Culture and Society

UNIT 8 CULTURE AND SOCIETY*

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Culture and Biology
8.3 Culture Trait and Culture Complex
8.4 Characteristics of Culture
8.5 Types of Culture: Material and Non-material Culture
8.6 Elements of Culture
8.7 Culture and Civilization
8.8 Cultural Change
8.8.1 Cultural Innovation
8.8.2 Cultural Diffusion
8.8.3 Acculturation
8.8.4 Assimilation
8.9 Cultural Diversity
8.9.1 Subcultures
8.9.2 Countercultures
8.9.3 Culture Shock
8.10 Ethnocentrism
8.11 Cultural Relativism
8.12 Multiculturalism
8.13 Globalisation and Culture
8.14 Culture in Indian Context
8.14.1 Cultural Diversity in India
8.14.2 Cultural Unity and Integration
8.15 Let Us Sum Up
8.16 References

8.0 OBJECTIVES
By going through this Unit, you will be able to understand:
The relationship between culture and society;
The concept of culture as understood in Sociology;
The unique characteristics of culture, culture as distinct from biology;
civilization, elements of culture, culture traits and culture complex;
Cultural change and the factors responsible to bring in cultural change;
Cultural diversity, multiculturalism;

*This unit is contributed by Roma Ranu Dash, Research Scholar, JNU. 93

Basic Concepts The global flow of culture or how there is a change in culture under
globalization; and
Culture in Indian context, its diversity and the unity in diversity.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Culture and Society are mutually interdependent. Every society has a culture
which guides its members. In order to understand the relationship between
culture and society we need to understand what a society is. Ralph Linton defines
society as “an organized group of individuals. A culture is an organized group
of learned responses characteristic of a particular society” (Linton, 1955:29).
Society is a much larger concept and culture is an important part of the society
that we live in. A society is a group of individuals who interact and share a
common culture. Through culture, the members of society experience their lives.
In other words, society refers to persons and groups; culture is the behavior
patterns of these groups which emerge from communal living. Culture
distinguishes a man from an animal. It is culture that shapes our attitude, beliefs,
values and norms. So, culture and society cannot be separated. Giddens and
Sutton (2014) say that sociology has always studied culture as bound up with
social relations and the structure of society.

Different scholars define culture in different ways. Alfred Kroeber and Clyde
Kluckhohn had discovered more than 150 definitions of culture. The first
definition of culture was given by E.B Tylor. He says, “Culture is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capability acquired by man as a member of society” (Tylor, 1871:1). Malinowski
when referring to Arunta society, talks about the behaviour patterns like the
customs, language, beliefs and also the ways of thinking feeling and acting which
are important aspects of culture and also applies to any society. Abraham (2006)
defines culture as “a total way of life of a social group, meaning everything they
are, they do and they have. It is a complex system that consists of beliefs, values,
standards, practices, language and technology shared by members of a social
group” (Abraham, 2006:64).

Culture used in Sociological sense would be very different from as it is used in

common parlance. Sutherland et al (1961) says that when we study the behavior
patterns, the customs, beliefs, language and other shared ways of thinking, feeling
and acting to are referring to the culture of the society. The unique aspect of
culture is that it is highly variable and is also subject to change. While human
heredity is a relatively constant factor, culture is variable. This can be explained
when we compare culture with biology.

8.2 CULTURE AND BIOLOGY

Culture is often contrasted with biology. This distinction between culture and
biology becomes important when human society is compared to that of animals.
Humans and animal share the same biological traits like hunger, thirst, sex etc.
It can also be said that animals do have certain behaviour patterns like humans,
but there are striking differences between the behavior patterns of both animals
and humans. For example, hunger and sex urge are biological facts, but it is
culture which determines how these urges are channelized. In human society
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social behaviour is transmitted from generation to generation by communication Culture and Society
in contrast to animals in which it is transmitted by heredity. This distinguishes
human society from the complex insect society as the insects are instinctive and
do not learn to behave. Insects can pass on sounds which convey certain meanings
but they are unable to produce language, hence culture which makes them
different from humans. In other words, animals depend on their instinct but
humans use their culture.

