Eng3a Midterm Reviewer
Eng3a Midterm Reviewer
Eng3a Midterm Reviewer
What is Communication?
• It is derived from the Latin words con (with), munus (a business), communis
(common), communico (to confer or relate with one another.)
• The process of accomplishing a goal, “with a business to confer or relate with one
another.
• Communication is the essence of management.
• The term communication is used to signify the process of transferring ideas or receiving
it by any means such as word of mouth, telephone, telegram, letter, message, etc. Thus,
communication stands for sharing of information, imparting, or conveying ideas and
knowledge.
ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication – a form of transmitting messages using word symbols representing
ideas and objects.
Oral Communication – face-to-face interaction, speaking to someone on the phone,
participating in meetings, giving lectures or discussions.
Written Communication – uses symbols that are hand- written or printed with an electronic
device.
Factors that affect verbal communication:
• Tone of voice
• Use of descriptive words
• Emphasis on certain phrases
• Volume of voice
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Sender – a person, group, or organization who initiates the communication.
2. Message – an element transmitted in communication consists of the idea, opinion,
information, feeling, or attitude of the sender.
3. Channel – a pathway or medium through which the message travels to reach its
destination. It may be oral, written, visual/electronic.
4. Receiver – a person who receives, analyses, understands, and interprets the
message.
5. Feedback – the receiver’s response that provides information to the sender.
6. Adjustment – done if the message is distorted or is not clearly understood by the
receiver.
7. Noise – a form of distortion, barrier, or obstacle that occurs in any of the phases of
oral communication process.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
1. The speaker develops an idea to be sent.
2. The speaker encodes the idea or converts it to words or actions.
3. The speaker transmits or sends out the idea using a specific medium or channel.
4. The receiver gets the message and decodes or interprets it.
5. The receiver provides or sends feedback.
6. The feedback may be positive (accepted) and the negative is provided with an adjustment.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
These principles will help you to make your communication more informative and will aid you to
gain positive effects:
• It is an innate individual trait that is not related to personal intellect or education, thus, is
an internal ability that is enhanced and luminated through the promotion of empathy in
the process of socialization.
2. Unfolding the Self – the ability to look for shared communication symbols and project the
self into another person’s mind by thinking the same thoughts, feelings, and emotions as the
person.
3. Mapping the Culture – ability to contrast cultural differences that may motivate us to prefer
alternative styles of cultural expressions so that we can better function with the demands of
global environment and cope with the changing environment rapidly.
4. Aligning the Interaction – requires individuals to foster the ability of cultural prowess by
which they can function effectively and appropriately without violating their counterpart’s norms
and rules to reach a global civic society.
CHAPTER 3: Local and Global Communication in a Multicultural Setting
Communication is guided by culture and context. It is predicted by the type of culture
dictated by its context.
Culture – is manifested in our actions and affects how we tell the world who we are and
what we believe in. It is the basis for how we behave in a certain communication
context.
Context – brings a better understanding about culture in general and our own culture. It
refers to anything that refers to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an
event (Edward T. Hall)
Local Communication – is highly grounded on the cultural context. This context of
communication reflects the culture of people who are creating their self-identity and
community.
Global Communication – has turned to be a modifying factor of local communication.
It attempts to bring changes that affect communication conventions.
Intercultural Communication – a discipline that focuses on how culture affects
communication. It is the ability to understand and value cultural differences.
Language – is a component that is linked to intercultural understanding. Enhancing oral
and written communication in intercultural environments is a way to achieving
intercultural.
competence.
AMBIGUOUS EXPRESSIONS
Idioms and figurative clichés – This form of language uses words and expressions
with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation.
Slang – It is a shortcut or highly colloquial word that suggests excessive informality and
lack of appreciation in the workplace setting.
Acronym – It is formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word.
Abbreviation – It is a short form of a lengthy expression.
Jargon – It is a type of language that is used in an occupation. Often, words are
meaningless outside a certain context.
CHAPTER 4: Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
Varieties of English refer to the different kinds of English used around the world based
on geographical locations. There are over a hundred varieties of the English language,
but two of the most prevalent varieties of the English language are British and American
English.
American English (AmE)
- It is a variant of the English language which is spoken mainly in the United
States. About two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in America
and speak this variant.
British English (BrE)
- It is a variant of the English language which is spoken in the United Kingdom.
- Along with American English, British English is one of the main variants taught in
English as a second language or English as foreign language programs.
Australian English (AuE)
- It is another variant of the English language which is spoken in Australia.
- Australian English began to diverge from the British English shortly after Australia
was settled in the late 18th century. This variety is similar to New Zealand
English and bears resemblance to dialects of Southeast England. Its spelling
corresponds to British English spelling.
