Hadjdj or hadj, in Islam, the pilgrimage to the holy city

of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, which every adult Muslim must

make at least once in his or her lifetime

ISLAM HINDUISM

− Major world religion spread by the Beginnings and purpose

Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in 7th century CE − Bhakti or devotional Hinduism spread across
− Arabic term islām, literally “surrender,” the Indian sub-continent, and the old Vedic gods
illuminates the fundamental religious idea of were replaced by deities
Islam—that the believer accepts surrender to the like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Brahma, and Devi.
will of Allah (in Arabic, Allāh: God). − Temples were built to house a sacred symbol of
− Islamic theology affects all aspects of Muslim life. a particular God and were decorated with
− The Muslim’s submission of will to Allah ideally sculptural figures recalling episodes
appropriates space and reorganizes temporality from mythology.
− Five Pillars (in Arabic it literally means “corners”).
− Pillars are configured in a pattern of a quincunx EARLY INFLUENCES
(an arrangement of five objects in a square, with
• Early Buddhist, Stupa
four at the corners and one in the center)
• first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut
caves and repeated the idea of relief panels and
THE FIVE PILLARS
the decorative gavaska window form.
1. Shahādah • Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE,
the first free-standing Hindu temples were
The shahādah, or the profession of faith that begins with constructed with features such as towers and
projecting niches.
the verse “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is
• first materials used were wood and terracotta
the prophet of Allah”
• no mortar was used in the older temples
• so precise cutting of dressed stones was required
2. The Prayer

The second pillar consists of five daily canonical prayers. BUDDHISM

1. performed before sunrise, − a faith founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the

2. just after noon Buddha”)
3. in the late afternoon − one of the major world religions
4. immediately after sunset − most prominent in East and Southeast Asia
5. before retiring to bed
TYPES OF BUDDHISM

3. The Zakāt a. Theravada Buddhism: Prevalent in Thailand,

Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma
The obligatory tax called zakāt (“purification,” indicating
that such a payment makes the rest of one’s wealth b. Mahayana Buddhism: Prevalent in China,
religiously and legally pure). Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam

c. Tibetan Buddhism: Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal,

4. Fasting Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and
Fasting during the month of Ramadan (ninth month of the northern India
Muslim lunar calendar), laid down in the Qurʾān (2:183–
185), is the fourth pillar of the faith. Fasting begins at
daybreak and ends at sunset, and during the day eating,
drinking, and smoking are forbidden.

5. Hajj − started through a variety of influences, among

which the most evident are:
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 − Founding Prophet - spaces & orientation, ▪ Bedouins were the builders of Petra, and were
garden based on paradise quite prolific with masonry and sands tone
− Bedouin & Arabian influences- open court & construction.
climate adaptations, mud & grass construction, ▪ Sahn or open court is surrounded by cloisters
geometry and algebra called riwaq that allow for shade and ventilation
− Byzantine - AR character, domes, iconoclasm, form the center of the structure
minaret, arcade, portico as iwan, Damascus ▪ Water source like well or sometimes a small pool
masjid called howz, or fountain to relieve oneself from
the arid climate is always found in these central
− Sassanid - mosaic, masonry, Dome of the Rock
open courts.
− Visigoths and Umayyads
▪ Algebra and Geometry became tools for
− Ottoman - gender segregation and conversion planning & construction. Numbers and equations
of the Hagia Sofia into a masjid of proportions, geometric shapes and parabolic
CONTRIBUTIONS: curves became the source of wall ornamentation
as Islamic beliefs adapted iconoclasm.
▪ Moslems learned the technique of making ▪ These patterns became the basis for creating
paper from the Chinese warriors they had the mashrabiyas or wooden lattice-works that
captured in the battle serve as window screen or wall dividers.
▪ Arabic numerals were taken from India and
transmitted to the Western world became the BYZANTINE
standard mathematical symbols ▪ Umayyad caliphate is the empire responsible
▪ Heritage of Classical Greece- both scientific and for the early spread of Islam towards the
philosophical returned through translation Byzantine regions, Africa through Egypt and the
undertaken in Islamic lands Mesopotamia where they brought down the
FOUNDING PROPHET Sassanid empire, and later in the Iberian
peninsula of Spain.
▪ The prophet Muhammad founded the religion in ▪ In the Byzantine, the first major city they
the late the 6th century in Medina. occupied is Damascus in Syria in 634 AD, and
▪ He adopts the religion of the Arabs forefather, this is where they converted the city’s early
Ishmael, first-born of Abraham/Ibrahim, of the Christian Basilica into a masjid.
near-east monotheistic belief. ▪ In Damascus, the dome of the church dedicated
▪ It is believed he was born in Mecca in 571 AD to John the Baptist gave the ideal roofing for
Mecca and died in Medina in 632 AD. masjid/prayer hall. muqarnas - intricate dome
▪ He built the very first masjid, place where both ceiling ornamentation.
prayers and teachings were held and plan ▪ The ideal dome was the dome of Hagia Sofia,
became the basis for designing future then a Christian church. The Constantinople
mosques/masjid. church was the template then for many religious
▪ Made with thatch, mud-brick walls and palm buildings including that of Islam.
trunks facing an open court called sahn. ▪ In Damascus, Islam started to adapt iconoclasm
and maintained ornamentation to the use of floral
and geometric patterns and Arabic
calligraphy. The riwaq immediately adapted the
arcaded façade.

BEDOUIN & ARABIAN INFLUENCES SASSANID

▪ Earliest buildings, a masjid built with stone and ▪ The Sassanids were largely represented by the
mud-clay bricks. Mesopotamians and the Persians.

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 ▪ The Umayyads started to claim the site where − form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces
Mohammad is said to have ascended taking − Islamic calligraphy
advantage that the Jews where in diaspora. − geometric and interlace patterned ornament
▪ The Dome of the Rock was completed in 691AD
− New architectural elements:
in timber/wooden construction. It needed
rebuilding and was completed in 1023 AD.
− cylindrical minarets
▪ Mesopotamian masonry was a major building − pointed arch
technique used by the Umayyads. − Muqarnas
▪ Mosaic provided ornamentation with iconoclastic − Arabesque
geometrical and floral patterns. − multifoil
THE MOST IMPORTANT BUILDINGS IN THE HOLY BY EIGHT CENTURY, THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS
ENCLOSURE ARE: OF A MOSQUE INCLUDE:
1. Dome of the Rock ▪ mihrab – a niche in the prayer wall indicating
− The Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount – the direction of Mecca – an arcaded courtyard
the “Noble Sanctuary” and the third holiest and minarets.
shrine of Islam ▪ Minarets – massive towers, first used for the call
− Associated with the mystical night journey and to prayer in the fourteenth century.
ascension of the Prophet Mohammad with many
Mosque - part of a larger complex include:
biblical figure
− Abraham, Jacob Jesus, David and Solomon ▪ Koran school (madrasa), hospital, lodging for
among others, accepted as prophets by Islam travelers (caravanserai) and baths (hammam)
− The shape of the sanctuary was determined by ▪ Islamic architecture is also famous for massive
the platform created by Herod the Great for the fortifications and desert places
Jewish Temple, destroyed by the Romans in AD
70. DECORATIVE SYSTEMS
2. Aqsa Mosque ▪ Ornament and elaborate interior decoration are
VISIGOTHS AND UMAYYADS integral to Islamic architecture.
▪ The decorative motifs consist of elaborate,
▪ The Umayyad empire declined and its territories dense, intertwining, infinitely repeating
were mostly dominated by the Abassids. vegetative, geometric and calligraphic elements.
▪ Nasrid Emirate built one of the grandest of ▪ nonfigural art - strictly nonrepresentational in
palaces of the Middle ages, the Alhambra, the mosques and other sacred places,
“Red Fort”. ▪ figural representation - tolerated in a secular
▪ Alhambra, is a palace where geometry provided context
the best forms of ornamentation on lattice works ▪ Use of horseshoe arch, adapted from a much
and mossaic, while ideal visual proportions were simpler version common in buildings of the
derived simply through the use of compass and Visigoth their predecessors in Spain.
straight edge. ▪ Muqarnas - a three-dimensional plaster
▪ It had 3 palaces, the Lions Palace, the Comares decoration resembling honeycombs or stalactites
Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal to embellish domes, vaults and niches
Palace. It has several courtyards and a garden
worthy to symbolize paradise as mentioned in the ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
scriptures. ▪ Countries into which Islam first expanded were
THE EAST INFLUENCE: already rich in building tradition. Marble was
generally available, lime and gypsum for mortars
▪ Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam and plasters were usually readily procurable,
spread to Southeast Asia. variety of building stones is found in areas and
DISTINCT FEATURES DEVELOPED:
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 the techniques of working them and building in ▪ calligraphy and pattern-making took the place of
masonry had been highly developed figures
▪ Cyclopean masonry had survived from
antiquity, and Roman quarries such as those at
Baalbek still yielded massive stones.
▪ Most masonry structures of importance were in ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH ASIA
arched, vaulted or domed forms
▪ True voussoirs were used in the curved shapes, − Islam arrived in India around the 13th century.
and interlocking voussoirs guarded against − Meanwhile in the Near East, Mongols and
earthquakes. Afghans have melted into a dynastic alliance that
▪ Cements, plasters and stucco were used for created the Timurid empire. The Timurids who
bas-relief carving, and the highly decorative were Islam adapted the building techniques of the
muqarnas techniques employed in domes, vaults Seljuks (Afghan-Russian-Turks) and have
and arches. perfected techniques and design for the following:
▪ The greatest volume of building in Islamic lands − Paradise-Garden, built for masjids, palaces, or
has been achieved with earth walling. mausoleums (Seljuks where likely influenced by
▪ The architecture of Islam as a matter of arcuated the Babylonian hanging gardens of the ancient
masonry construction in which its artisans past)
achieved the highest level of finish and invention. − Tileworks evolved from mosaics and geometric
patterns
Characteristic features of Muslim architecture are − 3-dimensional surface decoration which
the pointed arch, and the horseshoe arch eventually gave rise to filigree-like (marble lattice
screens) called jaali.
▪ The origins - pre-Muslim era in the eastern
territories of Byzantium, and to the Sassanian THESE STRUCTURES MAY BE RESOLVED INTO
Empire. THREE MAIN DIVISIONS, NAMELY:
▪ The pointed arch - earliest significant Muslim
monuments and carried to the western 1. The Delhi or Imperial Style (1200 to 1526 C.E):
Mediterranean by Muslim in the eighth century. Imperial style of architecture was developed and
▪ (West) The horseshoe shape is round-headed, continued at Delhi and its surroundings for nearly four
(East) the round arch disappeared after the ninth centuries beginning at the close of 12th century up to the
century, when the four-centered arch evolved. middle of 16th century, when it was succeeded by Moguls.
▪ The use of cusping and of guarding colonnettes
or nook-shafts. Cusping has a pre-Muslim 2. Architecture of Provinces (1150 to 1687 C.E):
history in church buildings in Syria in the sixth
The second of these styles, the provincial refers to the
century, but was first used regularly in decorative
building art developed in the self-contained Provinces
frets to arches in late eighth-century Iraq.
away from Delhi and their governors under the obeisance
▪ Nook-shafts are found in Coptic and Hellenistic
to Delhi Sultans.
Christian architecture of the fifth and sixth
centuries. 3. Mogul Period (1526 to 1707 C.E):
▪ The regular use in Muslim architecture is dated
to the ninth century, after which they were used In the second quarter of 16th century, Moguls raised and
widely for entrance openings of significance. brought whole of India under their control. Mogul
▪ By the eleventh century an important decorative architecture was the latest and ripest form of Indo-Islamic
element had also become established - Islamic architecture continued to flourish till 18th century.
muquarnas and or stalactite corbel. Religious structures - the most significant of which are in
▪ Muquarnas are superimposed corbels, angled this garden, promoting the Paradise theme that became a
so that the quoin of the lower corbel is coincident focal development in Persian Islamic architecture. The
with the groin of the two superimposed corbels sultanate of Delhi, though originated from this city,
above. eventually came to build Agra, the capital of the dynasty
that came to conquer them – the Mughals.
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Before the Mughals came, there were already distinct ▪ Limited local influences
Hindu-Islamic elements in the region and these are: ▪ Dynasties that contributed to the styles include:
1. Gulbarga Phase
▪ Chhatri – Dome on post and lintel pavilion, 2. Bidar Phase
reminiscent of the shrine structures 3. Golkonda Phase (Qutub Shahi Dynasty
▪ Arcuated post & lintel – merger of local post
and lintel construction with arcuated Islamic PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:
structure. GUJARAT
▪ Jaali – perforated stone screen similar to filigrees
▪ Haveli – mansion for the affluent sultan which ▪ Among the earliest (14th century)
eventually utilized also for the town house of the ▪ Two factors are responsible for the prodigious
affluent (the equivalent of a quasar) output of architecture in this region:
▪ Zenana-the harem section of the house ▪ Proliferated by the Ahmed Shahi dynasty as a
▪ Mardana – male section of the house way to prove their influence and wealth
▪ The supply of skilled indigenous workmen from
The need to add a finial in lotus or bell-form led to the the north.
popularity of onion/bulbous dome in the region, but of
different origins than the Russian onion domes. PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:
MANDU