Worsley (1970) says that culture can be transmitted through coding, classifying
and passing experience through language, a distinctive human trait. It can be
said that a major difference between humans and animals is the inability of the
animal to use symbols. But humans have a way of manipulating symbols and
they even express abstract concepts using symbols. By symbols we mean a value
or meaning attached to a particular object. As human we tend to attach value to
a particular object. For example, the National flag is not any other piece of cloth
but a symbol which has a meaning. Similarly, to a Christian a cross is a symbol
of salvation.

8.3 CULTURE TRAIT AND CULTURE COMPLEX

Traits are the smallest elements of a culture. There are many cultural traits in
every culture. Each culture has certain components or traits like a ritual,
celebration of different festivals etc which distinguish one culture from the other.
Even touching feet, shaking hands, taking a particular diet, wearing a saree are
all cultural traits. When cultural traits combine together they produce culture
complex. Majumdar and Madan (2008) say that a culture complex is not an
institution but is the outcome of interaction between several institutions. They
are defined as the pattern of the interrelation of culture traits. Sutherland et al.
(1961) says that kawa drinking is observed among the Samoans which is a culture
trait of the Samoans. But it is not only about drinking the non alchohalic beverage
but there are rituals of preparing and serving the beverage, pouring out the first
cup as a libation to the Gods, there is also a ceremonial precedence of serving
the kawa and the mythological belief in the background of the ceremony. So the
kawa drinking is tied with many other aspects of the Samoan. In this way the
kawa drinking is related to many other traits making it the kawa complex.

When similar cultural traits are found in a particular area it is called a culture
area. For example, the different regions in India like The North-Eastern states,
the states like Kashmir, Tamil Nadu constitute culture area.

8.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

Culture is social
Culture is acquired through social life. Human being is a social animal and has
a culture of its own. Culture is shaped by our social interaction and is bound up
with social relations within the members of a group. Culture regulates the
behavior of the members of a group and fulfills man’s needs like hunger, shelter,
clothing etc. For Clyde Kluckhohn Culture is a design for living. Culture is
defined as a social adjustment or the means by which man adjusts to his
environment.
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Basic Concepts Culture is learned and shared
Culture is a behaviour acquired by man from his birth and as a member of society.
When a human baby is born, it is helpless. It does not have the pattern of behavior
that is required for living in society or culture is not innate. The baby learns the
behavior and culture from the elders and is socialized to become a member of
society. In course of time, man becomes human by acquiring the culture of a
particular society and is thus called ‘culture-bearing animal’. The influence of
culture on human beings is hence deep rooted. After man learns a culture, culture
is internalized and is shared by the members of the group. Culture is shared
through communication and cooperation by the members of a society.

Culture is transmitted
Culture is handed down from one generation to the other and also between nations
and people within the lifetime. Culture is what we receive from previous
generations and subsequently adapt to. Culture is transmitted to humans by
parents, teachers, friends through traditions, customs etc. Cultural transmission
is different from genetic transmission. One has no control on genetic transmission
such as skin color, hair and color of eyes but through culture man acquires the
habits, thoughts, attitudes of his or her parents and through this it is transmitted
to the group. Ralph Linton (ibid.) appropriately says that the culture is the way
of life of the members of a society. It is the collection of ideas and habits which
they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.

Culture is symbolic
A symbol is something on which some value is bestowed by us or it has a meaning.
The meaning of symbols is a matter of cultural intervention. For example, the
National Flag is not any piece of cloth but has a culture. Similarly to the Christians
the cross is a symbol of salvation.

Culture is dynamic
It is no longer seen as static, natural, well bounded and independent of political
power. Culture is constantly undergoing change and often adapts to external
forces. It also undergoes internal adaptation and change. Various parts of culture
are integrated with each other to constitute a whole.

