EDUCATION ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

(COURSE CODE 8602)

ASSIGNMENT NO 1
Semester: Autumn 2021

Program: B.Ed 1.5 years

Student Name: MUHAMMAD BILAL ASHRAF

Student ID: 0000043425

Tutor Name: MUDASSAR ALI

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

 Assignment No.1

Question No .1

Q1. What are the types of assessment? Differentiate assessment for training of
learning and as learning?

What are the types of assessment?

"A coach and facilitator, the teacher uses formative assessment to help support and enhance
student learning, as judge and jury, the teacher makes summative judgments about a student’s
achievement..."

Assessment is a powerful activity aiming to facilitate students' learning and improve the quality of
instruction. Based upon the functions that it performs, assessment is generally divided into three types:
assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning.

1- Pre-assessment or diagnostic assessment:

Before creating the instruction, it’s necessary to know for what kind of students you’re creating the
instruction. Your goal is to get to know your student’s strengths, weaknesses and the skills and
knowledge the possess before taking the instruction. Based on the data you’ve collected, you can create
your instruction.

2- Formative assessment (Assessment for learning):

Formative assessment is used in the first attempt of developing instruction. The goal is to monitor
student learning to provide feedback. It helps identifying the first gaps in your instruction. Based on
this feedback you’ll know what to focus on for further expansion for your instruction. Assessment for
learning is a continuous and an ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-to-
day basis and modify their based on what the students need to be successful. This assessment provides
students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to enhance their learning. The essence of
formative assessment is the information yielded by this type of assessment is used on one hand to make
immediate decisions and on the other hand based upon this information; timely feedback is provided to
the students to enable them to learn better. If the primary purpose of assessment is to support high quality-
learning then formative assessment ought to understand as the most important assessment practice.

Unique characteristics of assessment for learning:

Assessment for learning has many unique characteristics for example this type of assessment is taken as
"practice." Learner should not be graded for skills and concepts that have been just introduced. They
should e given opportunities to practice. Formative learning assessment helps teachers to determine next
steps during the learning process as the instructions approaches the summative assessment of student
learning. A good analogy for this is the road test that is required to receive a driver's license. Before
the final driving test, or summative assessment, a learner practice by being assessed again and
again to point out the deficiencies in the skill.
Another distinctive characteristic of formative assessment is student involvement. If students are not
involved in the assessment process, formative assessment is not practiced or implemented to its full
effectiveness. One of the key components of the key components of engaging students in the assessment
of their own learning is providing them with descriptive feedback as they learn.

Garrison, and Ehringhaus, (2007) identified some of the instructional strategies that can be used for
formative assessment:

1. Observations:

Observing students' behavior and tasks can help teacher to identify if students are on task or need
clarification. Observations assist teachers in gathering evidence of student learning to inform instructional
planning.

2. Questioning strategies:

Asking better questions allows an opportunity for deeper thinking and provides teacher with significant
insight into the degree and depth of understanding. Questions of this nature engage students in classroom
dialogue that both uncovers and expands learning.

3. Self and peer assessment:

When students have been involved in criteria and goal setting, self- evaluation is a logical step in the
learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each other as resources for understanding and
checking for quality work against previously established criteria.

3. Summative assessment: (Assessment of learning)

Summative assessment is aimed at assessing the extent to which the most important outcomes at the
end of the instruction have been reached. But it measures more: the effectiveness of learning, reactions
on the instruction and the benefits on a long-term base. The long-term benefits can be determined by
following students who attend your course, or test. You are able to see whether and how they use the
learned knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Summative assessment or assessment of learning is used to evaluate students' achievement at some point
in time, generally at the end of the course. The purpose of this assessment is to help the teacher, students
and parents know how well student has completed the learning task. In other words summative evaluation
is used to assign a grade to a student which indicates his/ her level of achievement in the course or
program.

Read more about formative and summative assessments.

 Confirmative assessment

When your instruction has been implemented in your classroom, it’s still necessary to take assessment.
Your goal with confirmative assessments is to find out if the instruction is still a success after a year, for
example, and if the way you're teaching is still on point. You could say that a confirmative assessment is
an extensive form of a summative assessment.
  Norm-referenced assessment

This compares a student’s performance against an average norm. This could be the average national norm
for the subject History, for example. Other example is when the teacher compares the average grade of his
or her students against the average grade of the entire school.

 Criterion-referenced assessment

It measures student’s performances against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards. It
checks what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education.
Criterion-referenced tests are used to evaluate a specific body of knowledge or skill set, it’s a test to
evaluate the curriculum taught in a course.

 Impassive assessment

It measures the performance of a student against previous performances from that student. With this
method you’re trying to improve yourself by comparing previous results. You’re not comparing yourself
against other students, which may be not so good for yourself. One of the major problems in edureformia
is the constant conflation of assessment of learning with assessment FOR learning. We’ve all been a part
of education testing conversations when we realized, “Hey, we aren’t talking about the same thing here.”
Next time, rather than just nodding along, I suggest you dig into the disconnect and discuss away.

What is the difference between assessment for training of learning and as

learning?
Assessment OF learning involves looking at assessment information at the end of the teaching and
learning process to rank students’ achievement levels against a standard. It is summative in nature and
typically involves standardized tests. Assessment OF learning scores are often used to rate teachers’ or
schools’ ability to move student achievement based on the results of single, point-in-time tests — e.g.,
those generated by Northwest Evaluation Association (NWEA) or state tests.

