RMC’04

1. Among the social science disciplines, which discipline do you think can
help us fight the covid19 pandemic?

Among the social science disciplines, the discipline that I think can help
us fight the covid19 pandemic is the Political Science discipline because
it's a social science that studies governance and power systems, analysis
of political activities, thought, behavior, and the corresponding
constitutions and laws. Political Science is the main one that decides what
solutions will do to a problem, especially in covid19. (with the help of
health care workers) (IRL: Philippines politics & governance are lack of
response, progress, etc. in covid19)(Citizens should elect a deserving
person that will lead the country)

2. What do you think would happen if these person (the founders/pioneers)

did not pursue to seek understanding/solution to the challenges that were
facing during their time?

I think what would happen if these persons (founders/pioneers) did not

pursue to seek understanding/solution to the challenges that they were
facing during their time is that this discipline we have right now probably
does not exist and social sciences that help each one of us also do not
exist. 
Activity 3: Create a Timeline

POLITICAL SCIENCE
 1st Century BCE
 The Ancient Greeks invented it.

GEOGRAPHY
 3rd Century BCE
 The term was first to use as the title of a book by Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(geographica).

HISTORY
 2600 B.C
 It all starts with the Sumerian script.

ECONOMICS
 1776s
 Adams Smith published a piece on Inquiry.

SOCIOLOGY
 1830s
 Auguste Compte, a Frenchman, coined the phrase.
DEMOGRAPHY
 1882-1855
 Discipline development has been on the decline in Western countries.

PSYCHOLOGY
 1879
 The first laboratory was established by German scientist Wilhelm Wundt.
 LINGUISTIC
 Started in the nineteenth century


ANTHROPOLOGY
 1920

 Timeline of the Historical Antecedent of each Social Science Discipline

Anthropology

September 29, 1800 - September 29, 1900

 Morgan & Grafton Eliot Smith
 School of Thought - Social Evolution & Cultural Diffusion
 Societies are alike because they pass through evolutionary stages.
 Move from the primitive to the civilized.
September 29, 1840
 Marx
 He showed that society organized along class lines.
 All social interaction maintains the wealth of a small elite.
September 29, 1850
 Lewis Henry Morgan
 Invented the field of kinship studies and became one of the most prominent theorists
of linear social evolution.
 Produced some of the earliest and most valuable ethnographic studies of American
Indian tribes.
September 29, 1860
 Edward Burnett Tylor
 English Anthropologist, founder of Cultural Anthropology.
 Work on primitive people's mentality.
September 29, 1930
 Julian Steward
 Criticized Cultural Evolution
 He took a more scientific approach which involved personally analyzing specific
cultures.
 Franz Boas
 "Father of American Anthropology"
 "Father of Modern Anthropology"
 He Gave Modern Anthropology its rigorous scientific methodology.
September 29, 1940
 Ray Birdwhistell
 American Anthropologists 
 Most of his studies through observing people's interactions in films.
 Published two books: 'Introduction to Kinesics' and Kinesics and Context'
November 23, 1995
 Marvin Harris
 His main focus was the study of ideological features of culture.
 Did fieldwork that focused on human behavior.
 'Sacred Cow'
 Wrote sixteen books
May 28, 1960
 Napoleon Chagnon
 He Had Major roles in the development of the evolutionary theory of Cultural
Anthropology.
 Pioneer in the fields of Socio-biology, visual anthropology, and human behavioral
ecology.
September 29, 1990
 Paul Farmer
 Medical Anthropologists
 He introduced the idea of 'pragmatic solidarity.'
September 29, 2010
 Ruth Benedict
 Key Dates & Schools of Thought
 Ethnology is a branch off of anthropology where the divisions of humanity are.
 Grafton Elliot Smith 

