representatives for
other institutions: the ________________ or Council of the 500 and the __________________ (executive
power).
The Council of the 500 was the institution in charge of _______________ the law and the issues to
discuss in the ______________________. The 500 members were chosen by _________________ among the
members of the assembly.
The executive power was carried out by the _____________________ (judges), who executed the
decisions of the assembly, and were in charge of the administration and the __________. Examples of these
were the archons (in the courts of justice), the ___________________ (for military issues) and treasurers.
Lastly, the judiciary power was in the hands of the _____________________, which was the supreme
court of justice.

2. Copy the table in your notebook and complete it with the conflicts during the Classical Period.
PERSIAN WARS PELOPONNESIAN WARS

Contenders

Dates

Causes

Important battles

Consequences

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 3. Link the periods of Ancient Greece and their characteristics, characters and dates.

Pericles
Colonisations
Crete
Minoan civilisation
Greco-Persian Wars
Mycenae
Mycenaean civilisation 776 – 490 BCE
We have very little information
Alexander the Great
Greek Dark Age 490 – 338 BCE
Power of Athens and Sparta
Palace of Knossos
Archaic Period
Philip II
Dorian invasion
Classical Period 338 – 146 BCE
Athenian democracy
Peloponnesian Wars
Hellenistic Period King Minos
Beginning of the Olympic Games

4. Complete the diagram about the political system of ancient Athens.

5. Identify the parts of the Greek polis.

a. Acropolis c. Crops e. Agora
b. Housing d. Port f. Walls

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 INVESTIGATE:
Look for information about Greek Mythology.

Pick one of the Δωδεκάθεον (Dodekatheon –> Olympian Greek god), and look for some information on Ancient
Greece section of the British Museum website. The gods of the Δωδεκάθεον were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon,
Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes, Hestia, Dionysus, Hades and
Persephone.
As you may recall from Geometry, the prefix ‘dodeka/dodeca’ means 12, and you see 15 gods in this list. That
is because it changed at some points, with Hades excluded many times because of living in the underworld, not
on Mount Olympus.

1. Choose one god or goddess.

2. Write his/her name in your notebook, and also in Greek! (Ζεύς is the ancient Greek for Zeus, for
instance).
3. Describe how he/she is represented. Does he/she have any particular symbol or symbols?
4. What powers did he/she have?
5. Which name is his/her Roman equivalent?
6. In addition to that, you should draw or print an image of the god or goddess of your choice. Try finding
it in Madrid, mostly at the Museo del Prado website.

Again, there is going to be a question about this in the test, so you better do it well!

PROJECT - DAILY LIFE IN ANCIENT ATHENS

In groups of 4, you have to create a poster (digital or cardboard) explaining everyday life of citizens in ancient
Athens. You are required to explain housing, daily activities, food, leisure, etc. Also, you should emphasize the
differences among the different members of a family.

The grade will be based on accuracy to historical reality, originality, aesthetics and writing.

Plagiarism –copying literally or translating from sources such as books and websites- means the failure of this
assignment (0 as grade)

MINOS, KNOSSOS, CRETE AND MYTHS

The island of Crete is a place of many myths. King Minos (of the Minoan civilisation) is present in a couple of the most
famous, mixing life in the palace of Knossos, a labyrinth and… a Minotaur, very scary creature with human body and the
head of a bull.
Here you have a brief story about the myths of Icarus and Daedalus, and one about Theseus and the Minotaur.
“Many years ago, King Minos lived on an island in the Mediterranean Sea called Crete. He asked a famous Athenian
engineer named Daedalus (who lived in Crete with his son Icarus) to build a wonderful palace for him.
Daedalus and Icarus worked very hard, day and night. Finally, they built the huge palace of Knossos for King Minos and
Queen Pasiphae, who liked it very much. Next to it, they built another palace with a lot of rooms: the labyrinth. Its basic
function was to hold a Minotaur -a monster with a man’s body and a bull’s head.
After some years, Minos’s son Androgenus was killed by some Athenians because they were jealous of his success. Furious,
Minos sailed to Athens to avenge the death of his son. He sieged the town and forced the Athenians to send seven young
men and seven young women to Crete every seven years for feeding the Minotaur as sacrifice. That was their fine for
their defeat.
For the third sacrifice, Theseus, the son of the King of Athens, volunteered to go to Crete as one of the seven young men
and the seven young women, but with the intention of killing the Minotaur. As he arrived in Crete princess Ariadne -
Minos’s daughter- fell madly in love with him, so she offered to help Theseus kill the Minotaur and get out of the labyrinth.
Ariadne gave Theseus the secret for the most difficult task, which was finding the way out: she gave him a ball of thread,
which he could use for tying one end to the door so once it was closed he could unroll the thread as he moved through
the building. That way, Theseus, after killing the Minotaur, could find his way back and escape by boat to Athens with

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Ariadne and the children that were going to be offered to the Minotaur.
King Minos was extremely angry because of the death of his Minotaur. He accused Icarus and Daedalus of helping the
Athenians. King Minos punished the innocent Daedalus by imprisoning him and his son Icarus inside the labyrinth.
One day Daedalus noticed birds flying overhead. This gave him an idea for escaping: wings. They needed wings. Daedalus
began to gather all the bird feathers he could find and glued them together with wax. When two pairs of wings were
ready, Daedalus fastened the wings to their arms, and advised Icarus not to fly too close to the sun, nor too close to the
sea.
They flapped their wings and took to the sky through a high window. They left their prison and the island of Crete far
behind them, but Icarus wasn’t careful: he flew very close to the sun and the wax of his wings started to melt. Icarus kept
flapping his wings but soon realized that he had no feathers left and that he was only flapping his bare arms, and as a
result Icarus fell into the sea that carries his name: Icarian Sea”

REVISE GREEK ART

1. Orders in Greek architecture: link each capital with its architectonical order.
A B C

2. Orders in Greek architecture: identify the following elements in the columns:

1. Frieze 4. Platform 8. Entablature
1. Base 5. Shaft 9. Metopes
2. Smooth capital 6. Volutes 10. Volutes
3. Triglyphs 7. Architrave 11. Cornice

3. Greek temples: draw in your notebook the floor plan of a Greek temple with the following
characteristics: rectangular, peripteral, octastyle, on a platform.

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 4. Greek sculpture: explain in an informative text the differences among the following three sculptures,
including their identification and period.

REVISE THE CULTURAL INHERITANCE OF THE GREEKS

Link the columns about the cultural contributions of the Greeks, the main characters and their ideas.
- Philosophy - Herodotus - H2=x2+y2
- Medicine - Homer - Oedipus Rex
- Geography - Archimedes - They reflected on human existence, the truth, morality…
- History - Hippocrates - The adventures of Ulysses (Odysseus)
- Epic poetry - Eratosthenes - Measuring the circumference of the Earth
- Tragedy - Aeschylus - Religious function, honouring Dionysus
- Theatre - Pythagoras - Description of the peoples of Antiquity
- Mathematics - Plato - Investigated the causes of illnesses of the body
- Physics - Sophocles - Why do bodies float?

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- 49 -
 UNIT4
ANCIENT ROME: FROM
CITY TO EMPIRE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE FOUNDING OF ROME AND THE MONARCHY
1.1. The foundation of Rome
1.2. The Monarchy (753-509 BCE)
2. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (509-27 BCE)
2.1. Political system and institutions
2.2. Social conflicts: the fight over political rights
2.3. The territorial expansion of Rome
2.4. The end of the Republic
3. THE EMPIRE (27 BCE-476 AD)
3.1. The High Roman Empire (1st to 3rd centuries AD)
3.2. The Low Roman Empire (4th-5th centuries AD)
4. ROMAN SOCIETY AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
4.1. Society
4.2. Roman urbanism and cities
4.3. Roman economy
5. RELIGION AND CULTURE IN ROME
5.1. Roman gods and worship
5.2. Christianity
5.3. Roman culture
6. ROMAN ART
6.1. Architecture
6.2. Sculpture
6.3. Other art forms

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Rome  One of the greatest civilisations in history.
Based and founded in the city of Rome:
- On the banks of the river Tiber
- In the Italian peninsula
- Central Mediterranean  strategic position.
8 century  Foundation of Rome.
th

Italian peninsula  Etruscans in the north and centre

 Latins in the centre
 Greeks in the south
753 BCE  Rome was founded.
- Legend of Romulus and Remus.
- Some Latin tribes settled around the seven hills, next to river Tiber  Good position because:
 Defence: hills and river
 Sea trade: near the end of the river.
 Land route: crossroads.

History of Ancient Rome  Divided into different periods: monarchy, republic and empire (8th BCE-5th AD)

Monarchy  King:
 Absolute power: government (legislation, judicial affairs, etc.), religion and head of the army.
 Elected by the most important families (elective succession to the throne).

7 kings: 4 Latin kings, 3 Etruscans (6th century)

509 BC: Tarquin the Proud (Etruscan king) was expelled by a revolt (deposed by a rebellion).
Period of configuration of the Roman political and legal system: the Senate, the Twelve Tables (laws), etc.
The Roman territories only comprised the area around the city, the Lazio.

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Republic: System of government in which power is held by a person or group of people elected by the citizens
for a limited period of time.
Res publica (‘The public affairs’)
Motto  SPQR  Senatus populusque Romanus  The Senate and the People of Rome
Political power  Shared among several institutions: the Senate, the magistrates and the people’s assembly.
- Senate  300 members (former magistrates)
o The most important institution.
o Functions: control over laws, army, religion, foreign policy, etc.
- Magistrates  Carried out the government duties.
o 2 consuls  the most important magistrates.
o Government and army  two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each
with veto power over the other's actions.
- Assemblies of citizens (comitia)  All Roman citizens.
o Voted the laws, elected magistrates.

Two social classes (in addition to slaves):

- Patricians  Political and economic power.
- Plebeians  Majority of the population. Lived modestly, no political rights.

5th to 3rd century BCE  the plebeians fought for equal political rights (Conflict of the orders) they got:
o Two new magistrates, looking after their interests: Plebeian tribune and aediles.
o Access to magistracies.
o Right to choose consuls.
o Social rights: abolition of slavery for accumulating debts.
However, no redistribution of wealth.

During the republic  Great expansion:

- Italian Peninsula: 4th-3rd BCE.
- Western Mediterranean: Punic Wars (264-146 BCE).
o Against Carthage, for the control of the Mediterranean Sea.
Before Punic Wars: Rome only controlled the Italian Peninsula. 146 BC: also North-west Africa and
Iberian Peninsula (from 218, but it took two centuries to be fully conquered).
- Eastern Mediterranean: Macedonia, Greece and Syria (2nd BCE-2nd AD). Egypt: 30 BCE.
** At the end of the Republic: Italian Peninsula, Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Northern Africa, Balkan Peninsula,
Greece, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.