New Zealand English (NZE)
- It is the variant of the English language spoken as the first language by my most
people in New Zealand.
- New Zealand English is most like Australian English in pronunciation, with some
differences.
Black English (African American Vernacular English)
- It is a broad term used to refer to American English and British English as spoken
by the black communities in the United States and the United Kingdom.
- It is also used to refer to black communities in Caribbean and Africa. There are
different varieties of this variant, but its two major sub-varieties are African
American Vernacular and British Black English.
Singapore English (SingEng or Singlish)
- Singapore English is a language variant which is considered the most popular
medium of communication in the academe. There are two main forms of this
variant: Singapore English and Singapore Colloquial English.
Philippine English
- It is another variety of the English language related to American English in terms
of spelling and grammar. Besides the Filipino language, the English language is
native to the Philippines and is considered an official language.
- Non-native pronunciations abound in the spoken language, and grammatical
flaws are oftentimes inevitable. Hence, code-switching is prevalent in formal and
more likely in informal situations.
Register – is described as a variety according to use in the sense that each speaker
has a range of varieties and chooses between them at different times. Register refers to
the level of formality of the speech.
Bias-Free Language
- Sometimes the language we use reflects our stereotypes. While in speech our
facial expressions or even gestures may convince our listeners that we are not
being offensive, in writing it is a lot harder to do.
- To avoid confusion and needless anger on the part of the reader, use language
that is clear, objective, and stereotype-free. Avoid generalizing when talking
about gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or people with disabilities.
Avoid Gender Bias
- Avoid using masculine pronouns when the gender of the person is not known.
When a word has the suffix -man or -woman, check to see if it reflects the gender
of the person described. Use more neutral alternatives when gender is not
important to the idea you are getting across.
For example, use chairperson or chair instead of chairman, fire fighter instead of
fireman, or salesperson instead of salesman.
Avoid Racial and Ethnic Bias
Racial or ethnic information should only be indicated if the context demands it. Take
note of the following:
- Both black and African American are generally acceptable (although some
members of this community prefer one or the other). The phrase people of color
are sometimes used to include other racial groups, particularly for political
purposes. The labels Negro and colored are generally not acceptable.
- Depending to some extent on regional preference, people with roots in Latin
America refer to themselves as Hispanic, Latino/Latina, or Chicano/Chicana, or
by place of origin (Cuban American, Puerto Rican). Except for specific audiences
or individuals, Latino is generally acceptable.
- The preference is for Asian or Asian American rather than Oriental. Again,
specific groups may prefer labels based on country of origin (Japanese
American, Korean).
- Native American has gained favor over Indian. Depending on context, you might
more accurately refer to a specific tribe or tribes.
Avoid Age Bias
- Age should only be specified if it is relevant. Avoid expressions that are
demeaning or subjective.
Avoid Disability Bias
- Do not refer to an individual’s disability unless relevant. When necessary, use
terms that do not offend disabled individuals.
- Avoid phrases like "confined to a wheelchair" and "victim" (of a disease), so as
not to focus on differences and disability. Instead, write or say, "someone who
uses a wheelchair" and "a person with (a disease)."
CHAPTER 5: Evaluating Messages and Images of Different Types of Text
Texts – are tools for us to understand how communication is being given and is
significant in studying. It affects how comprehension works for each individual.
Pardo explains that different types of texts explain and shows the intent and how words
or texts were constructed. It gives readers information and enhance their learning.
Multimodal Texts – are combination of two or more semiotic systems.
Two or more of the following semiotic systems are included in a multimodal text.
1. Linguistic system – It refers to the linguistic components like vocabulary,
structure, and grammar of a text.
2. Visual system – It pertains to the color, vectors and viewpoint in still and moving
images.
3. Audio system – This mode refers to the volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and
sound effects of a presentation.
4. Gestural system – It denotes the movement, facial expression, and body
language of the characters.
5. Spatial system – It indicates proximity, direction, position of layout, and
organization of objects in space.
Semiotic – is the study of the process of making signs. They are the building toold for
symbols, which altogether, is an important factor of communication.
Linguistic System – refers to the vocabulary, grammar, and structure of text.
Visual System – pertains to moving images like animations.
Audio System – refers to the music and sound of a presentation.
Gestural System – refers to the movement and facial expressions of an individual.
Spatial System – gives the physical arrangement of a text. Like how brochures are
made from being folded and how it is organized.
CRITICAL READING AND LISTENING
As readers and listeners, it is important to have a deep comprehension on the different
types of texts since it is the central goal of both reading and listening.
Critical Reading – is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text.
It is the ability of a person to read a text and being able to read between the lines.