Economics

430 BC - 355 BC
 Xenophon
 Oikonomikos
428 BC - 347 BC
 Plato
 The ideal state
384 BC - 322 BC
 Aristotle
 Politics and Nicomachean Ethics
1623 - 1687
 Petty, William
 Contributions to classical political economy in methods, concepts, and analysis.
Argued for optimal taxation. A notion of surplus.
1694 - 1774
 Quesnay, Francois
 "Tableau Economique" - circular flow of economy - and founder of Physiocrats.
Agriculture only sector that produced a net surplus.
1697 - 1734
 Cantillon, Richard
 His only work was rediscovered by Jevons. Influenced by Petty. Land/Labour theory
of value. Demand/Supply determining market prices. A major influence on Quesnay.
1723 - 1790
 Smith, Adam
 Considered one of the most important economists throughout history. He wrote on
productive organization, the causes of economic growth, value, and distribution. His
 most famous theory is that of the invisible hand. The Wealth of Nations was written
between 1776 and 1783.
1727 - 1781
 Tourgot, Anne
 Agriculture has experienced declining returns. An examination of the productive use
of capital in all sectors. Adam Smith's forefather. Laissez-faire.
1748 - 1832
 Bentham, Jeremy
 Founder of utilitarian ethics and not an economist but has non the less been extremely
important for the development of economics.
1763 - 1836
 Mill, James
 Along with Ricardo one of the founders of the classical school. However, his
contributions have been rather overshadowed by his son, John Stuart Mill, and by his
colleague Ricardo.
1766 - 1834
 Malthus, Thomas
 Argued against economists which believed in limitless improvement of society.
Malthus placed the longer-term stability of the economy above short-term expediency
and thought that the dangers of population growth would preclude endless progress
towards a utopian society.
1767 - 1832
 Say, Jean-Baptiste
  French economist who became most famous for the "Say Law", stating that "supply
creates its demand". He had classical liberal views and argued for free trade.
1772 - 1823
 Ricardo, David
 He demonstrated the possibilities of using the abstract method of reasoning to
formulate economic theories. Ricardo’s rising attracted a band of scholars,
corroborating, amending, and extending his theories.
1783 - 1850
 Von, Thunen
 Was an important contributor to the ideas of profit maximization and marginal
productivity. One important insight was the idea of diminishing returns, i.e. how
marginal productivity varies with factor inputs. The importance of going from one
factor to two factors should not be underrated.
1801 - 1877
 Cournot, Antoine Augustin
 Cournot's demand function is not derived from theories of individual behavior, he
notes that the "accessory ideas of utility, scarcity, and suitability to the needs and
enjoyments of mankind" (Cournot, 1838: p.10). Also, his works were mostly
recognized with the marginal breakthrough in the 1870s.
1804 - 1866
 Dupuit, Arsene Jules Etienne
  Dupuit's demand curve was the first to link marginal utility and demand, though only
on an individual level, with no comments on the aggregate. Unlike Cournot, Dupuit
based his demand curve on empirical intuition rather than identifying the demand
curve as the marginal utility curve itself.
1806 - 1873
 Mill, John Stuart
 Mill's work on economics was much influenced by his utilitarian views. He believed
that population control was essential for improving the condition of the working class
so that they might enjoy the fruits of technological progress and capital accumulation.
1815 - 1858
 Gossen, Hermann Heinrich
 When the price of goods rises, the marginal utility in terms of money (MUI/pi)
declines, and thus (by Gossen's first law) less goodwill is to be bought. The idea that
consumer substitutes between goods to obtain the same marginal utility across goods
yields the downward-sloping demand curve for each of the goods.
1818 - 1883
 Marx, Carl
 Karl Marx's theory of value determined the absolute value of goods and services. The
class struggle leads inevitably to the overthrow of the capitalist system, he said. Marx
was one of the first to point out that business cycle fluctuations were a normal
occurrence in capitalist economies.
1834 - 1910
 Walras, Leon
 Walras was one of the three economists related to the Marginal Revolution, and he
was y far the one who evolved the use of mathematics in an economy the most. He
formulated the "marginal theory of value", independently of Jevons and Menger, and
pioneered the development of a general equilibrium theory.
1835 - 1882
 Jevons, William S. 
 Jevons argued that utility was the reason for value and that economists should
maximize happiness, i.e. utility. He defined the final degree of utility as the additional
utility gain for the last additional commodity. All his theories are worked out
independently of other economists.
1840 - 1921
 Menger, Carl
 Menger was the third economist related to the Marginal Revolution. Also, he
developed a theory of marginal utility, independently of other economists writing on
the topic. He also explained how both sides would gain from trade.
1842 - 1924
 Marshall, Alfred
 Alfred Marshall succeeded Ricardo and J.S. Mill as the great name of British
economics. He dominated the scene through eight editions of "Principles of
Economics" from 1890 to 1920. The 700-page book was like a Bible for British
economists and used in other countries as well.
1845 - 1926
 Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro
 Edgeworth was the first to apply formal mathematical techniques to individual
decision-making in economics. He argued for maximum utility as the single principle
in social sciences. Edgeworth's achievement was to show that competition between
buyers and sellers, through barter, led to the same point as when all agents act as price
takers.
1848 - 1923
 Pareto, Wilfred
 Pareto's name is associated with general equilibrium, welfare economics, and ordinal
utility. He was a forerunner of the axiomatic approach culminating with the Arrow–
Debreu model. Pareto provided the standard equilibrium conditions for the consumer
side of the economy.
1851 - 1926
 Wicksell, Knut
 He is best known for his contributions to monetary theory, in particular, his influential
feedback policy rule. Wicksell developed the marginal productivity theory of