▪ Also known as the architecture from

The famous Taj Mahal is a mausoleum dedicated by the Mandavgad in Madhya Pradesh, an ancient city
ruler Shah Jahan to his wife, Mumtas Mahal when she in western part of central India, where Afghan
died young while giving birth. The plan is said to be of architecture and culture have become part of the
highly formal balance (symmetrical) that a jawab (used as local culture
guest house) mirroring the masjid needed to be built to ▪ Style rose from migration of afghan Muslims into
maintain formal balance in the complex. According to the city
historians, the recognized architect is Ustad Ahmad.
PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE ARE
Construction materials were originally timber and GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS:
masonry based. Precious stones inlays and incisions
were mostly using marble and granite. Stone masonry is Bengal – Sri Lankan traditional architecture applied in
mostly of corbelled assembly. Chuman, or limestone temple construction. The string Buddhist and Hindu
plaster, is sometimes used for ornamentation to create construction styles have largely influenced the latter
the incised 3-d traceries. period Indo-Islamic structures.

Building typologies: Manily built with terracotta and masonry techniques due
to the abundance of these materials.
▪ masjids/mosque
▪ minars (minaret), some of which were not limited
to mosques, can also be built to commemorate a PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:
victory of certain rulers. JAUNPUR
▪ sarais or caravancies, equivalent of the Arabian
wikala. ▪ Pylon facades
▪ dargahs/darwasa or commemorative gateways ▪ Arches are Tudor-like
▪ Haveli – quasar or townhouse of the affluent ▪ Built based on traditional trabeated pillar system,
▪ Mausoleums hence adaptation to masonry still shows timber
▪ Bagh – paradise garden of Persian origin construction elements
▪ Pillar accentuated
Other styles: Deccan, based in the cities of Bidar and
Golkanda (14th century onwards)

▪ Followed the Lodi and Sayyid structures and

with strong Persian influences.

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 − blend of local and exotic designs (Indian, Islamic ▪ The walls of a mosque are decorated in
and Persian styles) geometrical patterns in different coloured
− the impact of Islamic ideas and techniques on marbles, plaster, stucco, paints and glazed tiles.
the established civilization of Hindu kingdoms in
TRABEATE AND ARCUATE:
India.
− a synthesis between two divergent building ▪ The indigenous architecture of India was of
systems that of Hindus and Muslims. Trabeate order, in which the void spaces in the
walls were spanned by means of horizontal lintels
Type of Structures Built:
or beams.
▪ Religious structures- Mosques and Tombs ▪ Arch technique is different used by
▪ Secular structures- forts, palaces, pavilions, Mohammedan builders. An arch can be made up
town-gates and gardens. of bricks or pieces of stones.

RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES ROOFS:

COMPARISON OF HINDU AND ISLAM WORSHIPPING ▪ Roofs are mostly flat.

STRUCTURES: ▪ temples have pyramidal roofs or Sikharas.
▪ With the advent of Mohammedans, the dome
There is a great contrast in the two religions of Hindu and came into existence.
Islam in respect of worshipping structures, the temple and
the mosque. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR PRODUCTION OF
GREAT ISLAM BUILDINGS:
PLANNING AND FOCAL POINT:
1. late development
▪ The temple is an abode of the deity to which it is
consecrated and contains massive walls, long 2. due to the remarkable genius of Indian craftsmen
corridors, compartments and high
THE MOSQUE (MASJID)
embellishments.
▪ The mosque is open in its design & has no need The mosque or masjid is the worshipping place of Islams.
of a central shrine or image of deity. It is open in its design.
▪ It is enough for the devotee to turn to the
direction of Mecca. Main elements:
▪ Sanctuary is the sacred part of the mosque and
▪ Sanctuary on west side
the focal point is the Mihrab in the sanctuary.
▪ Mihrab – a sacred focal point in the Sanctuary
▪ Minbar – a pulpit in the Sanctuary
▪ Surrounding cloisters called Liwans
THE SIMILAR ELEMENTS IN AN INDIAN TEMPLE AND ▪ An open courtyard called Sahn
MOSQUE ARE:

▪ Surrounding cloisters SANCTUARY

▪ Sanctuary on west. But some temples are
exceptional to this. ▪ Sanctuary is a pillared hall opening itself on east
▪ In a mosque, the central court is totally open. into the courtyard.
▪ But in a temple the main temple occupies the ▪ The hall is used for religious congregations and
area of the court. prayers called Namaz.
▪ A portion of the sanctuary is screened off into a
WALLS AND SURFACES: compartment for women (Zenana) in some
mosques.
▪ The temple was given the texture of stone and
▪ The sanctuary has a central nave and side
the natural tint.
aisles.
▪ The presentation of human figures, sculptures,
▪ The nave is often spacious and raised higher in
imagery are prohibited in Islam structures.
roof than the aisles.

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 ▪ Some mosques have only sanctuary and they Designs of Mosques
had no central open court and cloisters.
▪ The façade of sanctuary was monumentally built − Layout of these mosques is same in all mosques
in some mosques. having sanctuary on west side and cloisters on
▪ There is continuous change, innovation and other sides.
development in the design of pillars, arches, − Entrances, façades, arches and domes are
mihrab, parapets, kiosks and turrets. varied in their mass and design.
− Row of arches became the prominent feature.
MIHRAB − Sanctuary façades varied in designs like simple,
ornamental, artistic, monumental, fine and royal.
▪ A religious structure however needs a focal
point. Feature wise examples are mentioned here:
▪ To meet this, a recess or an alcove called
Mihrab is placed in the center of western wall in 1. Sanctuary nave is spacious and pillars less in
the nave of sanctuary indicating the Qibla or some mosques. Eg- Adina masjid, Pandua
direction of prayer. Mihrab is a prayer niche. Jaunpur mosques.
2. Classical decorated pillars are made in the nave
MINBAR making a Rotunda extended in tiers above. Eg-
Jama masjid, Ahmedabad.
▪ a raised platform with steps for the preacher to
3. Sanctuary and cloister entrances are much
deliver the sermon
elaborated, projected and highlighted. Eg-
▪ placed to the north of Mihrab in the sanctuary.
Jaunpur mosques and Jama masjid,
OPEN COURTYARD AND CLOISTERS Ahmedabad.
4. Central arch of Sanctuary façade is made
▪ In front of sanctuary an open place takes place different by means of foliated arch. Eg- Jama
without roof called Sahn. The other three sides masjid, Bijapur.
are covered by pillared cloisters called Liwans. 5. One and only example of Mosque which has no
The mosque is totally enclosed and secured. It is open central court is- Jama masjid, Gulbarga.
entered usually through three gates each on east, 6. Worshiping hall for Royals (Chapel) and Zenana
south and north except on west. Main entrance were added in first floor in a grand scale. Eg-
mostly takes place on east. A water tank is placed Adina masjid, Pandua and Jaunpur mosques.
in the center of open court for ablutions. 7. Royal and palace type mosques are- Jama
Occasionally a fountain also takes place in this masjid, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and Jama masjid,
tank. Delhi.
SCREEN OF ARCHES AND DOME 8. Simple design mosques are- Jama masjid,
Mandu and Bijapur.
▪ The mosque sanctuary appeared like a temple
pillared hall (Mandapa). Therefore to impose the THE TOMB
appearance of a mosque, a separate screen of ▪ The custom of Hindus is to cremate the dead
arches of huge size was added across the front body.
of the sanctuary. ▪ Tomb is the everlasting abode for the dead.
▪ Arch became a symbol of Islam structures. Finest Indo-Islamic architecture was developed in
Examples: these structures.
▪ The tomb building consists of a single
1. Qutb mosque, Delhi compartment or a chamber known as ‘Huzrah’ or
2. Arhai-din-ka Jhompra mosque, Ajmer ‘Estanah’. The cenotaph or Zarih is in the
3. Eg- Jama Masjid at Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at center. The whole structure is roofed over by a
Champaner dome.
4. South India mosques were built in provinces in ▪ The mortuary chamber called the ‘Maqbarah’
Malwa, Bijapur and Deccan, the sanctuary façade takes place in the ground underneath with the
is not separately built or added. grave or Qabr in the middle.
▪ Mihrab is placed in the western wall.
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 ▪ A separate mosque building is added in some of ▪ The Wavs of Gujarat took the form of extensive
the larger mausoleums, the whole being subterranean galleries of a high architectural
contained within an enclosure called ‘Rauza’. value.
▪ Important tombs are designated as ‘Dargahs’ a
Persian word signifying a court or palace.

Designs of Tombs:

▪ Tomb building designs vary from one to other

and that of Sultans mainly Tughlaqs, Sayyids and
Lodis are either Square or Octagonal in plans
built at Delhi.
▪ Square tombs are taller and Octagonal tombs
are wider in general. These structures had
battering walls, sphere head fringes in arches,
merlon parapets, central dome and kiosks.
▪ Designs of Mogul tombs are large, spacious,
fine, rich and monumental in appearance
consisting of surrounding garden, enclosure walls
and gateways.
▪ They are square in plan having chamfered
corners. Domes, kiosks and slender turrets sky-
lined on these tomb structures. Fine Ashlar
masonry and close inlaid patterns are seen in
Mogul tomb structures.

