Counterpoints Unit4

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CHAPTER 11
UNIT As Earth's population nears the 7 billion mark,
governments and organizations around the world
4
prepare for the increased pressure on global resources,
primarily food and energy. Some governments must
concentrate on controlling the number of births in their
countries, while others must think of ways to encourage
population growth in order to sustain their economies
and pay for their aging citizens.
Iceland 0.3 Finland 5.3

Norway 4.7
Human Ireland 4.4

Sweden 9.1
Estonia 1.3
United Denmark Latvia 2.3
Geography: Kingdom
61.0 Netherlands
5.5
16.4
Germany
Lithuania 3.4
Poland
Belarus 9.7
Russia
141.7
82.3
The Future in Luxembourg 0.5

Belgium 10.6
France
1
Hungary 10.1
2
38.1
Romania
21.6
3
Ukraine 46.5
Kazakhstan 15.5
61.7
Balance 4 5 6
8
7
9
Bulgaria 7.7
Greece 11.2
Georgia 4.5 Uzbekistan
12 13 26.5 16
15
17
Portugal Spain 10 Turkey 14

Italy 59.3 11
10.7 45.3 74.0 Iran Afghanistan
71.2 31.9
Malta 0.4 Syria
Cyprus 1.0 19.9 Iraq
As Canada enters the second Tunisia Libya 6.2 18 29.0
10.2 19
Saudi 22
decade of the 21st century, 20
Kuwait 2.8
Morocco Algeria Egypt 21 Arabia India
34.1 73.4 27.6 Qatar 0.9
Western 31.7 1131.9
the global village is larger Sahara 0.5 23 25
Yemen
22.4
Bahrain 0.8
Oman 2.7
Mauritania 3.1 24 Sudan 38.6
than ever. The gulf widens Senegal 12.4 26
Eritrea 4.9
Gambia 1.5
Guinea-Bissau 1.7 Nigeria Ethiopia 77.1
between the rich and the Guinea 10.1 144.4 Djibouti 0.8
Sierra Leone 5.3
30 Uganda Somalia 9.1
poor, and between the living Liberia 3.8 28
28.5 Kenya
Côte d’Ivoire 20.2 27 29
Rwanda 36.9
conditions of developed and Ghana 23.0 Dem.
9.3 Seychelles 0.1
Equatorial Guinea 0.5 Rep. Tanzania
Congo 31
Gabon 1.3 38.7 Malawi 13.1
developing nations. While Congo 3.8 62.6 Mozambique 20.4 Maldives
Angola 16.3 32 Comoros 0.7 0.3
Canadians worry about an
Zimbabwe 13.3
Madagascar
Namibia 2.1
aging population and carbon Botswana 1.8 South Africa
18.3 Mauritius 1.3
47.9 Reunion 0.8

emissions, nations in Lesotho 1.8
Swaziland 1.1
sub-Saharan Africa struggle

with the HIV/AIDS health
crisis and access to clean
water. At the same time, the CHAPTER 12
Many people who live in the richer,
world is shrinking with Western nations of the world have
available time to pursue their interests.
interdependent economies, Some of these individuals use their
time to speak out against the
global environmental issues,
injustices experienced by the citizens
and shared concerns about of poorer nations. Education, poverty,
and access to health care are just
sustainable development. some of the issues that affect a
person's standard of living.
354
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CHAPTER 13
Global warming affects the whole planet
but certain regions will feel the effects
sooner and harder than others.
Although the issues are extensive,
there are many practices that
individuals and governments
can change, in order to make
a real difference.
Mongolia 2.6 Canada

32.9
North United States

Korea 302.2
23.3
Nepal
27.8 China Bahamas 0.3
South Japan
Bhutan 0.9 1318.0 Korea Dominican
127.7 Republic 9.4
48.5
Mexico Cuba 11.2 Puerto Rico 3.9
106.5 Belize 33
0.3 35
Haiti 34
Jamaica 2.7 37 36
Guatemala 13.4 9.0 38
Taiwan 43 39
Bangladesh 22.9 El Salvador 6.9 Honduras 7.1 40
42 41
149.0 Nicaragua 5.6
Laos 5.9 Venezuela 44
Vietnam 27.5
85.1 Costa Rica 4.5 Colombia 45
Myanmar Panama 3.3 46.2
49.8 Thailand Ecuador
65.7 13.5 Brazil
Cambodia Philippines 189.3
14.4 88.7 Peru
27.9 Bolivia 9.8
Paraguay 6.1
Brunei 0.4 Chile Uruguay 3.3

