UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

NAME: KEVIN OBWOCHA OICHOE

REG NO: A83/5286/2019

TITLE: INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT

SITE: MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES, NYAMIRA

COUNTY.

DURATION: 17TH MAY 2022 TO 15TH JULY 2022

SUPERVISOR: MR. THOMAS MONG’ARE NYAMBANE

ASSESSOR: DR. LUCY KAREGA

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Abstract
Industrial field attachment familiarized me with the working environment which we will engage
in after formal qualification. The duration for the industrial attachment was 8 weeks from 17th
May to 15th July 2022. The attachment ensures full comprehension and application of the
theoretical facts covered in the university and exposed me to the matters that are found wanting
in the Society.

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is a government ministry of Kenya. Its head
office is in the Kilimo House in Nairobi having offices in counties like the place of my
attachment in Nyamira Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.The Sector is comprised
of the Departments of Agriculture, Livestock, Veterinary Service, Cooperative Development &
Marketing and Fisheries.Through the sector I was given the mandate to how it governs over
agriculture ,livestock and fisheries research of strategic importance and produce improved
technologies for agriculture growth.
DECLARATION
I declare that this report is my original copy of the field attachment I carried out in Nyamira
county,Bonyamatuta ,Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries and it has not been
submitted to any other University for awarding.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank Almighty God for the care through the attachment period,not forgetting my attachment
supervisor ,lecturers ,farmers we visited and other fellow colleagues who have been on my side
providing required assistance through this period.
Chapter One
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND HISTORY

The Nyamira Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is located at Nyamira town in
Nyanza. It’s in Nyamira south sub county 41.8 km from Kisii . The ministry of Agriculture was
established in 1955 to govern over agriculture ,livestock and fisheries research . Since then, the
centre has steadily grown to host world class level platform which has expanded its research
components to include research in crops, soil and water management, integrated pest and disease
management and social economics.

1.2 Objectives of the ministry

Carry out research in agriculture, veterinary sciences and forestry.

Co-operate with other organizations and institutions of higher learning in training programs and
in matters of relevant research.

Liaise with other research bodies within and outside Kenya carrying out research.

Disseminate research findings.

Co-operate with the parent ministry, The National council of science and technology and the
relevant research committee in matters pertaining to research policies and priorities.

To increase productivity, commercialization and competitiveness of crops and other demanded

agricultural products through generation and promotion of knowledge, information and
technologies that respond to client’s demands and opportunities.
VISION

The Ministry of agriculture ,livestock and fisheries envisions a vibrant commercially oriented
and competitive agricultural sector, propelled by science,technology and innovations that
respond to demands

MISSION

The Ministry of agriculture ,livestock and fisheries is to increase productivity,

commercialization and competitiveness of crops and other demanded agricultural products
through generation and promotion of knowledge, information and technologies that respond to
client’s demands and
opportunities.
1.3 Organisation structure

Departments and their functions

Department of Agriculture

Functions
Formulation and implementation of policies and programmers aimed at achieving rapid
agricultural growth through optimum utilization of land, water, soil and plant resources of the
State.
Implementation of beneficiary oriented schemes for economics upliftment of farming
community.

Creating assured irrigation facilities to the farmers through minor irrigation schemes so as to
obtain maximum returns from their land.

Popularizing the use of farmer's friendly biofertilizers.

Motivating farmers to minimize the use of pesticides and to control the environmental pollution
with adoption of Integrated Pest Management.

Motivating farmers for diversification of areas from traditional crops to commercial crops.

Monitoring soil health and testing of nutrient level of soil samples collected from farmers fields
across the State.

Educating farmers on soil and water conservation technologies through implementation of

Watershed Projects.

Undertaking measures to provide agricultural credit, crop insurance and helps the farmers in
getting remunerative returns for their produce.
Implementing calamity (like flood, drought etc.) relief programmes.

Conducting surveys for collection and maintenance of a wide range of statistical and economic
data relating to agriculture, required for development planning.

Helping farmers through use of Information & Communication Technology (ICT) applications.

Removal of rural poverty.

Improvement of nutritional standards and quality of life of the rural people.

Department for Livestock

Functions

Livestock policy management

Development of livestock industry

Veterinary services and disease control

Range development and management

Livestock marketing

Promotion of dairy industry

Livestock insurance policy

Livestock branding

Promotion of bee keeping

Promotion of tannery industry

Department for Fisheries, Aquaculture

Functions

Fisheries policy

Fisheries marketing policy

Fishing licensing

Development of fisheries

Fish quality assurance

Co-ordination of development of policy, legal, regulatory and institutional framework for the
fisheries industry and the blue economy

Enhancement of technical cooperation inside Kenya and outside Kenya

Protection and regulation of maritime ecosystems

Management and licensing of local and foreign fishing trawlers in kenya waters.