The internal instability caused by the social conflicts gave more power to army generals, and these
generals fought over the power of Rome. Julius Caesar, that participated in the first triumvirate (with general
Pompey and Crassus between 60 and 53 BCE), was proclaimed dictator (one person holds absolute power) in
48 BCE. However, some thought that he had too much power, so he was assassinated in 44 BCE, so he was
perverting the true meaning of the Republic (in contrast with the Monarchy).
As consequence, a Second Triumvirate was formed with Octavian, Marc Anthony and Lepidus, but a civil
war between Octavian and Mark Anthony sprang. Octavian’s victory over Mark Anthony and Cleopatra in
Actium (31 BCE) marked the end of Republic and the beginning of the Empire.

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27 BCE  ROMAN EMPIRE
The Senate gave Octavian (Augustus) political and religious powers  New political system  EMPIRE.
 Emperor: all the powers.
o Political:
 Head of the Senate.
 Directed foreign policy.
 Established the laws.
 Lifetime power. He appointed his successor.
o Military: Head of the Army.
o Religious: Pontifex maximus (main priest).
 Senate: ratified (accepted) the decisions of the emperor.
During the Empire Rome reached its maximum territorial expansion in 117 AD during the power of Trajan.

Most prosperous period, long period of stability, and maximum territorial expansion.
Characteristics:
- Pax Romana (Roman Peace): long period of peace, stability and territorial control, which allowed
economic, political and social development.
- Territorial expansion
o Around the Mare Nostrum (Mediterranean Sea)
o Europe: British Isles to Greece. Northern border: Rhine and Danube rivers.
o Africa: North-west (Mauretania), Libya and Egypt.
o Western Asia: Syria, Mesopotamia and Anatolia.
- ROMANISATION: process of assimilation of the conquered peoples into the Roman political, social,
economic and cultural way of life.
Main features of the process of Romanisation: Latin language, life in cities, introduction of
Roman law and government, adoption of Roman social organisation, Roman religion and
culture, etc.

Crisis of the 3rd century  Causes:

- Expansion stopped.
- The Germanic peoples (Barbarians) attacked. Some reached pacts with Rome: settling in regions
in exchange of military help.
- Corruption, political crisis, civil wars.
- Insecurity  Less trade  People leave the cities  Ruralisation.
330  Constantine the Great founded Constantinople (former Greek colony of Byzantium, modern-day
Istanbul) and made it the capital of the empire as Nova Roma.
395  Theodosius the Great divided the Empire:
 Western Roman Empire: capital in Rome  Lasted until 476.
 Eastern Roman Empire: capital in Constantinople  Byzantine Empire  Until 1453.
th
5 CENTURY
Different Germanic peoples (Visigoths, Suebis, Vandals, Alans) invaded some areas of the Empire.
476 AD  Odoacer (Ostrogoth) deposed Romulus Augustulus  End of the Western Roman Empire.

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Roman society can be divided according to freedom or citizenship.
- FREE PEOPLE
o Patricians:
 Rich nobles.
 Political rights.
o Plebeians:
 Farmers, traders, craftsmen, etc.
 No political rights until 5th century BCE.
o Foreigners:
 Free people, but limited rights.
o Liberti (freed slaves)
- NON-FREE PEOPLE
o Slaves: considered property, not people.
 Hardest works, no rights.
 Very important for Roman economy.
Women  Subjected to the father or husband (pater familias). Some rights, but no political
participation. Patriarchal society.

DIVISION INTO CITIZENS (Patricians and plebeians) AND NON-CITIZENS (Foreigners, Liberti, Women and Slaves).

Many new cities all across the empire  Centres of political, economic and cultural life.
Rome  Largest and most important city.
City planning (Urbanism)  Rectangular cities, with grid system
- Cardo (North-South street)
- Decumanus (East-West street)
- Forum  At the intersection of the cardo and decumanus.
o Centre for politics, culture and society. Main public space.
o The most important buildings and monuments.
Housing
Domus  for rich people. Insulae
o One family in each house. o Building with apartments. Low quality.
o Rooms around a central atrium. o Generally rented.
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Roman civilisation  Centred in cities  Importance of trade
ROME  Capital of the Ancient World. Everything was organised around Rome.

AGRICULTURE
Many different products  Depending on the province in the empire.
New farming techniques, and improvements of previous techniques:
- Irrigation
- Roman plough
- Crop rotation  One part of the land is left fallow (not cultivated) for resting and recovering
minerals
Farms:
- Large properties: belonged to rich citizens and the State.
o Large villas worked by slaves and tenant farmers, with production destined to be sold.
- Small properties: belonged to peasants. Subsistence economy.

CRAFTWORK
In cities  workshops with a shop for selling the products
Textiles, furniture, weapons, jewellery, pottery, etc. Also, food production  Oil, wine, bread, etc.
Small workshops (organised in collegia [associations]) or large workshops worked by slaves.

TRADE
The most important activity. Internal and external trade
- Internal trade (with other provinces of the empire)  Favoured by the sea and land routes, and the
use of money. Each province specialised in different products (Hispania: wheat, olives, wine, garum
[fermented fish sauce], metals, etc.). All products were taken to Rome.
o Roads: network reaching all the parts of the empire.
o Mare Nostrum (our sea)  Very important for sea trade.
- External trade (outside the empire)
o Imports
 Northern Europe: amber, wheat and slaves
 Africa: Slaves, gold, ivory, gems, etc.
 Asia: spices, silk, perfumes, etc.

Official religion  Polytheistic. They assumed the practices of conquered peoples (Greeks and Etruscans).
Imperial cult  Some emperors were considered divine and were worshipped  Loyalty to Rome.

Beginning of the Empire (1st century AD)  Christianity emerged in Palestine, following Jesus of Nazareth.
Main ideas:
- Monotheism  They did not adore the emperor  Prosecutions and punishments.
- Love and forgiveness, equality among peoples, eternal afterlife

313 AD  Edict of Milan (Emperor Constantine the Great)  Freedom of worship in the empire
380 AD  Emperor Theodosius the Great proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman
Empire.

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Language  Latin. Spoken all over the empire  Vehicle of culture.
Main contributions:
- Legislation: Roman Law. Base for modern legal systems.
- Philosophy: Seneca, Cicero
- Literature: Virgil.
- History: Julius Caesar, Tacitus, Plutarch.
- Medicine: Galen
- Julian calendar (365 days in 12 months starting in January, leap year every four years, etc.).

Characteristics:
Great builders  Architecture and engineering  Objective  Practical and functional structures.
- They privileged the function, rather than the aesthetics.
- Very big buildings (monumental)  Symbol of power.
Materials: stone, bricks, wood, mortar, concrete, etc.
Elements:
- Hold elements: semi-circular arches, barrel vaults and domes (for covering large spaces).
- Composite columns (Ionic + Corinthian orders).
- Decoration: paintings and mosaics.
Typologies:
 Religious: temples (rectangular or circular, with Greek influence)
o Pantheon: temple for all the gods. 2nd century AD. Large dome, and front as a Greek temple.
o Maison Carrée (Nimes)  On a podium.
 Political and economic:
o Curia (meeting-house of the Roman senate) and basilicas (meetings, trials and commercial
activities).
 Leisure activities:
o Theatres  Based on Greek theatres, but not on slopes.
 Theatre of Mérida
o Amphitheatres  Like two theatres together. For gladiators, animal fights and naval combats.
 Flavian Coliseum (Coliseum, Rome)  For 50.000 spectators. 80 AD.
o Circus  For chariot racing. Based on the Greek stadia. Rectangular shape, with a curved end.
 Circus Maximus (Rome)
o Thermal baths  Public baths with different rooms (caldarium, frigidarium and tepidarium).
Very important for social life.
 Baths of Diocletian, baths of Caracalla.
 Commemorative: columns and triumphal arches. For remembering and honouring important events
such as military victories.
 Trajan’s column (2nd century AD)
 Arch of Constantine (4th century AD)
 Public works: for making life easier and more comfortable.
o Roads
o Aqueducts  For transporting water.
 Aqueduct of Segovia
 Pont du Gard (France)
o Bridges
 Puente de Alcántara.

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Characteristics:
- Great Greek influence.
- Very realistic.
Types:
- Portraits:
o Whole body, equestrian or bust.
o Depended on the period:
 Republic: realistic.
 Empire: idealised.
 Decline of the Empire: rigidity, less idealisation, etc.
- Historical relieves: relevant episodes of Roman history. On commemorative monuments (columns
and arches)
Examples:
 Augustus of Prima Porta  Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)
 Augusto Pontifex Maximus  Trajan’s column – Relieves

a. Painting
Decoration of buildings, on the walls.
Polychrome.
Daily scenes, mythology, imaginary landscapes, portraits, architectural features (blocks of marble, columns,
windows, etc.).

b. Mosaic
Small tesserae together forming an image.
Also for decoration, but on the floors.
Geometric designs for mythological, floral and daily scenes.

GLOSSARY
Rome Empire Constantine the Great
Monarchy Roman Emperor Theodosius the Great
Republic Octavian Augustus Patricians
Senate High Roman Empire Plebeians
SPQR Pax Romana Forum
Punic Wars Romanisation Christianity
Julius Caesar Low Roman Empire

TIMELINE
Draw a timeline with of the history of Ancient Rome with the following dates of periods and events. Follow
the instructions given in the blog about how to do a timeline.
Periods: Events:
 753 BCE – 509 BCE – Monarchy.  264-146 BCE – Punic Wars.
 509 – 27 BCE – Republic.  44 BCE – Assassination of Julius Caesar.
 27 BCE – 476 AD – Empire  330 AD – Capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople.
o 27 BCE – 284 AD – High Empire.  395 AD – Division of the Empire into Eastern and Western
o 284 – 476 AD – Lower Empire.
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 VIDEO – THE ROMAN EMPIRE. OR REPUBLIC. OR… WHICH WAS IT?
CRASH COURSE WORLD HISTORY #10
1. Who founded the city of Rome?
2. What does Shakespeare think about why Julius Caesar was killed?
3. What is the main political institution of the Roman Republic?
4. What was the social class of the senators?
5. Why were there two consuls?
6. What was the role of the dictator?
7. When did Julius Caesar become consul?
8. In addition to Crassus, with whom did he ally?
9. How were the Roman armies called?
10. What did Julius Caesar conquer after Gaul?
11. What was Julius Caesar named in 48 BC?
12. Why was Julius Caesar killed by senators? What did they want?
13. Who won the war among Octavian, Mark Anthony and Lepidus?
14. What are the characteristics of empires mentioned in the video?
15. When did the expansion of Rome begin?
16. After what wars did Rome begin to become more diverse?
17. Who was the leader of the Cathaginians?
18. What did Rome conquer as result of that war?