Assessment FOR learning embeds assessment processes throughout the teaching and learning process to
constantly adjust instructional strategy. While it can include test data, it also addresses other quantitative
and even qualitative data, and even encompasses a great deal of anecdotal and descriptive data. Using
NWEA in conjunction with teacher generated daily data (checks for understanding, exit tickets,
observations of student engagement) to alter instructional strategy during lesson or unit delivery is an
example of assessment FOR learning in action.

Assessment as Learning means to use assessment to develop and support student’s metacognitive skills.
This form of assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong Learner. As students engage in
peer and self- assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge and use it
for new learning. Students develop a sense of efficacy and critical thinking when they use teacher, peer
and self- assessment feedback to make adjustments, improvement and changes to what they understand.

The discussion, though, is that in assessment for learning, the test data is just one element in the
discussion, and the assessment process is constant rather than at a single point in time.
Difference 1

The first big difference is when the assessment takes place in a student’s learning process. As the
definition already gave away, formative assessment is an ongoing activity. The evaluation takes place
during the learning process. Not just one time, but several times. A summative evaluation takes place at a
complete other time. Not during the process, but after it. The evaluation takes place after a course or
unit’s completion.

Difference 2

There’s also a big difference between the assessment strategies in getting the right information of the
student’s learning. With formative assessments you try to figure out whether a student’s doing well or
needs help by monitoring the learning process. When you use summative assessments, you assign grades.
The grades tell you whether the student achieved the learning goal or not.

Difference 3

The purposes of both assessments lie miles apart. For formative assessment, the purpose is to improve
student’s learning. In order to do this you need to be able to give meaningful feedback. Check out this
post about feedback. For summative assessment, the purpose is to evaluate student’s achievements. So do
you want your students to be the best at something, or do you want your students to transcend themselves
each time over and over again?

Remember when I said that with formative assessment the evaluation takes place several times during the
learning processes with summative assessment at the end of a chapter or course? This explains also the
size of the evaluation packages.

Difference 4

Formative assessment includes little content areas. For example: 3 formative evaluations of 1 chapter.
Summative assessment includes complete chapters or content areas. For example: just 1 evaluation at the
end of a chapter. The lesson material package is much larger now.

Difference 5

The last difference you may already have guessed. Formative assessment considers evaluation as a
process. This way, the teacher can see a student grow and steer the student in an upwards direction. With
summative assessment it’s harder for you to steer the student in the right direction. The evaluation is
already done. That’s why summative assessments or evaluations are considered to be more of a “product”.

Examples of formative assessments

Formative assessments can be classroom polls, exit tickets, early feedback, and so on. But you can make
them more fun too. Take a look at these three examples.

1. In response to a question or topic inquiry, students write down 3 different summaries. 10-15 words
long, 30-50 words long and 75-100 words long.
2. The 3-2-1 countdown exercise: Give your students cards to write on, or they can respond orally.
Students have to respond to three separate statements: 3 things you didn’t know before, 2 things that
surprised you about this topic and 1 thing you want to start doing with what you’ve learned.

3. One minute papers are usually done at the end of the lesson. Students answer a brief question in writing.
The question typically centers around the main point of the course, most surprising concept, and most
confusing area of the topic and what question from the topic might appear on the next test.

Examples of summative assessments

Most of you have been using summative assessments whole their teaching careers. And that’s normal.
Education is a slow learner and giving students grades is the easier thing to do. Examples of summative
assessments are midterm exams, end-of-unit or –chapter tests, final projects or papers, district benchmark
and scores used for accountability for schools and students. So, that was it for this post. I hope you now
know the differences and know which assessment strategy you are going to use in your teaching. If you
want to know more about implementing formative assessment you should formative assessment.

Assessment for learning Assessment as or of learning

(Formative assessment) ( Summative learning)

1. Checks how students are learning and is there 1. Checks what has been learned to date or time.
any problem in learning process. It determines what
to do next.

2. Is designed to assist educators and students in 2. Is designed to provide information to those not
improving learning? directly involved in classroom learning and
teaching (school administration, parents, school
boards), in education to education and students.

3. Is periodic?

3. Is used continually? 4. Usually uses numbers, scores or marks as part of

a formal report or sheet.
4. Usually uses detailed, specific and descriptive
feedback- in a formal or informal report. 5. Usually compares the students learned either
with other students learning (norm-referenced) or
5. Usually focuses on improvement, compared with the standard for a grade level.
the students own previous performance.

Question No.2

What do you know about taxonomy of educational objectives? Write in detail.

Taxonomy of educational objectives:

“The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is a framework for classifying statements of what we
expect or intend students to learn as a result of instruction. The framework was conceived as a
means of facilitating the exchange of test items among faculty at various universities in order to
create banks of items, each measuring the same educational objective (p. 212).”