Overall policy for exploitation of agro-based maritime resources

Policy on development of fishing ports and associated infrastructure

Capacity building for sustainable exploitation of agro-based maritime resources

Extension Approaches/Strategies in practice

Training and Visit approach

We planned schedule of visiting farmers and training them whereby we gained skills and close
links were maintained between research and extension and gave a hand in provision of
technology transfer ,success was related to increase in the production of particular crops or
commodities.

Participatory approach

Farmers in groups or on their own were involved directly according to their problems ,their area
and needs in that its ensures services provided to them were relevant and responsive to their local
conditions and meet their needs.

Farming system approach

Close ties with research was required and technology for farmers needs was developed locally
like artificial insemination whereby we interacted with farmers and success was measured by
how the farmers adopted and continued using the technology.
Agriculture

Greenhouse farming

We visited different farmers doing greenhouse farming.Green house farming it is the growing of
crops under a shelter covered by a transparent glass or translucent UV-treated polythene. This
environment protects the crop from the vulgarities of weather, pests and diseases. It eases crop
husbandry.

UV-treated polythene is the best covering for greenhouses.Around green house planting of
onions is advised to prevent pests from their scent.Before building a green house the following
should be considered;Accessibility ,wind direction,water distribution, ventilation also ensures a
supply of fresh air for photosynthesis and plant respiration and pollinators to access the
greenhouse

Greenhouses allow for greater control over the growing environment of plants. Depending upon
the technical specification of a greenhouse, key factors controlled include temperature, levels of
light and shade, irrigation, fertilizer application, and atmospheric humidity. .

Post harvesting management practices; I learnt on the methods used to handle and store crops
harvested in a appropriate manner ie drying

Maize farming; learnt on steps of starting maize farming like field selection where we consider
soil type,seedbed preparation,drilling and sowing,choosing a appropriate maize variety,crop
nutrition and pest and diseases management.

Soil and water conservation; we practised some soil conservation practices to prevent soil
degradation and build organic matter. Some of the practices we did and advised farmers to use
include;crop rotation, reduced tillage, mulching, cover cropping and cross-slope farming.
Banana farming; learn t on banana field preparation,pest and disease management,desuckering,
grading of bananas and also demonstration of how they ripen quickly using avocado as ethylene
emitter
Pest and disease control

Learnt about the push and pull technology which is an intercroping strategy for controlling
Agricultural pest by using repellent (push ) plants and trap(pull)For example cereal crops like
maize and sorghum are often infested by stem borers .Grasses planted around the perimeter of
the crop attract and trap pests whereas other plants like desmodium planted between rows of
maize repel the pests and control parasitic plant striga .

is squeezed downwards and not pulled

4 .Squeezing progressively downwards expels the milk pulling can cause mastitis

5. After milking rinse each teat in an antiseptic teat dip which will help control mastitis

Milking should be done quickly ,quietly and evenly and making sure the udder is empty
at each milking.

MILK HANDLING

After milking ,milk is weighed for proper record keeping ,milk is then taken to a separate
room to be filtered ,cooled and kept covered before marketing. All utensils used for milking are
washed with hot water and detergents .the milking equipment should be rinsed and dried on a
rack. The milkman should make sure the nails are short to achieve clean milk free from germs.

3.2.3MASTITIS AND UDDER HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Mastitis is the Flamation of the mammary gland caused by bacteria, viruses, yeast, fungi,
physical and chemical agents.

Mastitis is spread by contact of teats with contaminated milking machines ,hands ,bucket
and wiping towel and dirty bedding in the animals houses.
 The economic losses due to mastitis include losses of milk due to reduced
yield ,premature culling leading to loss of genetic potential ,high cost of treatment and possible
death of animals .

We highlighted the following factors that led to mastitis:

1. Poor milking procedures.

2. Inefficiency of milking personnel and machines.

3. Unhygienic animal environment.

4. Sore on teats.

5. Prior infection with mastitis that is poorly managed.

6. Cows with more than four lactations are more susceptible to mastitis.

We asked farmers to be on the lookout on the following signs and symptoms;

1. Swollen udder.

2.Total loss in milk yield.

3.Blocked teats.

4.Milk has got foul smell.

5.Change in milk consistency i.e. watery and discoloration of milk to yellow or green.

The following are the recommendation we gave to farmers to help as a prevention

measure against mastitis;

1.Maintain hygienic animal environment such as clean milking parlour, proper drainage in zero
grazing units and proper waste disposal.