distribution, integrating it with the theory of capital and interest.
1851 - 1914
 Von Bawerk - Bohm, Eugen
 Böhm-Bawerk is particularly well known for his ‘three reasons’ for interest, which
may be viewed as BB’s contribution to Austrian economics. 
1851 - 1926
 Von Weiser, Freidrich
 Neoclassical economics was developed by Ernst Wieser in the early 19th century, and
he is credited with turning the field's focus firmly towards the study of scarcity and
resource allocation. His main contributions include establishing that factor prices are
determined by output prices (reversing the Classicals).
1857 - 1929
  Veblen, Thorstein
 Veblen believed that technological developments would eventually lead toward a
socialistic organization of economic affairs. He saw socialism as an intermediate
phase in an ongoing evolutionary process brought about by the natural decay of the
business enterprise system. Veblen was primarily an economist but wrote extensively
on sociological issues.
1867 - 1947
 Fisher, Irving
 Irving Fisher's theory of money and prices is the foundation for much of
contemporary monetary economics. Much of standard neoclassical theory today is
Fisherian in origin, spirit, and substance. His ideas have frequently been rediscovered
by others, e.g. distributed lag regression, 'consumption tax' rather than 'income tax'.
1880 - 1948
 Slutsky, Evgeny E.
  Slutsky was a mathematician, statistician, and economist, known in economics mainly
for the 1915 article, Slutsky's 1915 article was unnoticed until the mid-1930s but
influenced the further development of consumer theory. Building on earlier work by
Pareto, Slutsky showed that the effect of a price change on the quantity demanded can
be divided into two effects.
1883 - 1946
 Keynes, John Maynard
 John Maynard Keynes was a British economist who died in 1946. He is considered
one of the founders of modern macroeconomics and the most influential economist of
the 20th century. His ideas are the basis for Keynesian economics, as well as its
various offshoots.
1895 - 1973
 Frisch, Ragnar
  Econometrics is a new discipline of economic theory which aims to turn economics
"as far as possible" into a science in the strict sense of the word.
1899 - 1979
 Ohlin, Bertil
 Olin's name lives on in one of the standard mathematical models of international free
trade, the Heckscher–Ohlin model, which he developed together with Eli Heckscher.
1904 - 1989
 Hicks, John R.
 The most familiar of his many contributions was his statement of consumer demand
theory in microeconomics and the IS/LM model (1937), which summarised a
Keynesian view of macroeconomics. Hicks' best-known work, Value, and Capital
(1939) offers economic dynamics and discussion of the monetary theory that reaches
into macroeconomic theory.
1911 - 1999
 Haavelmo, Trygve
 The Probability Approach is regarded as the greatest landmark in the history of
econometrics and one of the most influential contributions to economic theory ever
made. In 1989 Haavelmo was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for
his pioneering work on the subject.
1912 - 2006
 Freidman, Milton
 Milton Friedman was an influential economist who argued that governments could
only increase employment above a natural rate of unemployment. He argued that the
Phillips curve was not stable and predicted what would come to be known as
stagflation. His works include many monographs, books, scholarly articles, papers,
magazine columns, television programs, videos, and lectures.
1915 - 2009
 Samuelson, Paul
 Samuelson is considered to be one of the founders of neo-Keynesian economics and a
seminal figure in the development of neoclassical economics. He was also essential in
 creating the Neoclassical synthesis, which incorporated Keynesian and neoclassical
principles and still dominates current mainstream economics.
1918 - 2003
 Modigliani, Franco
 Modigliani made two path-breaking contributions to economic science: Along with
Merton Miller, he formulated the important Modigliani–Miller theorem in corporate
finance. This theorem demonstrated that under certain assumptions, the value of a
firm is not affected by whether it is financed by equity (selling shares) or debt
(borrowing money). He was also the originator of the life-cycle hypothesis, which
attempts to explain the level of saving in the economy. Modigliani proposed that
consumers would aim for a stable level of consumption throughout their lifetime, for
example by saving during their working years and spending during their retirement.
1921 - Present
 Arrow, Kenneth
 In economics, he is considered an important figure in post-World War II neo-classical
economic theory. Arrow produced the first rigorous proof of the existence of a
market-clearing equilibrium. For this work and his other contributions, Gérard Debreu
won the Nobel prize in 1983.
1924 - Present
 Solow, Robert
 Robert Merton Solow is an American economist particularly known for his work on
the theory of economic growth that culminated in the exogenous growth model named
after him.
1937 - Present
 Lucas, Robert
 One of the most influential economists since the 1970s, he argued that a
macroeconomic model should be built as an aggregated version of microeconomic
models. He led to the development of New Keynesian economics and the drive
towards microeconomic foundations for macroeconomic theory.
1940 - Present
 Prescott, Edward
 Edward Prescott and Finn Kydland won the 1977 Nobel Prize for economics. They
argued that policymakers have a credibility issue due to their relationship with the
government. The political process is designed to fix problems and benefit its citizens
today, rather than solve them in the future.
1943 - Present
 Kydland, Finn
 Edward Prescott and Finn Kydland won the 1977 Nobel Prize for economics. They
argued that policymakers have a credibility issue due to their relationship with the
government. The political process is designed to fix problems and benefit its citizens
today, rather than solve them in the future.
1943 - Present
 Stiglitz, Joseph
  Stiglitz's work focuses on income distribution, asset risk management, corporate
governance, and international trade.
1953 - Present
 Krugman, Paul
 He is known for his work on international economics, monetary policy, liquidity
traps, and currency crises.

