Developmental Psychology

Recitation Reviewer
Psychology
Bicol University
16 pag.

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Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Freud used the Iceberg Metaphor to describe
Development the human mind. Like an iceberg, a big chunk
Sigmund Freud believed that children can gain of our mind is beneath the surface.
sexual gratification from any part of their
bodies, and during childhood, they go through
5 psychosexual stages that shape their adult
personality.

The Human Psyche

Freud proposed that the human psyche has
three components that function on different
levels of consciousness, and these
components also interact with each other to
generate behaviors. Freud believed that the unconscious part of
our mind is a receptacle of ideas. We are not
Id aware of this aspect of our mind, but it
The Id is present at birth and represents explains what we do what we do.
everything that we inherit from our parents. It
is the source of our desires and impulses, and The Psychosexual Stages of Development
is the primary component of our personality. Freud proposed that we go through a series of
This unconscious part of our psyche operates psychosexual stages in predetermined
on the pleasure principle and seeks instant sequence during childhood. These stages
gratification, with no regard for consequences contain activities that revolve around a certain
or reality. erogenous zone – an area of our body that is
sensitive to stimulation.
Ego
The Ego arises from the Id and is developed According to Freud, by successfully moving
as a result of our attempts to fulfill the Id’s from one psychosexual stage to the next, we
needs. It operates on the reality principle and develop a healthy personality. Failure to
serves as a mediator that strives for a resolve issues or getting stuck at any of the
compromise between what the Id wants and psychosexual stages will result in a
what the outside world can grant it. problematic personality.

Superego Oral Stage (0–1 year old)

The Superego arises from the Ego and acts as During this psychosexual stage, a child
an internal representation of the moral values derives pleasure from oral activities, such as
of the environment. The Superego judges sucking and tasting. Successful fulfillment of
what we should morally do or not do, and the child’s feeding needs and proper weaning
guides us about the shoulds and should nots will result in the establishment of trust.
of our lives. The Superego rewards us with
pride and positive feelings upon doing good, Too much or too little gratification can bring
and punishes us with feelings of guilt, shame about an oral fixation when the child grows up
or fear for not abiding by values that we have and can result in addictions such as drinking
set for ourselves. alcohol, smoking, over eating, or nail biting.

The Iceberg Metaphor Anal Stage (2–3 years old)

According to Freud’s theory, the human The main source of gratification for a child
consciousness has a vertical architecture that during this psychosexual stage is the ability to
composes of three levels: control bladder and bowel movement. A
● Conscious mind positive and appropriate experience revolving
● Preconscious mind around potty training encourages a sense of
● Unconscious mind competence, creativity and productivity. On the

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contrary, anal fixations can translate into
obsession with perfection, extreme
cleanliness, and control or the opposite which
is messiness and disorganization in adulthood.

Phallic Stage (3–6 years old)

During this psychosexual stage, the
erogenous zone is the genitals.

Boys start to perceive their father as rivals for

their mother’s affections, while girls feel
similarly towards their mother. Freud used the
term “The Oedipus Complex” to describe boys’ Significance of Freud’s Psychosexual
attachment towards their mother, and Carl Theory
Jung later coined the term “The Electra One importance of Sigmund Freud’s
Complex” to describe girls’ attachment psychosexual theory is his emphasis on early
towards their father. childhood experiences in the development of
personality and as an influence on later
Fear of punishment leads to repression of behaviors.
feelings toward the opposite sex parent, and
fixation at this stage may bring about sexual The relationships that individuals cultivate,
deviancy or weak sexual identity. their views about themselves and others, and
their level of adjustment and well-being as
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) adults are all influenced by the quality of
During this psychosexual stage of experiences that they have had during the
development, sexual urges are usually psychosexual stages.
repressed. Children spend most of their time
interacting with same sex peers, engaging in Despite being one of the most complex and
hobbies and acquiring skills. controversial theories of child development,
we cannot discount the important ideas that
Adults who are fixated at this stage are Freud has contributed to the field of
immature and have a hard time forming psychology and human development.
meaningful relationships.
Erikson's Stages of Development
Genital Stage (Puberty onward) Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who
During the last psychosexual stage, the developed one of the most popular and
erogenous zone is genitals. Individuals’ sexual influential theories of development. While his
urges are reawakened and are directed toward theory was impacted by psychoanalyst
opposite sex peers. However, unlike at the Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
phallic stage, the sexuality at the genital stage centered on psychosocial development rather
is consensual. than psychosexual development.