2.Avoid sharp objects in the animal environment.

3.Clip excess hair from udder to avoid dirt accumulation.

4.Disinfection teats before and after milking.

5. Use good milking speed to ensure complete milking.

6.Use separate towels for each cow when wiping the teats.

7.Dry off the cow gradually and administer dry cow therapy 60days before expected ,calving
date to prevent infection.

8.Known infected animals should be milked last ,starting with healthy ones.

Dairy Goat Feeding Systems

on that week too i and an extension officer Mr Muthethia visited some dairy
goat farmers at Laare and Kirindara villages and we were able to discuss a number of issues
concerning goat production . The following were my observation and issues learnt

Grass, shrub, herbs and trees. Clean, fresh and mixed forage are always availed to goats
to enhance faster growth, production of healthy kids regularly and production of more milk and
will not fall seek easily.

We advised farmers on systems of farming namely stall feeding and semi stall feeding.
Stall feeding is a system in which the goats are confined in a stall at all times and forages and
water are brought to them. the main advantages of stall feeding include :

1. Require of loss amount of pasture

2. Saves time and labour since they do not require herding

3. Easier to plan and manage breeding

4. Ensure easy collection of manure

5. Easy control of pest and diseases i.e. intestinal worms and flies

The disadvantages of stall feeding include;

1. Labour intensive as the feeds are cut and carried to the goats.

2. Goats may develop stress if the feeding space is inadequate and poorly constructed.

3. Spread of diseases is faster if they are overcrowded.

4.Require money to construct stalls hence expensive.

The semi stall feeding system involves leaving the goats to forage freely for a part of the
day but brought into the stalls to be forage their ration browsing supplies the greater part of their
needs but manual feeding provides supplementary feeds.

All feeds should be provided in balanced rations for dairy goats so as to provide right
amounts of nutrients needed to keep the goats healthy and productive.

3.2.5 ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT

With the help of the livestock production officer Mr Buru, We were able to carry out the
following in Naathu and Antubetwe wards. Proper dosage is administered at all times and the
animal are always restrained in a crush

Vaccination involved the process of introducing live attenuated pathogens into the body
of an animals to elicit production of antibodies against the targeted diseases thus rendering the
animal immune to the disease .the appropriate vaccines are introduced into the animal's body by
use of a syringe and needle when the animal is restrained in a crush.

Dehorning involved the excision of the horns which are already developed using a wire
saw. This was done to ensure no re-growth of the horns. the main objective of dehorning was to
avoid injury among livestock herds .

Castration involved restraining the bull and using a surgical blade to cut scrotum and
removing the testicles rendering the animal incapable of breeding

3.3.6 CATTLE REARING AND FEEDING

 Igembe North sub county livestock production Extension officer Mr George Mukiri and
I visited Mwangaza self help group members who rear animals and we were able to discuss
rearing of calves ,heifers and lactating animals.

Calf Rearing

We encouraged the farmers to provide the calves with 6 litres of colostrums within the
first 12 hours and provision should be in the first 3-4 days to help boost the immune system of
the calve .The farmers also should ensure proper and hygienic housing to prevent pneumonia .
We advised the farmers to control diarrhoea by providing calves with salt and sugar solutions .

Heifer Feeding

We advised the farmers to provide high quality pasture and supplementary feeds like the
wheat brine as well as mineral licks to help in body and borne structure and development of the
reproductive system. Dairy meals should be provided to foster faster growth and at 6 months the
heifer can be provided with Napier grass. At the age of 14 weeks and on attainment of 350kg
body weight the heifer is ready to be served

Feeding Lactating Cow

Quality pastures help in provision of fibre and energy ,we advised the farmers to feed the
lactating cows with 4kg of dairy meals for them to get more milk with improved milk
components. Adequate amount of water should also be provided to help in proper digestion.
Minerals also enhance growth .

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Challenges Experienced During the attachment Period and How they were managed
• Harsh weather conditions were the major challenge. It interfered with our daily activities
especially during barazas, demonstrations and field days.

• Language barrier especially some farmers did not understand the scientific language used
in explaining agricultural concepts. Thus demonstration was used.
 • Large area of coverage thus travelling over long distances to meet with farmer; This
would limit the amount of time spent in a particular activity. We had to extend our time
in the field until late in the evening to complete the tasks of the day.

● Lack of transport; We were forced to use unreliable public transport in order to

accomplish our daily tasks assigned at the SCAO’s office. I depended on unreliable
public means, which was unavailable in most areas especially during rainy days.

• Unresponsive people within the staff and those we visited; Some staff was not willing to
provide information about their scope of work. The financial institutions were not willing
to provide the information that was relevant to my attachment. I had to source the
information from other people within the same institution.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION.