Examples:

1. Earlier tomb – Tomb of Shams-ud-din Altumush,

Delhi
2. Beautiful tomb – Taj Mahal, Agra
3. Large tomb – Golgumbaz, Bijapur
4. Fine and Variety tomb – Itmad ud Daula, Agra
5. Later tomb – Mausoleum of Safdar Jung, Delhi

SECULAR STRUCTURES

TIN DARWAZA, AHMEDABAD, 1425 C.E

From Indus to Hindu
▪ a triumphal archway in the city of Ahmedabad.
▪ central feature of Ahmed shah’s processional - The Indus Valley civilization began in 2500 BC
route, connecting the palace and the Jama dwindled into non-urbanized fragmented Indic
Masjid, Ahmedabad. settlements by 1500 BC.
▪ The archway is known as Tin Darwaza or triple - 500 BC, Indian settlements (mixture of Indus and
doors. Aryans from Russia & Persia) began to converge
into population areas, considered the Indian
WAVS OR STEP WELLS
Kingdoms Period, fueled by 3 indigenous religion,
▪ common in the towns of western India. Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
▪ the region is hot and nearer to desert, hence - Lasted for about 1700 years.
public wells were built to meet people’s water
VEDIC PERIOD AND NANDA PERIOD
needs

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 − Hinduism started during the Vedic Age together − The stupa being a relic repository is essentially
with the Sanskrit and the epic Mahabrata prior to a burial mound (which at first contained the ashes
the 2nd Urbanism of south Asian people. of a Buddhist priest), similar to tumulus and
− By 500 AD, population growth around Ganges Aegean tholos of the Mediterranean. It
River fueled urban lifestyles centered on symbolizes the ascend to the enlightened state of
Hinduism. a former human being (or Nirvana in Hinduism)
− It paved way to a system of government, initially − A stupa contains the sarcophagus where the
headed by priests, nobilities & warriors, skilled enlightened monk is buried. Relics vaults were
workers and farmers, and unskilled workers. added. As it evolved the sarcophagus vanished
− Nanda Kingdom - first Indian kingdom period and mostly the relic vault remained.
− Gupta Kingdom - around the time of the In southeast Asia, the stupa evolved to integrate the 5
Hellenistic period in Europe and Near East. elements of nature, thus the 5-storey version.
− Hinduism is anchored on the following beliefs:
• Reincarnation and souls are reborn in a Vihara is the term used to denote the Buddhist
newly created human or animal life. monastery, the place where monks reside and study the
teachings of Gautama/Siddhartha Buddha, and recite the
• Karma: Every action brings about
sutras (prayers). The Vihara originally has the chaitya.
certain results. There is no escaping the
consequences of one’s actions Chaitya is the sacred and main prayer hall were originally
• Dharma: A set of rules that must be done in India with:
followed by all living things if they wish to
work their way up the ladder of • semi-circular (apsidial) roof
reincarnation. • a small rectangular door-way which opens to a
• Ahimsa: Supports the idea of being in vaulted hall, with likewise apsidal end and divided
harmony with nature. Seeing all life as longitudinally by two colonnades forming a broad
sacred – a part of a “oneness”. Results in nave in the center and two side aisles.
the life principle of non-violence
• Caste system – Brahma (priest on top,
and slaves at the bottom.
JAINISM AND JAIN SHRINE/TEMPLES

− Then third kingdom was the period where − Before temple buildings for Buddhist worship
Hinduism and the Ashoka Empire spread east- happened in South Asia, the 3 major religion
most to Myanmar and west-most to eastern that emerged from the region co-existed by
Persia. having small outdoor shrines cut-out from caves,
− 263 BC, Ashoka the Great converted to or when detached were made of stone and
Buddhism, which turned his vast territory to timber, sometimes covered with thatch.
Buddhist societies − Stone building technologies in the region started
with Jain buildings. These buildings were
centered on a shrine covered with a corbelled
THE ASHOKA KINGDOM AND THE RISE OF dome or spire (on corbeled vault) and with a
BUDDHISM AND SOUTH ASIAN ECCLESIASTICAL pillared porch. The plan is octagonal within a
ARCHITECTURE square, smaller, lighter yet more detailed in
ornamentation than latter evolved Buddhist
− The Mauryan/Ashoka period is known for the temple.
development of Buddhist architecture.
− The corbelled ceiling has a central pendant
− South Asian Buddhist architecture are the accent.
monasteries of vihara, chaitya or the prayer hall
− Persian/Aryan descent of the early Vedans, Jain
and the stupa or the repository of a Buddha relic.
temples integrated columns based on Persian
− Chaitya became integrated with the stupa. construction influences.
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 − With the corbelled vault of brackets in octagonal • Garbahgriha is elevated (as in Dravidian
layout, the Buddhist based the vaulting of their and Chalukyan style) and capped with
stupa. The pillared portico is the basis of the vimana, below a sikhara.
cloisters (concentric square) plan later developed • Mandapa (cloister halls) is also integrated
in Buddhist temples. with spires or towers, with fewer pillars
− Vedic period up to the Ashoka period, Hindu • Sanctuary crown depicting a chariot or
structures were mostly Brahmanical shrines vimana is often single storey hence not
(priest-centered shrines), which were built always prominent
outdoors and mostly with local materials, with • Plans are predominantly square (similar to
timber, thatch, or stones, if these were in the base of a stupa)
abundance in the area.
• Gopuram is not prominent
− After the fall of the Ashoka Kingdom and
• A sacred pool is mostly integrated
Hinduism came to flourish to follow the form and
• More than 1 entrance/gopuram is possible
massiveness of latter Ashoka period Viharas
(Buddhist monasteries). • Spires are lotus-bud like & circular in plan
mostly on the sanctuary.
− Hindu temples were ornate with double-headed,
eagles, elephants, divinities, human figures, etc. DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE “KOIL” (TEMPLES)
RISE OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE – Dravidian, Tamil architecture, or architecture of the
THE GUPTA KINGDOM southern style, is characterized by intricate imagery of
the Hindu doctrine Bragavad Gita and Mahabrata. This
− After the Mauryan/Ashoka period came the Chola
developed in southern India where stone, stone-masons
dynasty, Chera and Pandyan empires
and sculptors abound. Nagaran influences, if any, may
(3rd century AD) in a period called the Gupta
have come from the Kalinga architecture.
kingdom.
− 3 types of architecture evolve from the above KALINGA ARCHITECTURE
period, the Nagara of the north and Dravidian
of the south, and lastly the Chalukyan of The Kalinga region is on the north eastern part of India,
central India. Of the 3, the Dravidian became the where the Nagara style flourished. However, due to the
most wide-spread. region’s latter adaptations of Hinduism, it differs slightly
from the Nagara architecture and slightly adapted the
NAGARA SHRINES latter Tamil type of sikhara (the stone mound roof of the
shrine or garbagriha) called Rekha-deula, by having a
− Nagara architecture came earlier than pyramidal form, slightly curving at top with the amalaka
Dravidian architecture. It originated from (lotus top).
northern India during the early Gupta Kingdom
(6th-10th century AD). − The Sun Temple (1200s BCE) at Konark, an
− It derived spaces from the older Buddhist example of Kalinga architecture, was built to glorify
architecture, where in the most sacred part or the ‘surya’ the sun god at Konark.
sanctuary is represented by a mound. − The temple shrine (garbagriha) is capped with a
− The main parts of the temple are the gopuram sikhara (stone roof/cap) formed like a ‘ratha’ or
(gateway), mandapa (porches), chawadi (hall) wheeled chariot.
and garbha-griha or sanctuary, typically with − The temple is depicted to be resting on a large
statuary niches. platform with twelve giant wheels.
− Among its notable traits of Nagara temples are: − Like most Hindu temples, the shrine building is
• Sikhara (or base/platform of the lotus bud elevated and occupies the highest floor level in the
(amalaka), sometimes signifying the complex.
mythical mount Meru) is often more
CHALUKYAN SHRINES/TEMPLES
prominent than the vimana
− A third architecture evolved during the Chalukya
dynasty in the central part of India (6th-12th c.
10
 AD.). It is likewise developed form a rock-cut-out − Buddhist temple complexes always required
structures gateways to mark the entry of the holy place,
− Badami was the capital of this dynasty. It was gateways were not necessary in early Nagara
protected by a fort wall surrounded by a Temples, but became quite prominent in Dravidian
moat. There were other water features in the city style temples.
to hold sporting water events for the royal − The garbhagriha or the naos of the Hindu temple
families. always has its entrance facing the east, and thus
− Badami was a religious center eith the goddess the gopuram takes east most side of the
Banashankari as the main deity. complex. Secondary gateways may likewise be
− Chalukyan architecture combined certain placed facing other cardinal directions as Hindu
features of the Nagara and Dravidia to generate complexes tend to maintain rectangular
a new set of architectural characteristics. It is development.
generally characterized by high platform/loggia,
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
ornate door frames, plinth moulding, and the
presence of vestibule for the Chawadis or halls. − While Buddhist temple complexes always required
− Cave or rock cut-out structure gateways to mark the entry of the holy place,
gateways were not necessary in early Nagara
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Temples, but became quite prominent in Dravidian
− The early Vedic and Nanda periods gave the style temples. The garbhagriha or the naos of the
foundation for the development of both Buddhist Hindu temple always has its entrance porch
and Hindu architecture in South Asia, where the (mandapa) facing the east, and thus the main
Jain religious structure was the first to evolve from gopuram takes east most side of the complex.
the SHRINE typology. Its early temple was like the − Nagaran style traces its roots to the Kuta, Valabhi
small Roman temples but it with own characteristic and Phamnsana shrine roofs. When integrated,
aedicula based on the shrine roofing of the period, these shrine tops form the Latina shrine roof which
and with a portico. then characterized the Nagara style. This
− Timber and thatch where the most common development happened around the 10th century, in
materials with occasional stone structure primarily the north and northwestern India and parts of
for rock-cut-out shrines and small temples. Pakistan.
− The shrine typologies of the period which then − Shikahara became the most prominent structure
gave rise to the architectural characteristics of in Nagara temples, capped with egg-shaped or
Buddhist and Hindu architecture. The stupa found disk-shape amalaka. On rare occasions, instead of
its origins in the apsidial proto-valabhi and amalaka the amalaka, a bell spire form the top of the
roofed shrines and a combination of influences Shikhara. The Shikhara symbolizes a mountain
from other shrine roof types, while hindu and sometimes textured stepped-like horizontal
architecture is influenced by most of these roof bands called buhmi.
types, particularly the Nagara style. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
− These shrine roofs then became a sort of classical
order for south Asian religious structures. − The Dravidian garbhagriha dome/spire/mound cap
is based on the kuta and the shala. The style evolved
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS to have a more prominent vimana, and is generally
with a gate or more, with the main gate facing
− Buddhist often has its torana at the south of the
towards the east.
complex. Oftentimes, the road that leads to a
Buddhist temple (generally a north-south oriented − The integration of a reflection pond between the
road) becomes a basis for the natural growth of the gateway and the shrine (and sometimes before the
place into a town as pilgrims flock the area for entering the complex) then became another Hindu
worship which then necessitates that shops and inn temple plan tradition.
be built along this road. − Dravidian temples tend to have longer mandapa
than the Nagara. The gopuram is built higher than
the vimana. If the vimana symbolizes a chariot, the
11
 gopuram is more representational of mount Meru, a • brick walls enclosing narrow vaulted corridors
mythical mountain told in the Sanskrit and embracing a solid masonry core, which had
Mahabrata. centrally-placed niches on each side to
− Because of its prominent Vimana, which symbolizes accommodate statues of Buddha;
a chariot or palace, ornamentation with figures and • walls are decorated with frescoes or sculptured
shalas (pediment symbolizing the mouth of a bas-reliefs
mythical creature) become a common • central core rose in a series of receding storeys,
ornamentation. These shalas continue the mini and was crowned with a tapering shikhara-shaped
shrine/aedicula theme that characterize walls of finial.
palaces.
− With the Dravidian chariot theme, the ratha (wheel) Both kinds of religious buildings were also referred to as
is symbolized by the piers of the walls or the plinth of pagodas (paya).
the structure.
• The monasteries (kyaung) and ordination halls
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS (thein) from monks were derived from wood
prototypes, and libraries (pitakat-taik), housing
− Northern and southern styles evolved in a bud-growth the sacred Buddhist texts, resembled the simpler
like transformation, with the early Jain temple as an temple designs.
inspiration, a portico-ed structure which emerged in • Pagan period – there are 5000 stupas and
the late Vedic and Nanda periods. temples within the boundaries of the capital. Post-
− Nanda period temples are simply enlarged shrines Pagan era Burma declined architecturally, as well
that became available for access and movement of as politically.
Brahmas/priests to attend to prayers and rituals. • Chinese influence contributed to the
− From Jain temple plan, the Buddhist temple evolved emergence of the ‘Pagoda” style, which
to have an apsidial end based on the Valabhi ceiling characterized the architecture of the 17th to the
(ex.barrel vaulted Buddhist temple at Karla & Elora 19thcenturies.
caves), but eventually turned to have a central • Typical of the Burmese feeling for rich and
sanctuary (stupa) arrangement. The stupa plan itself intricate artistry
becomes more like a compounded square and
eventually turned circular in certain regions (ex.: stupa CAMBODIA
at Sanchi). The Buddhist adapted the octagonal
ceiling and came to relegate octagonal elements and − The earliest recorded capital of Cambodia (c.
circular elements for the divine. fifth century AD) was Vyadhapura) (Angkor Borei)
on the lower reaches of Mekong River, 200 km
− The Hindu temple plan took a “blossoming” evolution
(120 miles) from the sea and the port Oc Eo.
where wings were first added and appendages
“sprouted” from corners in between these − It was an agglomeration of wooden houses on
appendages. piles, connected by little canals, linked to a large
waterway capable of taking sea-going ships.
− Later Funanese and early Khmer architectural
development (7th and 8th centuries) was centered
upon Sambor Prei Kuk
− Wooden buildings gave way to more substantial
brick and stone imitations of timber prototypes,
BURMESE ARCHITECTURE which show a mixture of Indian forms