8.5 TYPES OF CULTURE: MATERIAL AND NON-

MATERIAL CULTURE
Material and Non material culture
Sociologist William F. Ogburn distinguished between material and non material
culture. Material culture refers to the objects which satisfies the material needs
of human beings like houses, means of transport, factories, food items etc. They
are the tangible aspects of society. Non material culture on the other hand refers
to non tangible aspects of culture like customs, ideas, beliefs, patterns of
communication etc. There are a lot of debates as to what should be included in
the ambit of culture. Some anthropologists believe, only those aspects which
can be communicated can be a part of culture. Many others also include objects
in the definition of culture. Giddens and Sutton (2014) say that culture has
always dealt with the non material aspect, it had not conventionally included
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the material artifacts like the buildings, furniture but this has changed as gradually Culture and Society
sociologists became interested in ‘material culture’. So, both material and non
material objects are part of culture. Culture not only includes knowledge, beliefs,
and practices but also includes manmade objects like tools, buildings, means of
transport and communication or various artifacts. Green (1964) defines culture
as “the socially transmitted system of idealized ways of knowledge, practice
and belief, along with the artifacts that knowledge and practice produce and
maintain as they change in time” (Green, 1964:80).

8.6 ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

Language
Language is the most important element of culture. The essence of a culture is
reflected in the language which facilitates day to day interaction with other people.
The use of language distinguishes human beings from other species. It is
instrumental in the transmission of cultural tradition from one generation to
another as it is infused with meaning. Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis says that
language is not ‘given’ but is culturally determined and through language reality
is interpreted in different ways (Schaefer and Lamm 1999). For example, in the
Arab world in which people depend on camels, there are 3,000 words for camels.
Similarly, when we describe vegetables like Drumstick, bitter gourd etc in Indian
words we don’t use any adjective. But the English words reflect the taste or
appearance of these vegetables (Abhraham, 2006). Language and culture are
intertwined.

Belief
Abraham (2006) says that belief is a statement or idea about reality which people
accept as true. For example, many people in India believe in God and many
auspicious occasions like marriage are scheduled on the basis of auspicious
dates. Even marriages are fixed when the horoscopes of the bride and the groom
matches. But beliefs are not static and are subject to change over time. We may
be practicing a certain belief but by coming in contact with other cultures we
may change our beliefs. People migrating to cities may shed off some of the
superstitious beliefs. But in many other occasions the beliefs towards something
is so strong that we may not be able to let it go.

Norms
Norms are the prescribed rules of society which guides the behavior of the
members of a society. Sutherland (1961) says that social norms are group
developed and group held standards of behavior of the groups’ members. They
direct the conduct of the members of the society or it is the guideline for
appropriate behavior. For Haralambos and Heald (2006) a norm is a specific
guide to action which defines acceptable and appropriate behavior in particular
situations. For example, in every society there are norms governing dressing
patterns. In particular occasions we tend to wear a particular kind of dress. We
wear different dresses when we go to a party, a funeral, a office or even a hospital.
But norms vary from society to society. For example in a tribal society wearing
a particular dress is acceptable but in other societies it is not.

Norms can be both formal and informal. Formal norms are written down and
attract punishment when violated. Informal norms are not formally written down 97
Basic Concepts but are generally accepted. For Abraham (ibid.), formal norms are explicit norms
like the explicit rules imposed by schools about uniforms etc. Implicit norms
can be some restriction on the public display of affection or norms governing
dress that we discussed above.

Norms are further classified into folkways and mores and laws. Folkways are
the informal rules which guide our actions. For example, do not poke your nose
when elders discuss something, cover your nose when you sneeze etc. Mores
are those folkways which are important for the welfare of the group. Sumner
(1906) says, when the relation of welfare is added to folkways they are converted
to mores. Laws grow out of mores and have a rational element in them or they
are formally established rules. Mores are more strictly enforced than folkways
but less strictly enforced than laws.