Geography

500 BCE
 Oldest known map of the world
 The first known world map is Imago Mundi, also known as the Babylonian Map of
the World. The map, inscribed on a clay tablet, depicts Babylon in the center of the
continent. All of the sites on the circular map are labeled in cuneiform script.
240 BCE
 Calculation of the circumference of the Earth 
 A Greek scholar living in Egypt, Eratosthenes, observed the position of the sun
around the summer solstice and used the distances between Egyptian cities to
calculate the approximate circumference of the Earth.
200-300 BCE 
 Compas Invented
 Sometime around 200-300 BC, the Chinese invented the compass. The compass may
have been used in the search for gems and the selection of sites for houses. Their
directive power led to the use of compasses for navigation, according to William
Lowrie's Fundamentals of Geophysics.
Circa 194 BCE
 Eratosthenes Geography
 Eratosthenes published his three-volume work entitled Geographika. Eratosthenes
was the first to use the term ‘geography’ and is considered the father of geography.
150 CE 
 Ptolemy's Geographia
 Ptolemy described and organized all information about the world’s geography
throughout the Roman Empire of the 2nd century in his work Geographia, written
around AD 150.
April 1507
 First Map to Name America
 The Waldseemüller map Universalis Cosmographia was created in 1507. It is the first
map of the Americas in which the name "America" is mentioned.
1625 
 Geography Delineated Forth in two Bookers
 Carpenter’s book, Geography Delineated Forth in Two Books, is generally recognized
as the first English geography book published. 
1650
  Bernhardus Varenis Geographia Generalis
 Varenius' Geographia Generalis laid out the main principles of geography on a broad
scientific basis, based on what was known during his time. Absolute geography,
relative geography, and comparative geography are the three sections of the work.
The first looks into mathematical facts about the earth as a whole, dimensions,
motions, and measurement, among other things.
September 14, 1769
 Birth of Alexander Von Humboldt
 Alexander von Humboldt was one of the founders of modern geography. He traveled
extensively through South America studying the flora, fauna, and topography. His
Essay on the Geography of Plants was based on the then-novel idea of studying
organic life as affected by physical conditions.
1817
 First Isothermal Chart
 Alexander Von Humboldt creates the first isothermal chart, “Carte des lignes
isotherms.” This map was the first to show the use of isotherms, a term Humboldt
coined for lines of equal temperature.
1830
 Geographical Association 
 The Geographical Association is founded at a meeting at Christ Church, Oxford. Sir
Halford Mackinder, Douglas Freshfield, and ten others are the first members. A
subscription of five shillings is set for the society's first annual general meeting in
1804-5.
1830
 Founding of the Royal Geographical Society
 The Geographical Society of London was founded in 1830 as an institution to
promote the advancement of geographical science, gaining its Royal Charter in 1859.
The Society's purpose has not changed, but it has expanded its global interests to
include publishing, field research, and expeditions.
1876
 Real Sociedad Geografica Established
 The Royal Geographic Society (Sociedad Geográfica) was founded in 1876 and is the
oldest geography society in Spain.
March 3, 1879
 Establishment of the United States Geological Survey
 The United States Geological Survey (USGS) was founded in 1765. The USGS is a
fact-finding federal organization that focuses on four main scientific areas: biology,
geography, geology, and hydrology.
October 1884
 Prime Meridian Established
January 1888
 National Geographic Society is founded
 The National Geographic Society was founded in 1888 with the intention "to increase
and diffuse geographic knowledge". More than 500 million people monthly are now
 reached by the various media products of the National Geographic Society, according
to the Society's media arm, Nat Geo Digital Media.
1904 
 Association of American Geographers is founded
 The Association of American Geographers (AAG) was founded in 1904 and has more
than 10,000 members from over 60 countries.
1915
 National Council for Geographic Education Established
 Founded in 1915 by George J Miller to fill in a gap in geographic education for
secondary school pupils. Originally called the National Council for Geography
Teachers (NCGT), the name was changed in 1956.
1962
 Canada Land Inventory is created
 Roger Tomlinson was a pioneer in the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
His work with the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) in 1962 is widely recognized as the
beginnings of GIS. He is also known as the founder of the Canadian Geographic
Names Project.
1970
 The first law of Geography
 The first law of geography is the observation that 'everything is usually related to all
else but those which are near to each other are more related when compared to those
that are further away' - Waldo Tobler's Laws of Geography, published in 1970.
1984 - 1994
 Five themes of Geography
 The five themes of geography were replaced by the National Geography Standards in
1994. They were originally developed to help with geography education at the K-12
levels.
September 24, 1991
 Launch of Geography in the UK National Curriculum
 The Geography National Curriculum is launched at the Royal Geographical Society in
London with an address by former education secretary Kenneth Clarke.
1994
 National Geography Standards Established
 The National Geography Standards are a new set of learning standards that replace the
five themes of geography with 18 new ones. They were created by the National
Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and aim to ensure students are prepared
for a variety of global and interdisciplinary challenges.
May 1, 2000
 End of Selective Availability
May 10, 2003
 Geography Endorsed
 Geography Discipline education takes a national perspective. It was the first subject
from Foundation to Year 12 to be published in August 2013.
Linguistics