• Stupa EARLY CLASSICAL KHMER PERIOD

• massive brick construction of domical external Three important architectural events indicating the
form, transitional stage between the pre-Angkor and early
• built upon a plinth of three or five diminishing Angkor styles.
terraces;
• Temple is usually square in plan
12
 1. Creation of a city and temple mountain in 800 • The corbelled vaulting was never modified and
AD on the hill of Phnom Kulen ,near Angkor and permitted only the spanning of small space
the lake of Tonle -Sap.
• No mortar was used
2. Building of another capital (893) on the hill and
round the temple mountain of Phnom Bakeng, • Everywhere sculptural ornaments breaks
close to Phnom Kulen, terraced into the hill as a through the architectural lines particularly at
five-levelled pyramid, with isolated towers on the Angkor Thom.
topmost tier and smaller towers of the lower
levels. PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
• walled rectangle A traditional Borneo long house plan
• temple and the central intersection of the
principal avenues radiating towards gate • Socialization and working areas are the ruai and
in the four sides of the moated enclosure, tempuan
• main gate facing east
3. Construction at Roulus,Angkor, of the archetypal • Private areas are the are the bilik, dapor and
Khmer urban irrigation system. An immense toilet and bath (recent addition).
artificial lake, ‘Barai’ Lolei about 3 km (2 miles) • In larger rumah a meliga (maiden’s quarters)
long and 800 m ( half a mile) wide was formed by and panggau (bachelors’ quarter) mezzanines
earthen dykes to store water from the Stung may be present
Roluos River flowing into a network of moats and • The veranda side of the ruai is called tanju, over-
waterways. looking the rice fields.
• The lake provided for the need of
community, its final purpose being to irrigate MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES (MYANMAR)
the paddy fields.
− While early religion in the region were mostly
TRANSITIONAL CLASSICAL KHMER animists with outdoor shrines and rituals,
PERIOD (10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES) Buddhism introduced the idea of prayer halls,
sacred monument (stupa) and monastery (school
Evolution of temple mountain continued in Baksei to study the doctrine).
Chamkrong, Angkor (c.911), the first to be built up in stone − With Myanmar/Burma, the period of monumental
(laterite) in pyramidal terraces from flat ground, and Koh structures started with the Pyu period. Where
Ker(921), 64 km (40 miles) north-east of Angkor, cylindrical stuppas (called chedi) with 4 archways
constructed on an artificial lake by damming a stream, the started to appear, centered to the ancient city of
Beikthano.
normal east-west axis of the city altered to align with it
− Most Pyu structures (mostly in ruins now) are
• Ta Keo (completed c.1010 where classical five studied to have similar architectural
terraces and five colossal towers were characteristics as the Andrah Buddhist
architecture of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in
introduced, and still another in the Baphuon
southern India.
(c.1050)), in which the style and scale of the
temple mountains became formalized. Bawbawgyi Paya stupa
THE CLASSICAL KHMER PERIOD ( 12TH AND EARLY
13TH CENTURIES)

was dominated by two majestic architectural

achievements:

• Angkor Wat, the temple city of Suryavarman II

(1113-50)
• Angkor Thom, the remodelled capital of
Jayavarman VII (1180-1218)
• Stone was used like a wood, and stone walls
were often reinforced with concealed timber
beams.
13
 • Bawbawgyi Paya stupa is among the best structures were built. Tantric Buddhism and
preserved from the period, estimated to be Hinduism where minor religions during the period.
constructed between the 6th and the 7th • Approximately 1000 stupas, 10,000 temples and
centuries. It is 46m in height and with about 24m 3,000 monasteries were built during the reign of
high vault inside. Conservationists believe this the Pagan kingdom.
brick masonry structure was once covered with
• The Bagan architecture is influential to the
stucco.
development of the architecture of the Siam
• Located near Pyay, south of Beikthano.
kingdom (Thailand) which came centuries later,
centered on Ayutthaya.

Dhammayangyi Temple

Leimyyethna Paya Temple

The most prominent of the numerous temples is the

Dhammayangyi Temple, built around 1165 during the
The Leimyyethna Paya temple located in Pyu is another reign of Bagan king Narathu. It is believed to have not
brick masonry Buddhist (praying hall) temple, with a been completely finished due to the untimely death of the
square plan and a central pillar supporting the tower ruler.
above(now mostly only the ruins remain) which may be
construed as a stupa. The temple, surrounded by moat, Shwezigon temple
is believed to be constructed around 600AD.

Pagan Kingdom

• The stupa at Shwezigon temple, built in the

11th century, is significant in the sense that it set the
standard for letter-built stupas in Myanmar.
• Ananda Pahto temple is one of Bagan’s earliest
• The rise of the Pagan kingdom during the temples, completed around 1105.
9th century marked the golden age of Buddhist
monumental structure construction.
• Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism took turns
in reigning over the period between the 9th and
13th century, when most of the monumental
14
Shwemawdaw Pagoda • Gopura/gate
• Library (separate building)
• moat and reflection pond

Banteay Kdei

• After the period of decline caused by the Mongol

attacks in the 13th century, Burmese monarchy
briefly rose again in 1510 with the Toungoo
kingdom, while annexing Laos and the Siamese
Ayuthaya kingdom. Earliest buddhist structures
restored under this kingdom is the Shwemawdaw
Pagoda in Bago, Myanmar (15th century).
• Konbaung dynasty(1752-1885) new Buddhist Another prominent Hindu galleried temple in Angkor is
monumental structures started to be built the Banteay Kdei, completed around the 13th century but
(Hsinbyume Pagoda, completed around 1807 in with very little-known background.
Mingyu, Myanmar)
The Ta Keo temple

CAMBODIA/KHMER

− The Toungo empire was supported by 2

significant bodies of fresh-water, Mekong River
and Tonle-sap lake, which makes it very fertile
and rich.
− During the succeeding Chenlan period centered
on Sambor Prei Kuk where circular temples were
built colonades capped with capitals of
Indochinese characteristics.
− Khmer kingdom started to flourish around 700
AD, under a Hindu ruler and was a significant city A classic example of a temple mountain is the Ta Keo
by 802 AD under, Jayavarman II. temple depicting Mount Meru (a sacred Indian mountain),
− Angkor was the center of civilization where most built around 975 by Jayavarman V. An enclosure gallery
large structures are of religious nature and made likewise surrounded the temple.
of bricks, hardened clay stone (laterite) and/or
sandstone.

MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES (CAMBODIA/KHMER) • trade routes of India, Tibet and China, Nepali
architecture reflects influences from these
Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple was built in a combination of cultural strongholds.
a temple mountain and galleried type of temple, in a • The pagoda architectural tradition
manner like the stone-cut temples of India. This originally
• Buddhist temples reflect the Tibetan
Hindu temple has the following spaces:
tradition of Buddhist architecture
• Central sanctuary • Stupa features prominently
• Prang/tower above sanctuary • Mugal, summit and dome styles
• Enclosure and enclosure galleries
15
 • Influence for Nepal's architecture comes from • temple - building reserved for spiritual rituals
India and activities such as prayer and sacrifice.

HISTORY RESIDENTIAL HOUSES

• Newar houses - three or four stories and faced

outwards to either the street or a courtyard
LICCHAVI DYNASTY
• Sherpa houses -elongated shape, have two
• ruled between the 5th and 7th centuries stories, a rigid roof and most have the ground
• no buildings remain but there are many surviving floor built into the hill or slope behind it
sculptures. • traditional housing is architecturally designed to
cope Nepal’s hot, dry summers and cold winter
SHAH DYNASTY
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
• 1786 onwards, Nepal entered its ‘modern era
predominantly Hindu places of worship, feature a pagoda
• 1816, the Shah kingdom ruled and the country's
roof, common features include pillars with animals,
architecture was heavily influenced by the Newar
humans and important deities depicted on them as well
style. During the Shah reign, various temples,
as carved wooden struts to support the structure.
fountains and other important buildings were
constructed. SHIKHARA TEMPLE STYLE
RANA DYNASTY • Krishna Mandir, Patan Durbar Square, Lalitpur,
Nepal.
• 1846 to 1951 the Rana dynasty ruled, which saw
both art and architecture of Nepal become heavily • This construction involves between five and nine
influenced by popular architectural trends in layers that meet at the peak of the building to
Europe represent “the crown of Himalayas”.