Values
Values are the general guidelines regarding the conduct in society unlike norms
which provide specific conduct. For Abraham (2006) values are agreements
among members of the society as to what is desirable and what is undesirable in
society. They are generalized standards that define what is good or bad, ugly or
beautiful. Values are the way people conduct themselves in society, it reflects
the orientation of individuals, groups towards achieving essential goals of society.
For example, paying attention when national anthem is played, respecting elders
is a value of the Indian society. Different cultures have different value systems.
American value system is different from Indian value system. Certain values
are also given importance in a culture over others. Schaefer and Lamm (1999)
give the example of Papua culture in which contributing to the public good is
much more valuable than making a personal profit. Erasov and Singh (2006)
mention families, relatives, older generation as values forming basis of cultural
criteria.

Sanctions
Sanctions are penalties and rewards for social conduct of a person. Sanctions
can be both positive and negative. Conformity to a norm prescribes positive
sanction like rewards, praise etc. On the other hand violation of a norm attracts
negative sanctions like fines, imprisonment etc. Schaefer and Lamm (1999) says
that the norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture’s values and priorities
The most cherished values will be the most heavily sanctioned, the less critical
matters will have light sanctions.

8.7 CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Culture is often contrasted with civilization. For Ogburn and Nimkoff (1947),
civilization is the latter phase of culture. It is a highly developed organization, a
complex and more evolved form of culture. When the human society develops
certain social and political organization, it is called a civilization. Cultural is
internal but civilization is external as it is the external manifestation or the material
aspect of culture such as the scientific and technological achievements. Majumdar
and Madan (2008) say that culture is the moral, spiritual and the intellectual
attainments of man. It stands for symbols and values. But civilization is secondary
or it is something outside us. It is the sum total of the instruments of cultural
life. Tai (2003) says that whereas civilization is the universal development of
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human beings and society, culture indicated particularity, each person has their Culture and Society
own culture. Civilization is a much broader concept as compared to culture as it
is spread beyond boundaries. Although civilization is a broader concept than
culture but culture is often seen superior to civilization.
Check Your Progress 1
1) What is the relationship between culture and society? Discuss in four lines.
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2) Bring out the difference humans and animals with reference to culture in
four lines.
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8.8 CULTURAL CHANGE

Culture is dynamic. The elements of culture change from time to time. In todays
society, we see a lot of changes in the culture of societies. There is a change in
the eating habits, dressing pattern, types of family, education, caste and many
changes which are imminent. Cultural changes occur due to innovation, diffusion,
acculturation and assimilation.

8.8.1 Cultural Innovation

Innovation is something which is newly created by someone. It may be a physical
object or an artifact, or social in terms of rituals, stories, new ideas, new
knowledge etc. For example, the carvings on the temples, the delicate artistic
works or the carvings of the white marble of the Taj Mahal to the orbiting of
satellites are all which are cultural innovations which we cherish. Innovation
also happens when there is a modification on something that exists beforehand.
Innovation is the most important element of cultural change as, if there is no
innovation there cannot be diffusion, acculturation, and assimilation.

8.8.2 Cultural Diffusion

Cultural diffusion is a process by which the elements of culture spread from one
society to another or it is the spread of cultural traits from one group to the other.
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Basic Concepts Due to the development in transportation and communication and the movement
of people from one place to another without restriction there is spread of culture
in the form of food, dress, lifestyle, education etc.

Cultural diffusion happens at two levels: diffusion of material culture and

diffusion of non material culture. According to William F. Ogburn (1966) the
elements of non material culture are more resistant to change than the material
culture. He refers to the term ‘cultural lag’ to refer to the maladjustment in
which non material culture fails to adjust to the rapidly changing material
conditions. For example, it is difficult to adapt to a Western culture and accept
foreign ideas than to accept foreign technology. We accept technology much
faster as it makes our lives much easier but we are unable to change our ways of
life accordingly. In a fast changing society, cultural lag is very prominent as a
change in one aspect will bring stress and strains in other parts, there is a time
lag before the other part of the culture catches up and restores the equilibrium in
society. This sometimes disturbs the balance of society and brings ‘anomie’.
Anomie is a concept coined by Emile Durkheim which refers to a condition in
which the normative order of society is broken down. In this situation, there
may be slight contradiction and confusion or a serious deterioration and
disintegration in society.