TEXT – ROMULUS AND REMUS: THE FOUNDATION OF ROME

“Romulus and his twin brother, Remus, were the sons of a priestess named Rhea Sylvia and Mars, the god of war. Rhea
Sylvia was the daughter of Numitor, who was the rightful king of Alba, but the throne had been usurped by his wicked
brother Amulius. Amulius, being afraid that the children of Numitor might try to take his crown as he had taken their
father’s, had Numitor’s sons killed and forced his daughter, Rhea Sylvia, to become a vestal virgin. Vestal virgins were the
priestesses of Vesta, one of the heathen goddesses, and their chief duty was to look after the sacred fire that burned in
her temples, and to see that it never went out. There was a severe law against their marrying and having children.
So, when Amulius made Rhea Sylvia a vestal virgin, he thought there would be no one left to do him any harm. He was
therefore very angry when Rhea Sylvia became the mother of Romulus and Remus, and declared that Mars was her
husband. He had her buried alive, and the two little infants were put in a basket and thrown in the river Tiber to be
drowned. […] The basket was carried by the tide till it reached a place where the water was very shallow. […] They would
have perished of hunger and cold had it not been for a she-wolf, who fondled and fed them as if they were her own
offspring until a shepherd named Faustulus found the two boys and carried them home to his wife.
Romulus and Remus were unusually robust and beautiful infants, and as they grew into boyhood they were noted for
their bravery. In public games both showed remarkable skill, and their manners were so kind and affable that everybody
loved them. As time went on they became famous because of their readiness to defend the oppressed, and their courage
in punishing robbers and other wicked people.
[…] Romulus and Remus did not wish to stay at Alba, because so long as their grandfather lived they would not assume
the reins of government. So, after placing Numitor on the throne, they resolved to return to the spot where they spent
their infancy, and there they tried to build up a city.
[…] Romulus and Remus occupied themselves at once with the laying out of their city, but a dispute arose as to its site,
for the former selected a square which he called Rome, while the latter chose a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount
which he called Remonium. Neither was willing to yield, for each thought that the spot he had chosen possessed more
natural advantages than the other. In the end, no amount of argument brought the brothers to an agreement, therefore
it was decided that the matter would be settled by means of an augury. Placing themselves at a considerable distance
apart in the open air, Romulus and Remus waited to see what would happen.
After a while the latter announced that he had seen six vultures, whereupon the former declared that he had seen twelve,

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and the contest was therefore decided in favor of Romulus. […] But Romulus told an lie, for he did not really see more
vultures than his brother did. When Remus discovered the lie, he was so angry that he ridiculed the ditch that Romulus
had dug for his foundation wall, and jumped over it, contemptuously exclaiming, “Just so will the enemy leap over.” “And
in this manner will our citizens repel the enemy,” cried a bystander, as he dealt Remus a deadly blow.
Romulus buried his brother, and then proceeded with the building of his city. […] Romulus marked out the boundaries of
the city with a brazen ploughshare, to which he yoked a bull and a cow.
[…] It is on that day, the 21st of April, when the building of Rome began, and the Romans always regard that day as their
country’s birthday.”

TEXT – THE PUNIC WARS

“In the year 264 BCE, when reaching the South of the Italian Peninsula, the Romans clashed with a city-state of
Phoenician origin placed in North Africa: Carthage. This city had already established its power in the West of
Sicily. In many aspects, Carthage was the opposite of Rome: it was a sea and maritime power, and their wealth
and influence were based on trade. Also, since they could never be sure of the loyalty of those peoples under
their rule, they depended on mercenaries for fighting their wars.
During the First Punic War (264-241 BCE) the Romans crossed the sea and defeated the Carthaginians with the
assistance of other Italian tribes. As a result of this conflict, Rome had a new province in the year 241 BCE, Sicily,
and they soon occupied and included Sardinia under their domains.
In the year 218 BCE the Carthaginians challenged Rome again attacking Saguntum, in Hispania, causing the
Second Punic War (218-202 BCE). From their bases in the recently-added province of the Iberian Peninsula, and
led by a military genius –Hannibal-, the Carthaginian army invaded Italy through the western part of the Alps.
Rome fought for its very survival for sixteen years in Italian land. However, the Senate could cope with the
successive crisis and disasters, and could turn the situation over: their Italian and Greek allies maintained their
loyalty; a Roman military force disembarked in Hispania and cut the communications between Hannibal and his
army and their bases; an increasing number of soldiers were recruited among the Italian peasants for fighting
the Carthaginians.
Eventually, under the command of the great general Scipio the African (Scipio Africanus) the Romans conquered
Northern Africa, forcing Hannibal to leave Italy, and then being beaten in 202 BCE. Carthage never recovered
its splendour”.
WALBANK, F.W. La pavorosa revolución. La decadencia del Imperio Romano de Occidente (Madrid: Alianza Universidad, 1987), pág.
15. [Adapted and translated]

Answer the following questions in your notebook:

1. How long did the Punic Wars last for? Make a diagram with the dates and locations of the Three Punic
Wars.
2. Why is Carthage –according with the text– the opposite of Rome? How was Rome?
3. What was the consequence of the First Punic War?
4. Look for information about Hannibal (birth and death dates and places, family, main events of his life,
etc.) and write three lines about him.
5. Look for the main victories of Hannibal in Italy.
6. What military tactics did the Romans use for defeating Hannibal?
7. What areas were new Roman provinces as result of the Second Punic War?

TEXT - THE END OF THE REPUBLIC AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE:
JULIUS CAESAR AND THE CONQUEST OF GAUL
“Caesar dreamt with an absolute power in order to carry out reforms to amaze the world. He began his political career at
the forum, with the juvenile passion of making reforms as Pericles did, not holding the sword. He kept that eagerness for
twenty years, until he was conscious of one basic idea: nobody would ever be great without the power of the legions.

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That is why when he was named consul of Gallia Narbonensis (Transalpine Gaul) and Gallia Cisalpina (Cisalpine Gaul), he
did not aim towards clumsy personal enrichment as so many previous governors. He wanted to conquer all the
independent Gaul. It was only then, with the careful management of his wealth and the devotion of his soldiers, when he
could go back to Rome with enough importance to preside the funerals for the Republic and conceive the Roman Empire.
The Gallic Wars ended with astonishing figures for those times. A population of ten million Gauls suffered one million
deaths, one million slaves and eight years of atrocious acts. Julius Caesar even exceeded himself during the Great Roman
Civil War (Caesar’s Civil War). It has been said that it was the first true world war, since half a million soldiers fought each
other for five years in three continents and one hundred land and sea battles”
AYLLÓN, J. R., "Introducción", en SUN TZU, El arte de la guerra (Madrid: Ediciones Martínez Roca, 1999), pp. 27 y 28. My translation
[JJAC]

REVISE – PERIODS OF ROMAN HISTORY

1. Link the columns of each period and their characteristics, dates and characters.

Octavian (Augustus)
Constantin the Great
Pax Romana
Monarchy
753-509 BCE
SPQR
Republic The Barbarians attacked
Centralised power of the Emperor
Appearance of Christianity
High Empire Theodosius the Great
Punic Wars
Division of the empire into Eastern and Western
Lower Empire
Expansion in the Italian Peninsula
284-476 AD
Julius Caesar
Conquest of Britain
Trajan
Ruralisation of society

2. Match the characteristics to the political institution of the Roman Republic.

Carried out government duties

300 members (former magistrates)
Senate All Roman citizens
Most important institution
Magistrates
Government and army
Assembly of citizens Elected magistrates
Two consuls elected each year
Responsible for foreign policy
Comitia
Control over laws, army, religion, etc.
Voted the laws

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 3. Arrange the following events in chronological order.

Assassination of Julius Caesar Foundation of Rome

Second Punic War Octavian received the title of Augustus
Conquest of Egypt Christianity is proclaimed official
Fall of Rome Foundation of Nova Roma (Constantinople)
Tarquin the Proud deposed Division of the Empire

4. Fill the gaps:

509 bce Configuration King Peninsula Strategic

6th Elected Lazio People Tarquin
7 Etruscan Legislation Power Territories
753 bce Etruscans Limited Religious Tiber
Absolute Foreign Mediterranean Republic Twelve tables
Centre Greeks Monarchy Revolt
Civilisations Institution Motto Senate

Known as one of the greatest _____________, Rome is based and founded in the city of Rome. Founded
on the banks of the river _________, on the Italian ___________, and near the _________________ sea meant
that it enjoyed a _____________ position).
By the time of its foundation in ___________, _______________ in the centre and north, the Latins were in the
____________ and the _______________ in the south and in Sicily.
The first period of Roman history was the _______________, in which the government was concentrated in a
_______________. It is a very important period in Roman history because it was the period of
________________ of Rome’s political and legal systems, so the ______________ and the laws –the
____________________- were created.
The king was given ____________ power over the government, which meant ___________ and
____________ affairs. Also, he had ____________ power and he was the head of the army. There were _____
kings, four of them being _______ and 3 __________ (during the ______ century).
In ________ , _________ the Proud, an ___________ king, was expelled caused by a _________. The
______ and the _____________ also known as _____ were established during the period of _________ of the
Roman political and ________ systems. During this period, Roman __________ were only around the city in the
region called ________________.
After the Monarchy a new political system was created, which lasted until 27 BCE. A __________ is a
system of government in which __________ is held by a person or group of people _________ for a ________
period. In Rome the _____________ was SPQR or Senatus populusque Romanus, and it means that the power
was in the hands of the ____________ and that the main political _______________ was the Senate.

61
 5. Draw a table like this one in your notebook and complete it with the information of the unit.
Remember that some of the gaps may not have an answer.