Farmers need information on various topics, at intervals, before new technology is

adopted. Information that farmers need may vary according to one’s need. It ranges from inputs,
pests and disease control, prices of commodities to even weather forecasts. This information can
be obtained from different areas that may include, among others, their social network and from
their own trial and error. Unfortunately, information is not costless in yet to fully develop
countries.

Agricultural extension is the delivering of inputs information to farmers. The officer is

always armed with fresh and new techniques and messages for his clients. The approach lacks a
two-way flow of information. Extension service delivery should be enhanced and strengthened.
Farm Visits is the farmers‟ preferred training method hence this should be factored in. In the
section of the dissemination of agricultural messages, Participatory Approach method is the most
preferred by the farmers hence the roles or services of extension officers of disseminating
agricultural information should not be under estimated as it is of great importance to farmers in
adoption of new agricultural technology that will boost production in the sub county and
agriculture in the country.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

1. The Ministry of Agriculture in every County should put up an agricultural depot in every
sub-county to supply Government subsidized farm inputs for easy access and to curb the
selling of fake seeds to unsuspecting farmers in addition to coming up with processing
plants and offering good storage of agricultural produce that goes to waste during
harvesting periods.

2. The Department of Agriculture at the national government should be at the forefront in

the churning out and the encouragement of more agricultural Television and Radio
programmes to educate our farmers. Towards this, collaboration between the government
and local broadcasters should be in place to aid in the spreading of agricultural
information that is well researched and packaged bearing in mind the target audience.

3. The government should compel credit institution to lower their interest rates to enable
farmers access cheaper loans and there should be proper management measures on
HIV/AIDS and lifestyle diseases

4. The adoption of agricultural technologies is a necessary condition for the achievement of

agricultural productivity, poverty eradication and the stimulation of growth in other
sectors of the economy. The more farmers adopt new techniques; the more productive
farmers benefit from an increase in their welfare. Towards this, the National and County
Governments should collaborate between themselves in coming up with technological
policies that can spur technology uptake by our farmers.
5. The collaboration strategy between extension officers and farmers should be supported
and encouraged. If both would work together and harmoniously, they could spur
economic development and bring about change in the food sector of a community. Hence
every effort should be done to eliminate any communication gap that might hinder this
collaboration. To achieve this linkage between agricultural extension systems,
universities and research centres should be put in place so as to hasten technology
generation and uptake by farmers.

6. More extension officers should be employed for effectiveness of extension services and
Increased budged allocation to boost agricultural sectors

7. The Government should encourage collaboration between farmers and the agricultural
officers or extension services to boost their knowledge on various crops Towards this
collaboration the Government and sub county should organize seminars, barazas, and
provide brochure on various crops pest control soil management and water conservation.
CATTLE KEEEPING

Dairy farmers need to be very diligent to ensure their cows produce as much milk as
possible. Dairy cows require a specific diet filled with nutrients, which makes them costlier
to raise. They have to be fed and milked at the same time every day, but the result is that
good cows produce milk year round.
Artificially inseminating

Successful pregnancies depend on inseminating the cow at the right time – with just an 18-hour
window available in each cycle, it is essential to make sure semen is handled in the correct way
and that the insemination technique and equipment is accurate.

Common artificial insemination mistakes

Poor seen storage and removal.Storage flasks must be handled according to the manufacturer’s
instructions and are more fragile than they may appear.Poor heat detection,Incorrect timing of
service,Incorrect gun placement,Poor record-keeping

BIOGAS PRODUCTION

Anaerobic digestion is a simple biochemical process by which waste products can be converted
to energy. Using manure, plant waste, crop residue, food scraps or other waste products, farmers
can reduce their dependence on fossil fuels while saving money, reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and solving odor problems. Two of the most important factors for proper anaerobic
digestion and methane production are temperature and pH. Failure to regulate these two factors
is among the most common problems with a digester. Most anaerobic bacteria perform best in
warmer atmospheres. "is is why micro-digesters are most common in areas closer to the equator.
"is does not mean a micro-digester will not function in more northerly climates, but it does a%ect
design decisions, as the digester may need to be insulated or even heated to make large amounts
of methane.

Advantages of biogas

Biogas is a renewable, as well as a clean, source of energy

Biogas Generation Reduces Soil and Water Pollution

Overflowing landfills don’t only spread foul smells- they also allow toxic liquids to drain into
underground water sources.Subsequently,  another advantage of biogas is that biogas generation
may improve water quality. Moreover, anaerobic digestion deactivates pathogens and parasites;
thus, it’s also quite effective in reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases.