8.8.3 Acculturation
Cultural diffusion brings with it the question of cultural contact. When two
cultures come into contact, there is some interchange of ideas and culture leading
to cultural diffusion. But when the way of life of one culture is in the process of
change under the influence of another culture it is called acculturation. It may
lead to either a least partial modification of one culture or may result in substantial
transformation. In acculturation, the minority culture still retains some of its
cultural elements.

8.8.4 Assimilation
It is the way in which one way of life is being displaced by another or it is a
process in which a minority group is absorbed into the dominant culture. For
example, with the coming up of development projects leading to the clearance
of forests there are many tribal cultures which are getting displaced and the
tribals are slowly getting assimilated into the society.

8.9 CULTURAL DIVERSITY

A society is made up of diverse cultures. It can be said that the culture of one
society is distinct from the other society. The societal culture is a broad culture
representing a society. But apart from the societal culture there are different
subcultures, countercultures which occasionally lead to a culture shock.

8.9.1 Subcultures
It is a culture within a larger dominant culture. In many complex societies there
are many subcultures. Schaefer and Lamm (1999) say that “a subculture is a segment
of society which shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways and values which
differs from the pattern of the larger society” (Schaefer and Lamm, 1999:81).
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Abhraham (2006) says that these subcultures are not partial or miniature cultures Culture and Society
but are complete cultures which are unique to a particular social group. He gives
the example of the Todas of Nilgiris, Nairs and Ezhavas of Kerala, Rajputs of
Rajasthan; Bodos of Assam have cultures of their own. For him, the distinct
subcultures also evolve around occupations, political parties etc. Apart from
this, there are deviant subcultures which are associated with the criminals gangs,
the mafias, drug addicts. In American Society there may be New Englanders,
Southerners, Texans etc. When we talk of subcultures, one issue that has gained
prominence is “youth culture” or “youth subculture”. Youth subculture implies
that young are socialized into a type of values, standards, and a certain type of
behaviour pattern that distinguishes it from the adult society.

8.9.2 Countercultures
Though there are different subcultures in a society, these subcultures of a
particular group are always not compatible with the dominant culture. Some
subcultures challenge the prevailing culture and contrast the prevailing culture.
For example, a group of dacoits have their own norms and standards which
differ from the conventional prevailing patterns. The countercultures are very
popular among the youth who generally find it difficult to cope up with the
dominant culture which is shared by the older generations. In some countries an
exclusive youth culture is being formed consisting of the youth population. This
happens due to a lot of factors like the growing importance of technology,
emergence of political radicals, hippie culture. Schaefer and Lamm (1999), give
the example of a new counterculture that surfaced in Great Britain in 1968 were
the skinheads who were young people with shaved heads, often sported tattoos,
steel- toed shoes who had very less expectation of being a part of mainstream
society. They championed racist ideologies and even engaged in vandalism,
violence and even murder. The deviant subcultures can be appropriately called
counter cultures.

8.9.3 Culture Shock

When people come across a unfamiliar culture and are unable to cope up with it
they suffer maladjustment. In this situation they face a cultural shock. As our
society has many subcultures we may not be aware of all of them and when we
confront the ways of living of some other cultures we get disoriented. For
example, when we go to a foreign country we may come across a particular way
of life which is different from ours.

8.10 ETHNOCENTRISM
The term ethnocentrism was coined by William Graham Sumner to refer to a
feeling that ones culture is always superior to other cultures. Sumner (1906)
says “ethnocentrism is the technical name of this view of things in which ones
own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with
reference to it” (Sumner,1906:13). He further says that it leads people to
exaggerate everything in their folkways which differentiate them from others.
On the basis of this feeling, other cultures are judged in relation to one’s own
culture. The South Indians feel that their culture is superior to the North Indian
culture. Similarly, people still feel that Africa is a country only inhabited by
primitive tribals and is a Dark Continent. Ethnocentrism gives rise to a feeling 101
Basic Concepts of superiority in the sense that we judge other cultures as “wrong” rather than
just the “other” or the other way. Ethnocentrism sometimes may lead to
xenophobia or the fear of the foreign.