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives provides a common language with which to discuss educational
goals. Following the 1948 convention of the American Psychological Association, a group of college
examiners considered the need for a system of classifying educational goals or objectives for the
evaluation of student performance. Years later and as a result of this work, Benjamin Bloom formulated a
classification of “the goals of educational process". Eventually, Bloom established a hierarchy of
educational objectives for categorizing level of abstraction of questions that commonly occur in
educational objectives and settings (Bloom, 1965). This classification is generally referred to as Bloom's
taxonomy. Taxonomy means a classification principles, or structure. The following are six levels in the
taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The detail
is given below:

Cognitive domain:
The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves the development of intellectual skills and abilities. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and the concepts that serve
in the development of intellectual skills and abilities. There are six levels of this domain starting from
the simplest cognitive behavior to the most complex. The levels or steps can be thought of a degree of
difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Affective domain:
The effective domain is related to the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feeling,
value, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five levels of this domain include:
receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterizing by value.

Psychomotor domain:
Focus is on physical and kinesthetic abilities and skills. The psychomotor domain includes physical
movement, coordination, and use of the motor- skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice
and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. There are
seven levels of this domain from the simplest behavior to the most complex. Domain levels or steps
include: perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation.

Bloom’s Original Taxonomy

Overall Bloom's taxonomy is related to the three Hs of education process that are Head, Heart, and Hand.
In each of the three domains Bloom’s taxonomy is based on the premise that the categories are ordered in
degree of difficulty. An important premise of Bloom's taxonomy is that each 'level' must be
mastered before progressing to the next. As such the level with in each domain are levels of learning
development, and these levels increase in difficulty. Benjamin Bloom of the University of Chicago
developed the Taxonomy in 1956 with the help of several educational measurement specialists. Bloom
saw the original Taxonomy as more than a measurement tool. He believed it could serve as a:

 common language about learning goals to facilitate communication across persons, subject matter,
and grade levels;
 basis for determining in a particular course or curriculum the specific meaning of broad
educational goals, such as those found in the currently prevalent national, state, and local
standards;
 means for determining the congruence of educational objectives, activities, and assessments in a
unit, course, or curriculum; and
 Panorama of the range of educational possibilities against which the limited breadth and depth of
any particular educational course or curriculum could be contrasted (Krathwohl, 2002).

The Revised Taxonomy:

Bloom’s Taxonomy was reviewed and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl, with the help of many
scholars and practitioners in the field, in 2001. They developed the revised Taxonomy, which retained the
same goals as the original Taxonomy but reflected almost half a century of engagement with Bloom’s
original version by educators and researchers.

One major change of the revised Taxonomy was to address Bloom’s very complicated “knowledge”
category, the first level in the original Taxonomy. In the original Taxonomy, the knowledge category
referred both to knowledge of specific facts, ideas, and processes (as the revised category “Remember”
now does), and to an awareness of possible actions that can be performed with that knowledge. The
revised Taxonomy recognized that such actions address knowledge and skills learned throughout all
levels of the Taxonomy, and thus added a second “dimension” to the Taxonomy: the knowledge
dimension, comprised of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.

Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy:

Factual knowledge – The basic elements that students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or
solve problems in it.

Conceptual knowledge – The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that
enable them to function together.

Procedural knowledge – How to do something; methods of inquiry; and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods.

Metacognitive knowledge – Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of

one’s own condition.

The two dimensions – knowledge and cognitive – of the revised Taxonomy combine to create a taxonomy
table with which written objectives can be analyzed. This can help instructors understand what kind of
knowledge and skills are being covered by the course to ensure that adequate breadth in types of learning
is addressed by the course.
Learning objectives and action verbs:

Learning objective/ level Description Action verb to be used to

state objectives

Knowledge The first level of learning is To arrange, to define, to describe,

knowledge. to identify, to reproduce, to state,
to repeat.

Comprehension Here the student should be able To choose, to compare, to

to translate, comprehend, or discuss, to explain, to express, to
interpret information based on select, to tell, to label, to locate,
the knowledge. to demonstrate, to discriminate.

Application Application iss the usee of To apply, to classify, to

knowledge. The student select, demonstrate, to develop, to
transfer, and uses data and utilize, to relate, to rewrite, to
principles to complete solve a use, to solve, to search, to sketch.
problem.

Analysis Analysis involves taking part a To analyze, to calculate, to

piece of knowledge, the examine, to inventory, to
investigation of part of concept. experiment, to question, to
differentiate, and to deduce.

Synthesis Synthesis is the creative act. The To arrange, to assemble, to

student originates, integrates, and construct, to synthesize, to
combines ideas into something produce, to predict, to relate, to
that is new to him/her. specify, and to plan.

Evaluation Evaluation is judgement or To appraise, to assess, to attach,

decision making. The student to measure, to judge, to test, to
appraises, assess or criticizes on value, to standardize, to select.
a basis of standards and criteria.

Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy:

Like Bloom’s taxonomy, the Structure Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy developed by
Biggs and Collis in 1992 distinguishes between increasingly complex levels of understanding that can be
used to describe and assess student learning. While Bloom’s taxonomy describes what students do with
information they acquire, the SOLO taxonomy describes the relationship students articulate between
multiple pieces of information. Atherton (2005) provides an overview of the five levels that make up the
SOLO taxonomy.

Question No.3
How will you define attitude? Elaborate its components?

What is Attitude?
"Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predispositions of opinion, interest or purpose
involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and readiness with an appropriate response".

Attitudes are also known as “frames of reference“. They provide the background against which facts and
events are viewed. Attitude is a posture, action, or disposition of a figure or a statue. A mental and neural
state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the
individual's response to all objects and situation with which it is related. Attitude is the State of mind with
which you approach a task, a challenge, a person, love, life in general.