Biogas Generation Produces Organic Fertilizer

Disadvantages of biogas

Few Technological Advancements

An unfortunate disadvantage of biogas today is that the systems used in the production of biogas
are not efficient.

Contains Impurities

After refinement and compression, biogas still contains impurities. If the generated bio-fuel was
used to power automobiles it could corrode the metal parts of the engine. This corrosion would
lead to increased maintenance costs.
POULTRY FARMING
Considerations;
 Choose Your Poultry Sector

There are two types of farming you can choose from – broilers and layers. Broilers are chicken
that you raise for meat. Layers are chicken that you raise for eggs.

 Choose The Right Type Of Bird

This is the choice to start farming for meat production or egg production.

or a Farm Lo

Set Farm Location

The location must have all the necessary facilities. Try to build your poultry farm business a
little away from the town so that you can have the land and labor at a cheaper cost.

Install A Perfect Poultry Housing System

A poultry cage is an elementary requirement to start a poultry farm business. The health of
chickens will largely depend on how convenient the cage is for the birds.

Different Poultry Housing Systems:

Extensive Housing System – Your poultry farm business can follow this old housing system for
its advantages. This system allows the birds to roam free on the ground. The birds will have just
a shelter.

Semi-Intensive System – This is sometimes a preferred housing system for your poultry farm
business. Under this system, you will breed half of your birds in cages, and the other half will be
set free on the ground. This system protects the birds from predators and bad weather.
Deep-Litter System – You should follow this system, particularly when raising broilers. The
birds freely move around on the ground made of straw, sawdust, and leaves.You can raise to 7
birds per square meter in this way for your poultry farm business. Its advantage is that you can
easily provide feed to the birds and access their eggs without hurdles.

Buy Poultry Farming Equipment

The success of your poultry farm business will depend a lot on the quality of your equipment.
With quality equipment put in place, you can make your birds eat and drink healthily.

 Buy Chicks of Good Breeds

You should buy some chicks to start your poultry farm business. Have a good stock of chicks.
Make sure that you buy quality chicks from dependable breeders. This is important because if the
chicks are diseased or suffer from malnutrition.

But your farm should have the brooder ready before buying and stocking the chicks. Do not
stock too many chicks and keep their number below 500 for their better management.

 Know How To Feed The Chicks

Any lack of proper feed will result in the chicken producing fewer eggs. Such chickens also are
prone to various diseases due to nutrient deficiency.For instance, chickens have diseases like
dermatitis, paralysis, chicken rackets, and liver syndrome. These diseases occur due to vitamin
deficiency in the feed.

Set A Poultry Health Management Plan

One of the reasons for a possible loss of the poultry business is the lack of a health management
plan. It could result in a high mortality rate of poultry birds.

Treat Sick Birds Urgently

 You must inspect your poultry birds regularly so that you can ensure to spot a sick bird early.
Otherwise, that disease spreads rapidly between the chickens. Look for any unusual behavior or
appearance early to keep your poultry farm business free of risks.

Vaccinate Broiler Rearing

If any contagious disease spreads fast amongst the poultry birds, it will ruin your poultry farm
business. There is no effective treatment for poultry diseases yet.Therefore, vaccination is vital to
keeping the birds away from any potential harm from the fast-spreading of disease.

You must have some knowledge of the vaccines meant for poultry birds.

RDV Vaccine – It is administered to the adult chicken in the form of a tablet.
Gumboro Live Vaccines – This vaccine is to counter bumboo disease in baby chicken and given. It
is in tablet form that you should mix with a liquid material.
Fowl Pox Vaccines – With this vaccine, your chickens will be free from chickenpox disease. This
vaccine is usually in a small vial.
Mareks Vaccines – Marek’s is a highly contagious viral neoplastic disease found in chickens. With
this vaccine, your poultry farm will be free from this virus.
Cholera Vaccines – Make sure that your farm chickens have this vaccine applied to them to keep
them away from cholera disease. The vaccine comes in liquid form.
Mycoplasma Vaccines – Mycoplasmosis disease is the leading cause of respiratory ifections in
chickens. By applying this vaccine, your poultry farm will get rid of this deadly virus.
Duck Plague Vaccines – Duck Plague or duck viral enteritis [ DVE] is a highly contagious disease of
ducks, swans, and geese. But it rapidly spreads to chickens. This vaccine is essential to protect your
chickens.

AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry is an old practice, consisting of growing perennial trees and shrubs in association with
agricultural crops, pastures and/or keeping livestock in the same field.
Agroforestry aims to use agro-biodiversity in generating multiple services. Trees and shrubs provide
mulching material, green manure, animal fodder, soil erosion control, shade, nutrient cycling and
improved soil fertility and also socioeconomic benefits e.g. saleable products such as fruits, fuel
wood and charcoal, timber for construction, craft materials, etc.