People who completed the earlier stages The stages that make up his theory are as
successfully become well-adjusted, caring and follows:
secure individuals at this stage. While younger
children are mostly ruled by their id and focus Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth
on their wants, individuals at this stage have to 18 months)
fully formed ego and superego. They can Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
balance their wants (id) with the reality (ego) (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
and ethics (superego).

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Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years conflict that serves as a turning point in
from three to five) development.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school
years from six to 11) In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years on either developing a psychological quality or
from 12 to 18) failing to develop that quality. During these
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult times, the potential for personal growth is high
years from 18 to 40) but so is the potential for failure.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle
age from 40 to 65) If people successfully deal with the conflict,
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood they emerge from the stage with psychological
from 65 to death) strengths that will serve them well for the rest
of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with
Let's take a closer look at the background and these conflicts, they may not develop the
different stages that make up Erikson's essential skills needed for a strong sense of
psychosocial theory. self.

Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of
competence motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned
with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel

a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the
stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that
Overview of Erikson's Stages of aspect of development.
Development
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that
personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages,
however, Erikson's theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a role in
the development and growth of human beings.

Erikson's theory was based on what is known

as the epigenetic principle. This principle
suggests that people grow in a sequence that
occurs over time and in the context of a larger
community.

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the
preceding stages and paves the way for
following periods of development. In each
stage, Erikson believed people experience a

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Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust developing a greater sense of personal
The first stage of Erikson's theory of control.
psychosocial development occurs between
birth and 1 year of age and is the most The Role of Independence
fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is At this point in development, children are just
utterly dependent, developing trust is based on starting to gain a little independence. They are
the dependability and quality of the child's starting to perform basic actions on their own
caregivers. and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and
At this point in development, the child is utterly gain control, parents and caregivers can help
dependent upon adult caregivers for children develop a sense of autonomy.2
everything they need to survive including food,
love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a Potty Training
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and The essential theme of this stage is that
love, the child will come to feel that they children need to develop a sense of personal
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their control over physical skills and a sense of
life. independence. Potty training plays an
important role in helping children develop this
Outcomes sense of autonomy.
If a child successfully develops trust, the child
will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally was a vital part of this process. However,
unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings Erikson's reasoning was quite different than
of mistrust in the children under their care. that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a to control one's bodily functions leads to a
belief that the world is inconsistent and feeling of control and a sense of
unpredictable. independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy
During the first stage of psychosocial preferences, and clothing selection.
development, children develop a sense of trust
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and Outcomes
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Children who struggle and who are shamed for
their accidents may be left without a sense of
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% personal control. Success during this stage of
trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that psychosocial development leads to feelings of
successful development was all about striking autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame
a balance between the two opposing sides. and doubt.
When this happens, children acquire hope,
which Erikson described as an openness to Finding Balance
experience tempered by some wariness that Children who successfully complete this stage
danger may be present. feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and
Subsequent work by researchers including self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth balance between autonomy and shame and
demonstrated the importance of trust in doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that
forming healthy attachments during childhood children can act with intention, within reason
and adulthood. and limits.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of The third stage of psychosocial development
psychosocial development takes place during takes place during the preschool years. At this
early childhood and is focused on children point in psychosocial development, children

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begin to assert their power and control over plays an essential role in developing a sense
the world through directing play and other of personal identity which will continue to
social interactions. influence behavior and development for the
rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a
Children who are successful at this stage feel sense of self and personal identity. Success
capable and able to lead others. Those who leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense failure leads to role confusion and a weak
of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. sense of self.

Outcomes During adolescence, children explore their

The major theme of the third stage of independence and develop a sense of self.2
psychosocial development is that children Those who receive proper encouragement and
need to begin asserting control and power reinforcement through personal exploration will
over the environment. Success in this stage emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try self and feelings of independence and control.
to exert too much power experience Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative
and a willingness to work with others is What Is Identity?
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose When psychologists talk about identity, they
emerges. are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority behavior. Completing this stage successfully
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an
during the early school years from ability to live by society's standards and
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social expectations.
interactions, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. While Erikson believed that each stage of
psychosocial development was important, he
Children need to cope with new social and placed a particular emphasis on the
academic demands. Success leads to a sense development of ego identity. Ego identity is the
of competence, while failure results in feelings conscious sense of self that we develop
of inferiority. through social interaction and becomes a
central focus during the identity versus
Outcomes confusion stage of psychosocial development.
Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers develop According to Erikson, our ego identity
a feeling of competence and belief in their constantly changes due to new experiences
skills. Those who receive little or no and information we acquire in our daily
encouragement from parents, teachers, or interactions with others. As we have new
peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. experiences, we also take on challenges that
can help or hinder the development of identity.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of
psychosocial development leads to the Why Identity Is Important
strength known as competence, in which Our personal identity gives each of us an
children develop a belief in their abilities to integrated and cohesive sense of self that
handle the tasks set before them. endures through our lives. Our sense of
personal identity is shaped by our experiences
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion and interactions with others, and it is this
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs,
the often turbulent teenage years. This stage and behaviors as we age.