16.6
Malaysia
27.2 Argentina 39.4
Papua
Singapore 4.6
New Guinea
6.3
Sri Lanka 20.1
Indonesia 231.6 East Timor

1.0 ▼ The World’s Countries Sized According
Fiji 0.9
to Population, 2007
Australia
21.0 1 Czech Republic 10.3 16 Kyrgyzstan 5.2 31 Burundi 8.5
2 Slovakia 5.4 17 Pakistan 169.3 32 Zambia 11.5
New 3 Moldova 4.0 18 Jordan 5.7 33 Antigua and Barbuda 0.1
Zealand 4 Switzerland 7.5 19 Lebanon 3.9 34 St. Kitts-Nevis 0.05
4.2 5 Austria 8.3 20 Israel 7.3 35 Guadeloupe 0.5
CHAPTER 13 6 Croatia 4.4 21 Palestinian Territory 4.0 Dominica 0.1
36
Life on Earth could not exist 7 Serbia 9.5 22 United Arab Emirates 4.4 37 Martinique 0.4
8 Slovenia 2.0 23 Mali 12.3 38 St. Vincent and the
without air and water, but 9 Bosnia- 24 Burkina Faso 14.8 Grenadines 0.1
pollution from industrial activity is Herzegovina 3.8 25 Niger 14.2 39 Saint Lucia 0.2
10 Albania 3.2 26 Chad 10.8 40 Barbados 0.3
damaging these resources in 11 Macedonia 2.0 27 Togo 6.6 41 Grenada 0.1
profound ways. Although the 12 Armenia 3.0 28 Benin 9.0 42 Trinidad and Tobago 1.4
13 Azerbaijan 8.6 29 Cameroon 18.1 43 Netherlands Antilles 0.2
extent of the damage is not yet 14 Turkmenistan 5.4 30 Central African 44 Guyana 0.8
clear, international efforts to 15 Tajikistan 7.1 Republic 4.3 45 Suriname 0.5
reverse climate change have Size of each nation is proportional to the population
escalated in recent years. Population figures given in millions for each country
20 million
Figures from Population Reference Bureau, mid-2007
1 million Some countries have not been shown because their
size would be too small.
355
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11
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Population Trends and Issues
Economy & Human Geography
● What are the components of

population change.
● What is the formula used to

calculate population growth in
a country?
● Explain the stages of the

demographic transition model.
● What measures have countries

adopted to try to control their
population growth, and to what
degree have they been
effective?
● Identify the different types of

population pyramids. What
does each type represent?
● What is the dependency ratio

and why is it important?
● What effect does an aging or

young population have on a
country?
● Why is immigration important

to Canada’s population and
economy?
● What problems are associated

with population growth?
● What is the difference between

population distribution and
density?
TIMELINE
1804 1927 1960 1974 1979 1987

World population at World population at World population World population at One-child policy World population at
1 billion 2 billion at 3 billion 4 billion established in China 5 billion
356 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

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CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION Significance Patterns and

Change
What is the significance of changes in global population for Canada and
the world? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
Consequence Perspectives
The United Nations declared that the world’s population had reached
6 billion in 1999 and estimated it would number 7 billion by 2013. Some
people see the growth in population as a contributor to shortages in energy, KEY TERMS
demography
housing, and food, and to an increase in pollution, unemployment, global
developed country
warming, and the destruction of the environment. The question such
developing country
people pose is, At what point will the world’s resources fail to support its birth rate
population? death rate
Others scoff at such a doomsday scenario. According to these optimists, immigration rate
the world’s population will increase to 9 billion in 2054 and level off at emigration rate
natural increase
10 billion in 2200. By then, they predict, technology will have found ways to
exponential rate
provide for the increased numbers of people. Both sides find hope and
rule of 70
despair in the United Nations’ projections. doubling time
The uneven growth of population is also a concern. In some parts of the net migration
world the population is in decline, while in others it is increasing. In this population growth rate
chapter, you will learn about the impact population growth has on Canada life expectancy
demographic transition model
and the world, and measures governments have taken to control it.
mortality
family planning
total fertility rate
one-child policy
population pyramid
age cohort
dependency ratio
carrying capacity
population distribution
population density
nutritional density
1999 2008 2013 2028 2054 2200

World population Half the world’s World World population at 8 World population at World population at
at 6 billion population now population at billion 9 billion 10 billion
lives in urban 7 billion
areas
Chapter 11 ■ Population Trends and Issues 357

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World Population When reached? How long to reach? World Population Growth
1 billion 1804 Human history to this date
Two thousand years ago, there were about
2 billion 1927 123 years 300 million people on Earth. In 1804, there
3 billion 1960 33 years were 1 billion. From that point on, the rate of
4 billion 1974 14 years increase began to accelerate. The 20th century
5 billion 1987 13 years began with a world population under 2 billion
6 billion 1999 12 years people and ended with triple that number.
United Nations’ Estimates of Future Growth
Today, 76 million people are added to the
Earth’s population every year. This rate of
7 billion 2013 14 years
increase is of greater concern than the numbers
8 billion 2028 15 years
themselves.
9 billion 2054 26 years It is difficult to grasp the difference
10 billion 2200 146 years between large numbers like a million and a
FIGURE 11–1 World population growth billion. How do we understand the difference
Making a Graph Make a line graph of the actual growth in population from in size of population between India at over
1804 to 1999 and the four estimates for 2013 to 2200. Then, brainstorm 1 billion and Fiji at nearly 1 million? It might
reasons for (a) the rapid growth in the 20th century, (b) reasons for the dif- help to understand these numbers by noting
ferent UN estimates, and (c) the possible consequences of rapid growth.
that you had lived a million seconds when you
were 11.6 days old. You won’t be a billion
seconds old until you are 31.7 years of age.
Demography
Demography is the statistical study of the characteristics, trends, and issues
WEB LINK • of human populations. It helps us understand the causes and consequences
You can find population estimates on
the Pearson Web site.
of population change. Population change in your community, in Canada,
and in the world is an ongoing concern to agencies such as government and
business. All levels of government need accurate figures of population
change so that they can plan for such things as the numbers of schools and
hospitals that are needed. Businesses are interested in information about
family size, incomes, and consumer habits as they plan their marketing
strategies.
FIGURE 11–2
People fill the
platforms of a rail
station in Mumbai,
India (left) and
Vancouver’s SkyTrain
(right).
Interpreting
Photographs What
differences do you
see between these
two photographs?
How might these dif-
ferences affect the
lifestyles of people
living in either place?