2000 BCE
 Babylonia Tradition (4000 years before the present)
 In southern Mesopotamia, there arouse a grammatical tradition that lasted more than
2,500 years. Sumerian was being replaced in everyday speech by a very different
language, Akkadian. It remained however as a prestigious language and continued to
be used in religious and legal contexts.
1000 BCE
 Hindu Traditions (1000 BC)
 The Indu tradition of linguistics had its origins in the first millennium BC and was
simulated by changes in Sanskrit (Indo European, India) the sacred language of
religious texts. The ritual required the exact verb performance of the religious texts,
and grammatical traditions emerged that set out rules for ancient languages.
500 BCE
 Greek Linguistic (5th Century BC Onwards)
 Grammar in ancient Greece covered a wide range of topics, including the origins of
languages and the relationship between languages and thoughts. The first surviving
grammar of a European language is a short description of Greek by Dionysius Thrax,
Techne Grammatik (100 BC).
100 BCE
 Roman Traditions (1st Century BC to approximately 500 AD)
 Grammars of Varro, Donatus, and Priscan were influential in the Middle Ages. The
primary interest was in morphology, parts of speech, and the form of nouns and verbs.
July 18, 700
 Arabic and Hebrew Traditions (7th Century)
 The Arabic tradition was heavily influenced by the writings of Abu al-Aswad. Saadya
Ben-Joseph produced the first grammar and dictionary of Hebrew in the 9th century.
March 21, 1000
 Middle Ages in Europe (500-1400 AD)
 In Europe, Latin was held in high esteem as the language of the public sphere.
Pedagogic grammars of Latin for native speakers of other languages began appearing.
In about 1000 an abbot in Britain wrote a grammar of Latin for Anglo-Saxon speaking
children.
March 21, 1600
 European Colonialism (1400 AD)
 Colonialization brought Europeans into contact with a variety of languages in Africa,
the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific. Scholars compiled word lists in many languages
and used them in language comparisons. William Jones discovered the relatedness of
the Indoeuropean and the founding of comparative linguistics.
March 21, 1700
 European Colonialism (1700 AD)
 Grammar of European languages was written and missionaries played an important
role. The Danish linguist Rasmus Rask drew together the various threads of historical
 linguistics. He stressed the importance of grammatical evidence and regular sound
correspondences between related words (cognates).
March 21, 1800
 Modern Linguistics - Beginnings 
 Ferdinand de Saussure is acknowledged as the key figure and founding father of
modern linguistics. He championed the idea that language is a system of arbitrary
signs, and his conceptualisation of the sign has been highly influential. Modern
linguistics focused on the notion that a language can be viewed as a self-contained
and structured system.
March 21, 1895
 Diversification - The Prague School
 The Prague School was a group of Czech and other linguists who formed the
Linguistic Circle of Prague. Its primary interest was phonological theory but it also
made contributions to syntax. The most famous representative was Roman Jakobson,
one of the founders of modern computer programming.
March 21, 1990
 British Structuralism
 J.R. Firth held the first chair in linguistics in the University of London and brought
several original and provocative perspectives to linguistics. Daniel Jones took up and
extended Sweet's work on phonetics. He stablished the London School of Practical
Linguistics.
March 22, 1940
 Danish Structuralism
 The Copenhagen School was headed by Louis Hjelmslev who developed an approach
called glossematics, or algebraic theory of language.
March 22, 1950
 American Structuralism
 Franz Boas gathered information on the languages and cultures of Native Americans.
He upheld the notion that all languages should be described in their terms. He
maintained psycological and anthropological orientations, seeing language as
intimately connected with the way of life and thought of its speakers.
March 22, 1955
 Contemporary Approaches to Linguistics
 The main categories are formal and functional, according to whether they focus on
form or function.
March 22, 1957
 Formal Linguistics
 Neo-Bloomfieldian structuralism became algebraic in orientation from the end of the
Second World War. In 1957 appeared the publication of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic
structures. Grammar is considered to be a formal system making explicit the
mechanisms, first in terms of rules, later by other means.
March 22, 1960
 Functional linguistics
  The Greenbergian tradition is one of the least functional of the functionalist schools,
being functional more in its opposition to generative grammar than in its ideas.
Functionalist schools have been more willing to accept and integrate typological and
language universal research than mainstream formal linguistics.
September 8, 1960
 Scope of Modern Linguistics
 Grammatical theories have played a major role in shaping our understanding of
language since the beginning of the 20th century. Technological developments have
facilitated the development of language, including audio and video recorders, and
computers.