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 with your life partner are important
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation accomplishments of this stage.
Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success leads Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
to strong relationships, while failure results in The final psychosocial stage occurs during old
loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2
period of early adulthood when people are At this point in development, people look back
exploring personal relationships.2 on the events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they lived or if
Erikson believed it was vital that people they regret the things they did or didn't do.
develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this Erikson's theory differed from many others
step will form relationships that are enduring because it addressed development throughout
and secure. the entire lifespan, including old age. Older
adults need to look back on life and feel a
Building On Earlier Stages sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage
Remember that each step builds on skills leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
learned in previous steps. Erikson believed results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
that a strong sense of personal identity was
important for developing intimate relationships. At this stage, people reflect back on the events
Studies have demonstrated that those with a of their lives and take stock. Those who look
poor sense of self tend to have less committed back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel
relationships and are more likely to struggler satisfied and ready to face the end of their
with emotional isolation, loneliness, and lives with a sense of peace. Those who look
depression. back and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without
Successful resolution of this stage results in accomplishing the things they feel they should
the virtue known as love. It is marked by the have.
ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships
with other people. Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation will feel that their life has been wasted and
Adults need to create or nurture things that will may experience many regrets. The person will
outlast them, often by having children or be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
creating a positive change that benefits other
people. Success leads to feelings of Those who feel proud of their
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
results in shallow involvement in the world. Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general
During adulthood, we continue to build our feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will
lives, focusing on our career and family. Those attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
who are successful during this phase will feel
that they are contributing to the world by being Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's
active in their home and community.2 Those Theory
who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive Erikson's theory also has its limitations and
and uninvolved in the world. attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of
experiences are necessary to successfully
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is complete each stage? How does a person
handled successfully. Being proud of your move from one stage to the next?
accomplishments, watching your children grow
into adults, and developing a sense of unity Criticism

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One major weakness of psychosocial theory is stages, which cover the entire life span. At
that the exact mechanisms for resolving each stage, a person is faced with a
conflicts and moving from one stage to the psychosocial crisis—critical issues—that need
next are not well described or developed. The to be resolved. The person's personality is
theory fails to detail exactly what type of shaped by the way they respond to each of
experiences are necessary at each stage in these crises. If they react positively, a new
order to successfully resolve the conflicts and virtue (moral behavior) is gained.
move to the next stage.
The Stages of Psychosocial Development
Support The eight stages of psychosocial
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is development are:
that it provides a broad framework from which
to view development throughout the entire 1. Trust vs. Mistrust
lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the 2. Autonomy vs. Shame
social nature of human beings and the 3. Initiative vs. Guilt
important influence that social relationships 4. Industry vs. Inferiority
have on development. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Researchers have found evidence supporting 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's ideas about identity and have further 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
identified different sub-stages of identity
formation.4 Some research also suggests that Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
people who form strong personal identities The first stage of Erikson's theory of
during adolescence are better capable of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust,
forming intimate relationships during early begins at birth and lasts until around 18
adulthood. Other research suggests, however, months of age. During this stage, the infant is
that identity formation and development completely dependent on their caregiver to
continues well into adulthood.5 meet their needs. With consistent care, the
infant learns to trust and feel secure. The
Why Was Erikson's Theory Important? virtue gained in this stage is "hope."
The theory was significant because it
addressed development throughout a person's Success in stage 1 helps a person be able to
life, not just during childhood. It also stressed trust others in future relationships, as well as
the importance of social relationships in trust in their own ability to deal with
shaping personality and growth at each point challenging situations later in life. When an
in development. infant's needs aren't met in this stage, they can
become anxious and untrusting.
Understanding Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial development describes how a Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame
person's personality develops, and how social Stage 2, autonomy vs. shame, occurs from 18
skills are learned from infancy through months to around 3 years of age. During this
adulthood. In the 1950s, psychologist Erik stage, children's physical skills grow while they
Erikson published his theory about the eight explore their environment and learn to be
stages of psychosocial development. Erikson more independent.
believed that during each stage, a person
experiences a "psychosocial crisis" that either Children react positively during stage 2 when
has a positive or negative effect on that caregivers allow them to work on developing
person's personality. independence within a safe environment. The
virtue gained in this stage is "will."
The Principles of Psychosocial Development
According to Erikson, an individual's If the child is overly criticized or lives in a
personality and social skills develop in eight controlling environment, they can feel shame