20TH CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY PERIOD THE NEWAR PAGODA STYLE TEMPLE

• Between the end of the Rana dynasty and the • These temples have between one and five
restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepal’s layers of roofs and are dedicated either to
architecture became significantly more modern Buddhism or Hinduism
• dhunge dhara is a traditional stone drinking STUPAS
fountain, intricately carved stone waterway
through which water flows uninterrupted from • Ashoka Stupa Chaitya, Lalitpur district.
underground sources. • Stupas are similar to temples with characteristic
• pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with dome-like structures that contain significant, often
multiple eaves religious relics. The most common elements of
• stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure stupas in Nepal are the pedestal that the stupa
containing relics that is used as a place stands on, the mound of the actual structure and
of meditation the spire on top
• chaitya, chaitya hall, refers to a shrine, KATHMANDU (NEPAL)
sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian
religions. The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has
• tutedhara (Nepali) or jahru (Newari) is a been categorized under the well known seven groups of
traditional drinking fountain found in Nepal. It is a heritage monuments and buildings.
water reservoir built out of stone with a tap that
Five monuments in Kathmandu:
can be opened and closed.
• Palaces • Durbar square of Hanuman Dhoka,
• Monasteries • Hindu temples of Pashupatinath
and Changunarayan,
16
 • Buddha stupas of Swayambu and Boudhanath; and while on the central part of the city a palace or temple on
• Durbar square at Patan, Durbar square at earthen mound was built.
Bhaktapur.
Early settlement in China emerged more than 4 thousand
Kathmandu - "Land of Gods" and as "land of the largest years ago, very likely by ancient migrants from Tibet, and
congregations of magnificent historical monuments and later on, by migrants from India via Southeast Asia. These
shrines ever built” include the settlement where earthen wares abound in
prehistoric middens. China is known to be among the
MATERIALS AND LAYOUT earliest to use calligraphy, and integrate glazing in their
pottery and this opened opportunities for pottery trading
• temples of Nepal are made of brick, stone or
with neighboring regions.
wood and despite some stylistic differences, most
temples follow a similar architectural layout or PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
pattern.
• temples consist of either a single roof structure or Prehistoric period to Shang period houses include thatch
one with multiple tiers, statues of the gods and roofed pith houses.
goddesses reside known as Mandir
• development of timber frame structures on
• Please see the recorded lecture in Panopto.
rammed earth platform.
• timber posts stand on flagstone base and
support a system of bracketing that carry a gable
Establishment of Chinese and Central Asian Buddhism roof with bamboo tiles and imbrication.
• 6th century CE, Mahayana Buddhism had made • Geomancy was a common practice and
its way into China and Korea, and from there developed into the widely practiced Feng Shui.
crossed into Japan. • Building orientation, space planning, fenestration
• The Han emperor built a monastery for them orientation are still affected up to the present by
called the Baima-si (or the White Horse feng-shui.
Monastery). • Feng shui prescribes access on the south with
• Buddhism, however, was only one among many preference for north-south major axis orientation.
competitive intellectual traditions prevalent in Feng-shui was later adapted to east Asian Buddhist,
China at the time temple layout, in the 3-Kingdom period, when a
• In 400 CE, Buddhism was supported by the temple is necessarily placed with a north-south axis
Northern Dynasties (386–581 CE). In the with mountain on the north, a river on the east, a great
Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE), Confucianism road (highway) on the west and a pond and/or open
was still dominant area on the south.
Chinese Architecture ZHOU/CHOU DYNASTY
Ancient Chinese architecture and styles are rich and • The succeeding Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE)
varied. Building typologies were numerous even in early had very distinct palace-like structures made
iron age, such as temples, imperial palaces, altars, mostly of timber but with stone masonry
pavilions, official residencies and folk houses, which base/plinth, the ruins of which remains today.
greatly reflect Chinese ancient thought - the harmonious • With the Zhou palaces artifacts came the
unity of human beings with nature. understanding that the period had well-stratified
PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS TO SHANG DYNASTY social structure composed of royalties,
intellectuals, warriors, artisans, peasants and
Shang Dynasty : Erlitu in Henan province was the slaves. The construction method used in the
earliest settlement in this dynasty, where a metal smelter period provided the prototype of the timber
of bronze was unearthed. Shangcheng and An-yang bracket system China is well known for, the dou-
were the latter period cities where residences were built gong (dou=cap, gong =block).
in rows of wooden houses with rammed earth on walls, • Chinese philosophy saw its emergence in the
period, with Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti, Lao-Tzu

17
 (codified Taoism), and Sun-Tzu as the leading • Feng-shui was later adapted to east Asian
thinkers. Taoism remained a major doctrine. Buddhist temple layout, when a temple is
• Among the notable excavations from the period necessarily placed with a north-south axis with
was the tomb of Duke Jing of Qi (547-490 BCE), mountain on the north, a river on the east, a great
who was buried together with about 600 horses road (highway) on the west and a pond and/or
and chariots to accompany him to the after-life. open area on the south.
• Zhou period established a system of coin-based
3-KINGDOM PERIOD
currency and iron tools eventually became
common. • More distinct local architectural characters
QIN DYNASTY developed in the 3-Kingdom period (220-581
CE), and this was mainly due to the advent of
• The architectural development seemed to have Buddhism coming from the Tibetan
mainly undergone refinement in timber regions. Indian and Persian influences were
construction method in the periods following the introduced from the west.
Zhou dynasty (Springs and Fall period), while • The evolution of the mound-based stupa to the
fortified structures became the dominant type of octagonal pagoda happened from the 3-Kingdom
development during the Period of Warring period to the emergence of southern and northern
States. dynasties. The adaptation of timber roofing and
• A palace at Xinyang (Hsienyang Palace) that symbolizes the chattras
became the center of the government. This was or umbrella/canopy/crown were then turned into
similarly built on a rammed earth base/platform wooden framed octagonal roofs in multi-tier.
with timber structural elements. • Buddhist temples are made highly symmetrical
in China and accessed mostly from a south to
HAN DYNASTY north road, with the paifang/pailou at the
The Han dynasty succeeded the Quin dynasty and this south(unlike in India where numerous access at
led back to Zhou dynasty type of social structure. By this cardinal directions were possible).
time, beam-in-tiers or the tai-liang method from the north • A Chinese chaitya or miao is the main temple
and the column-and-tie-beam or the chuan-dou method prayer hall of the whole temple complex. Often
from the south were the dominant construction methods. painted with red and black combination, it was
originally made with timber but eventually built
The Han dynasty succeeded the Quin dynasty and this with masonry materials for posterity purposes.
led back to Zhou dynasty type of social structure. By this • Pavilions or ting are integrated (from Taoism
time, beam-in-tiers or the tai-liang method from the north practices) and generally used as garden sheds,
and the column-and-tie-beam or the chuan-dou method found in temple gardens as ornamental and
from the south were the dominant construction resting structures.
methods. Confucian philosophy ang feng-shui beliefs
continue to be used as guidelines for construction. TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES

The Siheyuan plan is a Confucian residence with • The architectural characteristics developed from
courtyard layout where in feng-shui is applied. the previous periods, together with the new
architectural characteristics brought by Buddhism
were brought to refinement in the Tang and Song
dynasties, together with related building
• Feng-shui, an ancient geomancy practice is
construction systems.
seen as among the most influential on building
• The main building of the Daminggong Palace
and design of the ancient Chinese doctrines
built with 188 posts, and the Sakayumi pagoda
• Building orientation, space planning, fenestration
which is 67m in height are the architectural
orientation are still significantly affected up to the
highlight of the period.
present by feng-shui in Chinese architecture.
• The architectural development in the Song
• Feng shui prescribes access on the south with
dynasty peaked with the use of color and
preference for north-south major axis orientation.

18
 exquisite ornamentation as seen from the original version. Roof structure is called wu-ding and
Shaolin temple and monastery. come in a variety of gable, hip and hip-gable
combination of assemblies.
MING AND QING DYNASTIES
• The South Asian stupa, chaitya and vihara then
By the 14th century, refined version of earlier Buddhist, found its own adaptation in China, and further
palace halls, pavilions and garden were seen in may parts evolved in other east Asian regions.
of the region, showing the following distinct • Buddhist temples are highly symmetrical and
characteristics: access mostly from a south to north road.
• Structures introduced with Buddhism include the
• Unity or structure with architectural art: This pagoda, temple and monastery.
includes having decorative pillars, dog and lion • A pagoda is the east Asian version of the stupa,
statuary at the entrance, paintings on wall typically contains a relic of a holy person believed
canvass, garden with water feature, bridge and to have reached Nirvana. It is essentially a
stone lanterns and the like. monument not entered into by the public,
• Anti seismic function: timber construction is • There were two types of Buddhist temple: the
generally preferred over stone, the Chinese first combined a tall, symbolic feature (a stupa or
octagonal pagoda uses timber mainly for roofs, pagoda) with a temple-hall; the second and later
but earlier timber versions included timber type consisted of buildings arranged around
frameworks. Timber posts are not imbedded in a courtyards.
foundation but are simply standing on flagstones. • The earliest examples of the first type were
• High degree standardization: A bay between 2 temples with stupas which had been introduced
timber posts is called jian generally follow a from India at the time of the Eastern Han dynasty
standard distance. The tai-liang, chuandou and (first century).
the combined framework provide construction • The stupas, which usually stood in the center of
standard. The cai or the vertical part of the dou- the group of temple buildings, were said to
gong was used as a unit of measure; or the fanga contain Buddha’s remains and were objects of
piece of wood with height:width ration of homage for his disciples.
3:2. Other standards are describe in a guideline • By the time of the Northern Wei dynasty, temple-
for building called Yingshao Fazi from the Song halls were combined with pagodas. This kind of
Dynasty. temple was built from the fourth to sixth centuries
• Bright color palette for buildings: Paint is used and later was passed to Japan through Korea.
to prevent weathering and insect infestation of • Pagodas with closely layered eaves, of which
wood. Palace and temple walls, pillars, doors & the earliest remaining example is the oldest
windows are often painted. Roofs were often pagoda of the Songyue Temple built in 520 at
painted yellow, while cool colors (blue and green) Mount Songshan, in Henan province. Externally it
are for the eaves. is twelve-sided, but its interior is octagonal.
• Systematic grouping and formal arrangement of • Tang dynasty, the caves pagoda became very
buildings: the central courtyard approach allow popular and a square plan shape was evolved.
for all doors and windows in a residential complex The Lesser Wild Goose Pagoda at Xi’an in Shanxi
to face an open private space. On the other province is an example of the square pagoda.
hand, larger complex grounds have buildings in • Liao dynasty the octagonal plan was preferred
axial or multi-axial arrangement. Significant and the eaves were no longer parabola-shaped.
structure: Forbidden City, a palace temple The Pagoda of Tianning (Haven of Peace) temple
complex built around 1420-1924, during the in Beijing is of this kind and is built to imitate
Quing dynasty. Plan was highly rectangular and timber-framed building style.
formal, particularly in symmetry.
• The storeyed pagoda. The Chinese storeyed
OTHER ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS building combined the pagoda form with that of
the Indian stupa. The earliest existing storeyed
• A traditional Chinese roofing material is the pagodas were built in the Tang dynasty and were
bamboo which are assembled as imbrexes. This square in plan (an example is the Greater Wild
became the inspiration for the molded ceramic Goose Pagoda in Xi’an) but the more popular
19
 form, from the tenth to thirteenth centuries, is and Qing dynasty. Plan was highly rectangular and
octagonal. formal, particularly in symmetry.
• Temple of Kaiyuan in Quanzhou built between
SHRINES
1241 and 1252, resembled earlier wood-framed
pagodas. Kaiyuan Temple Pagoda, which is 82 m • Shrines were used in ancient China for making
(269 ft) high, in Dingxian county, Hebei province, sacrifices to ancestors and famous historical
have less decoration. personages, as well as to the gods. The most
• Some brick pagodas have an outer wooden famous is the group of buildings known as
gallery. Example is the The Bao’en Temple Tiantan Shrine in the southern district of Beijing.
Pagoda in Suzhou, built in 1131-1162. The brick It extends over an area of 280 ha (690 acres) and
pagoda has various structural forms. was built for emperors of the Ming and Qing
• Vase-shaped pagodas evolved directly from dynasties.
stupas; they were first built in the late Tang • The buildings of the Huanquitan also include the
dynasty, but became popular only after the Yuan Huangqiongyu (Imperial Vault of Heaven), which
dynasty in the temples of Lamaism. The White houses a sacred tablet. The Huanquitan itself is a
Pagoda in the Temple of Miaoying (Divine three-tiered circular, marble terrace, the
Retribution) in Beijing was built in 1271 with the uppermost tier of which is 26 m (86 ft) and the
guidance of a Nepalese craftsman. It is 56 m (184 lowest tier 55 m (180 ft) in diameter.
ft) high. These pagodas were usually built in
groups, sometimes five or more in a line or GROTTOES
arranged symmetrically around a major building.
• The Buddhist grottoes were introduced to China
The surface of the pagodas are faced in glazed
from India. They are shrines carved into cliff faces
brickwork.
and inside the caves. The earliest in China are
• Groups of Pagodas honoring Buddha’s warrior
the Mingshashan Grottoes in Dunhuang, Gansu
attendants, popular in the Ming and Qing periods,
province, and the Hesser Grottoes in Xinjiang,
were built in imitation of the Buddha Gaya relic-
also cut in the fourth century.
house complex in India. Five pagodas were
• Among the best-known grottoes are the Mogao
usually placed along the diagonals of a square
Grottoes in Dunhuang, Gansu province, the
terrace decorated with carved statues. Each was
Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi province,
a closely-layered eaves pagoda and pyramidal in
and the Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Henan
shape, for example the Zin Gang Bao Zuo
province.
Pagoda in the Zheng-jue Temple, Beijing.
• The rock caves of the Yungang Grottoes cut
• Single-storey pagodas were built as tombs for
during the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534)
monks and nuns. They may be square,
octagonal, circular or hexagonal. They are often • Grottoes carved on natural cliffs are large and
found in groups or lines adjacent to temples. without decoration; they belong to the first stage.
• There are collections of pagodas at the Shaolin • The appearance and clothing of the giant
Temple, Henan province, and at the Lingyan Buddhas reveal the influence of India and Central
Temple, Shandong province. Asia.
• Wooden tower pagodas were built from the • The second stage is distinguished by square
third century onwards, but the Shija Pagoda in caves with central columns. Niches for statues of
the Buddhist Palace Temple, Shanxi province, the Buddha were carved on some of the central
built in c.1056, is the only surviving building of this columns, while others were shaped into Buddhist
kind in China. pagodas.
• It is 67 m (221 ft) in height, and 26 m (86 ft) in • The grottoes at this time had many designs
diameter at its base. Between each of the five taken from India, Persia and Greece, for example
outside storeys there is a hidden interior storey. flamboyant lions, twin-headed beasts back to
back and Ionic capitals.
PALACES AND VILLAS