"Attitude is a complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act
in certain ways"

An attitude describes persons’ enduring favorable or unfavorable cognitive evaluations, feelings, and
action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes regarding almost everything such as
religion, politics, cloth, music, food.

Attitude Definition views of certain writers:

Robbins

Attitudes are evaluation statements either favorable or unfavorable or unfavorable concerning objects,
people or events. They reflect how one feels about something.

G.W.Allport

Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a directive or
dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.

Kerch and Crutchfield

Attitude as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes with
respect to some aspect of the individual’s world.

Katz and Scotland

Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way.

Attitude Meaning
In simple words, an “attitude” is an individual’s way of looking or an individual’s point of view at
something.

List of Attitude:

In broader sense of the word there are only three attitudes, a positive attitude, a negative attitude,
and a neutral attitude. But in general sense, an attitude is what it is expressed through. Given below is a
list of attitudes that are expressed by people, and are more than personality traits which you have heard of,
know of, or might be even carrying them:

1. Acceptance. 2. Confidence. 3. Seriousness. 4. Optimism. 5. Interest. 6. Cooperative

Components of Attitude
Following are the components of Attitudes;

1. Cognitive component

2. Affective component

3. Behavioral component

1. Cognitive component

"It refers that's part of attitude which is related in general know how of a person, for example, he
says smoking is injurious to health. Such type of assessment or idea of a person is called cognitive
component of attitude."

Beliefs are the cognitive components of consumer attitude. Cognitive component of attitude is associated
with the value statement. It consists of values, belief, ideas and other information that a person may have
faith in.

Positive brand associations enhance brand equity and are achieved through a number of positioning
strategies. Through brand associations, marketers establish and influence favorable beliefs about a brand
and unfavorable beliefs about competitors.

Example: Quality of sincere hard is a faith or value statement that a manager may have.

2. Affective component

"Affective is the emotive component of consumer attitude. Affective component of attitude is

associated with individual feelings about another person, which may be positive, neutral or
negative."

This part of attitude is related to the statement which affects another person. For example, in an
organization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he points out that the sale staff is
not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a written notice to the marketing
manager to negotiate with the sale staff.

Three research models describe the determinants of affective response.

1. Functional theory of attitude explains that consumers buy as a result of one of four psychological
functions: adjustment, ego defense, value expression, and application of prior knowledge.

2. Fischbein model relates consumer beliefs and evaluations to affective response: if beliefs are strong
and desirable, affective responses are positive.

3. Belief importance model analyses affective responses across competing brands.

Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is sincere. It is an expression
of feelings about a person, object or a situation.

3. Behavioral component
“The behavioral component refers to that part of attitude which reflects the Intention of a person in
short run or long run. For example, before the production and launching process the product."

Report is prepared by the production department which consists of the intension in near future and long
run and this report is handed over the top management for decision. Intention is the behavioral component
of consumer attitude. Behavioral component of attitude is associated with the impact of various condition
or situations that lead to person behavior based on cognitive and affective components. Cognitive and
affective components are bases for such Behaviour. Former two components cannot be seen, only the
Behaviour component can be seen. Former is important because it is a base for the formation of attitude.

Two research models demonstrate the relationship between intention to purchase and actual purchase
and consumption. The theories of reasoned action explain purchasing behavior as a direct result of
intention, influenced by attitude toward purchase and by subjective norms.

The theory of trying to consume explains actual consumption behavior of purchasers. It provides insight
into the establishment and maintenance of long-term relationship with consumers.

Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest is an affective component, I, therefore, would like to
disassociate myself with him, is a behavioral component and therefore I would avoid Sam.

Conclusion:
Attitude is composed of three components, which include a cognitive component, effective or emotional
component, and a behavioral component. Basically the cognitive component is based on the information
or knowledge, whereas the affective component is based on the feelings. The behavioral component
reflects how attitude affects the way we act or behave. It is helpful in understanding their complexity and
the potential relationship between attitudes and behavior. But for clarity’s sake, keep in mind that the term
attitude essentially refers to the affected part of the three components. In an organization, attitudes are
important for their goal or objective to succeed. Each one of these components is very different from the
other, and they can build upon one another to form our attitudes and, therefore, affect how we relate to the
world.

Question No .4
What are the types of every questions? Also write its advantages and
disadvantages?
What is Question?

"A question is a sentence that seeks an answer for information collection, tests, and research. Right
questions produce accurate responses and aids in collecting actionable quantitative and qualitative
data."

Questions have over the years evolved to different question types to now collect different sets of
information. The types of question used in a research study are decided by the information required,
nature of the study, the time needed to answer, and the budget constraints of a study. The art of asking the
right questions helps to gain deep insights, make informed decisions, and develop effective solutions. To
know how to ask good questions, understand the basic question types. A questionnaire is a list of written
questions that can be completed in one of two basic ways;

Firstly, respondents could be asked to o complete the questionnaire with the researcher not present. This
is a postal questionnaire and refer to any questionnaire that a respondent completes without the aid of the
researcher.

Secondly, respondent could be asked to complete the questionnaire by verbally responding to questions in
the presence of a researcher. This variation is called a structured interview.

Although the two variations are similar and the difference between them is important. If, for example, we
are concerned with protecting the respondent's anonymity then it might be more appropriate to use a
postal questionnaire than structural interview.