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and doubt their abilities to take care of the psychosocial crisis is identity vs.
themselves.3 confusion. During stage 5, teens are trying to
"find themselves" and are searching for a
Stage 2 Skills sense of identity.
Examples of skills learned in stage 2 of
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development The virtue that can be gained in stage 5 is
include potty training, getting dressed, and "fidelity," or faithfulness. In stage 5, teens also
brushing teeth. This stage also includes learn how to accept other people who are
physical skills such as running and jumping. different than themselves.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt According to Erikson, if a person responds

Stage 3, initiative vs. guilt, occurs during the negatively to the crisis in stage 5, it can lead to
early school-age years of a child's life. During role confusion—uncertainty about themselves
this stage, a child learns to initiate social and how they fit into society.3
interactions and play activities with other
children. Children also ask lots of questions in Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
this stage. The psychosocial crisis in stage 6, intimacy vs.
isolation, occurs in young adulthood (ages 18
If the child is overly-controlled or made to feel to 40 years). The main focus in this stage is
that their questions are annoying, the child can developing intimate relationships, and the
develop feelings of guilt. However, when a virtue to be gained is "love."
child is successful in this stage, the virtue
gained is a sense of "purpose."3 People who are not successful in stage 6 can
feel alone and isolated. In some cases, this
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority can lead to depression.
Stage 4 of Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development typically occurs between the Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
ages of 5 and 12 years. The psychosocial Erikson's seventh level of psychosocial
crisis in this stage is industry vs. inferiority. development occurs during middle
During this stage, a child is learning how to age—between 40 to 65 years of age. The
read and write. Children in this stage also put crisis at this stage is generativity vs.
a higher amount of importance on what their stagnation.
peers think about them, and start to take pride
in their accomplishments. Generativity is a person's way of "leaving a
mark" on the world by giving back to society.
The virtue gained when a child is successful in This can include mentoring the younger
stage 4 is "competence." If a child responds generation, being successful at work, and
negatively to this psychosocial crisis, it can positively impacting the community. The virtue
lead to feelings of inferiority and low that can be gained in stage 7 is "care."
self-esteem.
When a person is not successful in stage 7, it
Personality: Erikson vs. Freud leads to stagnation. This can cause the person
While Erikson believed that personality is to feel useless and disconnected from their
developed throughout the life span, community.
neurologist Sigmund Freud based his theories
of personality development on the belief that Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
an adult's personality is primarily determined The final stage in Erikson's psychosocial
by early childhood experiences. theory of development is integrity vs. despair.
This stage begins around age 65 years and
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion continues for the remainder of a person's life.
Stage 5 occurs during the teenage years, During this stage, a person reflects on their life
between the ages of 12 to 18. At this stage,

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and their accomplishments and comes to According to this Jean Piaget theory, children
terms with the fact that death is unavoidable. are not capable of performing certain tasks or
understanding certain concepts until they
According to Erikson, if a person does not feel reach a particular Piaget stage.
their life was productive, or if a person has
guilt over things that occurred in the past, it In addition, Piaget believed that children move
can lead to feelings of despair. If a person is from one stage to the next after extensive
successful in stage 8, the virtue to be gained is exposure to relevant stimuli and experiences.
"wisdom." With these experiences, both physical and
cognitive, they are ready to master new skills,
It is common for people in stage 8 to which are essential for children to move
experience alternating periods of integrity and through the Piaget stages.
despair. The ultimate goal is to achieve
balance. The Four Jean Piaget Stages of
Development
Criticisms of Erikson's Theory
There are several criticisms of Erikson's
psychosocial theory of development. Some
critics believe that Erikson was too focused on
the idea that these stages need to be
completed sequentially, and only occur in the
age ranges he suggests.