8.11 CULTURAL RELATIVISM

It is a process in which we evaluate a culture by its own standards or in its own
context rather than from our own cultural lens. Abraham (2006) says that every
element of the culture has a function unique to the group which shares the culture.
Many customs and practices in a culture should not be judged as right or wrong,
good or bad but are to be understood in terms of their function. Many Americans
wonder why the Indian farmers refuse to eat their cows even if they starve.
Cultural relativism may lead to xenocentrism which is the opposite of
ethnocentrism. Xenocentrism is the belief that other cultures is superior to ones
own culture.

8.12 MULTICULTURALISM
In order to understand what a multicultural society is we have to understand
what an ethnic group is. In todays society there is the existence of multiple
ethnic groups. Ethnic group is a community of people who share a common
cultural background or they share certain common characteristics such as race,
language, religion etc which differentiates them from other groups. Kymlicka
(2012) defines multiculturalism as a legal and political accommodation of the
ethnic diversity. He says multiculturalism emerged in the West as an attempt at
replacing the older forms of ethnic and racial hierarchy with the ideals of
democratic citizenship. Abraham (2006) says that “it is a principle of coexistence
of different cultures which fosters understanding and appreciation of different
cultures” (Abraham, 2012:72). A multicultural society is often equated with a
‘salad bowl’ in which all communities retain their distinct identities as opposed
to a ‘melting pot’ in which the majority culture swallows up a minority culture.
Multiculturalism in recent times has become a highly debated concept with people
questioning whether a multicultural society is possible?

8.13 GLOBALISATION AND CULTURE

Sunanda Sen (2007) says that “globalization is associated with the integration
of the world, with the markets breaking open the barriers across nation states in
terms of flows of trade, finance, technology, knowledge, culture and even
movements of people”(Sen, 2007:1). An improvement in transportation and
communication and a global contact between cultures, led to the transmission
of values, ideas, meanings and even movement of people around the world. The
phenomenon of globalization has brought in significant changes in the economy,
politics, culture etc of the world. Arjun Appadurai discusses about the global
cultural flow. Appadurai (1996) mentions five dimensions of global cultural
flow as Ethnoscapes - The landscapes of persons such as tourists, immigrants,
refugees and the movement of persons who affect the politics of a particular
place. Technoscapes - The global spread of technology both material and
informational across boundaries. Finanscapes - The rapid flow of money through
currency markets and stock exchange. Mediascapes - The distribution of
electronic capabilities like television, films to produce and disseminate
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information. Ideoscapes - The exchange of ideologies and counter- ideologies Culture and Society
which consists of notions of freedom, justice, rights, democracy, sovereignty.

8.14 CULTURE IN INDIAN CONTEXT

8.14.1 Cultural Diversity in India
The Indian society is very diverse and extremely complex. S.C Dube (1990)
says that “the Indian society had covered a span of five thousand years since the
period of its first known civilization. During this long period several waves of
immigrant representing different ethnic strains and linguistic families have
merged into its population to contribute to its diversity, richness and vitality”
(Dube, 1990:1). The Indian society consists of a large number of languages,
dialects, beliefs, rituals, customs, traditions etc. It has 22 national languages
and hundred dialects. It is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse
nations of the world. There are even many languages which are till now not
even recognized. Dube (1990) says that in the state of Nagaland itself there are
nineteen languages. Religious faiths include Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and even Baha’i faith
which is practiced by a smaller number of communities with the Hindus
constituting the majority. It has been the dominant religion and has put
considerable influence on the Indian culture and society. People in India belong
to different castes, sub-castes or jati and social classes. Each caste has their
unique rituals, rules customs etc. Indian society is also characterized by sharp
contrasts or inequalities. On the one hand there are very rich people the elites
who are comparatively smaller in number and on the other hand there are vast
majority of people who are poor or the working classes. In the middle are certain
classes called the middle classes.