Different Types of Questions

Below are some widely used types of questions with sample examples of these question types:

1. The Dichotomous Question

The dichotomous question is generally a "Yes/No" close-ended question and used for basic validation.
In the below example, a yes or no question is used to understand if the person has ever used your online
store to make a purchase. The respondents who answer "Yes" and "No" can be bunched together into
groups. Then, you can ask different questions to both groups.

Example:
 Do you like smoking?

Yes or No

2. Multiple Choice Questions

Multiple choice questions are a question type in which respondents have to select one (single select
multiple choice question) or many (multi-select multiple choice question) responses from a given list of
options. The multiple-choice question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or answers,
incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors. However, the questions are designed as it best
matches the expected outcome. Typically, single select questions are denoted by radio buttons, and multi-
select questions are denoted by check-boxes. An example of a multi-select multiple-choice question is a
bank that would like to launch a new credit card and wants to understand payment merchants' usage:

3. Rank Order Scaling Question

The rank order question type allows the respondent to rank preferences in a question in the order of
choice. Use this question type to understand the weightage that is offered by respondents to each option.
The other type of rank order question is a drag and drop question type, where the respondent can
rearrange options based on importance. An example of a rank order question is a sports goods store
looking to understand from respondents their choice of sports and the order they would place them.

4. Text Slider Question

A text slider question is a rating scale question type that uses an interactive slider in answer to select the
most slider in answer to select the most appropriate option. The options scale is well-defined and on the
same continuum. Rating scales are used to measure the direction and intensity of attitudes. You can also
use a text slider where either end of the option has an anchor.

5. Likert Scale Question

Likert Scale is one of the most used tools by market researchers to evaluate their target audience's
opinions and attitudes. This type of question is essential in measuring a respondent's opinion or belief
towards a given subject. The answer options scale is typically a five, seven, or nine-point agreement scale
used to measure respondents' agreement with various statements. Likert scales can be unipolar, indicating
a respondent to think of the presence or absence of quality. Or they can be bipolar, mentioning two
different qualities, and defining the relative proportion of those qualities. For example, if a telecom
company would like to understand the respondent's satisfaction level with their services, the question that
can be asked is:

6. Semantic Differential Scale

Semantic differential scale is a type of question that asks people to rate a product, company, brand, or any
"entity" within the frames of a multipoint rating option. These survey answering options are
grammatically on opposite adjectives at each end. For example, if the national health association wants to
collect feedback on Government insurance policies from the general public, the following question could
be administered.
7. Stapel Scale Question

The Stapel scale question is a close-ended rating scale with a single adjective (unipolar), developed to
gather respondent insights about a particular subject or event. The survey question comprises an even
number of response options without a neutral point. For example, if an airline wants to collect feedback
on multiple attributes of a respondent's flying experience.

8. Closed questions (aka the ‘Polar’ question)

Closed, or ‘polar’ questions generally invite a one-word answer, such as ‘yes’ or ‘no’. For example, ‘do
you drive?’ or, ‘did you take my pen?’ They could also include answers to factual or multiple choice
questions, such as ‘what’s your name’, or ‘would you like tea, coffee, or water?’ They’re popular as
icebreaker questions in group situations because they’re easy to answer. Of course, most questions can be
opened up for further discussion, including closed questions — but more on that later.

Useful for: warming up group discussions, getting a quick answer.

Example;

Which are the elements necessary for classroom teaching?

Circle those elements:

a) Teacher b) Library C) Lesson planning d) Laptop

9. Open questions

Open-ended questions require a little more thought and generally encourage wider discussion and
elaboration. They can’t be answered with a simple yes or no response. For example: ‘what do you think of
your boss?’ Or ‘why did you choose that car?’

Useful for: critical or creative discussion, finding out more information about a person or subject

Example;

State your opinion about the quality of teaching during workshop.

.............................................................................................................

10. Probing questions

These questions are useful for gaining clarification and encouraging others to tell you more information
about a subject. Probing questions are usually a series of questions that dig deeper and provide a fuller
picture. For example: ‘when do you need the finished project, and is it ok if I email it to you?’

Useful for: seeing the bigger picture, encouraging a reluctant speaker to tell you more information,
and avoiding misunderstandings.

11. Leading questions

These questions are designed to lead the respondent towards a certain desired positive or negative
route.

In the workplace, you might encounter leading questions such as: ‘do you have any issues with the
project?’, or ‘did you enjoy working on that project?’ The former subtly prompts the respondent towards
a negative response; the latter towards a positive. Asking ‘how did you get on with that project’ will get
you a more balanced answer.

Leading questions could also involve an appeal at the end that’s designed to coerce the respondent into
agreeing with the speaker. For example, ‘this project is going well, isn’t it?’ encourages the respondent to
say ‘yes’. This works particularly well because psychologically, we prefer saying yes over no. So when
we’re put on the spot, we’ll usually opt for the former.

Useful for: building positive discussions, closing a sale, steering a conversation towards an outcome that
serves your interest. A word of warning: It’s important to use leading questions carefully; they can be
seen as an unfair way of getting the answer you want.

Example;

How would you rate lacture method?

(i) Fair (ii)Good (iii) Excellent (iv) superb

12. Buying propensity question

Buying propensity questions are questions that try to assess the future intensions of customers. These
questions ask respondent if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements they want to be
addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future.

Example;
Pakistani products have the good quality, would you prefer to buy it?