Political Science 

 Political science originated with the ancient Greeks in the first century BCE
 At the start of the seventeenth century, people began to apply the methods of the
scientific revolution to politics.
 In the nineteenth century, thinkers such as Karl Marx and Max Weber used
sociological methods to analyze politics.

Psychology

1879
 First psychology laboratory
 Wilhelm Wundt is credited with establishing psychology as an academic discipline.
His students include Emil Kraepelin, James McKeen Cattell, and G. Stanley Hall.
Credited with opening the first experimental laboratory in psychology at the
University of Leipzig, Germany.
1883
 First American psychology laboratory
 G. Stanley Hall, a student of Wilhelm Wundt, establishes the first U.S. experimental
psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.
1886
 First doctorate in psychology 
 The first doctorate in psychology is given to Joseph Jastrow, a student of G Stanley
Hall at Johns Hopkins University. He later becomes a professor of psychology at the
University of Wisconsin. The first president of the American Psychological
Association is elected in 1900 and takes office two years later.
1888
 The first professor of psychology 
 Cattell was a student of Wilhelm Wundt's and serves as professor of psychology at the
University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University. The academic title "professor of
psychology" was given to Cattell in 1888, the first use of this designation in the
United States.
1892
 APA founded
 In 1887 G. Stanley Hall founds the American Psychological Association (APA) and
serves as its first president. He also establishes two key journals in the field:
American Journal of Psychology (1887) and Journal of Applied Psychology (1917),
among others.
1896
 Functionalism
Functionalism, an early school of psychology, focuses on the acts and functions of the mind
rather than its internal contents. Its most prominent American advocates are William James
and John Dewey, whose 1896 article The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology promotes
functionalism.
 Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic is the theory that people are motivated by powerful, unconscious drives and
conflicts. The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, developed an influential therapy
based on this assertion. Psychoanalysts use free association and dream analysis to help
uncover hidden motivations in the human mind.
 Structuralism
Edward B. Titchener, a leading proponent of structuralism, publishes his Outline of
Psychology. Structuralism is the view that all mental experience can be understood as a
combination of simple elements or events. This approach focuses on the contents of the mind,
contrasting with functionalism.
1896
 First psychology clinic
 Psychologist David Lightner Witmer opens the world's first psychological clinic to
patients, shifting his focus from experimental work to practical application of his
findings. After heading a laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, he now lives in
New York with his wife and their two young children.
1900
 Interpretation of Dreams
 In The Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud introduces his theory of
psychoanalysis. It was the first of 24 books he would write exploring such topics as
unconsciousness and sexuality.
1901
 Manual of Experimental Psychology
 In 1916, Edward Bradford Titchener introduces structuralism to the United States.
Structuralism is an approach that seeks to identify the basic elements of
consciousness.
1904
 First woman president of the APA 
 Mary Calkins is elected president of the American Physiological Society. She studied
with William James at Harvard and was denied a Ph.D. because of her gender.
1905
 IQ tests developed
  Intelligence quotient is an index of a person's mental age over physical age, developed
by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. From their beginning, such tests' accuracy and
fairness have been challenged; here are some of the most recent developments in the
field.
1908
 A Mind That Found Itself
 Clifford Beers' book inspired the mental hygiene movement in the United States.
Beers wrote about his experiences as a patient in 19th-century mental asylums. He
called for more humane treatment of patients and better education about mental illness
for the general population.
1909
 Psychoanalysts visit Clark University
 Freud gives his only speech in the United States at a symposium organized by G.
Stanley Hall at Clark University. Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung visit the U.S. for a
Psychoanalysis Symposium.
1913
 Behaviorism
 John B. Watson publishes “Psychology as Behavior,” launching behaviorism. In
contrast to psychoanalysis, behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable
behavior.
1917
 Army intelligence tests implemented
 During World War I, U.S. soldiers were tested for aptitude and aptitude in many areas
of life, including academic and work settings.
1920
 First African American doctorate in psychology
 Francis Cecil Sumner earns a Ph.D. in psychology under G. Stanley Hall at Clark
University. Sumner later serves as chair of the Howard University psychology
department.
1920
 The Child’s Conception of the World
 Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget publishes The Child’s Conception of the World,
prompting the study of cognition in the developing child.