Basically, there are three categories of agroforestry systems:

 Agrosilvicultural systems: Trees with crops e.g. taungya and alley cropping
 Silvopastoral systems: Trees with livestock/pasture e.g. trees and shrubs on pastures and
multipurpose trees, fodder trees and shrubs grown on or around cropland
 Agrosilvopastoral systems: Trees with both crops and livestock e.g. compound farming.

Agroforestry systems have the following basic principles:

Competition between the plants must be minimised

Agroforestry has following advantages:

 Improvement of soil fertility. Trees provide mulch when their leaves, fruits and branches
fall down and decompose. This results in an increase of organic matter and recycling of
nutrients from deep in the soil, and leguminous trees fix nitrogen that can benefit food
crops.
 Effects on soil moisture and microclimate. Shading and windbreak effects of trees
influence microclimate and help to conserve soil moisture. Shade helps reducing the soil
temperature and the amount of water that evaporates into the air. Though their roots may
also deprive crops of moisture.
 Soil conservation. Trees can conserve the soil in many ways. They cushion the impact of
raindrops on the soil and reduce the amount of rain-splash erosion. Their roots
bind/stabilise the soil. Planted along contours, they can interrupt the flow of water
 running off the surface. They can act as windbreaks protecting the soil against wind
erosion
 Improvement of biodiversity. Agroforestry systems improve diversity and quantity of
animals/wildlife by offering a greater variety of habitats

Pest management
Proper identification of damage and responsible "pest"

Cases of mistaken identity may result in ineffective actions. If plant damage due to over-
watering are mistaken for a fungal infection, a spray may be used needlessly and the plant
still dies.

Learn pest and host life cycle and biology

At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray with a
pesticide.

Monitor or sample environment for pest population

Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For this
reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you begin monitoring  before becomes a
problem.

Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic)

In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant of
defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is not
increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything.

FISH FARMING
Fish farming also known as pisciculture the process of nurturing organisms that inhabit in
water commercially either in controlled or semi-controlled environment so as to increase
productivity.

While the process of starting a fish farm is the same for both small and large scale
farmers, in small scale farming, all you need is the fingerlings and a pond.

Consideration when constructing a pond;

Size

Size is important as it will help your grow and expand your business in the near future.
Big enough also means enough amount of fish to farm.

Soil

 Select a place with high quality soil. This is because the quality of the soil directly
affects the quality and the quantity of the fish that you get. In fact, we advise to take the
soil for testing to ensure that it is at least over 20% clay.Also check for the place that is
relatively level. It is important to ensure that the place is not easily prone to floods.This
will help in preventing dirt water from getting into the bond. The soil should also have no
or little rocks.

Water

In rearing fish, constant water supply is vital.

Pond Design and Construction

There is no point constructing a pond with a poor design in an expertly selected area. The
pod design is equally important.

Inflow and outflow

Ensure that the water flows in and out constantly and in the right rates. If the outflow is
too much, favorable algae are flushed out which disadvantage the fish.

On the other hand, where the water is retained for too long in the pond, it may result in
Oxygen depletion which again leads to unhealthy fish.

It is therefore important to always monitor the level of water in the pond. Confirm
frequently to ensure that the inflow and outflow is well maintained.

Good drainage

Control diseases, parasites and predators

Let the fishpond remain clean always to prevent entry of parasites and diseases. You can
Seek help and guidance from aquaculture professional on the correct medication you can
use when treating a sick fish.

Fish Harvesting

This is done using either a net or draining away all the water volume in cases where you
are harvesting all the fish.  It should be noted that different species of food are harvested
at different stages and weight.

For you to get maximum food and to provide quality fish to your customers, you should
ensure that they are harvested in the right way and at the right time.

Marketing the Fish

Since doing business is actually watching the trends of the market and then taking
advantages, it is actually important to understand commercial trend of agribusiness.

Benefits of fish farming

Fish is highly nutritious.

Rearing fish will not only create employment for you but also for other people such as
sellers, transporters and even those providing for labor in the farm.

It is a source of income

Challenges, risks and solutions.

There is competition from fish fetched from rivers, lakes and oceans. Needless to say,
they are much cheaper that fish grown in a pond.

There is no any by-product. Actually, fish is all you get. However, if you farm it right, it
is enough!

Much more capital is required

BANANA FARMING

Choose a variety

Soil preparation

The soil should be well nourished to feed your plant. It is important to provide at least 12 hours
of sunlight to encourage growth. The soil should not be too acidic or too alkaline and it should be
rich in organic matter with high nitrogen. Phosphorus and potash are good for bananas.