Other critics point out that Erikson used the

European or American "male experience" as a
template for all humans when he designed his
stages of development.5

In addition, Erikson does not provide Sensorimotor Stage

information about what types of experiences Age Range: Birth to 2 years old
have to occur for a person to be successful in
resolving the psychosocial crises at each According to the Piaget theory, children like to
stage of development. explore at the sensorimotor stage. They want
to watch, hear, taste, touch things around
The Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive them. They learn about their environment by
Development sensation: watching, grasping, sucking and
manipulating objects they can get their eyes
In the 1960s and 1970s, as Freudian and and hands on. They generally don’t appear to
Jungian psychology were rapidly being be thinking about what they do.
replaced by more empirical methods of
studying human behavior, a Swiss philosopher As infants become toddlers, children enjoy
and psychologist named Jean Piaget their rapidly improving abilities to move around
(1896-1980) offered a new theory of cognitive and take in new experiences. They focus on
development. making sense of the world by linking their
experiences to their actions.
The Jean Piaget theory of cognitive
development suggests that regardless of Piaget further divided the sensorimotor stage
culture, the cognitive development of children into six substages, each sighted with at the
follows a predetermined order of stages, which establishment of a new skill.
are widely known as the Jean Piaget stages of
cognitive development.

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Reflexes (0 – 1 month): Understanding of see. They can imagine people or objects that
environment is attained through reflexes such don’t exist (such as a lizard with wings) more
as sucking and crying. readily than younger children, and they like to
Primary Circular Reactions (1 – 4 months): make up their own games.
New schemas and sensations are combined,
allowing children to engage in pleasurable At the preoperational stage, children
actions deliberately, such as sucking their understand object permanence very well.
thumb. However, they still don’t get the concept of
Secondary Circular Reactions (4 – 8 conservation. They don’t understand that
months): Children are now aware that their changing an object’s appearance doesn’t
actions influence their environment and change its properties or quantity.
purposefully perform actions in order to
achieve desired results. For example, they In the experiment, Piaget poured the exact
push a key on a toy piano to make a sound. same amount of water into two identical
Coordination of Reactions (8 – 12 months): glasses and asked the children whether the
Children explore their environment and often glasses contained the same amount of water.
imitate the behavior of others. The children said that both glasses contained
Tertiary Circular Reactions – (12 – 18 the same amount of water. Piaget then poured
months): Children begin to experiment and try the water in one glass into a tall, narrow
out new behavior. beaker and repeated the question. This time,
Early Representational Thought (18 – 24 the children said there was more water in the
months): Children begin to recognize and cylinder because it was taller.
appreciate symbols that represent objects or
events. They use simple language to catalog Concrete Operational Stage
objects, e.g. “doggie”, “horsey”. Age Range: 7-11 years old

During the late sensorimotor stage, children By the time they reach the concrete
begin to learn the concept of object operational stage, children can understand
permanence. In other words, they know that much more complex abstract concepts, such
an object will continue to exist even if they can as time, space, and quantity. They can apply
no longer see it. these concepts to concrete situations, but they
still have trouble thinking about them
The practical knowledge developed during the independently of those situations.
sensorimotor stage will form the basis for
children’s ability to form mental
representations of objects in later Piaget Piaget pointed out that at this stage, children’s
stages. ideas about time and space are sometimes
inconsistent. They can learn rules fairly easily,
Preoperational Stage but they may have trouble understanding the
Age Range: 2-7 years old logical implications of those rules in unusual
situations.
Around age two, children enter what Piaget
called the preoperational stage where they In addition, at the concrete operational stage,
learn how to think abstractly, understand children are able to use inductive logic – the
symbolic concepts, and use language in more type of reasoning that starts from a specific
sophisticated ways. They learn to use words to idea and leads to a generalization. They can
describe people, their feelings and their also distinguish facts from fantasies, as well as
environments. formulate judgements about cause and effect.