Dates
Who held power?
Main political
institutions. What was
the role of the Senate
Territorial expansion
Characteristics

6. Fill the gaps:

The Roman Empire started in _____ BCE after the civil war between ______________, Mark Anthony
and Lepidus after the assassination of _______________________ in 44 BCE and the collapse of the Second
Triumvirate. Mark Anthony, who looked for help in ______________, the other remaining Mediterranean
power, was defeated in the battle of Actium in 31 BCE, and his suicide marked the end of the internal conflict.
Therefore, the political system of the _____________________ that had governed Rome since the expulsion of
the ____________ Tarquin the Proud in 509 BCE due to his accumulation of power, found its end.
The most important political institution of Rome, the _____________, gave the victorious leader the
title of Princeps, and he changed his name to Caesar ___________________. He was therefore the first
________________ of Rome, accumulating all powers: _________________ (legislation, foreign affairs, head
of the Senate, etc.), __________________ (head of the army) and _____________________ (pontifex
maximus). In addition to that, he held power for ___________ (unlike the consuls) and he could elect his
successors.
The period of the Empire was divided into two stages: the _____________ Roman Empire (from the 1st
to the 3rd century AD) and the ______________ Roman Empire (4th and 5th centuries). While the first of them
was the period of __________________, the second one was characterised by a situation of __________. The
main characteristics of the period from the 1st to the 3rd centuries were:
 the ____________________________________, which reached its peak in 117 AD, when Trajan
conquered Dacia, with an empire around the __________________________ Sea, which included
territories in _________________, __________________ and Asia.
 _____________________, that is, a period of peace and stability and control of the territories.
 The process of _______________________, which consisted in the assimilation of the conquered
peoples into the Roman political, social, economic and cultural way of life.

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 VIDEO – CHRISTIANITY FROM JUDAISM TO CONSTANTINE: CRASH
COURSE WORLD HISTORY #11
1. Why does JG say that being the ‘son of god’ was not extremely unusual when Jesus was born?
2. How is Christianity?
3. What is a covenant? Why are the Jews considered ‘the chosen people’?
4. Why is the god of the Jews considered ‘deeply personal’?
5. What was the message of Jesus of Nazareth about?
6. Why did the Romans crucify Jesus?
7. What did Augustus and Jesus had in common?
8. -What did Emperor Constantine do?

REVISE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Draw a table like this one (with as many rows as you need) in your notebook and complete it with the
information of the unit.

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 UNIT 5
THE IBERIAN PENINSULA
DURING THE PREHISTORY
AND THE ANCIENT AGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. THE PREHISTORY IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA.

2. PRE-ROMAN PEOPLES:
3. THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF HISPANIA.
4. ROMANISATION: SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CITIES.
5. ROMAN CULTURE AND ART IN HISPANIA.
6. THE GERMANIC PEOPLES AND THE VISIGOTHS

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 This unit will be studied with group projects. Each group (5-6 people) will take one of the given topics and
prepare a presentation to be delivered in front of your class. In addition to this, each group will be responsible
for creating a multiple-choice test for testing your classmates.
The topics are the sections in the table of contents (and described after the instructions).

Instructions for the presentation:

- It must be done in a digital format (PowerPoint presentation, Piktochart, Prezi, etc.).
- The presentation will last for about 10 minutes. Do not make too long or too short.
- There is no limit of slides.
- Each slide must contain a maximum of ten (10) words. Therefore, include only the most important
information in each one (but again, no limit of slides. Use as many as needed).
- Include maps, graphs, images, etc. Be careful when using images! Use high-resolution images, and do not
distort them. Information about these issues is available on the blog.
- The last slide must contain a bibliography with the resources (books and websites) you have used.
- What will the teacher take into account? Consider that the presentation will be graded even days after the
presentation in the classroom, so make sure to include all the necessary information in it.
- Aesthetics, presentation and order.
- Creativity.
- Use of English.
- Quality of the information and its use.

Instructions for the oral presentation in the classroom:

- Around 10 minutes maximum.
- All members of the group should participate, so, organise properly.
- Do not read the presentation, look at the audience, move your hands, do not stay rigid, speak at a high
volume, pronounce the best you can, etc. The system for grading the presentation is also found in the
blog for prior knowledge of the assessed elements
- You will be required to be able to communicate orally the necessary elements of the project,
commenting maps and graphs.

Instructions for the test:

In addition to the presentation, there will be an extra five minutes for completing a test about the
presentation.
- Elaborated and corrected by each group. The grades will be communicated to the teacher.
- The elaboration and the answer to the other tests will be taken into account in the final grade of the
project.
- It should include 10 multiple-choice questions, consisting of as many aspects of the presentation as
possible.
- Try organising the answers like this:
o the right answer.
o one that is close but not true.
o one related with the topic but clearly wrong.
o one which does not make sense.
- Try asking general questions about the presentation, not about specific dates, names or quantities.
- There will be a sample in the blog for you to complete.

ALL PRESENTATIONS MUST BE SENT TO MY E-MAIL ACCOUNT (jaimealonsoedu@gmail.com) BEFORE THE

PRESENTATION FOR THEIR ASSESSMENT.
The test should be sent at least two days in advance, so the teacher can print it out.

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The final grade of the project will be divided as follows:

ELEMENT TO GRADE VALUE WHO RECEIVES THIS GRADE

Product (Presentation) 50 % Group
Oral presentation 30 % Individual
Elaboration of the test 7% Group
Scores in other tests 13 % Individual

TOPICS FOR THE PROJECT

1. The Prehistory in the Iberian Peninsula.
1.1. The Palaeolithic period.
1.1.1.The archaeological site of Atapuerca.
1.1.2.Upper Palaeolithic: cave paintings in the Cornisa Cantábrica.
1.2. The Neolithic period: the Cardial cuture (Caardium culture).
1.3. The Age of Metals in the Iberian Peninsula.
1.3.1.Copper Age: cultura campaniforme and Los Millares.
1.3.2.Bronze Age: El Argar and Talayotic culture.
2. Pre-Roman peoples:
2.1. Tartessos.
2.2. The Celts.
2.3. The Iberians.
2.4. Greek, Phoenician and Carthaginian colonisations.
3. The Roman conquest of Hispania.
3.1. The Second Punic War in the Iberian Peninsula.
3.2. The Lusitanian War.
3.3. The Celtiberian Wars. Numantia.
3.4. The Cantabrian Wars.
4. Romanisation: society, economy and cities.
4.1. Political organisation of Hispania: provinces during the Republic, the High Roman Empire and the Lower
Roman Empire.
4.2. Urban life under Rome: the foundation of cities in Hispania.
4.3. Hispanic society.
4.4. Economy in Roman Hispania.
4.5. Roman language, literature and culture in Hispania.
5. Roman culture and art in Hispania.
5.1. Main Roman archaeological sites in the Iberian Peninsula.
5.2. Architecture: typologies and examples.
5.3. Roman sculpture, painting and mosaics at the Museo Nacional de Arte Romano (Mérida) and the Museo
Arqueológico Nacional (Madrid).
6. The Germanic peoples and the Visigoths
6.1. Suebis, Vandals and Alans in the Iberian Peninsula.
6.2. The Visigoths: the Kingdom of Toulouse and the kingdom of Toledo.
6.3. Political organisation of the Visigoths.
6.4. Society, economy, culture and religion.
6.5. Visigoth architecture and art.

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- 67 -
 UNIT 6
PLANET EARTH AND ITS
REPRESENTATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
2. THE EARTH’S MOVEMENTS
2.1. Rotation
2.2. The revolution of the Earth: seasons of the year
3. GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES
3.1. Parallels: lines of latitude
3.2. Meridians: lines of longitude
4. THE REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH
4.1. Map projections
4.2. Maps and their elements
4.3. Scales in maps and plans
5. TIME ZONES

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Universe  Millions of galaxies  Milky Way (Millions of stars)  Solar system (Sun + 8 planets + asteroids +
comets + satellites)
8 planets  They orbit (circular paths) around the Sun.
Mercury – Venus – Earth – Mars – Jupiter – Saturn – Uranus – Neptune.
Asteroids  Small bodies of rock and metal orbiting the Sun.
Satellites  Bodies that orbit a planet (ie. the Moon)
Comets  Small body made out of dust, ice and rocks.

Rotation: Movement of the Earth

On its imaginary axis (imaginary line from pole to pole)
It takes 24 hours.
Consequences  Days and nights.
 Time zones.
 Apparent movement of the Sun (Sunrise and sunset).

Revolution: Movement of the Earth

Around the Sun
It takes 365 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes  Leap year.
Consequences  Seasons.

The Earth also tilts, which means that its axis inclines from the orbital plane (the axis of the Earth completely
perpendicular -90º of inclination- to the Sun’s rays) until reaching 23,5º each pole.
When the Earth is on its orbital plane, there are the equinoxes, and when it reaches its maximum tilting
there are the solstices.
- Equinox  Daylight = night  12 hours of day, 12 hours of night.
o Autumn: 21st of September.
o Spring: 21st of March.
- Solstices  Shortest and longest daylight of the year.
o Winter: 21st of December  Shortest day in the northern hemisphere (longest day in the
southern hemisphere).
o Summer: 21st of June  Longest day in the northern hemisphere (shortest day in the southern
hemisphere)

The revolution and the tilting cause the seasons, which depend on the different amounts of heat and
sunlight in each area. The seasons are opposite depending on hemispheres:
If North  Winter  South  Summer If North  Autumn  South  Spring
If North  Summer  South  Winter If North  Spring  South  Autumn

In the northern hemisphere:

Winter  21st December – 21st March. Summer  21st June – 21st September.
Spring  21st March – 21st June. Autumn  21st September – 21st December.

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We can give the exact location of any place on the Earth using geographical coordinates, that is, a system based
on dividing the Earth with imaginary lines which are called parallels and meridians which help us measuring the
latitude and longitude.

This system uses angular distances, and therefore the SEXAGESIMAL FORMAT (on base 60), because we take
the premise of the Earth as sphere, so it is divisible into 360º. One degree is 60 minutes (60’); one minute is 60
seconds (60”).

Earth  Divided in parallel lines from North to South. There are 180º because it is only half a sphere.
Centre  Equator (Parallel 0º)
To the North  Northern hemisphere  Latitude North: from 0º (Equator) to 90º (North Pole).
To the South  Southern hemisphere  Latitude South: from 0º (Equator) to 90º (South Pole).
Tropics  Cancer (N) and Capricorn (S)  23º 27’ (in one of the solstices, 90º inclination towards
sunrays).
Polar circles  Arctic (N) and Antarctic (S)  66º 33’ (in the solstices, or no sun or 24 hours of
Sun)

LATITUDE  Angular distance between any point of the Earth and the Equator. It is measured in degrees, and
it ranges from 0º (Equator) to 90º north or south (Poles).

Earth  Divided in lines from pole to pole  Meridians. 360º (Complete sphere)
Centre  Greenwich meridian (Meridian 0º)
To the East  Eastern hemisphere (180º East).
To the West  Western hemisphere (180º West).

LONGITUDE  Angular distance between any point of the Earth and the Greenwich Meridian. It is measured in
degrees, and it ranges from 0º (Greenwich Meridian) to 180º east or west.

Cartography is the science in charge of studying and making maps.

Since the Earth is not flat –in two dimensions- but a sphere –in three dimensions-, cartographers need map
projections in order to be able to represent our planet from its three-dimensional reality to a two-dimension
image.