1921
 Rorschach test created
 Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach devises a personality test based on patients’
interpretations of inkblots.
1925
 Menninger Clinic founded
 They take a compassionate approach to the treatment of mental illness, emphasizing
both psychological and psychiatric disciplines.
1927
 Menninger Clinic founded
 First Nobel Prize for psychological research
1929
 Electroencephalogram invented
 Psychiatrist Hans Berger invents the electroencephalogram and tests it on his son. The
device graphs the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the head.
1933
 Nazi persecution of psychologists
 Psychologists and researchers in psychology and psychiatry are persecuted in
Germany after the rise of Adolf Hitler. Many, including Freud, move to Britain or the
United States. Freud's works are banned and burned in public rallies; his widow,
Lucianne, is murdered by the Gestapo.
1935
 Alcoholics Anonymous
 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is founded by Bob Smith of Akron, Ohio. AA’s group
meetings format and 12-step program become the model for many other mutual-
support therapeutic groups.
1935
 Gestalt psychology
 Kurt Koffka, a founder of the movement, published Principles of Gestalt Psychology
in 1935.
1936
 First lobotomy in the United States
 By 1951, more than 18,000 such operations have been performed. Frontal lobotomies
are intended to relieve severe and debilitating psychosis.
1937
 The Neurotic Personality of Our Time
 Horney questions Freud's theories on the Oedipal Complex and castration anxiety.
The Neurotic Personality of Our Time is published by Oxford University Press, priced
£19.99, is available now in paperback or hardback.
1938
 The Behavior of Organisms
 B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of operant conditioning in his seminal work on
behaviorism, published in 1903.
1938
 Electroconvulsive therapy began
 Italian psychiatrist and neuropathologist Ugo Cerletti and his associates treat human
patients with electrical shocks to alleviate schizophrenia and psychosis. ECT, while
controversial, is proven effective in some cases and is still in use in 2001.
1946
 The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children
 Anna Freud publishes The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children, introducing basic
concepts in the theory and practice of child psychoanalysis.
1946
 National Mental Health Act Passed
  U.S. President Harry Truman signs the National Mental Health Act, providing
generous funding for psychiatric education and research for the first time in U.S.
history. This act leads to the creation in 1949 of the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH).
1951
 The first drug to treat depression 
 The drug imipramine was first approved for use in the United States under the name
Tofranil in 1974.
1952
 Thorazine tested
 The antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine (known as Thorazine) is tested on a patient in
a Paris military hospital. Approved for use in the United States in 1954, it becomes
widely prescribed.
1953
 APA Ethical Standards
 The American Psychological Association publishes the first edition of Ethical
Standards of Psychologists. The document undergoes continuous review and is now
known as APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologist and Code of Conduct.
1954
 Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy
In Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain, neurosurgeon Wilder G.
Penfield publishes results from his study of the neurology of epilepsy. His mapping of the
brain's cortex sets a precedent for the brain-imaging techniques that become critical to
biopsychology.
 The Nature of Prejudice
Gordon Allport's book is influential in establishing psychology's usefulness in understanding
social issues. The Nature of Prejudice draws on various approaches in psychology to examine
prejudice through different lenses. It is widely read by the general public and influential for
its examination of human nature.
1954
 Biopsychology
Neuroscientist Wilder G. Penfield begins to uncover the relationship between chemical
activity in the brain and psychological phenomena. His findings set the stage for widespread
research on the role of the brain in psychological phenomena such as depression, psychosis,
and even love at the heart of human emotion.
 Psychopharmacology
The development of psychoactive drugs in the 1950s and their approval by the FDA initiates
a new form of treatment for mental illness. Among the first such drugs is Doriden, also
known as Rorer, an anti-anxiety medication approved in 1954.
 Humanistic Psychology
After psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology emerges as the "third force" in
psychology. It is led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who publish Motivation and
Personality in 1954. This approach centers on the conscious mind, free will, human dignity,
and self-actualization.
1956
 Cognitive psychology 
 It is an early application of what is now known as the information-processing theory.
1957
 Syntactic Structures
 The book helped spawn psycholinguistics, the psychology of language.
1960
 FDA approves Librium
 The FDA approves the use of a drug called Librium for the treatment of non-
psychotic anxiety in 1959. A similar drug, diazepam (Valium) is approved in 1963.
1963
 Community Mental Health Centers Act passed