Now that children can express themselves Another important child development
better, they become insatiably curious and milestone at this stage is the idea of
begin to ask questions about everything they reversibility – children understand that some

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objects can be altered and then shaped back Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) developed
to their original shape. For example, a deflated his own theory of moral development in
balloon can be filled with air again to become children. According to Kohlberg’s Theory of
an inflated balloon. Moral Development, there are 6 stages of
moral development, known as Kohlberg’s
Formal Operational Stage stages of moral development.
Age Range: 11 years old and older
One of Kohlberg’s best known experiments is
At the final stage of the Jean Piaget stages of known as the Heinz Dilemma. In this
cognitive development, children are capable of experiment, Kohlberg presented a story about
more abstract, hypothetical, and theoretical a man named Heinz:
reasoning. They are no longer bound to
observable and physical events. They can Heinz’s wife had a form rare cancer and was
approach and resolve problems systematically dying. A doctor told Heinz that a local chemist
by formulating hypotheses and methodically had invented a new drug that might save his
testing them out. wife. Heinz was very happy to hear this and
went to talk to the chemist. When Heinz saw
Children can now apply their reasoning to a the price tag of the new drug, he was
variety of situations including counterfactual devastated because there was no way he
“if-then” situations, meaning in situations could afford the drug. Heinz also knew that the
where the “if” is known to be untrue. For price was ten times of the cost of the drug so
example “if dogs were reptiles, they would the chemist was making a big buck from this
have cold blood.” They can accept this as valid drug.
reasoning, even though the premise is
obviously false. Heinz tried his best to borrow money from his
friends and family, but the money was still not
As children grow older, formal logic becomes enough. He went back to the chemist and
possible and verbal explanations of concepts begged the chemist to lower the price. The
are usually sufficient without demonstration. chemist refused to do that. Heniz knew that his
They can consider possible outcomes and wife would die without this new drug, so he
consequences of their actions without actually broke into the chemist’s office that night and
performing them. In addition, strategy-based stole the drug.
games become more enjoyable, whereas rote
games like “chutes-and-ladders” become too After telling Heinz’s story to children in various
repetitive and boring for them. age groups, Kohlberg asked them what Heinz
should do. Based on the children’s responses,
The Jean Piaget theory of cognitive Kohlberg classified their moral reasoning into
development has been the subject of some three levels, each of which contains two
criticism over the years, particularly from distinct substages:
cross-cultural psychologists who question
whether the Piaget stages are unique to Pre-conventional Level
Western children. ● Obedience
● Self-interest
Regardless of the criticism, the Piaget theory Conventional Level
has proven to be invaluable and formed the ● Conformity
basis for a number of other famous ● Law and order
psychological ideas, including Kohlberg’s Post-conventional Level
theory of moral development. ● Social contract orientation
● Universal human ethics
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Based on Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Age ranges are considerably more vague in
Development, American psychologist the Kohlberg’s stages than in the Piaget

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stages, as children vary quite significantly in When being asked what Heinz should do,
their rate of moral development. children at this level of moral development
may answer:
The Pre-conventional Level ● He should steal the drug because he
The pre-conventional stage is associated with is a good husband, and a good
the first two Kohlberg’s stages of moral husband would do anything to save
development: Obedience and Self-interest. his wife.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
At this level, children are only interested in he’s not a criminal.
securing their own benefits. This is their idea ● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
of morality. They begin by avoiding it’s illegal to steal.
punishment, and quickly learn that they may ● He should steal the drug to save his
secure other benefits by pleasing others. No wife and after that, he should go to
other ethical concepts are available to children prison for the crime.
this young.
Kohlberg believed that some people stay at
When being asked what Heinz should do, this stage of moral reasoning for their whole
children at this level of moral development lives, deriving moral principles from social or
may answer: religious authority figures and never thinking
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because about morality for themselves.
it’s bad to steal.
● He should steal the drug because the The Post-conventional Level
chemist is charging too much. The post-conventional level is associated with
● He should steal the drug because he’ll these Kohlberg’s stages of moral
feel good that he saves his wife. development: Social contract orientation and
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because Universal human ethics.
he’ll end up in prison.
At this level, children have learned that there is
These Kohlberg stages are parallel to Piaget’s a difference between what is right and what is
sensorimotor stage – for children whose wrong from a moral perspective, and what is
conceptual framework don’t extend beyond right and what is wrong according to rules.
their own senses and movements, the moral Although they often overlap, there are still
concepts of right and wrong would be difficult times when breaking a rule is the right thing to
to develop. do.

The Conventional Level When being asked what Heinz should do,
According to Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral children at this level of moral development
Development, the conventional level is may answer:
associated with Conformity and Law and ● He should steal the drug because
Order. This is the stage at which children learn everyone has a right to live, regardless
about rules and authority. They learn that there of the law.
are certain “conventions” that govern how they ● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
should and should not behave, and learn to the chemist deserves to get paid for
obey them. his effort to develop the drug.
● He should steal the drug because
At this stage, no distinction is drawn between saving life is more important than
moral principles and legal principles. What is anything else.
right is what is handed down by authority, and ● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
disobeying the rules is always by definition others also have to pay for the drug.
“bad.” It’s only fair that he pays for it as well.