There are three main types of map projections (but there are many more), and we have to take into account
that all of them distort either the shape, the area or the distances we find in reality.
 Cylindrical projection. In these projections, the Earth is surrounded by a cylinder where it projects its
details. The most important types are the Mercator and the Gall-Peters projections. They are very used
for representing the entire world.

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  Conical projection. In these, the globe is projected onto a cone. They are very useful for medium
latitudes (between the tropics and the polar circles), and we recognise them because the parallels are
concentric circles and the meridians converging straight lines.

 Planar projection. The globe is projected onto a flat surface. We identify this type because they are
mostly used for the poles.

A map is a two-dimensional (flat) representation of the Earth’s surface or a part of it.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MAP:

- TITLE  It indicates what the map is about.
- ARROW  Pointing North.
- SCALE  How many times an area has been reduced.
- CONVENTIONAL SIGNS  The elements that appear in the map. Symbols or colours.
o Meaning  In the KEY
TYPES OF MAPS:

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 - Physical maps.
o Topographic maps: They show physical (rivers, mountains, forests, etc.) and human (cities, roads,
etc.) features in great detail.
- Thematic maps: They can be about any topic, but the most common are about:
o Climates. o Historical events or periods.
o Political (countries, regions, etc.) o Relief.
o Economy. o Roads
o Population.

Street maps represent smaller areas than other maps, such as cities and towns.

The scale in a map is the ratio (proportion) between the size of an area represented on a map and the real size
of the area. It can be expressed in two ways:
o Numerical scale: using a fraction, in which the numerator is the unit of size on the map and the
denominator shows the equivalent units in real size. There are expressed as follows: 1:50.000. It
is important to remember that in this type of scale the same unit of distance is used in both the
numerator and denominator (that is, if we speak about centimetres in the map, the denominator
is also expressed in centimetres).
o Graphic scale: line divided into segments, like a ruler.

Time zones are a consequence of the rotation movement. Since the Earth spins on its axis every 24 hours, light
changes depending on the place, and therefore the time of the day.
Since the Equator is a circumference we can divide it into 360º.
Since the day has 24 hours, we divide the sphere (360) and the hours (24).
Each time zone, therefore, is 15º.
The reference for the time zones is the division of the Earth into meridians, so the starting point is the Greenwich
meridian. The first time zone is called GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), and it goes from 7,5º W to 7,5º E.
Hours change as follows:
o To the west, we subtract one hour every time zone.
o To the east, we add one hour every time zone.

GLOSSARY
Rotation Meridians Time zones
Revolution Longitude Map projections
Solstice Latitude Cylindrical projection
Equinox Scale
Parallels Map

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 EXERCISES
1. Complete the table.

ROTATION REVOLUTION TILTING

IT CONSIST ON

DURATION

CONSEQUENCES

2. Link the columns.

a. Parallels 1. Imaginary semi-circles drawn from pole to pole.

b. Equator 2. They cross and form a grid which allows us to locate any point of the
c. Longitude surface of the Earth.
d. Meridians 3. 0º to 90º, North and South
e. Latitude 4. Parallel 0º.
f. Parallels and meridians 5. Imaginary circles from perpendicular to the Earth’s axis.
g. On a globe we can draw 6. Infinite meridians and parallels.
7. 0º to 180º, East and West.

3. Link the columns.

a. 21st - 22nd December 1. Autumn equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.

b. 21 September 2. Autumn equinox in the Southern Hemisphere.
c. 20th – 21st June 3. Winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.
d. 21st March 4. Winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.

4. Fill the boxes with the names of the imaginary lines of the Earth.

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5. Geographical coordinates: specify the geographical coordinates of the following points.

1. ………………………….-…………………………. 6. ………………………….-………………………….
2. ………………………….-…………………………. 7. ………………………….-………………………….
3. ………………………….-…………………………. 8. ………………………….-………………………….
4. ………………………….-…………………………. 9. ………………………….-………………………….
5. ………………………….-…………………………. 10. ………………………….-………………………….

6. Geographical coordinates: locate the following coordinates in the map.

1. 80º S - 140º W 3. 10º N - 80º W 5. 30º S - 120º E
2. 60º N - 20º E 4. 0º - 100º E 6. 30º N - 80ºW

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7. Geographical coordinates: give the coordinates of the four points of the map.

A. ……………….-………………. C. ……………….-……………….

B. ……………….-………………. D. ……………….-……………….

8. Complete the table describing the meridians and parallels for each type of projection map.

MERIDIANS PARALLELS

CYLINDRICAL

CONICAL

PLANAR

9. Time zones: if it is 16:00 hours in London on 17 th May, what is the time and the season of the places
located in the map?
TIME SEASON TIME SEASON
A E
B F
C G
D H

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 10. Use Google Maps to find the geographical coordinates of a place: a GPS (Global Positioning System)
uses geographical coordinates to find the exact place in which we are. For learning how to obtain
coordinates, go to Google Maps, look for your home address and copy the coordinates.
a. Look for the place you want in the search box.
b. Click on the red thing with the right button of the mouse.
c. Check ‘What’s here?’ (‘¿Qué hay aquí?’)
d. There should be a set of numbers at the bottom, with a picture and the address. Click on the
numbers.
e. The coordinates will appear in the left of the page.
Complete the coordinates of the following places, and specify where they are (ie. The Parthenon, Athens,
Greece - 37°58'18.2"N 23°43'36.3"E)
Your home:
The town where you go on holidays:
A place you want to visit in Europe:
A place you want to visit in America:
One monument or work of art you would like to see:

11. The following cities match with the coordinates at the bottom of the image. Link the cities and their
coordinates.

1. 56º N - 37º E: 11. 52º N - 0º W:

2. 2º S - 29º E: 12. 40º N - 74º W:
3. 15º N - 17ºW: 13. 50º N - 97º W:
4. 67º N - 162º W: 14. 19º N - 99º W:
5. 17º S - 149º E: 15. 39º N - 116º E:
6. 54º S - 68º W: 16. 28º N - 77º E:
7. 34º S - 152º E: 17. 48º N - 3º E:
8. 30º N - 31º E: 18. 41º N - 4º W:
9. 0º - 79º W: 19. 18º S - 47º E:
10. 16º S - 48º W: 20. 16º S - 167º W:
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12. Name the elements of the map and explain their function.

13. Work with scales:

a. In a map with a 1:50.000 scale, the distance between two towns is 11 cms. What is the real
distance?
b. In the same map, if another two towns are 4 kms. away, what is their distance in the map?
c. The distance between Madrid and Burgos is 243 kms. How many centimetres separate them in
a 1:2.500.000 map?
d. In the same 1:2.500.000 map, how far are two cities 10 cms. apart?
e. In a 1:400.000 map, how many centimetres are 5 kms?
f. How many kilometres are 4 cms. in a 1:50.000 map?

14. Explain the differences between the following terms in a paragraph:

a. Latitude and longitude.
b. Rotation and revolution.

15. Write true (T) or false (F) and correct the false statements in your notebook:
a. Latitude can be east or west.
b. The Equator is at meridian 0º.
c. The Tropic of Cancer is in the Northern Hemisphere.
d. The scale is the ratio between the distance or surface shown on a map and the distance in reality.
e. When it’s summer in Spain it is winter in China.
f. All of Spain is at longitude west.
g. South America and Africa cover both hemispheres; north and south.
h. In a cylindrical projection, the globe is projected onto a cone.

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 UNIT 7
WHAT IS THE EARTH MADE
OF? LITHOSPHERE AND
HYDROSPHERE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
2. THE FORMATION OF THE RELIEF: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES
2.1. Internal forces: tectonic plates and their movements
2.2. External forces of the Earth: the shaping of the relief.
3. ELEMENTS OF THE RELIEF
3.1. Continental landforms
3.2. Coastal landforms
3.3. Submarine relief
4. THE HYDROSPHERE: WATER ON EARTH
4.1. Marine waters: oceans and seas
4.2. Fresh waters: continental waters
5. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND PROBLEMS RELATED WITH WATER
5.1. Geological hazards
5.2. Problems related with water

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 Earth  Large sphere divided into three large sections:
 Internal structure of the Earth:
o Core: deepest part. Part solid, part liquid.
o Mantle: around the core. Magma (molten rock).
o Crust: Outer layer of the Earth. Solid rock.
When thicker  Continents.
When thinner  under the oceans.
Shapes  RELIEF.
 External layers of the Earth:
o Lithosphere: solid, rocky layer. Formed by the crust and the upper mantle.
o Hydrosphere: water, mostly liquid.
o Atmosphere: gas.

Relief: It is in constant change because of the effects of both internal and external forces  Internal 
Pressure in the Earth’s mantle  Tectonic plates.
External  Wind, water, temperatures and humans.
It can be inside the continents, in the coasts of the oceans and seas and under the water.

200 million years ago  Pangea

Single continent.
Because of the internal forces  Division into tectonic plates.
Massive pieces of the Earth’s crust which move extremely slowly (collision, separation and sliding).
When one rises  Mountain range.
When one sinks  Oceanic trench.
Their movement produce seismic activity (earthquakes, volcanoes).
Interior of the Earth  gasses, compressed materials (ie. magma)  Pressure on the crust  the pressures
may deform or crack the crust, changing the relief.

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Some of these tectonic plates formed the continents (def. enormous landmasses separated by oceans).
 Asia: largest continent of the Earth. Surrounded by:
o North  Arctic Ocean. o East  Pacific Ocean.
o South  Indian Ocean. o West  Europe and Africa.
 America: 2 largest. Longest continent from north to south.
nd

o Between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Arctic Ocean in the north, and Antarctic in the south.
o Divided in three subcontinents: North America, Isthmus of Central America and South America.
 Africa: surrounded by:
o North  Mediterranean Sea. o East  Indian Ocean and Asia.
o South  Antarctic Ocean. o West  Atlantic Ocean.
 Antarctica:
o Southern part of the Earth.
 Surrounded by the Antarctic Ocean, the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans.
 Europe: Western part of the Eurasian plate. Surrounded by:
o North  Arctic Ocean. o East  Asia (Ural Mountains,
o South  Mediterranean Sea. Caspian Sea, Caucasus and Black
o West  Atlantic Ocean. Sea).
 Oceania:
o Around 10 thousand islands in the Pacific Ocean.
o Four areas: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.

The continuous effect of water, wind and humans change the relief.

Main external agent acting on the relief.

Different types of effects:
 Weathering  Water can penetrate in rocks, and then can break them.
 Erosion  When water carry away materials.
Examples: rains, rivers, ocean currents, tides and glaciers  Valleys, ravines (ramblas), cliffs,
glacier valleys, etc.
 Sedimentation  Deposits of material brought by the water (by rivers, seas, etc.)
Examples: deltas, plains, beaches, etc.
 Dissolution  Karst.