It involves the following:
1. Carefully reading a text
2. Identifying the strengths and connection of a text
3. Identifying the weaknesses; and
4. Deciding if the image or text fits for an academic context.
Message
2. What does the message say (subject, main point, support)?
3. Is the information fair and logical?
4. What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
5. What images or sounds catch your attention?
Medium
6. What type of text is used to deliver the message?
7. What are the advantages and limitations of the text format?
Audience
8. Who is the target audience of the message?
9. How might other people interpret the message of the text?
Context
10. What is the purpose of the message?
LISTENING AS A CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
Listening is a voluntary active process, it is psychological. According to Lynch (2013),
adults listen 50 percent or less, while teenagers listen 25 percent or less. Studies show
that those who practice listening skills get better grades, higher pay and achieve their
goals more often than those who do not. For you to be able to access the message of
an argument, you must be a critical listener.
Critical listening requires active thinking because it goes far beyond just hearing a
speaker’s message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and making
important decisions about truth, authenticity, and relevance. Kadjan-Baumeyer (2018)
claims that listening is a critical thinking activity; hence, Lynch qualifies that critical
thinking:
According to Lynch, what follows are what qualifies for critical thinking:
1. Involves being able to access the strengths and weaknesses of an argument;
2. Involves being able to distinguish between the fact, theory and opinions of an
argument;
3. Allows for thinking outside of the box;
4. Allows for compromise and growth;
5. Involves being able to judge the credibility of sources;
6. Requires accessing the quality of evidence;
7. Involves discerning relationships between ideas;
8. Involves priorities on what to remember and in what context;
9. Allows for fewer mistakes and reduces trial and error in everyday life;
10. Does not mean negative thinking;
11. Is a normal process that requires practice and reinforcement;
12. Requires an open mind and the ability to consider and understand all sides of an
issue, and;
13. Means replacing name calling and images with reason compromise and the ability
to persuade instead of attack
Multimodal texts demand one to possess critical thinking because listening and reading
are two language skills that require this active mental processing. To analyze
multimodal texts, Kadjan-Baumeyer suggests to readers and listeners to perform the
following:
1. SOURCE
Readers or listeners of a text should ask first about its authorship. There is a need to
identify if the source is an individual or a team although the number of writers does not
warrant credibility of the text. Examine if the source is reliable. You always have the
hunch in determining if the source is reliable or not. This can be determined through the
background information about the source. Evaluate the choices about content did the
source make.
a) Who created the message?
b) Is the source reliable?
c) What choices did the source make?
2. MESSAGE
After evaluating the source, the content of the text should be examined in order to get
its message. There are various questions that one may ask in getting the message of
the text (Thoughtful Learning, 2014).
a) What does the message say?
You may ask questions such as:
• What is the subject?
• What is the main point?
• How is the main point supported?
Visual Elements:
1. Lighting. Low lighting suggests sadness or fear, while bright lighting conveys
happiness or joy. Soft lighting expresses beauty and romance. Use color and tone
to reflect the mood you are trying to create in your image.
2. Camera Angle. This visual element is used to position the viewers so that they
can understand the relationship between the characters. It is very important in
shaping meaning in film as well as in other visual texts. A low-angle view makes
people or things appear larger than they actually are, often indicating importance.
Conversely, a high angle view makes people or things appear smaller and less
significant.
3. Composition. Visual elements should be arranged in a manner that they do not
affect the viewer’s perception. Arrangements such as, close ups of a face convey
tension or intimacy, wider views showing people or things and their surroundings
usually express significance of the setting.
4. Body Language. Non-linguistic elements like the body language are more
revealing than words. They seem to be more catchy than the words provided in
the text.
Sound Techniques:
1. Sound Effects. This sound technique that is added after the filming enhances a
scene making it realistic although the effects themselves are often artificially
produced.
2. Music. This is another sound technique that affects the mood and intensity of a
scene. Fast-paced music use rhythm and volume to heighten drama and often
accompany car chases, fight scenes, and other action-packed scenes. Slower,
softer, intentionally expressive compositions can create tension and foreboding,
as in gothic films.
MEDIUM
The medium in transmitting the message may be conventional or digital although they
are often mixed up in a communication situation. Sometimes, print-based
communication needs to be backed up by a digital form in order to achieve a better and
faster communication.