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Comparisons of Kohlberg’s Stages of than others. This, of course, presupposes
Moral Development and Piaget’s Stages of certain moral assumptions, and so from a
Cognitive Development philosophical perspective Kohlberg’s argument
is circular.
Although Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development aren’t direct parallels of Piaget’s Furthermore, there are also some studies that
stages of cognitive development, Kohlberg indicate that children as young as six years old
was inspired by Piaget’s work. By comparing can attain vague concepts of universal ethical
these two theories, you can get a sense of principles – they may be able to distinguish
how our concepts of the world around us (our between a rule that says “no hitting” (universal
descriptive concepts) influence our sense of and moral) and one that says “kids must sit in
what we ought to do in that world (our a circle during story-time” (conventional,
normative concepts). arbitrary, and non-moral).

Since Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

questions whether even teenagers can attain
this level of moral reasoning, these studies
throw considerable doubt on his conclusions.

The best conjecture, however, may be that

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
describe not a one-way process of
psychological growth for an individual, but a
categorization of different types of moral
values, which may be developed and
prioritized differently for different individuals
and moral cultures.

What is the Havighurst Developmental

Tasks Theory?
Although many theorists are responsible for
contributing to the Developmental Tasks
Theory, it was Robert Havighurst who
elaborated on this development theory in the
most systematic and extensive manner.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development The main assertion of the Havighurst
Like Piaget, Kohlberg has come under fire in developmental tasks theory is that
recent years from cross-cultural psychologists development is continuous throughout a
who believe that Kohlberg’s theory is simply a person’s entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A
codification of Western (post-modern Western person moves from one stage to the next by
liberal, to be precise) notions of justice and means of successful resolution of problems or
morality. Other moral and political cultures may performance of certain developmental tasks.
not believe in certain principles. These tasks are typically encountered by most
people in the culture where that person
These critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages of belongs.
moral development are Kohlberg’s attempt to
make his own moral beliefs appear to be According to the Havighurst developmental
psychological facts. Kohlberg’s theory of moral tasks theory, when people successfully
development also seems to have a troubling accomplish the developmental tasks at a
normative aspect – that is, it seems to suggest stage, they feel pride and satisfaction. They
that certain kinds of moral reasoning are better also earn the approval of their community or

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society. This success provides a sound demonstrate maturation at a level that is most
foundation that allows these people to conducive to learning and successfully
accomplish the tasks that they will encounter performing the developmental tasks at these
at later Havighurst developmental stages. stages.

Conversely, when people fail to accomplish the Psychological Influences

developmental tasks at a stage, they’re often Psychological factors that emerge from a
unhappy and are not accorded the desired person’s maturing personality and psyche are
approval by society. This results in the embodied in his/her personal values and
subsequent experience of difficulty when faced goals. These values and goals are another
with succeeding developmental tasks at later source of some developmental tasks such as
Havighurst developmental stages. establishing one’s self-concept, developing
relationships with peers of both sexes and
The Bio-Psychosocial Model of adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a
Development spouse.
Robert Havighurst proposed a
bio-psychosocial model of development. Social Influences
According to Havighurst’s Developmental There are other developmental tasks that arise
Tasks Theory, the developmental tasks at each from the unique cultural standards of a given
stage are influenced by a person’s biology society. These tasks may be observed in
(physiological maturation and genetic different forms in varying societies or,
makeup), his/her psychology (personal values alternatively, may be observed is some
and goals), as well as his/her sociology cultures but not in others.
(specific culture to which the individual
belongs). For example, someone who belongs to an
agricultural community might make the
Biological Influences preparations for an occupation such as
Some Havighurst developmental tasks are becoming a farmer at an early age. Members
evolved out of the biological characteristics of of an industrialized society, on the other hand,
humans and are faced similarly by people of require longer and more specialized
any culture. preparation for an occupation. Therefore, they
tend to embark on this developmental task
An example of this happens in child later in life.
development – learning how to walk for
infants. Being a skill that depends on Other culturally-based developmental tasks
maturation and genetically determined factors, include achieving gender-appropriate roles
the mechanics involved in learning how to and becoming a responsible citizen.
walk are virtually the same and occur at
generally the same time for children from all The Havighurst Developmental Stages
cultures. Robert Havighurst proposed a list of common
critical developmental tasks, categorized into
Other developmental tasks in child six stages of development. The table below
development that stem from biological shows a partial list of Havighurst
mechanisms include learning to talk, developmental tasks.
exercising control over bodily functions, as
well as learning skills typically utilized in
children’s games, to name a few.