Erosion (small particles: sand and dust) and sedimentation. Mostly in dry areas.
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 Due to technology we are able to modify the relief: breaking up mountains, making beaches, modifying
the course of rivers, etc.

Mostly formed by the combination of internal forces and continental waters, rain and wind.
 Mountains  Landform which consist in an elevation of the terrain, many times ending in a peak.
 Hills  Low elevation of the terrain.
 Mountain ranges  Continuous chain of mountains.
 Valleys  Long depression in the land between two elevations of the terrain. They can be formed by
rivers (V-shaped) or glaciers (U-shaped).
 Depressions (basins)  Terrain lower than the surrounding area. They may contain lakes.
 Plateaus  Elevation of flat terrain (higher than 300 metres of altitude).
 Plains  Large, open area of flat land.

Mostly formed by the action of marine waters and the land.

 Island  Piece of land completely surrounded by water.
 Archipelago  Group of related islands.
 Peninsula  Piece of land surrounded by water except on one part, connected to the land by an
isthmus.
 Isthmus  Piece of land which joins a peninsula and the land.
 Gulf  Area of sea surrounded by sea on three sides. A bay is a small gulf.
 Cape  Entrance of land in the sea.
 Cliff  Vertical wall at the edge of the land, mostly formed by the action of the sea.
 Delta  Accumulation of sediments of a river into the sea. Generally, triangular shape.
 Estuary  Part of the sea that enters into the end of a river. If created by glaciers, fjords.
 Beach  Accumulation of sand, gravel or small stones on low areas of the coast caused by the
sedimentation of materials brought by the sea.

 Continental shelf  undersea extension of a continent.

 Continental slope  Steep area underwater linking the continental shelf and the ocean floor.
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  Abyssal plain  Flat area of the ocean floor.
 Oceanic ridge  underwater mountain range.
 Oceanic trench  Long depression on the ocean floor.

Most of the water of the Earth (about 97 %). Found in oceans and seas.
Oceans: large masses of salty water separating continents. They cover about two-thirds of the Earth’s
surface. There are five oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic.
Seas: smaller masses of salty water, completely or partially enclosed (and therefore less subjected to
currents). They are extensions of the oceans in the areas close to the continents.
Marine waters experience the following:
 Waves: undulated movement of the water caused by the pressure of wind on its surface.
 Tides: periodic changes in the level of the water caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and
the Moon.
 Currents: circular patterns or hot or cold waters in movements. They have a great effect on the
climate of the different places of the world.

Only a 3 % of the water of the Earth. Most of it is concentrated in solid form (glaciers and ice caps in the poles)
or underground.
It can be found:
 Liquid: rivers, lakes and underground deposits.
- River: continuous current of fresh water.
- Lake: inland bodies of still water.
 Solid: glaciers and icebergs.
- Glaciers: large bodies of ice that cover polar regions and some mountain summits.
 Gas: in the atmosphere.

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Related with the movements of the plate tectonics and the pressure of gasses to the crust.
 Earthquakes
o Result of seismic waves, or vibrations caused by the movement of tectonic plates.
- Waves  Spread in all directions (concentrically)
- As they happen, the land shakes  Devastating effects.
 Volcanoes
o A crack in the crust reaches an area of magma (molten rock), and because of the pressures of the
interior of the Earth, the magma is brought to the surface of the Earth.
- Crater  Where the magma comes out (lava)
- Cone  Formed by the solidification of materials from eruptions (gasses, ashes, rocks and lava).
They may form mountains and islands.

Water is of the utmost importance for life in the planet, and for humans in particular. Oceans, seas, rivers and
lakes have been an essential factor to human development and history. The waters have been used for all sorts
of economic activities, from their use for irrigation in agriculture to their importance for tourism. Among the
main uses of both marine and fresh waters for humanity we find:
 Agriculture.  Mining (salt, for example).  Sports.
 Fishing.  Energy production.
 Navigation.  Leisure (tourism).
There are certain problems associated with water: its scarcity, its excess and its pollution.
 Scarcity: it occurs when there is little precipitation or when humans overuse the available water.
 Flood disasters: mostly when unexpected, they can be very dangerous.
 Pollution: the misuse of water resources, combined with the spills of different sort of elements
may alter the biosphere and even be toxic.

GLOSSARY
Lithosphere Mountain Oceans
Tectonic plates Coastal landforms Seas
Relief Island Fresh waters
Continents Peninsula Earthquake
Erosion Submarine relief Volcano
Sedimentation Hydrosphere
Continental landforms Marine waters

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 VIDEO – FOUR SPHERES: CRASH COURSE KIDS #6.1 AND #6.2
1. Name the four spheres.
2. Where does the word geosphere come from? What does it mean? Name some words that use the
root word “geo”?
3. Name three items that are a part of the geosphere.
4. What is the hydrosphere made out of?
5. Name three items that are part of the hydrosphere.
6. What is the atmosphere made out of?
7. How many layers are in the atmosphere?
8. What layer contains 80% of the air on our planet?
9. What is the biggest part of the hydrosphere?
10. Are the clouds and the wind part of the atmosphere or the hydrosphere?

REVISE
1. Make a drawing of the Earth in your notebook for seeing the different internal elements of its
structure, and explain them.

2. Match each landform with its corresponding type of relief.

CONTINENTAL RELIEF COASTAL RELIEF SUBMARINE RELIEF

Abyssal plain. Depressions. Oceanic ridge.

Archipelago. Estuary. Oceanic trench.
Beach. Gulf. Peninsula.
Cape. Hills Plains.
Cliff. Island. Plateaus.
Continental shelf. Isthmus. Valleys.
Continental slope. Mountain ranges.
Delta Mountains

3. Identify the landforms in the following image, and describe them in your notebook.

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4. Identify the landforms in the following image, and describe them in your notebook.

5. Identify the landforms in the following image, and describe them in your notebook.

6. Explain the similarities and differences between the following terms in a paragraph
a. Lithosphere and hydrosphere:
b. Earthquakes and volcanos:
c. Seas and oceans:
d. Mountains and depressions:
e. Gulfs and bays:
f. Internal and external forces that modify the relief:

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 UNIT 8
THE ATMOSPHERE:
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE WEATHER AND THE CLIMATE
1.1. Atmosphere: an essential layer for life on Earth
1.2. Climate and weather
1.3. Factors that affect climate
2. ELEMENTS OF THE CLIMATE AND THE WEATHER
2.1. Temperature: solar radiation and atmospheric temperature
2.2. Air humidity Internal forces: tectonic plates and their movements
2.3. Precipitation
2.4. Atmospheric pressure
2.5. Wind
3. THE CLIMATES OF THE EARTH
3.1. The landscapes of warm climates
3.2. The temperate climates
3.3. The cold landscapes

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 Atmosphere  Atmos (vapour, gas)
Layer of gas (air) that surrounds the Earth.
Weather and climates are formed because of the atmosphere (Troposphere  Closer to the Earth)
It regulates our planet's temperature  it creates air currents  currents prevents overheating during
the day and becoming too cold at night.

Weather: state of the atmosphere in a specific place and time.

Affected by measurable elements of the atmosphere: air temperature, humidity, precipitation,
wind and atmospheric pressure.

Climate: average state of the atmosphere (or atmospheric conditions) in a given place through a long period of
time (25-30 years).
Take into account: elements of the atmosphere + factors that modify them.
Factors: agents which influence the climate and modify its elements
- Latitude (distance to the equator and poles)
- Land relief
- Distance from the sea

Distance from the Equator

Insolation (amount of solar radiation) depends on the latitude  Because of the tilting of the Earth.
Equator  Very direct angle
As you go towards the poles  less direct angle.
Latitude determines climate zones:
 Tropical zone  between the Tropics.
 High temperatures all year long (higher than 20º average).
 Temperate zones  between the tropics and the polar circles.
 Temperature varies depending on the season (between 0º and 20º).
 Polar zones  Inside the Northern and Southern polar circles.
 Low and very low temperatures all year (lower than 0º).

Height of a place on Earth relative to the sea level.

Temperature drops if we go higher.

The seas make the temperatures to be milder  Seas and oceans regulate temperatures.
The further you go from the sea, the temperatures become more severe.

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Air temperature: heating of the temperature as result of solar radiation.
- It depends on solar radiation  Sun emits light and heat (energy)  Earth  Heat  Air.
- Measured with THERMOMETERS  Celsius degrees (degrees centigrade).

Air humidity: water vapour in the air, which comes from evaporation from the hydrosphere.
Measured with HYGROMETERS  Percentage of saturation of water in the air.

Precipitation: condensation of water vapour of the atmosphere, in the clouds.

- Types of precipitation:
o Rain
o Hail
o Fog
o Snow
o Dew (rocío)
o Frost (escarcha)
- Measured with a RAIN GAUGE (PLUVIOMETER)  mm (1 mm = 1 litre over 1 sq. metre)

Orographic precipitation  when humid air meets an obstacle (mountain range), it rises, cools and saturates,
causing precipitation.

Average annual rainfall:

- Very wet: over 1000 mm a year.
- Wet: 500-1000 mm.
- Dry: 250-500 mm.
- Arid or desert: less than 250 mm.

Atmospheric pressure: force of the air on the surface of the ground.

- It depends on:
o Altitude (less if higher)
o Air temperature (hot air is low pressure; cold is high)
o Powerful air currents
- Measured with a BAROMETER

Wind: moving air masses caused when two places have different atmospheric pressures.
- From high-pressure areas (dense, cold air) to low-pressure areas (light, warm air).
- Measured with an ANEMOMETER (for speed) and a WEATHER VANE (for direction).

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Between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Their average temperature is above 20º.
: No seasonality. Very high precipitation (over 1500-2000 mm per year) and
temperatures throughout the year. Near the Equator. Vegetation: jungle.
Vey high temperatures all year long, but two seasons: one dry (summer) and one wet
(winter). Precipitation: 750-1500 mm per year. Surrounding the Equatorial climate. Vegetation: tropical
forests in humid areas and savannah (grasslands) in drier areas.
: around the Tropics. High average temperatures, but sharp differences between day
and night. Very scarce precipitation (less than 150 mm). Vegetation: sparse, mostly Carctuses and
bushes with capacity for Storing water inside and spines outside.