Significant structure: Forbidden City, a palace temple

complex built around 1420-1924, built during the Ming
20
 YAYOI PERIOD (3RD CENTURY BC TO 3RDCENTURY
AD)
JOMON PERIOD (14TH CENTURY TO 4TH CENTURY
BC) • During this period, small shrines (mikoshi) on
stilts started to be erected. These shrines are
• Pre-Buddhism Japan is divided into the Jomon,
highly regarded as ephemeral structures and
Yayoi and Gofun periods.
were rebuilt periodically(i.e. every 20 years) in the
• Jomon period (from 14th century to 4th century very same feature as the original ones.
BC) is characterized by the presence of pit
• During the Yayoi period, Shinto rites were held
dwellings, Thatched covered depression on
outdoors in demarcated holy sites. Ise, in Mie
ground with earthen floors.
prefecture was designated as a Holy site since
• During this period, most settlements were of around 4 AD.
hunter gatherers, believed to have migrated from
the mainland, hence the strong similarities of KOFUN/GOFUN PERIOD (3RD CENTURY AC TO 538
structures with the pit houses of Korea. AD)
• With limited predator species in the archipelago,
The Kofun/gofun period is actually named after the burial
rarely were these settlements were fortified.
mounds for the Japanese nobilities of the 3rd-6th century
• The period after Jomon is the Yayoi period, AD. These mounds were often in key-hole shapes and
which happened between 300 BC to 300 sometimes artificially made.
AD. During this time, it was believed that there
came migrants from southeast Asia who brought These mounds for the nobilities are called kofun, from
stilted structures to Japan. Interestingly, these which the period is named. Those entombed in these
structures on stilts are found to have been first mounds are often buried with their sword, mirror and other
built as storage for the emerging widespread rice personal belongings similar to the artifacts of the gods,
cultivation. that are housed in Shinto shrines.

YAYOI PERIOD (3RD CENTURY BC TO 3RD CENTURY Buddhism was introduced to Japan by the Paekche
AD) Kingdom in 538 AD when emissaries brought scrolls od
Buddhist doctrine to the then emperor of Japan This
• The Yayoi period the development of large gesture maks the start of timber pagoda and dera
tracks of land cultivated to produce rice. Rice (Buddhist temple complex) construction in the
cultivation might have started earlier but the archipelago.
period brought in larger population dedicated to
rice cultivation, combined with animist beliefs
mainly focused towards rice-cultivation related
The short Gofun/Kofun period came between the 3rd
deities, that gave way to Shintoism.
century to 538AD, prior to the arrival of Buddhism. This
• During the Yayoi period, it was believed that is the period where the Naikū and Gekū sites of the Ise
there came migrants from southeast Asia who shrine were built (3rd to 5th century AD), in the
brought stilted structures to Japan. Interestingly, refined architecture that evolved from the preceding
these structures on stilts are found to have been Yayoi period, called shinmei-zukuri. the most prominent
first built as storage for the then emerging character of which are the stilted shrines containing the
widespread rice cultivation. mirror, comb and sword. Entrance to a Shinto shrine was
• The stilted structures of the Yayoi period were then marked by a gateway called torii.
eventually adopted as residences, aside from its
granary function. The interiors were mostly • The ‘torii’ is the entrance gate of a shrine precint,
blackened with sooth to prevent decay of the and consists primarily of two pillars and two
wood and grass materials used. horizontal beams. Both of the pillars are usually
• The Yayoi period likewise saw the wider embedded directly in the earth.
acceptance of Shintoism, a religion in which the • Shimmei torii are the simplest form, and the
main deities are highly associated with elements Myojin torii has double lintels curved to resemble
of nature, particularly those related to rice the eaves of temple architecture.
cultivation.
21
 The Tokugawa Shogunate followed the same custom,
and built a number of mausolea-shrines.
SHINTO ARCHITECTURE
The Izumo Shrine. The present building is a smaller
The Shinto shrine called honden evolved into a variety of version rebuilt in 1744, 24 m (80 ft) in height from the
forms in subsequent Shinto shrine structures, some of ground to the top of the forked finials. It is 10.9 m (36 ft)
which were later merged with the Chinese temple square in plan and each side is divided into two bays. The
form. Mikoshi (small portable shrines) of ancient gabled roof, covered with cypress bark, has a slight curve,
architectural characteristic or with Chinese Buddhism two separate forked finials at each end, and three ridge
influences are still used for a variety of religious festivals. billets.
• Shinto shrines are never entered into except NARA PERIOD (710-794AD) AND HEIAN (794-1195)
during holy ceremonies, and only by the PERIODS
designated priest.
• In order to realize the periodical replacement of • Narra and Heian periods are considered as the
these shrines, there is a designated holy forest imperial classical periods of Japan. Chinese
wherein the timber production is mainly for the writing medicine, silk and tea cultivation became
shrine repair or replication. This tradition is widely accepted together with Buddhism.
among the reasons for the forest preservation • The significant development for these periods
culture of the Japanese up to the present. were the construction of Buddhists temples or
dera/tera, pagodas and monasteries. The
The Shinto. gateway is the torii, which is a more ancient temples of the Tang dynasty were painstakingly
architectural element. copied using local construction/carpentry
methods. Initially, Japanese carpenters tried to
In a Shinto shrine, before one goes to front of the honden
copy the iron nail joinery of the Chinese temples
for prayer, they must first wash their hands, then mouth,
but reverted back to the use of wooden pegs as
in a structure called temizu-ya or chozu-ya. In a Buddhist
purely wood joinery assures better resilience of
temple, these pavilions are not present. However, up to
structures against earthquakes. Temple
the late 19th century, Shinto shrines and Buddhist
construction from the Tang dynasty were
temples were allowed to co-exist (because the Japanese
modified to suit the earthquake prone geology of
practice both religions simultaneously), thus in many
Japan. The dougong system was immediately
Buddhist temples, the temizu-ya can still be found like in
adopted as this appears to be suitable for
the Kyomizu-dera
structures under frequent tectonic
movement. The dougong is called tou-kyou or
masugumi by Japanese carpenters.
The first remarkable architectural feature of the Ise Shrine • The center of development was in Nara, and
is a storehouse with an elevated floor. later in Kyoto, the seats of the imperial power
At Ise, all the shrine buildings have columns embedded in during the period.
the earth instead of being set on stone bases as was the • Cremation which was by then the popular
general practice elsewhere. Buddhist internment mode brought a stop to the
creation of kofuns.
The traditional method of handing down the form of • While the emperor and the imperial family
shrines, known as shikinen-sengu (the transfer to new remained largely as Shinto figure-heads,
shrines in certain ceremonial years), was established. It Buddhism was widely practiced alongside
became customary to rebuild all shrine buildings every Shintoism, Taoism and Chinese Geomancy.
twenty years: a pair of adjacent sites of the same shape
• The seat of the emperor moved to Kyoto in 794,
and size was required for each set of shrines.
which then shifted the building of Buddhists
A number of mausolea are also regarded as shrines. The structures and palaces towards this area.
first of these is the Kitano Shrine, built in the Gongen style • By this time the pagoda has reached peak-form
in Kyoto. and its structural design, mainly done with timber,
enabled it to be earthquake ready. Builders, by

22
 late Heian period, were already integrating a • Kyoto machiya (townhouses) or kyo-machiya, on
pendulum-like central structural component the other hand, were built in blocks as people
called shin-bashira to act as earthquake tremor flock to Kyoto for government-related
damper. Initially, the shin-bashira was a column transactions, and to establish commercial
embedded into the plinth at the center of the enterprise. These were mostly owned by
wooden pagoda. But later Heian versions copied merchants, with shops at one end. A property
the Chinese column’s roller base which allows dimension is approximately 8m x 39.5m and often
for the movement of this column during referred to as “the bedroom for eels.” During
earthquakes, movement that counteracts the these times taxes were greater for longer street
swaying of the outer shell of the pagoda. frontage of dwellings or shops.
• A Japanese religious complexes like most • Zenkoji Temple in Nagano was built in the
citadels are entered into through a gateway, 7th century, which then resulted to the
entered from the south in Japan sometimes in a development of the town/city of Nagano. It is built
series of gateways, called the romon. For with the Korean timber temple construction
Buddhist complexes, romons can come in a influences, showing the characteristic upward hip
variety of styles, like the karamon which has a ridges.
serf-curved gateway canopy (roof), somon, the
sideways-gable roofed gateway and earliest of EARLY NARA (HAKUHO) PERIODS (552-710)
styles and the very grand type called sanmon.
• The Horyuji temple and the pagoda are
• The Japanese buddhist complex is called dera, considered the oldest surviving timber structures
the main/largest building is called kondo which in the world, approximately 1300 years old, are
contains the moya, the shrine hall (for prayers) said to the similar in structure as Korea’s 3-
surrounded by a hallway called hisashi. Kingdom timber buildings.
• Buddhist temples also often have a pond, a bell • In the ancient period, the layout of Buddhist
tower/platform, and incense urn. monasteries was strictly prescribed.
• In Japanese architecture the term hisashi has • The kondo and pagoda at Horyuji, the world’s
two meanings: oldest extant wooden buildings, were constructed
• indicates the eaves of a roof - the part after the original Horyuji temple was destroyed by
along the edge of a roof projecting beyond fire in 670. The present kondo, 9 bays long and 7
the side of the building to provide bays wide, 18.5 x 15.2 m (61 ft x 50 ft) including
protection against the weather. mokoshi completed by 693
• indicate the area surrounding • cloud-shaped bracket complexes (kumo-tokyo)
the moya (the core of a building) either support the eaves
completely or on one, two, or three sides. • characteristic of these buildings is a marked
• Open corridors or verandas under entasis on the pillars
extended or additional roofs are also • The storehouse is an important early
sometimes referred to as hisashi. In building type and the most famous example
temples constructed in the hip-and-gable is the Shosos’in at Todaiji, Nara, which
style (irimoya-zukuri), the gabled part houses the collection of treasures left by the
usually covers the moya while the hipped Emperor Shomu.
part covers the hisashi. • The building is 108.4 m x 30.5 m (356 ft x
• Kyoto fast became an urban center in this 100 ft) raised high above the ground on stout
period, with its establishment as the capital, and pouts and divided into three parts. The two
seat of the Imperial power. end sections are constructed in the ‘azekura’
• Daimyos have had their shinden zukuri, a house style of logs, notched and fitted together in
in the midst of a large garden, symmetrical in such a way that their ends cross each other
layout, and with rooms were connected with long and project beyond the corners.
hallways. It allowed residents to enjoy seasonal KAMAKURA (1185-1333), ASHIKAGA (1336-1573)
events and the beauty of nature. AND MUROMACHI (1392-1573) SAMURAI PERIODS