Havighurst pointed out the importance of

sensitive stages which he considered to be the
ideal teachable moments during child
development. At these stages, children

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Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of ● The child can receive instructions from
Cognitive Development the MKO during the learning process.
In early 20th century, a Russian psychologist ● The MKO can offer temporary support
named Lev Vygotsky developed a theory of (scaffolding) to the child during the
cognitive development in children known as learning proces
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of
Cognitive Development. For example, a five-year-old child knows how
to ride a tricycle, but can’t ride a bicycle (with
The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory is two wheels) unless his grandfather holds onto
that cognitive development in early childhood the back of her bike. According to Vygotsky’s
is advanced through social interaction with theory, this child is in the zone of proximal
other people, particularly those who are more development for riding bicycle.
skilled. In other words, unlike Piaget’s theory,
Vygotsky proposed that social learning comes With her grandfather’s help, this little girl
before cognitive development in children, and learns to balance her bike. After some
that children construct knowledge actively. practising, she can ride the bike on her own.

Vygotsky’s Concept of Zone of Proximal Vygotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal

Development Development underscores Vygotsky’s
Lev Vygotsky is most recognized for his conviction that social influences, particularly
concept of Zone of Proximal Development getting instructions from someone, are of
(ZPD) pertaining to the cognitive development immense importance on the cognitive
in children. development in early childhood.

According to the Vygotsky theory of cognitive According to Vygotsky’s theory, as children are
development, children who are in the zone of given instructions or shown how to perform
proximal development for a particular task can certain tasks, they organize the new
almost perform the task independently, but not information received in their existing mental
quite there yet. With a little help from certain schemas. They use this information as guides
people, they’ll be able to perform the task on how to perform these tasks and eventually
successfully. learn to perform them independently.

Vygotsky’s Concept of More

Knowledgeable Other
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes
that children learn through social interaction
that include collaborative and cooperative
dialogue with someone who is more skilled in
tasks they’re trying to learn. Vygotsky called
these people with higher skill level the More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO). MKO could be
teachers, parents, tutors and even peers.

In our example of the five-year-old girl learning

Some factors that are essential in helping a to ride a bike, her grandfather not only holds
child in the zone of proximal development: onto the back of the bike, but also verbally
● The presence of someone who has teaches her how to balance her bike. From the
better skills in the task that the child is little girl’s point of view, her grandfather is what
trying to learn. This “someone” is Vygotsky would call a More Knowledgeable
known as a “More Knowledgeable Other.
Other”(MKO), which we will discuss
below.

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Vygotsky’s Concept of Scaffolding Due to Vygotsky’s proffered ideas, research
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely attention has been shifted from the individual
related to the concept of the Zone of Proximal onto larger interactional units such as parent
Development. Scaffolding refers to the and child, teacher and student, brother and
temporary support given to a child by a More sister, etc.
Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to
perform a task until such time that the child The Vygotsky theory also called attention to
can perform this task independently. the variability of cultural realities, stating that
the cognitive development of children who are
According to the Vygotsky theory, scaffolding in one culture or subculture, such as middle
entails changing the quality and quantity of class Asian Americans, may be totally different
support provided to a child in the course of a from children who are from other cultures.
teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level Therefore, it would not be fitting to compare
of guidance in order to fit the student’s current the developmental milestones of children from
level of performance. one culture to those of children from other
cultures.

For novel tasks, the MKO may utilize direct

instruction. As the child gains more familiarity
with the task and becomes more skilled at it,
the MKO may then provide less guidance.

To illustrate Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding

using our example of the five-year-old learning
to ride a bike:

The little girl’s grandfather (MKO) may begin

by holding onto the back of her bike the whole
time that she is on the bike. As the little girl
gains more experience, her grandfather may
release his hold intermittently. Eventually the
girl’s grandfather only grabs the bike when he
needs to correct her balance. When the girl
finally masters the skill, her grandfather no
longer needs to hold onto her bike anymore,
and the scaffolds can be removed.

A major contribution of Vygotsky’s theory of

cognitive development in children is the
acknowledgement of the social component in
both cognitive and psychosocial development.

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