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The Census: Counting People KEY TERMS

demography the study of population
The most complete way to gather information about population is to con- numbers, distribution, trends, and
duct a population census. Censuses go back to the ancient civilizations of issues
Egypt and Rome, when rulers used them to determine the number of people census the process of collecting,
under their rule and to identify taxpayers, labourers, and soldiers. compiling, and publishing demographic,
Since 1871, Canada has had a major census every 10 years. Currently, a economic, and social data about all
people living in a particular area
less detailed one is also conducted every 5 years. A federal agency called
developed country a country with a
Statistics Canada conducts the census, which provides a snapshot of a par-
highly developed economy and
ticular point in time of the Canadian population. All Canadians are required infrastructure and high living standards
by law to be counted in the census. A random selection of people is chosen developing country a country with a
to give more detailed information, such as housing, household contents, less sophisticated economy and lower
income, and buying habits. In 2006, 98 percent of Canadians completed the standard of living than developed
countries; may have extensive poverty
census questionnaire, and, for the first time, they were able to do so online.
birth rate the number of births per
Deciphering Demographic Data 1000 people in a country in a given year
Demographic figures must be treated with caution. A developed country death rate the number of deaths per
1000 people in a country in a given year
such as Canada has the resources to keep its data current, yet its figures will
still have a margin for error. For example, it is difficult to ensure all homeless
people are counted. In developing countries, the census data are usually
much less accurate because the registration of births and deaths is not as
complete as in developed countries. Census takers may not be able to reach
remote areas. People in shantytowns are not counted because they are not WEB LINK •
considered permanent residents of cities. Some people may also avoid To read more about the Canadian
census takers out of fear of authorities, the wish to avoid taxation, or census, visit the Pearson Web site.
conflicts with governments over population policies.
Making comparisons between countries for such things as literacy or the
size of an urban location can be difficult, as definitions may differ. Published
numbers of people in fast-growing cities can often vary widely. Figures may
be outdated, especially if a country does not have accurate birth rate and
death rate statistics or has not held a recent census.
FIGURE 11–3 A census taker

fills in a questionnaire for
Kenya’s 2009 census. Ethnic
violence during the 2008
election made the 2009
census controversial due to
one question that asked to
which ethnic group people
belonged.

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B u i l d i n g Yo u r S k i l l s
Designing Graphs
Graphs are an effective way of analyzing and commu- • Pie or circle graph – Figure 11–25
nicating information. Four purposes of graphs are to
• Scatter graph – Figure 12–41
show quantities, make comparisons, describe trends,
and observe relationships.
• Showing quantities: Graphs for this purpose show Making Graphs that Work
amounts or values at a specific time and are
1. Keep content simple and straightforward. Do not
always expressed in a unit of measurement (num-
try to combine too many ideas in one graph.
ber of people, or amount of production, or varying
rates). The best graph type shows the amounts 2. Place time along the bottom, from left to right.
most clearly. Line graphs are not usually used for 3. Data that is continuous, such as population
this purpose. growth, can be shown in a line graph.
• Making comparisons: Graphs can effectively com- 4. Connect only related events. For example, a graph
pare sets of data with the same units of measure- of life expectancy at birth for different countries
ment, for example comparing levels of foreign should be a series of unrelated points, not a line
investment in Canada in a bar graph. The best graph.
graphs show the comparison most clearly.
5. Liven up charts by adding colour, illustrations,
• Describing trends: Graphs can effectively show icons, different fonts, and varying types of lines.
how data changes over time. Line graphs are par-
ticularly good for this purpose. Trends is a term
Applying the Skill
used to describe significant patterns in the data.
• Observing relationships: Relationships are links 1. a) Examine the data in Figures 11–4 and 11–5,
between variables. For example, to look at the lev- and decide on the type of graph that will most
els of development in various countries, we might effectively compare and contrast the birth and
plot the two variables of income levels and birth death rates for Canada and Cameroon in one
rates on the same graph. Scatter graphs are par- graph.
ticularly useful for observing relationships. b) Construct an effective graph following the prin-
ciples outlined above.
Try to select the type of graph that best fits your pur-
pose. The following are some examples in this text: c) Briefly describe why you chose this format and
why it is effective.
• Line graph – Figure 7–20
• Simple bar graph – Figure 11–6
• Stacked or divided bar graph – Figure 8–6
• Divergent bar graph – Figure 13–27

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Evidence
Period Birth Rate Death Rate 2. Figure 11–6 is a simple bar graph showing immi-
grant arrivals in Canada.
1950 43.4 24.9
1965 44.6 20.1 a) For which of the four purposes was this graph
constructed?
1980 44.8 14.6
1995 37.9 13.6 b) Does a simple bar graph show the values
clearly? Explain your answer.
2010 34.2 13.2
c) Suggest one other type of graph that would
FIGURE 11–4 Birth and death rates in Cameroon
(per 1000 people), 1950–2010 show this data equally well or better. Explain
why you decided on your choice of graph.
Period Birth rate Death rate d) Create the alternative graph.
1950 27.8 8.7
3. Refer to the table in Figure 11–12. Choose an
1965 18.4 7.5 appropriate style of graph based on the data. You
1980 14.8 6.9 do not need to complete the graph. Simply sketch
1995 11.6 7.2 out how you would construct it for your purpose
and explain why.
2010 10.8 7.6
FIGURE 11–5 Birth and death rates in Canada