Between the Tropics and the Polar circles (30º-60º North and South).
Average temperatures between 0º and 20º. There is seasonality, with important differences between summer
and winter.
between 45º and 65º of latitude, on the coasts of continents. Mild temperatures
because of the influence of the sea. Not very cold winters (not below -3º C) and cool summers. Abundant
and regular precipitation (around 800 mm a year). Vegetation: deciduous forest (oak, beech), heathland
and shrubs and meadows.
between 30º and 45º. warm summers and cool winters, with No great variation
of temperatures. Moderate and irregular precipitation (300-800 mm), with a very dry summer and
torrential storms in spring and autumn (gota fría). Vegetation: mostly everygreen forests (cork and pine)
and bushes (rockrose, thyme and rosemary).
: in the interior of the continents in the northern hemisphere. Temperatures vary
greatly, with very cold winters (below -3º C) and warm summers. Precipitations are moderate (300-800
mm), and fall mostly in the summer. During the winter there are intense cold spells with snow. The
vegetation depends on the latitude: in the southern parts prairies of high grasses and steppes are found,
while the northern areas are covered by the taiga of conifer forests (pines and firs).

: Between the polar circles and the poles. Temperatures are very low, never over 10º.
Precipitations are scarce (less than 250-300 mm), and mostly in the form of snow, so they are considered
cold or frozen deserts. There is little vegetation, mostly Arctic prairie in the tundra with small evergreen
plants (Mosses, lichens, etc.) and nothing in the ice sheets.
: It can be found in any latitude, since it depends on the altitude. Therefore,
it requires altitudes where the average temperature is 10º C or less, generally with very cold winters (0º)
and cool summers. Precipitation is abundant (over 1000 mm), with snow in the winter. The vegetation
depends on the altitude: first forest, then brushes, meadows, mosses and lichens, and last permanent
snow and rocks.

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 GLOSSARY
Atmosphere Atmospheric pressure Mediterranean climate
Weather Wind Continental climate
Climate Equatorial climate Polar climate
Air temperature Tropical climate Alpine climate
Air humidity Hot desert climate
Precipitation Oceanic climate

VIDEO – HOW DOES THE CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

1. How does heat in the atmosphere affect climate?
2. How does the Earth’s surface lose its heat?
3. What is the effect of greenhouse gases? Why do you think they are called this way? Why is the increase
of greenhouse gasses dangerous?
4. What is the main function of heat?
5. Is heat from the Sun received exclusively in a direct way? Justify your answer.
6. Easy one… why does warm air goes up in the atmosphere and the cooler goes down?
7. If climate change continues… what would the effects on the oceans be?
8. Why is the temperature in London (51º N) warmer than in Newfoundland (48º N)?

EXERCISES
1. Copy the tables in the notebook and complete them.
WARM CLIMATES
Location: Characteristics
PRECIPITATIONS SEASONALITY GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS
EQUATORIAL
TROPICAL
HOT DESERT

TEMPERATE CLIMATES
Location: Characteristics
PRECIPITATIONS SEASONALITY GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS
OCEANIC
MEDITERRANEAN
CONTINENTAL

COLD CLIMATES
Location: Characteristics
PRECIPITATIONS SEASONALITY GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS
POLAR
ALPINE

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2. Match the following characteristic with the corresponding climate.
Summer drought
Winter rains Continental
Wide temperatures range Polar
Rains all year Equatorial
Temperatures below 0º Tropical
Snow almost all year
Mediterranean
Mild temperatures
Very dry

3. Identify the climates of the following landscapes, and explain your answer.
A B

C D

E F

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 ELABORATE A CLIMOGRAPH
Climographs are very useful for having information about the climate of a particular place. Follow the
instructions for drawing your own climograph with the following data.
1. Use a page with squares for drawing the climograph.
2. Draw a horizontal axis to be divided into 12 months.
3. Label the months with the initial letter.
4. Draw, from the sides of the horizontal axis, perpendicular lines.
5. Divide the perpendicular lines with the same length of each month.
6. The left axis will be used for temperatures (in degrees), and the right one for precipitation (in mm).
7. Mark the temperatures on the axis of the left. Each division is 5º C, and from that axis you will represent
the temperature of each month.
8. Each space of the right side should be the double amount than in the right. Therefore, the first division
(from the bottom to the first mark) is 10 mm, then 15 mmm, etc. Use blue colour, since you will measure
precipitations from there.
9. With the data of the precipitations, draw the bars for each month.
10. Now, draw a red dot in the centre of each month for the temperatures, and then connect all the dots
with a red line.

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Average temperatures 6 7 11 12 16 22 25 25 20 15 10 7
Total precipitation 33 35 25 45 50 21 12 10 22 60 58 51

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- 93 -
 UNIT 9
THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT OF EUROPE
AND SPAIN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE
1.1. The relief and the hydrosphere of Europe
1.2. Climates and landscapes in Europe
2. SPAIN: THE PHYSICAL MAP
2.1. Relief and waters
2.2. Climates and landscapes

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 Europe is the second smallest continent in the world. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains,
the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea. To the west there is the Atlantic Ocean, to the south the
Mediterranean Sea, and to the North the Arctic Ocean.
Europe is the continent with the lowest average altitude (<300 metres), but it nonetheless has a large
number of mountains and rivers. The reasons for this are the low altitudes of these mountain ranges and the
huge size of its lowlands.
1) Eastern Europe: It extends between the Carpathians and the Ural Mountains from west to east, the
Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus (mount Elruz is the highest peak of Europe,
at 5600 metres) and the Black Sea to the south. It is a great plain with long and voluminous rivers and
lakes, such as the Ural, the Volga (the longest in Europe), the Don, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Vistula,
the Oder or the Lakes Ladoga (the largest in this continent) and Onega in Russia.
2) Central and Western Europe: These regions are much more rugged, with many mountain ranges and
numerous, but shorter, rivers.
a. In the north, we find the Scandinavian Mountains with abundant glaciers and fjords, and the
Grampian Mountains (in Great Britain).
b. In the centre, there are the elevations and mountain ranges of the French Massif Central, the
Alps (Mount Blanc at 4800 metres) and the Carpathians.
c. In the south, there are the Spanish mountain ranges, the Apennines, the Dinaric Alps and the
Balkan Peninsula.
The most important rivers are:
o Finishing in the Black Sea: Danube.
o Finishing in the Atlantic Ocean: Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Loire, Thames, Duero, Tajo, Guadiana and
Guadalquivir.
o Finishing in the Mediterranean Sea: Ebro, Rhone, Po and Tiber.
The most important lakes are the Vänern (Sweden), the Balaton (Hungary) and the Leman (Switzerland
and France)

VEGETATION
REGION TEMPERATURES PRECIPITATION
and FAUNA
Abundant precipitations - Forests (oaks and
Mild temperatures (between 0-
(800-2,500 mm) and beeches), shrub and
OCEANIC

15ºC) and little temperature

Atlantic and North- regular throughout the grassland.
variation throughout the year
western Europe year due to the storms
thanks to the proximity of the
that penetrate from the - Deer, bears, foxes,
sea
Atlantic Ocean. salmon, water birds…
- Meadow (holm oak
MEDITERRANEAN

The Southern part of Medium and scarce

and cork oak), forests
the Iberian and Warm temperatures (between precipitations (300-700
(pines), shrub and
Balkan Peninsula, the 7-20ºC) with contrasts between mm) and irregular
thicket.
Italian Peninsula and summer and winter in the throughout the year.
- Rabbits, foxes,
the Mediterranean interior of the continent Summers are usually
lynxes, reptiles, storks,
coastline very dry.
vultures…
Mild and cool temperatures Medium and scarce - Forest (taiga:
CONTINE

Eastern and
NTAL

(between 0-10ºC) with huge precipitations (200-700 conifers and bushes),

North-eastern
contrasts because of its distance mm). It consists of snow mixed forests and
Europe
from the sea. in winter and rainwater steppe (grassland)

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 in summer. - Bears, wolves, foxes,
deer, raptors…
Very high mountain - Altitudinal zonation
MOUNTAIN

ranges Very varied temperatures Abundant precipitations of species, coniferous

HIGH

(the Pyrenees, the depending on its altitude, (800-2,500 mm). In forests and pastures.
Alps, the Carpathians latitude and proximity to the several months
and the Scandinavian coast. In winter it reaches <0ºC consisting of snow - Bears, wolves, foxes,
Mountain) chamois, eagles…
North of the - Tundra (grass and
Scandinavian and Very scarce (<300-400 bushes)
POLAR

Kola Peninsula, Very low. Generally below zero mm) and mostly in the
- Reindeers, seals and
North-east of Russia form of snow.
whales.
and North of Iceland

The Spanish relief can be divided into five large groups:

1) The Meseta (or Plateau) and the interior mountain ranges: The Meseta is a large raised area (650
metres) of almost horizontal relief. It covers nearly half of peninsular Spain and is divided into two parts:
the Submeseta Norte, crossed by the River Duero and its tributaries; and the Submeseta Sur, crossed by
the Rivers Tajo and Guadiana. The Sistema Central separates the two subplateaus and it is composed by
several sierras (Gata, Gredos, and Guadarrama). In the Submeseta Sur there is a moderate relief between
the Tajo and the Guadiana, the Montes de Toledo.
2) The periphery mountain ranges: The Meseta is separated to the periphery by several mountain ranges.
The Montes de León, which separate it from Galicia; the Cordillera Cantábrica (with the Picos de Europa,
Torre Cerredo, 2650 metres), from the north of the Peninsula; the Sistema Ibérico (Moncayo, 2300
metres), which separate it from Aragón and Levante; and the Sierra Morena, which closes of the Meseta
to the south (Andalucía).
3) The depressions and external lowlands: These are flat and triangular areas at low altitude which rivers
flow through. In Spain we find them in the Rivers Ebro and Guadalquivir.
4) The external mountain ranges: If we follow a clockwise order, we find the Montes Vascos, the Pyrenees
(Aneto, 3400 metres), the Cordillera Costero-Catalana, the Sistemas Béticos, with the Subbética in the
north and the Penibética in the South (Mulhacén at 3480 is the highest peak on the Peninsula) and the
Macizo Galaico.
5) The insular areas:
a. Islas Baleares: composed by Mallorca (Puig Major, 1445 metres, in the Sierra de Tramontana),
Menorca, Ibiza, Formentera and Cabrera.
b. Islas Canarias, which are made up of the islands of La Palma, El Hierro, La Gomera, Tenerife (El
Teide at 3715 is the highest peak in Spain), Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.

OCEANS AND SEAS:

The Iberian Peninsula is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south west, the Mediterranean Sea
to the east (with smaller units such as the Mar de Alborán and the Mar Balear) and the Cantabrian Sea to the
north. The Islas Baleares are in the Mediterranean, with the Mar Balear to the west and the Mar de Cerdeña to
the east). The Islas Canarias are in the Atlantic Ocean.

RIVERS:
The rivers of the Iberian Peninsula are divided into three groups, according to where they flow (watersheds or
basins):
 Cantabrian basin: short, high flow.