23
These periods started off the feudal system in Japan KAMAKURA PERIOD (1185 – 1333)
where the samurai class ruled and the emperor became
simply a symbolic figure-head. • The Wayo style. The standard style and method
of temple building up to the end of the Heian
Similar to Europe, the period ushered in the castle period came to be called Wayo or ‘Japanese’
architecture development, which served as the style, after the beginning of the Medieval Age.
headquarters of the regional daimyo (chief samurai) and Temples were usually established on a
his army. mountainside or hilltop near a village. Scenic
views and natural surroundings were important;
The feudalism brought the stratification of the society
rocks or waterfalls within the temple grounds
wherein merchants and entertainers were at the bottom,
were often sanctified.
just above the morticians. Second to the samurai were
the farmers, but they were heavily taxed in order to DAIBUTSU/DAUBUTSU-YO STYLE
support the armament requirements of the samurais.
• Architecturally it utilizes horizontal wooden
Zen Buddhism was also spreading which was the beams known as penetrating tie beams which are
samurai’s preferred branch of Buddhism, were the combined with pillars to reinforce the structure
spartan life of monks are emulated. Out of Zen Buddhism The ends of penetrating tie beams are decorated
came the Bushido philosophy, which brought philosophy with moldings known as 'kurigata'. Use of a
to the art of warfare among the samurai class. unique bracket complex known as 'sashihijiki'
(bracket arms inserted into the shaft of a pillar).
Architecture likewise took a spartan form and became
more integrated with natural environment. In these ZEN/ ZENSHŪYŌ'S STYLE.
periods, governance swung back and forth between
samurai clan heads (daimyos) and the imperial court. The Zen style (Karayo) favored by the Zen sects was the
other important new style introduced at the very beginning
The Ashikaga family period brought the center of the of the thirteenth century. It is one of the three most
samurai governance back to Kyoto, in its Muromachi significant styles developed by Japanese Buddhism on
district. But this did not happen until the Kamakura bakufu the basis of Chinese models
ended and then emperor Go Daigo was able to restore
power to the Imperial court. However, not all samurai • Its characteristics are decorative pent roofs
clans were satisfied with succeeding actions off the (mokoshi) and pronouncedly curved main roofs,
imperial court and thus a new samurai clan rose to ensure cusped windows (katōmado), earthen floors and
that the samurai class remains in power and leadership, paneled doors. Wood structures are relatively
and this was the Ashikaga clan. light, design light and orderly. All buildings are
erected on stone podia and have either stone or
The Ashikaga period, now practicing the doctrines of earthen floors.
Bushido, together with the popularity of Zen Buddhism
brought new outlooks and approaches in constructing SEN NO RIKYU
buildings, whether for religious purpose, or for
residences. This time, the influences from China have Sen no Rikyu is a tea ceremony master who hosted
mostly disappeared. Buildings of the period ditched the imperial court people and daimyos (samurai warlords)
formal planning adopted from China, and instead were alike for philosophical discussions during tea-
organically integrated into the setting/environment. Gyon, ceremonies. He promoted the concept of wabi–sabi, a
a district in Kyoto for Geisha’s was provided additional traditional Japanese view of beauty, in which something
architectural characters for the period. This period is natural and ephemeral is valued as beautiful and precious
where tea ceremonies evolved giving birth to the for its brief existence. The Wabi-cha, a new tea ceremony
tokonoma alcove for ikebana. style called for the most natural of landscaping, the use of
natural elements in the tea
Kinkaku-ji is a temple pavilion (honden) that serves as a
classical example of the style of the period. This is a The room the wabi-cha is deliberately made humble
former villa of one of the Muromachi rulers. compared to elaborate tea ceremonies of earlier periods,
in Japan or China. The design uses mainly natural light

24
into the interior, and a major use of the space is to gaze MEIJI PERIOD (1863-1945)
towards garden and contemplate about life and nature.
This period saw the adaptation of European architecture
EDO PERIOD (1600-1863) in Japan when the country needed to catch up with
western technology and sent scientists and scholars to
Edo or Tokugawa Period (1600-1863) was the period of Europe to study locomotion and other technologies
true unification of Japan when again a singular shogun brought by the west’s industrial development. Modern
(governing over daimyos and samurais of all region) Japan started in this period.
headed the country as an independent state.
The Meiji Jingu shrine(1915) is a Shinto complex
This period also saw the closure of Japan from any dedicated to Emperor Meiji who died in 1912. Because it
foreigners except for the Dutch, who were allowed to land was built at the heart of Tokyo, and Shinto shrines are
and stay in Nagasaki only. The architecture, therefor, often built to be surrounded by nature, either by a forest
evolved more homegrown characteristics, free from or sea, a forest then had to be created to surround it in the
foreign influences.
ARCHITECTURE & HOUSING IN THE MEIJI PERIOD

In Tokyo and the larger cities new, Western style

These include: concrete, stone and brick buildings and bridges were built.
These were often designed by foreign architects and the
RYOKANS AND MINSHUKUS
most famous include The Bank of Japan, Ginza
Architectural typologies that emerged included the inns or Bricktown, The Asakusa Twelve Storeys, Tokyo Central
ryokans and minshuku to cater to traveling samurai Station and the infamous Rokumeikan. Gas lighting came
families, as ordered by the shogun. Nakesendo and to the Ginza in 1874 and electricity in 1878.
Tokaido inns

YOSHIWARA

This district for hiring courtesans in Tokyo provided a new

BUDDHISM’S ARRIVAL IN KOREA AND JAPAN
type of building function (essentially a red-light district)
6th century, with the gradual unification of the clans of
Minka or Traditional houses in Japan were able to
Silla under King Beopheung (514–40 CE), Silla became a
develop more of its complex features based on tradition
full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as its state religion.
due to the relative peaceful period under the Tokugawa
reign. One of the first Buddhist temples was the Hwangnyongsa
Temple (553–644 CE). Hwangnyongsa, which means
Traditional Japanese houses vary, but a typical plan
“Golden (or Imperial) Dragon Temple,” located near the
contains 3 major spaces:
royal palace, on a plain surrounded by mountains. The
Doma: work space where the kitchen and bathroom are whole was enclosed and framed by a rectangular
also located. It is floor is generally covered in earth or perimeter wall. An immense 80-meter-high, nine-story,
stone flagstones. The yoku or furo (bath is often with a wooden pagoda stood right in front of the entrance.
wooden tub made of hinoki) The toilet is of squat type and Behind it were three halls.
in a separate room.
From Korea, Buddhism crossed into Japan during the
Hiroma is where the hearth is and is used for reign of the emperor Kimmei (509–71 CE). Along with
gatherings. The irori when used to heat the house also their teachings, the Koreans brought with them their
provides the sooth that preserves the timber used for the architecture, which defined the early period of Japanese
house. The house is mosthly made of timber and thus the Buddhist architecture.
preservative effect of the smoke from the hearth is
PREHISTORIC PERIOD KOREA
essential.
The period of written history started in Korea between the
Zashiki is mainly used for sleeping, but also for
1st century BCE and 7th century AD, a time when tribal
ceremonies (tea, prayers, etc).
kingdoms emerged, initially with Koguryu people, then
followed by the Pakeche and the Shilla tribes.
25
Pit houses with thatch roofs and timber support emerged KOREAN ARCHITECTURE
as early as 3,000 BCE, found mostly in aggregation of
small settlements. Later, log settlements emerged, with • The earliest settlements of Korea with “public”
raised floors and heated by ondol heating system, a buildings evolved around the Koguryu period,
network of horizontal flues under the floor, to keep the Paekche period and the Silla period known as the
floors heated from a furnace integrated below the 3 Kingdoms, founded around 37 AD and lasted
elevated floor. up to 668AD.
• In this period, large palace-like structures with
Dolmens were also found in the regions believed to have clay roof tiles stamped with lotus or demon mask
been built prior to 1st century BCE are believed to have designs, are believed to have been built with only
been built for burial purposes. the ruins of foundations remain today.
• Around the middle part of the Koguryu period,
Buddhist wooden pagodas and temples were
3-KINGDOMS PERIOD KOREA (57BC-668AD) believed to have been built (no ruins remain) in
Chinese architecture. These structures were
When the 3-Kingdoms emerged, these were already originally larger, like Chinese scale by made
under much influence of the Chinese geomancy, Taoism smaller in latter periods due to limited timber.
and Confucian ideas as the ancient Koreans were
• Houses in the Koguryu and another 3-Kingdom
migrants from China and Mongolia. The earliest of the 3
period included the original pit, the log house and
kingdoms was the Koguryu kingdom. This occupied the
elevated house.
largest section of the region and even extends to parts of
present-day Manchuria.
• The shift to stone pagoda for posterity reasons
happened in this period.
No wooden structures, like palaces, survived from the • Buildings during the Koguryo Kingdom (57 BC-
Koguryu period due to the latter invasion of foreign 668) may be envisaged from the murals depicting
powers and eventual conflict with supporters of fortress walls in the Samshilch’ong,
Confucianism. Yodongsongch’ong and Yaksuri tombs and in
houses in the Sang-yongch’ong, Anak No.1 and
Buddhism came directly from India around this
T’onggu No. 12 tombs.
period. This brought in the construction of Buddhist
• Painted pillars and beams in the murals at the
temples. Early pagoda was built mainly to reflect the
corners of the burial chambers of Muyongch’ong,
canopy of the structure and were built several tiers
Kwigapch’ong and Anak No. 1 tombs
high. Stupas were separately built to serve as burial
structures of Buddhist monks. • Koguryo structures had round pillars with
entasis, supporting simply executed brackets.
The second kingdom to emerge was the Paekche Short struts with bearing blocks or inverted V-
kingdom which occupied the south-western tip of the shaped trusses were fitted on beams and purlins
Korean peninsula and is believed to be closely related by to sustain the framework of hipped or gabled
blood to the Koguryu people of the north. Only 2 pagodas roofs.
from the Paekche period survived, from the Miruksa • Most of the houses depicted in the murals have
temple of 7th century and the Chongnimsa temple (6th- tiled roofs. Probably the architecture of Koguryo
7th century). was influenced by that of the later Han (25-219)
and of the Northern Wei (386-534) dynasties of
The Shilla kingdom was the last to emerge in the 3-
China.
Kingdom period and was the kingdom that united all
three. Prior to the unification, The Shilla people built the UNIFIED SHILLA PERIOD (668-935AD)
Chomsongdae observatory and the Pungwangsa temple,
the pagoda of which still survives today. • The Shillla kingdom unified Korea, upon
conquering the Koguryus and the Paekches in
The timber structures of the 3-kingdom period are the late 7th century AD.
believed to be similar to that of Horyuji Temple in Japan
• A 12th century written account of the Shilla and
as the Buddhist influence to Japan has traveled through
the earlier 3-Kingdom period showed that houses
Korea from China.
in the Unified Shilla period had tiled roofs, with
26
 end tiles at the eaves and with bird’s tail • The Koryu period officially started in 918 AD,
ornamentation at the ridge, while ends of the hip from which the name Korea is derived.
ridges have grotesque mask ornamentation (like
gargoyles of the gothic architecture. Eaves were UNIFIED KORYU/GORYEO PERIOD (918-1392 AD)
said to be double tiered supported by dou-gong
The Koryu period continued to rule under a unified Korea,
brackets on top of pillars. Timber structures were
as how it was established during the Unified Shilla
mostly colored and covered with gold and silver
period. In this period, Buddhism continued to flourish and
ornaments.
spread.
• The remaining stone structures from the Unified
Shilla period are its stone pagodas. These Significant timber structures from this period are mostly
pagodas were mostly 3-tiered, and earlier preserved which includes Kungnak chon or the Nirvana
versions are said to be based on the Miruksa Hall of Pong Jongsa Temple in Andong, a hall built in the
pagoda of the previous period, such as the style of earlier periods.
pagoda of the Komunsa temple in Wonsong.
A new style emerged in the Koryu period which came from
• Sokkat’ap, is another Unified Shilla period
south of China. His style includes the use of curved
pagoda of the Pulguksa temple in Kyongju. This
brackets and is the highlight of the Muryanagsujon in
pagoda is supported on a square pedestal with
Pusoksa Temple.
pillars carved on it. Each of its storey is a
separate stone. Thereafter, brackets above girder became a trend in the
• Sokuram, an 8th century grotto is another 14th century Koryu period. The brackets later became
significant building from the period. more complex and heavier than those of its Chinese
• The Shilla kingdom got help from the Tang origin. An example of this is found in the Pongwanjon of
dynasty to assume power over the Pakeche and Shimwomsa.
Koguryu kingdoms. With the help of China, Korea
The 3-storey pagoda construction from the Unified Shilla
came a period of rapid building construction
period was continued under the Koryu period. A
which allowed for refinement of its Chinese-
significant example is the 3-tiered pagoda in the
influenced architecture.
Yonggoksa temple in Kurye.
• The Unified Silla period is a period where
imperial and Buddhist structures were given UNIFIED KORYU/GORYEO PERIOD (918-1392 AD)
significant local adaptations. Gyeongju, the OTHER EVENTS:
capital of this period, was estimated to have 35
palaces, districts with streets and about 179 This period saw very limited construction due to the
thousand houses. prevalence of Mongol invasion. Most buildings of the
period were wooded, and none survived after ages of
• The Unified Shilla period had stupas, aside from
decay.
pagodas. The term, in Korean context, is used to
denote the not so vertical, burial chamber, like Among the landmarks of the period were the burial
stone lanterns. Most stupas in Korea (like China) mounds of King Kongmin, and his mongol wife known as
are octagonal in shape. Lions, apsaras (celestial the Hyonjongrung Royal Tomb built in the 14th century,
goddesses) and Buddhist guardian kings during a brief Mongol annexation period.
decorate the stupa.
• The roof of a stupa is, even though it is made of The period brought the Song dynasty influence on Korean
stone, is patterned after timber structures of pagoda, which then were mostly build in octagonal
Chinese origins. An example from the period is (sacred shape for the divine) or rounded plan. Painting of
the stupa of the Sshangbongsa Temple at wooded structures also became part of building
Hwasun, for the Zen monk Ch’olgam. preservation technology.
• The Shilla period ended due to internal Stone lanterns were likewise made popular during this
squabble, and the descendants of the old period, with form adaptations from the stupa, but in
Koguryu period started to wield influence, which rectangular or hexagogal plan, whereas the stupa takes a
later became known as the Koryu kingdom. circular or octagonal plan.