 Kennedy's Community Mental Health Centers Act mandates the construction of
community facilities instead of large, regional mental hospitals. Congress ends
support for the program in 1981, reducing overall funds and folding them into a
mental health block-grant program. President John F. Kennedy signed the actin 1963;
Congress ended support for it in 1981.
1964
 First National Medal of Science to psychologist
 Psychologist Neal E. Miller receives the National Medal of Science for his studies of
motivation and learning. He is the first psychologist to be awarded this honor. It is the
highest scientific honor given in the United States for research into motivation,
learning, and self-regulation.
1964
 FDA approves Lithium
 It is being marketed under the trade names Eskalith, Lithonate, and Lithane.
1973
 Homosexuality removed from DSM 
 The American Psychiatric Association removes homosexuality from the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The widely used reference manual
is revised to state that sexual orientation "does not necessarily constitute a psychiatric
disorder" Homosexuality is no longer considered a mental illness by the U.S. medical
community.
1974
 PET scanner tested
 A new brain scanning technique, Positron Emission Tomography (PET), is tested. By
tracing chemical markers, PET maps brain function in more detail than earlier
techniques.
1976
 Evolutionary psychology
 In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins begins to popularise the idea of evolutionary
psychology. This approach applies principles from evolutionary biology to the
structure and function of the human brain. It offers new ways of looking at social
phenomena such as aggression and sexual behavior in humans.
1976
 The Selfish Gene
 In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins shifts focus from individual animals to
individual genes. Text popularizes the field of evolutionary psychology.
1979
 Standardized IQ tests found discriminatory
 The U.S. District Court finds the use of standardized IQ tests in California public
schools illegal. The decision in the case, Larry P. v. Wilson Riles, upholds the
plaintiff's position that the tests discriminate against African American students and
are unfair.
1981
 AIDS and HIV first diagnosed
 The epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection presents mental health professionals with
challenges ranging from at-risk patients’ anxiety and depression to AIDS-related
dementia.
1984
 Insanity Defense Reform Act passed
 U.S. Congress revises federal law on the insanity defense. Partly in response to the
acquittal of John Hinckley, Jr. on charges of attempted assassination. The act places
the burden of proof for an insanity defense on the defendant.
1987
 Homeless Assistance Act passed
 The Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act provides the first federal funds
allocated specifically for the homeless population. The act includes provisions for
mental health services, and responds, in part, to psychological studies on
homelessness and mental disorders.
 The FDA approves the new anti-depressant medication fluoxetine, (Prozac). The
drug, and other similar medications, acts on neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin.
Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft made available in the U.S.
1990
 Cultural psychology
 In Acts of Meaning, Four Lectures on Mind and Culture, Jerome Bruner helps
formulate cultural psychology. Cultural psychology is an approach drawing on
philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology. Refined and expanded by Hazel Markus
and other researchers, it focuses on the influences and relationships among mind,
community, and behavior.
2000
 Sequencing of the Human Genome
 The Human Genome Project aims to provide a new understanding of human
development and disease by mapping the human genome.

Sociology
Mid 1600s to 1700s 
 The Enlightment
1789
 The French Revolution
Mid 1700s to Mid-1800s 
 The Industrial Revolution
The Birth of Sociology as a Discipline
 The term sociology was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838.
Comte felt that science could be used to study the social world. He introduced the
concept of positivism to sociology, which is a way to understand society based on
scientific facts.
 The 19th and 20th centuries were times of many social upheavals and changes in the
social order. Political revolutions sweeping Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries
led to a focus on social change. Many early sociologists were also concerned with the
Industrial Revolution and rise of capitalism.
The Modern History of Sociology
 In 1876, Yale University's William Graham Sumner taught the first course identified
as "sociology" in the United States. Sociology was first taught in high schools in
1911. By 1910, most U.S. colleges and universities had established sociology
departments
 During the 1930s and 1940s, American sociologists became the world leaders in
theory and research for many years. Sociology was also growing in Germany and
France during this period. However, the discipline suffered great setbacks as a result
of World Wars I and II.
 The American Sociological Association (ASA) was formed in 1905 with 115
members. By 2004, the ASA had almost 14,000 members and more than 40
"sections". The ISA boasted more than 3,300 members in 2004 from 91 different
countries.