(per 1000 people), 1950–2010
300 000
250 000
Number of Immigrants
200 000
150 000
100 000
50 000
0
1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967
Year
FIGURE 11–6 Immigrant arrivals in Canada, 1945 to 1967

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● What are the components of

Calculating Population Change
population change? Demographers are most interested in statistics that help them predict and
explain changes or trends in society. At its most basic level, demography can
determine whether a population is growing or shrinking. On another level,
KEY TERMS
demographers study segments of the population. For instance, the number
immigration rate the number of new
arrivals in a country in a given year per
of working women in a society will affect the birth rate. It may also influ-
1000 people ence the diet of families, increasing the amount of packaged and prepared
emigration rate the number of people foods they eat.
leaving a country in a given year per 1000 The four basic components of population change are how many people are
people born (birth rate), how many die (death rate), how many move into a region
natural increase (NI) the rate at which a (immigration rate), and how many move out of a region (emigration rate).
population increases (or decreases) in a
year expressed as a percentage of the
Natural Increase
total population; calculated by subtracting
the death rate from the birth rate It is not very useful to compare numbers of births and deaths between coun-
exponential rate a rapid rate of population tries that have widely differing population sizes. To know that each day
growth as each generation doubles in size almost 1000 children are born in Canada, 73 778 in India, and 106 in Gabon
rule of 70 the time it takes a country to is not very useful unless the total populations of the countries are consid-
double its population, approximately 70 ered. What really matters is comparing the relationship between the number
divided by the country’s growth rate
of births and the size of the population in each country. Demographers do
doubling time the number of years it this by using birth rate and death rate statistics.
takes a country to double its population at
its current growth rate Birth rate is the number of children born in a region for every 1000
inhabitants. It is calculated by dividing the number of births in one year by
net migration the difference between the
number of people immigrating to a coun- the population and then multiplying the result by 1000. Canada’s birth rate
try and the number of people emigrating is 10.6 children per 1000 Canadians.
migrant a person who moves from one Death rate is the number of people who die in a region for every 1000
region to another inhabitants. Canada’s death rate is 7.4 deaths per 1000 Canadians. Subtracting
death rate from birth rate gives the rate of natural increase (NI).
Natural
Population Birth Rate Death Rate % Natural
Country Increase
(in millions) per 1000 per 1000 Increase
per 1000
Birth Rate
– Death Rate India 1 214 464 000 23.0 8.5 14.5 1.45
———————————
= NATURAL INCREASE Russia 140 367 000 10.8 15.1 –4.3 –0.43
Canada 34 086 245 10.6 7.4 3.2 0.32
Gabon 1 501 000 27.5 9.8 17.7 1.77
FIGURE 11–7 Natural increase of selected countries, 2005–2010

This figure does not include the increase that comes from immigrants. In countries like
Gabon, where there are few immigrants, the annual growth rate of 1.77 percent is made
up entirely of natural increase. Canada would see its population growth increase by
immigration.
Interpreting Statistics What factors might account for the wide variation in the natural
increase of these populations?

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Exponential Growth
Human populations have the potential to grow 5.0
at an ever-increasing rate. Suppose that a cou- 4.5
Growth Rate (% per year)

ple has two children, and each of these grows 4.0
up to produce two children. By the third gen- 3.5
eration, the couple will have 14 descendants. 3.0
This is called an exponential rate of increase. 2.5

2.0
A regular arithmetic rate of 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on
1.5
is quickly overtaken by an exponential rate, Doubling time
1.0
which increases by 1, 2, 4, 8. Each generation for Gabon
0.5
builds on previous generations in a compound
0
fashion. 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
A convenient way to express exponential Doubling Time (years)
population growth is to use the length of time
FIGURE 11–8 Population growth rate and doubling times
it would take for a population to double in
Reading a Graph Canada’s rate of natural increase is 0.32. How
size. One way of calculating this is to apply the many years would it take Canada’s population to double if we did
“rule of 70,” which states that doubling time is not take in immigrants? Use the equation on the left to calculate
approximately equal to 70 divided by the your answer.
growth rate (in percent) per year.
Immigration Rate
Calculating Doubling Time for Gabon – Emigration Rate
70 divided by 1.77 (% natural increase) = 39.5 years —————————
= NET MIGRATION
Net Migration
Population increase in some countries, particu-
larly Canada, depends on immigrants.
Emigrants leave the country each year, which
also affects the demography. A country’s net
migration rate is the difference between its
immigration and emigration rates. A combina-
tion of the birth rate, the death rate, and the
net migration rate gives a complete picture of a
country’s annual population change.
Canada, the United States, and Australia
are among the few countries in which immi-
gration is a significant factor in the growth of
their populations. Most immigrants to Canada
come as economic migrants from developing
FIGURE 11–9 Food aid is distributed to Bhutanese refugees
nations, wanting to better their standard of liv- who have been living in camps in Nepal since the early 1990s.
ing. Others come as refugees seeking to escape More than 850 Bhutanese refugees have been resettled in
persecution in their home country. In Canada’s Canada to date.
2006 Census, nearly 6.2 million people were
immigrants. Between 2001 and 2006, Canada
averaged 222 000 international migrants per
year.