Definitely. Probably. Not probably. Not sure. Definitely sure.

Advantages and disadvantages of Questions;

Advantages:
The advantage of using questions is that a large number of people can be reached relatively easily and
cost effectively. A standard question provides quantifiable answers for a research topic. These answers
are relatively easy to analyze. Questions can be designed to target a certain “audience" even if they are
geographically spread." Depending on the design of the questions, the data collected may either be
quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative data is in numerical form and can be used to find answers about a particular problem such
as: customer' perceptions about certain products, feeling about services being offered by "call centers",
and so on. Another good thing about question is that they “reduce bias".

Effective question may be designed in such a way that the questions are “short and focused" and have at
least less than “12 words".

Advantages of multiple choice questions,

 Quick and easy to score, by hand or electronically

 Can be written so that they test a wide range of higher-order thinking skills
 Can cover lots of content areas on a single exam and still be answered in a class period

Advantages of true false questions,

 Quick and easy to score

 Considered to be “one of the most unreliable forms of assessment” (p. 195)
 Often written so that most of the statement is true save one small, often trivial bit of information
that then makes the whole statement untrue
 Encourage guessing, and reward for correct guesses

Advantages of short question answer:

 Quick and easy to grade

 Quick and easy to write

Disadvantage:
Questions are not always the best way to gather information. For example, if there is little previous
information on a problem, a question may only provide limited additional insight. On one hand, the
investigators may not have asked the right questions which allow new insight in the research topic. On the
other side, questions may often only allow limited choice of responses. If the right response is not among
the choice of answers, the investigators will obtain little or no valid information.

Another setback of questions is the varying responses to questions. Respondents sometimes

misunderstand or misinterpret questions. If this is the case, it will be very hard to correct these mistakes
and collect missing data in a second round.

It’s good to regularly review the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used test questions
and the test banks that now frequently provide them.

Disadvantages of Multiple choice questions:

 Often test literacy skills: “if the student reads the question carefully, the answer is easy to
recognize even if the student knows little about the subject” (p. 194)
 Provide unprepared students the opportunity to guess, and with guesses that are right, they get
credit for things they don’t know
 Expose students to misinformation that can influence subsequent thinking about the content
 Take time and skill to construct (especially good questions

Disadvantages of True false questions;

 Considered to be “one of the most unreliable forms of assessment” (p. 195)

 Often written so that most of the statement is true save one small, often trivial bit of information
that then makes the whole statement untrue
 Encourage guessing, and reward for correct guesses

Disadvantages of short question answer;

 Encourage students to memorize terms and details, so that their understanding of the content
remains superficial.

Question No. 5

Construct a text, administer it and ensure its reliability?

How we construct a text?

"The purpose of any text (spoken or written) is to express meanings for the sake of sharing
information – moving an idea from one person to another". Meaning expression is a complex process
because it involves at least two different people. When we have an idea to convey, we look for
appropriate evidence and analogies. We combine words into phrases, and phrases into sentences
according to grammar rules. We link sentences into paragraphs and paragraphs into text. Text becomes a
meaningful whole, an unfolding story, built from the assembled meaningful elements. The goal of a
listener or reader who engages with your text is to construct meaning from your words. He or she will
either understand or misunderstand your intention. But by carefully considering how you communicate,
you can enhance the chances that what you mean will be understood. This is why it is important to
develop your meaning expression skills.
Consider your audience. Ask yourself what they might not know and include that information in your
communication. A meeting of minds can only happen on common ground. Also pay attention to how you
move from one idea to the next because giant steps can trip up or lose you audience. One of the factors
that influences your TOEFL score is how much effort it takes the evaluator to understand what you mean.
You shouldn’t expect a TOEFL evaluator to make suppositions or assumptions about your intentions.
Your response should have no information gaps and should have a nice flow.

Interactions for text construction:

When you construct a text, think of it as taking your audience on a journey. You want the journey
to be smooth and easy to follow instead of being twisty, bumpy, or disconnected. This journey starts
on a path toward a destination. The destination is the topic of your text. The path must be clear at
each step of the way so your audience does not become lost. It helps to think of the path as a series of legs
on the journey. These legs are subtopics that build and support the main topic. The legs are, in turn,
constructed from steps. Each one moves the audience closer to the destination. No step should be too
large for your audience to take. No leg should be so twisty that your audience becomes lost. Additionally,
the journey should be no longer than is needed to reach the destination. Paths that cycle back on
themselves or take meaningless detours only discourage the traveler.

In a smooth, well-developed response, each paragraph develops a subtopic that is relevant and
meaningfully linked with the main topic. Each paragraph is another leg of the journey, and uses evidence
or logical arguments to support the subtopic or topic of the text. On the level of a paragraph, each
sentence should have a purpose and be meaningfully linked to the sentences before and after it. The steps
along the path should not be too far apart. Very often during the review of some of my students’ essays, I
noticed that I understood pieces of a sentence, however the whole sentence didn’t make sense to me.
Sentences were often convoluted and long (sometimes the length of the entire paragraph) and it was not
clear where the author wanted to take me with the long string of words. Every sentence can be divided
into two parts. One of them is the “theme”, topic, or subject of the sentence. The theme contains familiar
information for the listener or reader:

 I like cats.
 She was born is Scotland.
 Jimmy was bit on the forehead by a mosquito.