Conventional media are no less than the broadcast and print-based communication,
while digital media include hypertext formats. According to Kitson (2011), hypertext
refers to the structuring of information in blocks of text which are connected by
electronic links. It is structured in a hierarchical manner where the content is organized
from more general concepts to more specific concepts. The reader is allowed to access
additional information to content on the current screen since it has its selection, use,
and placement to hypertext, hyperlinks, frames, windows, and images which may affect
readers’ or listeners’ evaluation of the message. Below are the types of media:
Each form of media has its inherent strengths and limitations. Smart phones, for
instance, are faster forms than print-based texts but messages are very informal and
cannot be kept as an accessible public document. Social media messages are speedy
and timesaving but prone to imprecisions. Generally, technical books are accurate and
informative, but they lack visual appeal, interactive component, and rapid and up-to-
date delivery of message. Some types of media seem to be boring (e.g., letters, books,
reports), but are most appropriate for a particular situation. Conversely, blogs,
televisions, radios, music, text messaging, social networks, among other appealing
communication media seem to be inviting and interesting, but sometimes lack
appropriateness for a particular context. Hence, conventional, and digital media
compensate in terms of use and are undoubtedly context dependent.
AUDIENCE
The audience in the communication situation refers to the receiver of the message. It
may be a person or a group for whom a message is created. Some texts like a personal
email, an invitation to deliver a talk, or a thank-you note target just one person, but other
texts are meant for larger audiences like research reports, advertisements, signages,
books, brochures, among other communication forms. Two important questions guide
audience adaptation in multimodal communication: (1) Who is the target audience of the
text? and (2) How might other people interpret its message?
Understanding the message of a multimodal text activates personal factors about the
audience such as, culture, values, and life experiences. These factors all play a role in
perceiving the transmitted message. Your evaluation of a message is a reflection of
your upbringing, education, economic status, interest, aspirations, beliefs, and culture.
In determining the target audience of a multimodal text, you may examine its content.
For instance, if it is an advertisement, advertisers most often craft messages based on
the audience’s characteristics, such as, age, gender, education, occupation, economic
status, habits and interest, region, and culture. That is why, advertisements in
televisions have their particular time slots in order to suit said advertisement to
audiences at a particular time. You would notice that you can see different
advertisements aired during a boxing rematch, a beauty pageant, and a noontime show
like “Eat Bulaga.” This selectiveness in airing or posting advertisements is intended to
filter selective messages to highly targeted audiences
CONTEXT
Context in this section includes the purposes and authorship of the text. A text serves at
least one of three purposes: to inform, to entertain, or to persuade. Often, a text fulfills
all three purposes at once. Magazines, for example, may entertain its readers, but it
may also inform and persuade them. Consider and analyze the purpose before sending
any messages. The following are questions that may be used in evaluating context:
1. To inform. The message provides the audience with a clear understanding of the
concept presented by the source. Most of these multimodal texts like books,
ebooks, letters, blogposts, emails, magazines, newspapers, video tutorials,
television newscasts, documentaries, presentations are created for information
dissemination. These multimodal texts were built on society’s interest in learning
and keeping us abreast of what is happening in the world. Messages that are
meant to inform or educate are typically free from biased messages. Those
messages that aim to entertain or persuade readers are more prone to biased
language. Therefore, the audience should be sensitive to any organizational bias
that might accompany the message.
2. To entertain. The message or the text amuses the audience. Some of these
multimodal texts that aim to entertain are television sitcoms or primetime shows,
movies, music, sports and travel broadcasts, social networks, magazines, and
comics. Popular entertainment media are appealing and inviting to advertisers
because they are read and viewed by large audiences who can also be their
potential subscribers or customers.
3. To persuade. The audience is provided with well-argued ideas that can influence
their own beliefs and decisions. Persuasive devices are easy to recognize in
advertisements and commercials, but they are subtle in other media forms. For
instance, a product endorsement may influence you to think one way because the
endorser only talks about the benefits of the product. Media-literate individuals are
able to weigh the pros and cons, the advantages and disadvantages, or the
benefits and harmful effects of a certain product; hence, they make up their minds
on an issue before subscribing or trying it.
1. Government. Multimodal texts that were created by government offices are state-
owned and must be carefully evaluated for propaganda—publicity, advertising,
marketing, and information dissemination. Most of the texts are available for
references and have their predetermined retention periods. There are countries
that do not allow freedom of the press and have even censored the Internet.
However, other nations restrict independent voices and use the state-owned
media as their mouthpiece.
2. Corporations. Most of the media messages are controlled by private companies.
Different forms of multimodal texts like videos, newspapers, magazines, movies,
web sites are controlled by giant corporations. These media forms are business
motivated by commercial interests, which are gained through advertising.
Audiences, readers and viewers alike should evaluate the message if it serves
their best interests or the corporation’s interest.
3. Individuals. Personal creations are independent media forms. Texts and other
media forms that are free of government and corporate influences are controlled
by individuals. Digital-based technologies have greatly helped and promoted
independent media voices. Citizen journalism is a practice that has gained
momentum and is now easy for the journalist to report meaningful news to a large
audience due to digital media. Likewise, a widespread of audience has already
advancing and enjoying spreading information through social media. All of these
means of technology have brought an individual source to be capable producer
and creator of meaningful, timely, and interesting messages.