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Large-Scale Migrations
● What is the formula used to
calculate population growth in Large-scale migrations affect the structure of population by age and gender.
a country? Most immigrants are young and generally single males. This gives the host
countries a younger population that will eventually result in a higher birth
KEY TERM rate. The country losing population experiences the reverse effect. For
instance, the migration from Communist-controlled East Germany to the
population growth rate the rate at which a
country’s population increases or West after the Second World War gave East Germany a population with a
decreases; calculated by adding natural disproportionate number of older people.
increase and net migration
The multicultural populations of Canada and the United States are the
result of migrations. During the last decades of the 20th century, visible
minorities in Canada increased dramatically with immigration from Asia
and the Caribbean. Canada and the United States have also become home to
many Spanish-speaking migrants from Latin America.
WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site Population Growth Rate
to see a population clock
developed by Statistics Canada. Population growth rate is the rate at which a country’s population changes
per year. It is a country’s rate of natural increase plus its net migration, usu-
ally expressed as a percentage.
Natural Increase Net Migration
Birth rate 30 per 1000 Immigration rate 3 per 1000
Death rate 20 per 1000 Emigration rate 2 per 1000
Births – Deaths 10 per 1000 Immigrants – Emigrants 1 per 1000
One symbol
represents
1 person per 1000
10 1 11
+ = or 1.1%
1000 1000 1000
FIGURE 11–10 Population growth rate is the combination of a country’s natural increase and its net migration.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Define demography, natural increase, emigration, 4. a) What are the main components of population
immigration, net migration, and exponential change?
growth.
b) What is meant by the rule of 70?
2. What types of information are collected in a
5. Why is immigration more important to Canada’s
census? Give examples of three uses of this
population growth than to some other countries?
information.
6. Why are rates more useful for comparing popula-
3. What are some reasons why people may be reluc-
tion growth than raw numbers?
tant to provide information in a census?

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The Demographic Revolution KEY TERM

life expectancy the average number of
For most of human history, birth rates have been high. Yet the population years an individual is expected to live
grew slowly before the 1700s because death rates were also very high, partic-
ularly among infants and young children. People had a life expectancy of
little more than 30 years. Disease, poor medical care, poor nutrition, and
unsanitary living conditions contributed to the high death rate. Families
needed to have many children to ensure a few survived. Larger families were
also needed to help farm the land and to provide security for parents in old
age. This situation is still common today in many developing countries.
The rapid population growth after 1750 was mainly due to falling death
rates. Beginning in Europe, then spreading to North America, and then to
developing countries, death rates fell much more rapidly than birth rates.
The agricultural revolution increased food production so that people had
better diets. Clean drinking water, a more varied and nutritious diet, and
vaccination against infectious diseases meant that far more children sur-
vived to become parents themselves. Birth rates remained high for a number
of years, producing a wide gap between birth and death rates and a rapid
growth in population.
The Great Depression of the 1930s and the Second World War kept
birth rates low in most Western countries. After 1945, there was a rapid and FIGURE 11–11 Polio, a virus that
prolonged rise in birth rates, and today Western countries are experiencing attacks the nervous system, was
rampant in the first half of the last
lower birth rates and longer life expectancy.
century and crippled huge num-
After the Second World War, the World Health Organization (WHO), bers of children. Today polio has
aid programs, and improved transportation and communications made bet- been eradicated in most countries
ter health measures available to most countries. The developing world expe- due to a vaccine developed in the
1950s.
rienced the same changes as the developed world had in the 19th and early
20th centuries. Death rates fell in developing countries, but birth rates have
not dropped as rapidly.
1900 1950 2010
Country Males Females Males Females Males Females
Portugal 33.3 35.2 56.9 61.9 75.4 81.9
Japan 42.8 44.3 60.4 63.9 79 86
Mali n/a n/a 35 36 47.6 49
Canada 47 50 66.8 71.7 78 83
Afghanistan n/a n/a 29 28 44 44
(n/a = not available)
FIGURE 11–12 Life expectancy at birth in selected countries for 1900, 1950, and 2010
Interpreting Statistics Why has there been an increase in life expectancy in all these
countries? Suggest why there are differences in life expectancy. How could a demogra-
pher use the statistics for Japan and Canada in 1900 to argue that these were developing
countries at that time?

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● Explain the stages of the

The Demographic Transition Model
demographic transition model.
Geographers sometimes use models to represent reality or a theory. A model
simplifies information to make it understandable. Models must strike a bal-
KEY TERMS
ance between detail and useful generalization.
One useful way of explaining population change is the demographic
demographic transition model a model
that shows changes in a population’s birth
transition model. It shows changes over a period of time in three elements:
and death rates and growth based on birth rates, death rates, and trends in overall population numbers. The
technological development model assumes that, in any country, high birth rates and high death rates
industrialization the overall change in a (Stage 1) will gradually fall (Stages 2 and 3) as a result of economic and
society from farm production and crafts-
social development. Because the model is based on what has happened in
manship to mechanized manufacturing
production developed countries, it assumes that countries will pass through periods of
urbanization the move of people from
industrialization and urbanization on the way to reduced birth and death
farms to cities where jobs are available rates. The model is useful in showing how the population growth rates of
mortality deaths in a population
countries that are industrializing are in a state of transition. It seems that
this transition period is unlikely in some countries, particularly in Africa,
and so the model must be used with caution.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