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  Atlantic basin: long, high flow (but lower in the summer).
 Mediterranean basin: except the Ebro, short and irregular flow.

LAKES AND WETLANDS:

The most important examples in Spain are the Lagos de Sanabria (northwestern Zamora), Lagunas de Ruidera
and Tablas de Daimiel (Ciudad Real), the Albufera de Valencia (very close to the city of Valencia), the Mar Menor
(Murcia), Marismas de Doñana (south-west of Andalucía) and the Delta del Ebro (Tarragona).

VEGETATION
REGION TEMPERATURES PRECIPITATION
and FAUNA
- Forests (oaks,
Mild temperatures
beeches,
(between 10-18ºC) and Abundant precipitations
OCEANIC

eucalyptuses and
The Cantabrian little temperature (800-2,500 mm) and
pines), shrub and
coast and Galicia variation throughout the regular throughout the
grassland.
year. Cool winters and year (mainly in winter).
- Deer, bears, foxes,
mild summers.
salmon, wildcats…
Medium and scarce - Meadow (holm oak
MEDITERRANEAN

Warm and high

precipitations (300-700 and cork oak),
The Mediterranean temperatures (between
mm) and irregular forests (pines),
coast (litoral) and 15-20ºC) with thermal
throughout the year. shrub and thicket.
southeast of amplitudes lower than
Very dry summers. - Rabbits, foxes,
Andalucía 16ºC thanks to the
* Almeria reaches the lynxes, reptiles,
proximity to the sea.
driest data in all Europe storks, vultures…
- Meadow (holm oak
MEDITERRANEAN
OF THE INTERIOR

Large contrast in Medium and scarce

The Meseta, North and cork oak),
temperature (its thermal precipitations (300-700
and Centre of forests (pines),
amplitude is >18ºC): very mm) and irregular
Andalucía and North shrub and thicket.
hot summers (>20ºC) throughout the year.
of the Depresión del - Rabbits, foxes,
and cold winters (5- Very dry summers.
Ebro lynxes, reptiles,
10ºC).
storks, vultures…
Very high mountain - Altitudinal zonation
HIGH MOUNTAIN

Very varied of species,

ranges Abundant precipitations
temperatures depending coniferous forests
(the Cordillera (400-2,500 mm). In the
on its altitude, latitude and pastures.
Cantábrica, parts of highest altitudes and
and proximity to the
the Sistema Ibérico, latitudes it consists of - Bears, wolves,
coast. In winter it can
the Sistema Central snow foxes, chamois,
reach <0ºC
and the Penibética) eagles…
Scarce and variable. - Canary Island pine,
Mild and hot
SUBTROPICAL

Differences between the dragon tree, palm

temperatures (17-20ºC)
semi-desert eastern groves and laurel
with little thermal
The Canary Islands islands and the more forest.
amplitude thanks to the
humid western ones. - Tizon lizard,
proximity to the Tropic
Contrasts depending on turkeys, doves,
of Cancer and the Sahara
the altitude. gulls…

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 REVISE
1. Colour with the different climates of Europe.

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2. Compare the following climographs of European climates, and identify the climates to which they
correspond.

3. Colour with the different climates of Spain.

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4. Link each Spanish landscape with its climograph.

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 THE PHYSICAL MAP OF EUROPE

Iberian Peninsula Corsica Caucasus Mountains

Italian Peninsula Sardinia Carpathians
Balkan Peninsula Sicily Balkan Mountains
Anatolian Peninsula Crete Alps
Iceland Cyprus Apennines
Ireland Scandinavian Mountains
Great Britain Ural Mountains

Arctic Ocean Mediterranean Sea Volga RiverDanube River

Atlantic Ocean Adriatic Sea Po River
North Sea Aegean Sea Rhone River
Baltic Sea Rhine River
Cantabrian Sea Thames River

THE PHYSICAL MAP OF SPAIN

Cordillera Cantábrica Depresión del Ebro Tarifa

Pirineos Depresión del Guadalquivir Cabo de San Vicente
Sistema Ibérico Delta del Ebro Golfo de Vizcaya
Sistema Central Cabo de Finisterre Golfo de Valencia
Sierra Morena Estaca de Bares Golfo de Cádiz
Sistemas Béticos Cabo de Creus Islas Baleares
Pico del Teide Cabo de la Nao Islas Canarias
Submeseta Norte Cabo de Palos
Submeseta Sur Cabo de Gata

Río Miño Río Guadalquivir Río Segura

Río Duero Río Ebro Río Nalón
Río Tajo Río Júcar Río Nervión
Río Guadiana Río Turia

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 ANNEXE I

POLITICAL MAPS

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 MAPA POLÍTICO DE ESPAÑA

Almería Cádiz Córdoba Granada Huelva

ANDALUCÍA
Jaén Málaga Sevilla

ARAGÓN Huesca Teruel Zaragoza

ASTURIAS Asturias

ISLAS BALEARES Islas Baleares

Santa Cruz de
ISLAS CANARIAS Las Palmas
Tenerife
CANTABRIA Cantabria
CASTILLA - LA
Albacete Ciudad Real Cuenca Guadalajara Toledo
MANCHA
Ávila Burgos León Palencia Salamanca
CASTILLA Y LEÓN
Segovia Soria Valladolid Zamora

CATALUÑA Barcelona Gerona Lérida Tarragona

EXTREMADURA Badajoz Cáceres

GALICIA La Coruña Lugo Orense Pontevedra

LA RIOJA La Rioja

MADRID Madrid

MURCIA Murcia

NAVARRA Navarra

PAÍS VASCO Álava Guipúzcoa Vizcaya

VALENCIA Alicante Castellón Valencia

* Ciudades autónomas Ceuta Melilla

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 POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE

1 Albania Tirana
2 Austria Vienna
3 Belarus Minsk
4 Belgium Brussels
5 Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo
6 Bulgaria Sofia
7 Croatia Zagreb
8 Cyprus Nicosia
9 Czech Republic Prague
10 Denmark Copenhagen
11 Estonia Tallinn
12 Finland Helsinki
13 France Paris
14 Germany Berlin
15 Greece Athens
16 Hungary Budapest
17 Iceland Reykjavík
18 Ireland Dublin
19 Italy Rome
20 Latvia Riga
21 Lithuania Vilnius
22 Macedonia Skopje
23 Montenegro Podgorica
24 Netherlands Amsterdam
25 Norway Oslo
26 Poland Warsaw
27 Portugal Lisbon
28 Romania Bucharest
29 Russia Moscow
30 Serbia Belgrade
31 Slovakia Bratislava
32 Slovenia Ljubljana
33 Spain Madrid
34 Sweden Stockholm
35 Switzerland Bern
36 Turkey Ankara
37 Ukraine Kiev / Kyiv
38 United Kingdom London

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- 112 -
 POLITICAL MAP OF AMERICA

1 Argentina Buenos Aires

2 Bolivia La Paz
3 Brazil Brasilia
4 Canada Ottawa
5 Chile Santiago
6 Colombia Bogotá
7 Costa Rica San José
8 Cuba Havana
9 Dominican Republic Santo Domingo
10 Ecuador Quito
11 Guatemala Guatemala City
12 Haiti Port-au-Prince
13 Jamaica Kingston
14 Mexico Mexico City
15 Panama Panama City
16 Paraguay Asunción
17 Peru Lima
18 United States of America Washington, D.C.
19 Uruguay Montevideo
20 Venezuela Caracas

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- 114 -
 POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA

1 Afghanistan Kabul
2 China Beijing
3 India New Delhi
4 Indonesia Jakarta
5 Iran Tehran
6 Iraq Baghdad
7 Japan Tokyo
8 Kazakhstan Akmola
9 Laos Vientiane
10 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur
11 Mongolia Ulan-Bator
12 Myanmar Naypyidaw
13 Nepal Kathmandu
14 North Korea Pyongyang
15 Pakistan Islamabad
16 Philippines Manila
17 Saudi Arabia Riyadh
18 South Korea Seoul
19 Syria Damascus
20 Thailand Bangkok
21 Vietnam Hanoi

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- 116 -
 POLITICAL MAP OF AFRICA

1 Algeria Algiers
2 Angola Luanda
3 Cameroon Yaoundé
4 Central African Republic Bangui
5 Chad N'Djamena
Democratic Republic of the
6 Kinshasa
Congo
7 Egypt Cairo
8 Ethiopia Addis Ababa
9 Kenya Nairobi
10 Libya Tripoli
11 Madagascar Antananarivo
12 Mali Bamako
13 Mauritania Nouakchott
14 Morocco Rabat
15 Mozambique Maputo
16 Namibia Windhoek
17 Niger Niamey
18 Nigeria Abuja
19 Somalia Mogadishu
20 South Africa Pretoria
21 South Sudan Juba
22 Sudan Khartoum
23 Tanzania Dar es-Salam
24 Tunisia Tunis

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 POLITICAL MAP OF OCEANIA

1 Australia Canberra
2 New Zealand Wellington

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 ANNEXE II

PHYSICAL MAPS OF THE WORLD

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 PHYSICAL MAP OF AMERICA
Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Caribbean Sea Pacific Ocean
Antarctic Ocean Greenland Cuba Santo Domingo
Bering Strait Strait of Magellan Labrador Peninsula Florida Peninsula
Alaska Peninsula Mississippi River Rio Grande Amazon River
Río de la Plata Hudson Bay Gulf of Mexico Great Lakes
Lake Titicaca Alaska Range Appalachians Rocky Mountains
Sierra Madre Andes Mountains Amazon Depression

PHYSICAL MAP OF ASIA

Arctic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Red Sea
Black Sea Mediterranean Sea Japanese Archipelago Taiwan
Philippines Sri Lanka Sumatra Java
Borneo Bering Strait Strait of Hormuz Kamchatka Peninsula
Indochina Indian subcontinent Arabian Peninsula Anatolian Peninsula
Huang-He River (Yellow River) Yangtze River Mekong River
Ganges River Indus River Tigris River Euphrates River
Persian Gulf Aral Sea Caspian Sea Lake Baikal
Himalayas Mount Everest Zagros Mountains Arabian Desert
Gobi Desert Tibetan Plateau

PHYSICAL MAP OF AFRICA

Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Mediterranean Sea Red Sea
Madagascar Suez Canal Nile River Congo River
Niger River Gulf of Guinea Cape of Good Hope Lake Victoria
Mount Kilimanjaro Sahara Desert Kalahari Desert Atlas Mountains

PHYSICAL MAP OF OCEANIA

Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Antarctic Ocean Tasmania
New Zealand Great Victoria Desert

121
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ANNEXE III

HOW TO…

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