Ecological conditions

Bananas do well in warm and rainy climate because it is a tropical crop. Preferred temperatures
are between 10 to 40 degrees celcius. Strong dry winds cause significant decline in plant growth
and fruit production quality. 

Bananas are propagated by suckers and sword suckers with narrow leaves, this is because
bananas do not produce viable seeds. There is tissue culture, where banana is basically
propagated vegetatively. The technique provides robust means to prepare disease-free planting
materials that can provide the first line of defense for the banana.

Planting

Can be grown pit or furrow methods. This can be done at any time of the year. Advantages of
tissue cultured planting materials are: plants are free from pests and diseases, there is uniform
growth and increase in production, the crops mature early and it is possible to plant all year
round.

Bunch weight and quality

At a spacing of 1.8 metres by 1.8 metres, place two plants per hole to double the yield. Double
planting for some varieties such as Robusta could also increase yields. Covering the bunches
with a cloth or polythene protects it from the sun, wind and dust, and increases yield. Covering
the bunch increases the weight and quality of the fruit. Covering a bunch of bananas raises the
temperature, which helps in early maturation. After the first opening, flowers keep coming,
however they are normally sterile. These usually fall off because they do not have the necessary
parts to produce fruit even after pollination.

Pests and Diseases

Major pests include burrowing nematode, banana thrips, banana weevil borer and moles. Most of
these can be controlled by using clean planting material for propagation, that is tissue culture or
using clean water treatment. To control moles, use traps and keep the basin of the banana stools
moist. Do not heap soil around the basin of the stool as this will become their hide out. Major
diseases include fusarium wilt, black leaf streak, cigar-end rot and bacterial wilt. To control, use
resistant varieties and disease free materials (tissue culture and clean suckers).

Harvesting

The time for planting to maturity of a banana depends on area and variety. Maturity indices vary
widely among varieties. Angularities or fullness of fingers, as well as color change are some of
the standard criteria used. Fruits are ready for harvesting 90 to 150 days after fingers start to
form

TEA FACTORIES

 Growing
 Growing conditions and harvesting methods can have a huge impact in the flavor of the finished
tea. So while this step is probably the most ubiquitous, it can also produce the most variation.The
growing environment of the tea can be one of the most fundamental sources of a tea’s flavor.
The first processing step after the leaves are harvested is a very basic one. Since tea leaves are
thick and waxy on the plant, they must be softened, or withered, to make them pliable for
crafting.

The leaves are laid out on fabric or bamboo mats, and left to wilt. Modern tea farmers control the
variables in this process with great precision. Humidity and temperature are monitored and
controlled, and racks of leaves are carefully rotated to ensure each layer receives proper airflow.
Though this step sounds similar to oxidation , it is a required process for
even white and green teas. The withering process reduces the water content of the leaves by as
much as half. Without withering, subsequent heating steps would produce something akin to
cooked vegetables, rather than dried tea leaves.
Bruising
After the leaves are withered, crafting methods for different styles start to diverge. Oolong
teas, black teas, and pu-erh teas usually undergo some sort of bruising process. This means the
leaves are rolled, twisted, or otherwise crushed. The purpose of this step is to break down cell
walls in the leaf, and facilitate the next step: oxidation.Manually bruising a large batch of tea
leaves was once the most demanding step in processing tea. Leaves must be thoroughly and
evenly bruised to produce a consistent batch of tea. Some dark teas, with high levels of
oxidation, must go through through multiple rounds of bruising and oxidation. It’s really no
wonder that black tea producers began chopping leaves to speed up the process for the mass
market.Today, many small scale producers have found a happy medium, using machines that
replicate the traditional bruising processes, and don't break the leaf. When used as a component
of artisanal crafting, these machines increase the consistency of quality and keep the production
process clean.