Moreover the Indian society is also a home to a number of tribal communities

who have their distinct cultural identity and heritage. These diversities can be
attributed to the existence of different cultural traditions like the classical, folk
and the tribal. In other words these traditions can be divided into little tradition
and great tradition, the concepts coined by Robert Redfield. The little traditions
are unwritten and are transmitted orally. On the other hand great traditions are
written traditions and are found in literature and religious texts. Though in the
present context there has been much overlap between traditions and there has
been an interaction between the two traditions.

Todays society creates division on the basis of division of labour, specialization

of knowledge which separates the highly educated from the less educated. One
of the most significant divisions among people is found in the field of educational
attainment. Education which should be a great leveler instead it reproduces the
existing cultural and social divisions. Pierre Bourdieu (1986) calls this ‘cultural
capital’. Apart from this religious, spatial segregation also brings in variability
of culture in terms of manners, speech, activities, recreation. Cultural diversity
can be best understood when we talk about Indian Society.

8.14.2 Cultural Unity and Integration

Inspite of these diversities in the Indian society discussed above, the Indian
society is characterized by unity and this unity in diversity has become a part of
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Basic Concepts India’s self identity says S.C Dube. India is a secular state and has a constitution
which ensures that the identities of different communities are preserved.
Moreover the different facets of culture like religion, music, art and architecture,
painting, dance and drama, habits and customs have contributed to the unity and
integration of India. Dube (ibid.) says that problems persists and many also
have spawned in recent decades like ethnic movements, religious
fundamentalism, linguistic conflicts, regionalism which pose a major challenge
to the contemporary Indian society. The Indian society has witnessed a lot of
invasions. Moreover libaralisation, privatization and globalization also has
ushered in a lot of changes. But these have not led to the disintegration of the
Indian society. It can be said that despite a lot of diversity, dissent, protests
there is an underlying unity derived from its unique culture which is the
cornerstone of Indian society.
Check Your Progress 2
1) What are the different ways in which cultural change is brought about?
Write in four lines.
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2) What do you understand by cultural diversity? Why is Indian society so
diverse?
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8.15 LET US SUM UP

Culture and Society are closely interrelated. Society is a broad aspect and culture
is a part of it. Society refers to persons and groups and culture refers to behavior
patterns, the sum total of man’s activities, thoughts, beliefs, attitude and all that
is characteristics of man as a social being. Culture has been defined by different
scholars differently as it is highly variable and differs from society to society.
Though animals adapt to their environment, but the adaptation pattern of both
humans and animals are very different. As a result of this there is a difference
between culture and biology. Culture is learned and transmitted from generation
to generation through language, an important element of culture. Culture is also
conveyed through customs, beliefs, norms, sanctions, values, laws, institutions.
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Hence, culture is social, symbolic and dynamic. The distinguishing elements of Culture and Society
culture are language, customs, belief, norms, sanctions, values and law. All
cultures have basic structure like the cultural traits, complexes, culture area. It
is through these structures communication is possible in a society. It can also be
contrasted to civilisation which is the later phase of culture. Culture is dynamic
and is also subject to change. It is not static. It cannot remain isolated for long
periods of time. As cultures come in contact with each other, cultural changes
happen due to innovation, diffusion, acculturation, accumulation etc. Culture is
also very diverse. The diversity of culture is seen both in primitive as well as
modern societies. The diversity of culture is also visible in the Indian context
and it can be said that India is a land of diverse cultures. It can be said that there
are various subcultures, countercultures to a dominant culture. Failure to adjust
to a dominant culture leads to culture shock. Each culture has its own uniqueness.
We tend to relate our own culture with others and sometimes treat our culture as
superior to others. But inspite of the diversity and uniqueness of cultures, there
is coexistence between different cultures which seem to create a multicultural
society. There are certain cultural universals which are common to all cultures.
This brings about cultural uniformity and integration. In today’s world of
globalization, there is a global cultural flow as a result of which there is a
transmission of cultural traits in the world.

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