27
 • Chinese influence from the Song and Liao • Kyong-bokkung, Ch’anggyonggung,
dynasties (960-1279) is evident in polygonal Ch’angdokkung and Toksugung palaces are
pagodas such as that at Kumsansa Temple in classic examples of Choson period architecture.
Kimche, Chollabuk-do, which is hexagonal, and • The Nandaemun and Tongdaemun gateways to
in the octagonal, nine-storey pagoda of the city of Seoul characterize the development
Wolchongsa Temple in P’yong-ch’ang, Kang- done in the city to imprint the mark of the Yi
wond-do. The ten-storey pagoda of dynasty of the Choson period.
Kyongch’onsa, which is now in Seoul, is a
meticulously sculptured stone replica of a Religious structures of the period include the Sakyamuni
wooden structure and shows a strong Yuan halls (taeungjon) of Pongjongsa temple in Andong, and
(1271-1368) influence. the Kaeshimsa Temple in Sosan. These structures were
• The predominant type of stupa was octagonal, mostly built in timber with the following significant
but bell-shaped stupas began to appear towards structures:
the end of the period, rich sculptural
• Bracket (dougong) on column
embellishment appeared on the body of
octagonal stupas, and the size of the roofstone
• Bracket (dougong) on beam or girder
was reduced. The stupa that enshrines the • Wing-like bracket (dougong)
remains of High Priest Chongjin in Pongamsa The period latter Choson period ushered in the
Temple, Mun-gyong, Kyongsangbuk-do, is one of hyanggyo (local schools) construction in Seoul and
this type. A stupa on the site of Kodalsa Temple numerous provincial cities. In these institutions, sons of
in Yoju, Kyonggi-do, is noted for the bold carving the royalties were trained prepared for civil service
of a dragon and tortoise motif on its pedestal. careers in an atmosphere of Confucian learning.
• Two unique stupas are the lamp-shaped stupa
of Royal Preceptor Hongbop at Pulguksa Temple The period also brought painting Donggwoldo, depicting
and the palanquin-like stupa of Royal Preceptor a landscaped city with extensive grounds and home to the
Chigwang at Popch’onsa Temple. The body of Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung palaces, which
the former is topped with a roof stone shaped like was then used to restore Buyongjeong pavilion of the real
a lotus leaf, and the latter is covered with Changdeokgung palace.
elaborate carvings.
Shirhak, or schools for practical learning managed by
CHOSON/JOSEON PERIOD (1392-1910 AD) scholars dedicated to promoting social welfare also
marked the latter part of Choson period.
• The latter Koryu period was turbulent one and
the kingdom was weakened by the clashes Western influences came around the late 17th century,
between followers of Confucianism and which brought into the region industrial and neo-classic
Buddhism. The Mongols succeeded in annexing architectural styles.
Korea in 1260 AD. Then attacks from Japan
HONGSALMUN
aggravated the situation.
• The attacks of these invaders resulted in the - A gate for entering a sacred place in Korea. It is arranged
destruction of many ancient structures from the by two round poles and two horizontal lines.
earlier kingdoms.
• In 1392, a Korean warrior, Yi Song Gye and his
army were able to push out the Mongols and
Japanese attackers. This started the Choson
period, with Hanyany (Seoul) as the seat of
power. The court of Choson was allied with the
Confucian philosophers and this brought further
destruction and neglect to many Buddhist
structures. Despite the decline of Buddhism in
Korea, the Choson period is said to be
instrumental in bringing the golden age of Korea.
28
 • Toba Batak houses are boat-shaped with
intricately carved gables and upsweeping roof
ridges.

• Rumah gadang gable roofs are in multitude

layers and flare upwards at the ends.

• Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral

houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped
with a layered split-bamboo roof shaped in a
sweeping curved arc.

• Minangkabau houses in Western Sumatera was

greatly influenced by nature, concave roof design
that looks like buffalo horns or bumbung
bergonjong. It is a traditional house used for living
as well as a place for rituals or customary
ceremonies. It can also be used for conference or
communal meetings.
• Mentawai - Uma are traditional vernacular
houses be 300 m2 in area. Built on piles, they
traditional have no windows. The insides are
separated into different dwelling spaces by
• The Omo sebua is a traditional house style of
partition which usually have inter-connecting
the Nias people from Nias island, Indonesia.
doors.
They are built only for the houses of village chiefs.
• Joglo – vernacular house of the Javanese
people (Javanese omah). Joglo refers to the
shape of the roof.

29
THE MAIN CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS OF THE 3. Kelantan and Terengganu
RUMAH BUBUNGAN TINGGI ARE: 4. Pahang and Johor
5. Negeri Sembilan
• The main building part in the middle.
6. Melaka (East coast style)
• Anjung, the constructions on the right (Anjung
Kanan) and the left side (Anjung Kiwa) of the Roof typologies include:
central part.
• The central part of the roof that is very steep, 1. bumbung panjang
the Bubungan Tinggi. 2. bumbung lima
• Front roof is Sindang Langit, rear roof is 3. bumbung perak
called Hambin Awan. 4. bumbung meru 2-tingkat or 2-teired
• Sumba house evolved from the more squarish
RUMAH BUMBUNG PANJANG
kubo, for single family dwelling
• characterized with its high-pitched central peak The house had long elongated shape, its roof long
in its roof horizontal lures using the screen curtain made of bamboo
• Bubungan tinggi is another combination-roof triangular or the letter 'v' in reverse.
hut of Kalimantan type.
RUMAH BUMBUNG PANJANG KELANTAN
Atoni ethnic group has three types of houses: holy house
Roof shape like an inverted V introduced. At a meeting on
(Uma Lulik), house for sleep (Uma Tidor), and barn
the roof top of the lid separated by buttresses called bone
(Lopo-Lopo).
or bone ridge roof. Roof form is known also with folding
• culture is notable for its spatial symbolism, roof or a roof awning length.
associated with a gender dichotomy. Male-female RUMAH BUMBUNG PANJANG PAHANG
principle is important in turn affects the spatial
configuration of an Atoni house. Pahang is a traditional Malay house architectural heritage
• This principle conceived the Atoni house as a that is quite unique and very valuable.
microcosmos and expresses social order.
RUMAH BUMBUNG PANJANG PERLIS
• A more elaborate house is called Ume
Atoni (Atoni means "male"). use of long horizontal roof and side walls are mounted on
• The Atoni entertains their guest in a communal the face of a vertical wall called the screen while the
house called Lopo. components of the capital structure has consisted of a
house and the kitchen.
Bali Aga house is a rectangular post-and-beam structure
supporting a steeply pitcher roof made of bamboo • Malay houses, or rumah kampung is a
shingles or of a thick grass thatch. It is raised on a low structure raised on stilts high above the ground,
plinth of compacted earth faced with stone. The walls are covered with thatched roofs, enclosed with
typically thick wooden planks or plaited bamboo strips. wooden walls, and perforated with windows and
The windows are small or non-existent. A single door is lattices. The size, form, and ornamentation of the
situated at the center of the house, facing the central houses depend on the size, wealth, and status of
corridor of the compound. the family in the community.
• The Kutai style incorporates the Bumbung
Sasak house is a straight derivative from the rice granary Panjang style, but it is distinguished by the
structure of prehistoric Lombok rice cultivating societies. carvings on the door, porch, awnings, windows,
and walls, which can be more elaborate than
other styles.
Malaysian vernacular houses are categorized based on • “Kutai” is another word for old in the local
roof type and based on location. Per locations, the Perakian dialect.
typologies are:

1. Perlis, Kedah and Penang (NW style)

2. Perak (East coast style)
30