Every sentence can be divided into two parts.

The other part, the “rheme”, contains new information for the sake of which the sentence has been
written or said. Rheme is also defined as a focus or comment,.

Every sentence can be divided into two parts.

When you construct a sentence, make sure that the theme and the rheme are properly marked (for
example, through intonation or word order) for the purpose of the sentence to be clearly expressed.
Remember that the words used to build the theme and rheme can be mixed around for emphasis or clarity.
Note also that the theme may be omitted if it is commonly understood (such as the missing “you” in the
previous sentence).
When constructing your text, there are a number of common build blocks that can reliably be used. The
first of these are simple facts. Then there are analogies and metaphors. These can be used to show how
the ideas you wish to express are similar to (or different from) something in common experience. The
point is to relate the meaning you wish to communicate to something your audience will easily
understand. Logical arguments are also a valuable tool for building the support structure needed to hold
up a conclusion. When two adjacent steps seem too far apart, a little bit of transition can smooth the path.

Initial construction is the first half of the job. Once you have something to work with you can revise,
strengthen, and sharpen your text.

Test reliability and validity are two technical properties of a test that indicate the quality and usefulness of
the test. These are the two most important features of a test. You should examine these features when
evaluating the suitability of the test for your use. This chapter provides a simplified explanation of these
two complex ideas. These explanations will help you to understand reliability and validity information
reported in test manuals and reviews and use that information to evaluate the suitability of a test for your
use.

Test reliability:

What does the term reliability mean?

"Reliability means trustworthy." A text score is called Reliable when we have reasons for believing the
test score to be stable and objective.

For example; If the same test is given to two classes and is marked by different teachers even then it
produced the similar results, it may be considered as reliable refers to how dependably or consistently a
test measures a characteristic. If a person takes the test again, will he or she get a similar test score, or a
much different score? A test that yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to measure
a characteristic reliably.

How do we account for an individual who does not get exactly the same test score every
time he or she takes the test? Some possible reasons are the following:

1. Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be influenced by a
person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For example, differing levels of anxiety,
fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test results.

2. Environmental factors; Differences in the testing environment, such as room temperature, lighting,
noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's test performance.

3. Test form; many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form, but each form is
supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test are known as parallel forms or alternate
forms. These forms are designed to have similar measurement characteristics, but they contain different
items. Because the forms are not exactly the same, a test taker might do better on one form than on
another.
4. Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test taker's
performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of reference among raters can
produce different test scores for the test taker.

5. Principle of Assessment: Use only reliable assessment instruments and procedures. In other words,
use only assessment tools that provide dependable and consistent information.

These factors are sources of chance or random measurement error in the assessment process. If there were
no random errors of measurement, the individual would get the same test score, the individual's "true"
score, each time. The degree to which test scores are unaffected by measurement errors is an indication of
the reliability of the test.

"Reliable assessment tools produce dependable, repeatable, and consistent information about
people. In order to meaningfully interpret test scores and make useful employment or career-
related decisions, you need reliable tools. This brings us to the next principle of assessment."

Types of reliability estimates:

There are several types of reliability estimates, kuder Richardson reliability, Split half reliability, and Test
Retest reliability, each influenced by different sources of measurement error. Test developers have the
responsibility of reporting the reliability estimates that are relevant for a particular test. Before
deciding to use a test, read the test manual and any independent reviews to determine if its
reliability is acceptable. The acceptable level of reliability will differ depending on the type of test and
the reliability estimate used.

Test-retest reliability indicates the repeatability of test scores with the passage of time. This estimate
also reflects the stability of the characteristic or construct being measured by the test.

Some constructs are more stable than others. For example, an individual's reading ability is more stable
over a particular period of time than that individual's anxiety level. Therefore, you would expect a higher
test-retest reliability coefficient on a reading test than you would on a test that measures anxiety. For
constructs that are expected to vary over time, an acceptable test-retest reliability coefficient may be
lower than is suggested.

Alternate or parallel form reliability indicates how consistent test scores are likely to be if a person
takes two or more forms of a test. A high parallel form reliability coefficient indicates that the different
forms of the test are very similar which means that it makes virtually no difference which version of the
test a person takes. On the other hand, a low parallel form reliability coefficient suggests that the different
forms are probably not comparable; they may be measuring different things and therefore cannot be used
interchangeably.

Inter-rater reliability indicates how consistent test scores are likely to be if the test is scored by two or
more raters. On some tests, raters evaluate responses to questions and determine the score. Differences in
judgments among raters are likely to produce variations in test scores. A high inter-rater reliability
coefficient indicates that the judgment process is stable and the resulting scores are reliable.
Inter-rater reliability coefficients are typically lower than other types of reliability estimates. However, it
is possible to obtain higher levels of inter-rater reliabilities if raters are appropriately trained.

Internal consistency reliability indicates the extent to which items on a test measure the same thing. A
high internal consistency reliability coefficient for a test indicates that the items on the test are very
similar to each other in content (homogeneous). It is important to note that the length of a test can affect
internal consistency reliability. For example, a very lengthy test can spuriously inflate the reliability
coefficient.

Split half reliability: To assess the consistency of results comparing two halves of single test, these
halves may be even off items on the single test.

Kuder- Richardson reliability: To assess the consistency of results, using all the possible split halves of
a test.