Oxidizing
After bruising, leaves intended for oolong or black teas are left to oxidize, or turn brown. Again,
the leaves are laid out and left to wither. Now that the cell walls have been broken, an enzymatic
reaction turns the leaves brown, just like a cut apple.Leaves must be carefully monitored during
this process. For oolongs, in particular, missing the correct moment can mean ruining the tea, or
crafting something entirely different than what was intended. Again, heat and humidity are
carefully controlled, and trays are rotated to ensure even oxidation.This browning process is the
primary differentiating factor between different styles of tea. Green tea crafting skips these steps
entirely, creating a tea that is by definition, unoxidized, and therefore still green in color. A black
tea is defined as fully oxidized, without any green color left to the leaf. Pu-erh, or “post-
fermented” tea, lies outside this spectrum. Pu-erh teas usually undergo bruising, but skip the
wilting that creates oxidation.
Fixing
To stop the oxidation process, the tea leaf is heated. Just like baking an apple, the application of
heat denatures the enzymes responsible for oxidation and stops the leaf from continuing to turn
brown.This step is applied to all tea styles except black tea, where the final drying step is used to
slowly halt oxidation instead. This fixing step is sometimes called the kill green, but it actually
serves to preserve whatever green color is still left in the leaf at this stage.Variations in the
method of heating the leaves create some differences between regional styles. Leaves that are
steamed (like Japanese green teas) will taste wildly different from leaves that are roasted (like
Chinese green teas). Frying the leaves in a wok  creates a different flavor profile than roasting
them in a rotating drum. In this way, styles of crafting can create endless variety, even within a
category.
Drying
Finally, all tea must be dried to remove any residual moisture and create a shelf-stable
leaf. Again, the method of heating can dramatically change the flavor of the tea. This effect is
most commonly seen with charcoal roasting, which imparts a distinctly rich quality to the flavor
during this step.By contrast, the drying process can also be very gentle, to avoid imparting any
flavor changes. 

BRICK MAKING

steps involved in brick manufacturing

Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4 operations or steps.

1. Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

2. Moulding of bricks
3. Air drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks

Process of brick making

Preparation of brick clay

In this step the soil is excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then the soil is cleaned
of impurities such as vegetation matter, stones or pebbles etc. After removing impurities it is
exposed to weather for few months. This is called the process of weathering. After completion of
weathering process the soil is blended with other material to prepare good brick earth. Then the
mixed soil is tempered by being thoroughly broken up, watered and kneaded. The tempering is
usually done in pug mill.

Moulding of bricks

Bricks are moulded in many ways depending on the quality of the product to be made. Generally
the moulding is done in the following two ways

Hand moulding

Machine moulding

For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it fills all the
corners of the mould. Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with wire. Mould
is then lifted up and raw brick is left on ground.

Machine moulding is is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made

Drying of bricks

Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to ensure free
circulation of air and protection from bad weather and rains. The bricks are allowed to dry till
they are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The drying period usually varies from 7 to
14days. The moulded bricks are dried because of the following reasons.

 If damp bricks or green bricks are directly taken to burning then, they are likely to be
cracked and distorted
 To remove maximum moisture from the brick so as to save time and fuel during burning
 To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and stacked in greater
heights in the kiln for burning without damage.

Burning of bricks

It is the very important step in manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two distinct
methods given below.
 Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning
 Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as kiln burning

In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with firewood, coal etc. and sealed with
clay. It is then fired slowly to intense heat which may take many days. Modern kilns, however,
permanent structures consisting of many chambers. Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers.
They are then slowly dried and burned to high temperature and cooled. One cycle of loading,
drying, burning, cooling and emptying may take as much as two weeks. These processes are
carried out intermittently in intermittent kilns and in cyclic order in continuous kilns.

RECORD KEEPING

Record-keeping refers to keeping, filing, categorizing and maintaining farm financial and
production information.

Why keep records?

Records are important for many reasons:

Decision-Aids:

Farm managers use records to construct balance sheets, cash flow and income statements, and
other financial aids for making more informed decisions in such areas as machinery purchases,
adding or deleting enterprises, size expansion, etc.

Institutional Requirements:

Some lending agencies and governmental bodies require financial and/or production records be
maintained over a number of years.

Environmental Regulations:
 Increasingly, farm owners are being asked to keep records about chemical use, livestock waste
applications and irrigation water use on their farms.

Production or financial records?

On the farm, there are two distinct types of records—financial and production. Financial records
relate primarily to money or the financial interactions of the farm.

Production records are items that relate to quantities of inputs and levels of production by
enterprise and/or by resource type. They consist of crop yields, plant populations, calves born,
pounds of milk produced, weaning weights, death loss, etc.

Selecting a record-keeping system

Selecting a record-keeping system should depend on the expected use of the records. There is no
“best” record keeping system for all situations, but, at minimum, a farm records system should:

 provide accurate and necessary information

 fit into the farm organization or framework

 be available in a form to aid decision-making

GOAT FARMING

Common control measures

1. Proper drainage, sprinkling of copper sulphate near watter bodies will help to control
fluke infection
2. Avoid early morning and late evening grazing
3. Keep the shed clean and provide clean quality drinking water
4. Separate infected animal from healthy one
5. Provide proper quarantine measures while purchasing new animals
 6. Proper disposal of dead animals
7. Rotational grazing to control infection

Strength and weakness of the site