40
Birth Rate
Births and Deaths (per 1000 per year)
30
20
Total Population Growth Death Rate
10
Kenya China Canada Austria
Time
FIGURE 11–13 The demographic transition model showing examples of countries in various stages of demographic
transition
Stage 1: Pre-transition: High birth rates and high fluctuating death rates result in small population growth. Plagues,
diseases, and poor nutrition keep mortality high.
Stage 2: Early Transition: Improved health care, sanitation, and increased food supplies lead to a rapid fall in death rates.
Birth rates are still high, so there is a rapid increase in population numbers.
Stage 3: Late Transition: Birth rates begin to fall, so population growth begins to decline. Industrialization, urbanization,
and improved living standards lead to less desire for large families.
Stage 4: Post-transition: The transition is complete. There is a stable or slow population increase with low birth and death
rates. The birth rate may fluctuate in special circumstances, such as the post-war baby boom.
Stage 5: Declining Population: Birth rates drop below death rates. Many older people are in the population. This is
happening increasingly in European countries and in Japan. It is not known whether this trend will extend to
other regions.

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50
Ind
ia B
irth
In
40 Ra
dia
te
Death
R
ate
Rate per 1000 People
Ca
30 na
da
Bi
rth
Ra
te
BR:21.0
20
Canada Death BR:10.8

10 Rate
DR:8.1
DR:7.6
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
FIGURE 11–14 The population of Canada and India, 1900–2010

1. In which years was the natural increase greatest of each country?
2. Based on the demographic transition model, in what stage is (a) Canada and
(b) India at present?
3. Predict what will likely happen to India and Canada in the next five decades. Explain
your answer.
4. Use a three-column organizer to compare Canada and India using the information
from the graph. In the centre column, note problems that will be common to both
countries. In the outside columns, note problems that will be unique to each country.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. a) Why was world population growth so slow 3. What is the most important factor in starting a
before the 1800s? country to move from one stage of the demo-
graphic transition model to the next? Suggest ways
b) What improvements in living conditions led to
to influence this factor.
population growth?
4. What is the second factor in starting a country to
2. How do declines in birth rates differ between the
move from one stage of the demographic transi-
developed and the developing world?
tion model to the next? Suggest ways to influence
this factor.

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case study ● What measures have countries

adopted to try to control their
population growth, and to what
degree have they been
Population Control in China and India effective?
KEY TERMS In 2008, China and India had a combined population of more than 2.5 billion—
family planning the concept of limiting nearly 37 percent of the world’s population. Experts estimate that this figure will
the size of families increase to 3 billion by 2050. The issues of population size and growth rate have
rhythm method a method of birth con- figured prominently in the development policies of each country since 1950.
trol in which a couple does not have The years following the Second World War brought profound changes to
intercourse during the time when a
China and India. Since then, the government of each country has dealt with its
woman is likely to ovulate
increasing population in very different ways and with dramatically different conse-
sterilization a procedure by which a
person’s ability to reproduce is
quences. Politics played a role in these two countries’ approaches to population
destroyed control, with India being a democracy and China being a communist country.
vasectomy a form of male sterilization Cultural traditions, especially the strong preference for sons, have also affected
in which the tube carrying sperm from the demographic profile of both countries.
each testis is cut and tied
coercion the use of force
contraception birth control

TIMELINE
total fertility rate the average number Timeline of India’s Policies on Population Control
of children born over the lifetime of a
typical woman in a particular country 1952 India became the first developing country to launch a family-planning
one-child policy a policy adopted by program, focusing on abstinence and the rhythm method. Rural India was
China to control population growth targeted with little success.
infanticide the act of killing an infant 1962 The government launched awareness-building campaigns: “Small family”
gender selection the choice of whether songs on the radio and posters on walls and buses. The fertility rate remained
to keep a fetus based on its gender high while infant mortality and death rates fell rapidly, leading to high
population growth.
1970 Sterilization programs and targets were established. Vasectomy clinics were
located in strategic locations, including railway stations. The effort failed,
since the poor wanted the economic security of children, especially sons.
1975 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi suspended democratic rights and elections. The
Nasbandi program used coercion and rewards to promote male sterilization.
Children of parents with more than three children were refused schooling,
prisoners were not granted parole, and government workers were threatened
with firing or demotion if they did not have a a vasectomy. More than 8 million
sterilizations were performed in 1975.
1977 An election called by Gandhi led to the defeat of her party, the end of coercive
policies, and a backlash against family planning. The new government
changed the focus to family welfare, with an emphasis on education, voluntary
contraception, and child-survival programs.
1983 The National Health Policy stated that replacement levels of total fertility rate
(TFR) would be reached by 2000. The program did not meet targets.
2000 A new National Population Policy was established to slow population growth.
The emphasis was on female sterilization following the UN’s urging to reduce
the TFR to 2.1 by 2010. India’s population passes the 1-billion mark.
2010 The UN estimates India’s TFR is at 2.5, down from 5.9 in 1950 but shy of the
2.1 target. The population continues to increase.