Test that measure multiple characteristics are usually divided into distinct components. Manuals for such
tests typically report a separate internal consistency reliability coefficient for each component in addition
to one for the whole test. Test manuals and reviews report several kinds of internal consistency reliability
estimates. Each type of estimate is appropriate under certain circumstances. The test manual should
explain why a particular estimate is reported.

Methods for conducting validation studies

The Uniform Guidelines discuss the following three methods of conducting validation studies. The
Guidelines describe conditions under which each type of validation strategy is appropriate. They do not
express a preference for any one strategy to demonstrate the job-relatedness of a test.

Criterion-related validation requires demonstration of a correlation or other statistical relationship

between test performance and job performance. In other words, individuals who score high on the test
tend to perform better on the job than those who score low on the test. If the criterion is obtained at the
same time the test is given, it is called concurrent validity; if the criterion is obtained at a later time, it is
called predictive validity.

Content-related validation requires a demonstration that the content of the test represents important job-
related behaviors. In other words, test items should be relevant to and measure directly important
requirements and qualifications for the job.

Construct-related validation requires a demonstration that the test measures the construct or
characteristic it claims to measure, and that this characteristic is important to successful performance on
the job.

The three methods of validity-criterion-related, content, and construct-should be used to provide

validation support depending on the situation. These three general methods often overlap, and, depending
on the situation, one or more may be appropriate. French (1990) offers situational examples of when each
method of validity may be applied.

First, as an example of criterion-related validity, take the position of millwright. Employees' scores
(predictors) on a test designed to measure mechanical skill could be correlated with their performance in
servicing machines (criterion) in the mill. If the correlation is high, it can be said that the test has a high
degree of validation support, and its use as a selection tool would be appropriate.

Second, the content validation method may be used when you want to determine if there is a relationship
between behaviors measured by a test and behaviors involved in the job. For example, a typing test would
be high validation support for a secretarial position, assuming much typing is required each day. If,
however, the job required only minimal typing, then the same test would have little content validity.
Content validity does not apply to tests measuring learning ability or general problem-solving skills
(French, 1990).

Third method is construct validity. This method often pertains to tests that may measure abstract traits of
an applicant. For example, construct validity may be used when a bank desires to test its applicants for
"numerical aptitude." In this case, an aptitude is not an observable behavior, but a concept created to
explain possible future behaviors. To demonstrate that the test possesses construct validation support, ". . .
the bank would need to show (1) that the test did indeed measure the desired trait and (2) that this trait
corresponded to success on the job" (French, 1990, p. 260).

Validity evidence is especially critical for tests that have adverse impact. When a test has adverse
impact, the Uniform Guidelines require that validity evidence for that specific employment decision be
provided.

The particular job for which a test is selected should be very similar to the job for which the test was
originally developed. Determining the degree of similarity will require a job analysis. Job analysis is a
systematic process used to identify the tasks, duties, responsibilities and working conditions associated
with a job and the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics required to perform that job. Job
analysis information may be gathered by direct observation of people currently in the job, interviews with
experienced supervisors and job incumbents, questionnaires, personnel and equipment records, and work
manuals. In order to meet the requirements of the Uniform Guidelines, it is advisable that the job analysis
be conducted by a qualified professional, for example, an industrial and organizational psychologist or
other professional well trained in job analysis techniques. Job analysis information is central in deciding
what to test for and which tests to use.

Administration of the test:

Administration includes Test Assembly, Reproduction of the Test, and Administration of the Test.
In Administration the test is ready. All that remains is to get the students ready and hand out the test. Here
are some suggestions to help your students psychologically prepared for the test;

 Maintain a positive attitude for achievement

 Maximize achievement motivation
 Equalize advantages to all the students
 Provide easy, comfortable and proper seats
 Provide proper system of light, temperature, air and water.
 Clarify all the rules and regulations of the examination hall
 Rotate distribution
 Remind the students to check their copies
  Monitor students continuously
 Minimize distractions
 Give time warning properly
 Collect test uniformly
 Count the answer sheets, seal it in a bag and hand it over to the quarter concerned.

References:
From book of Educational Assessment and Evaluation and;

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teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

2. Baker, D. F. (2008). Peer assessment in small groups: A comparison of methods. Journal of

Management Education, 32 (2), 183-209.

3. ^Simpson, Elizabeth J. (1966). "The classification of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain".

Illinois Journal of Home Economics. 10 (4): 110–144.

4. McAllister, D., and Guidice, R.M. (2012). This is only a test: A machine-graded improvement to the
multiple-choice and true-false examination. Teaching in Higher Education, 17 (2), 193-207.

5. West S, King V, Carey TS, et al. Systems to rate the strength of scientific evidence. Evid Rep Technol
Assess (Summ). 2002;(47):1–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

6. Robbins, Stephen P. 2010. Organizational Behaviour. Neww Delhi: Prentice-Hall.

Anderson, M., 2004. The Power of Attitude, Thomas Nelson.

Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

7. From Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of
Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. (1973).

From Harrow. A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: a guide for developing behavioral objectives. (1972).

8. Cohan, T. J., Swerdlik, M. E., And Phillips, S. M. (1996). Psychological Testing and Measurement:
An Introduction to Tests and It's Measurements. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

9. Cronbach, L. J.; Meehl, P. E. (1955). "Construct Validity in Psychological Tests". Phycological

Bulletin 52 (4):. 281-302.