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Significance
TIMELINE
Timeline of China’s Policies on Population Control
1949 Population increase was encouraged as a way to make China a great power.
When asked how China would feed the growing population, communist leader
Mao Zedong responded that “every stomach comes with two hands attached.”
1958–1960 A program called “The Great Leap Forward” brought massive instability to
food supplies as agricultural land was organized into large collective farms.
Famine and food shortages reduced birth rates and increased death rates,
which led to population decline.
1970 The growth rate reached 2.61 percent and the population was 816 million. The
government reacted with a publicity campaign that encouraged people to
have only two children.
1979 The Chinese government launched a population planning policy after Mao
Zedong’s death in 1976. With just 7 percent of the world’s arable land and two
thirds of the population entering their reproductive years, the one-child policy
was established. Cash, free medical care, and improved educational and
housing opportunities were offered as rewards. People who did not cooperate
were fined for having more than one child, and lost medical and educational
privileges.
1980s/1990s Pressure to be sterilized and have abortions was common in the mid-1980s.
Birth rates were less than half of what they had been in the mid-1960s. The
one-child policy was more successful in urban than in rural areas. Sons were
valued as farm labourers, and they were expected to look after their aging
parents. Reports of forced abortions and infanticide if the first-born was a
girl led the government to relax the policy in the late 1980s. A second child
was allowed in rural areas if the first-born was a girl or was born with a
disability.
2002 The 2000 census put the population at 1.27 billion. An increasing gender
imbalance in favour of males led family planning to focus on education,
health, and economic opportunities for women. Gender selection was banned
and discrimination against female infants forbidden.
2008 The Chinese government estimated that the one-child policy resulted in
400 million fewer people. The population still increased by 800 000 every
five weeks.
2009 Concern about an aging population and a shrinking labour force led to
relaxing restrictions in many provinces and cities, such as Shanghai and
Beijing, allowing two “only-child” parents to have two children.
2011 Many Chinese demographers expect changes in the population policy during
the 12th five-year plan for the development of the country from 2011 to 2016.

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Looking Further
1. Use a Venn diagram or another organizer to com- 3. In the case of China and India, would you agree or
pare and contrast the methods and effectiveness of disagree with those who claim that the rise from
population control programs in China and India. poverty to affluence is the most effective population
Explain why China has been more successful in control? Explain.
reducing population growth than India.
4. How accurate do you think the projections are of
2. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the fol- future populations of China and India? Explain.
lowing statement: The coercion associated with the
5. Imagine that you are either a Chinese or an Indian
Nasbandi program was justified in the face of India’s
government official in charge of a billion dollar pro-
runaway population growth.
gram to reduce population growth. Identify the two
most effective uses of your economic resources to
reach this goal. Justify your choices.
50
40 Ind
Rate per 1000 People
ia B
irth
Ra
Ch te
30 ina
Bi
rth
Ra
20 te
DR:13
BR:12
India Death Ra
10 te
BR:10
China Death Rate DR:10
0
1950 1970 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2050
Year
FIGURE 11–15 Birth and death rates for China and India,
1950–2050
FIGURE 11–16 Poster promoting the one-child policy in China

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Population Profiles ● Identify the different types of

population pyramids. What
Demographers use various tools to analyze population information. The does each represent?
population pyramid is a powerful tool that reveals the age and gender struc-
ture of a population, and can provide valuable insight into the types of gov-
ernment services that are and will be needed in a region or country. KEY TERMS
population pyramid a bar graph that
shows male and female populations back
Population Pyramids to back at age intervals of five years
A population pyramid is a graph that shows the age and gender structure age cohort an age group in a population,
of a population. A series of horizontal bar graphs for the male and female for example, the number of people
between the ages of 10 and 14
populations are placed back to back at age intervals of five years, called
age cohorts. Population pyramids make it easier to see the structure of a
population. They are also useful in comparing the population structures of
different countries. As the examples in Figure 11–17 show, countries with
high birth rates have many children and an expanding population. A stable
population will have birth rates and death rates in balance, and a contract-
ing population will have a growth rate below replacement level. In general,
the expanding pyramids are representative of developing countries, while
the stable and contracting pyramids represent developed countries.
Pyramid Models
Early expanding: Expanding:

• high birth and death rates • rapid increase in population
• short life expectancy • high birth rate
• lowering death rate
• longer life expectancy
Developing countries
Stable: Contracting:
• stable or slow population increase • extremely low birth rate and low death rate
• declining birth and death rates • higher dependency ratio
• more elderly people • longer life expectancy
Developed countries
FIGURE 11–17 Model pyramids of populations at different stages of development

Interpreting a Graph Match these models with the population pyramids shown in
Figure 11–18.

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100+ 100+
Chad: 2010 95–99 India: 2010 95–99
90–94 90–94
85–89 85–89
Male 80–84 Female Male 80–84 Female
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0– 4 0– 4
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 65 52 39 26 13 0 0 13 26 39 52 65
Population (millions) Population (millions)
100+ 100+
Iceland: 2010 95–99 Japan: 2010 95–99
90–94 90–94
85–89 85–89
Male 80–84 Female Male 80–84 Female
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0– 4 0– 4
15 12 9 6 3 0 0 3 6 9 12 15 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.2 0 0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6
Population (thousands) Population (millions)
FIGURE 11–18 Population pyramids for selected countries

Thinking Critically
1. What evidence is there that the pyramid for Chad has a very high birth rate? What percentage of the population
would you estimate is under the age of 15?
2. What does the shape of the pyramid for India tell you about trends in infant mortality in that country? How does
India compare with Chad and Iceland in this regard?
3. What does the pyramid for Iceland tell you about the future population numbers in that country?
4. Suggest a number of problems Japan will face as a result of the age structure of its population.
5. In what state of the demographic transition model is each of the pyramids? Explain.
70+
FIGURE 11–19 Population pyramids for Canada, 1911 65–69
Canada, 1911 and 2006 60–64
55–59
50–54
Reading a Graph 45–49
40–44
1. Refer to Figure 11–17. At what 35–39
stage of development—early 30–34
25–29
expanding, expanding, stable, or 20–24
15–19
contracting—would you place each 10–14
of these pyramids? 5–9
0–4
2. What impact will the increasing 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
number of older people in 2006 % of males % of females
have on the population?
70+
3. What other information can be Canada, 2006 65–69
60–64
learned by analyzing these pyra- 55–59
50–54
mids? Give examples of how govern- 45–49
ment and business might use these 40–44
35–39
pyramids to deal with present and 30–34
25–29
future trends. 20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
% of males % of females

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KEY TERMS
FA S T F O R WA R D
dependency ratio the proportion of the
population (children and those over 65
Too Many Men years of age) that is being supported by
the working age group
China’s gender imbalance is getting worse. According to a 2009 article,
dependency load the percentage of a
“China has 32 [million] more men aged under 20 than women.... [and]
population that is younger than 15 or
119 male births for every 100 girls, compared with 107 to 100 in indus- older than 64 years of age
trialised countries.... The gap is greater in provinces that allow couples to
have a second child if the first is a girl. Among second-born children,
boys outnumbered girls by 143 to 100.”
The gender imbalance is beginning to be recognized as a problem
for the future. Many male children will not be able to marry when they are
older. These men are referred to as “bare branches.” The article also
notes that the “[Chinese] government has expressed concerns that too
many men could lead to social instability and is expanding programs that
encourage people to have female children.”
1. What types of social problems may occur in China as a result of the
gender imbalance?
2. Perspectives Do you think that female children will become more
valued in the future in China? Why or why not?
The Age Structure of Populations

● What is the dependency ratio
The age structure of a population helps us understand the reasons for and why is it important?
changes in population. Demographers divide populations into three age
groups: children up to the age of 15, working people from ages 15 to 64, and
adults 65 years and older. This gives the dependency ratio, which is the pro-
portion of the population that is being supported by the working-age group.
Children and older people put pressure on society for medical, educa-
tion, housing, and other services. In the 2006 Census, Canada’s population
included 17.7 percent children and 13.7 percent adults 65 years and older,
giving it a dependency load of 31.4 percent. A country like Bangladesh has a
dependency load of 38.6 percent, made up of 34.6 percent children and 4
percent adults aged 65 years and older. The age structure can give us insights
into problems that could arise in the future resulting from a predominantly
old or young population.
FIGURE 11–20 Japanese

seniors (left) pose for a
photographer in Yokohama,
Japan. Thirteen percent of
Japanese are under the
age of 15, while 22.8 per-
cent are 65 or older.
On the opposite end of the
spectrum, 43 percent of
the population in Kenya is
under the age of 15 (right),
with only 2.6 percent 65 or
older.

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● What effect does an aging or

Dependency: Too Young or Too Old
young population have on a
There has been a major change in the age structure of the world’s popula-
country?
tion as the numbers of people have increased. There have never been so
many people in the dependant category. This change will put increasing
pressure on the financial resources of countries. In Japan, for example, the
life expectancy is 79 for males and 86 for females—the highest in the world.
WEB LINK • The government has declared the aging population to be its greatest future
To read more about the aging challenge. If present trends continue, close to one third of the Japanese pop-
of the world population, visit
the Pearson Web site. ulation will be over 65 by 2025. Years of exceptionally low birth rates mean
there are fewer workers to care for them. How and whether Japan can main-
tain its economic position in the face of these problems remains to be seen.
At the other end of the scale, some developing countries have young
dependants under the age of 15 making up almost half of their population.
Any fall in birth rates in these areas has been offset by a greater number of
women who can bear children, even if families are smaller. These countries
remain in a cycle of poverty, as their limited resources and attempts to
improve development are swallowed up by young populations. India and
sub-Saharan Africa, with a combined population of more than 2 billion
people, face a daunting task of providing employment for the increasing
numbers of young people entering the labour market. Young men in partic-
ular grow restless as they reach working age and find few opportunities to
improve their standard of living. This results in an underemployed genera-
tion that could threaten the stability of entire regions.
FA S T F O R WA R D
An Aging World
The average age of the world’s population is rapidly 1. What parts of the world will be able to deal
increasing. By mid-2008, the total number of people more effectively with the problem of an aging
65 and older was approximately 506 million, and will population? Explain.
reach 1.3 billion by 2040. A U.S. Census Bureau 2. Significance List the three most likely conse-
report on aging states that in just over 30 years, the quences that Canada’s aging population will have
proportion of older people in the world will double for you. Justify your answers.
from 7 percent to 14 percent.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What information does a population pyramid show 4. Refer back to Figure 11–14. With which stage of
about a population? the demographic transition model would each
population pyramid be associated? Explain.
2. Name the population pyramids that are typical of
developing countries. 5. What is the dependency ratio? Why is it important
for a country to know this figure for future planning?
3. Name the population pyramids that are typical of
developed countries. 6. Why does an aging population present a serious
problem in the developed world?

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Canada’s Population: Past and Future

Canada’s birth and death rates have been dropping steadily in the past 30
years. This means the population is getting older. In 1951, 1 in 13 Canadians
was over 65 years of age. In 2020, 1 in 5 will be over that age. Life expectancy
in Canada increased from an average of 45 years in 1900 to 65 years by 1950
and to 81 years by the year 2010. This trend is the same for most developed
countries.
The increasing number of elderly people puts immense strains on social
and medical services. There are fewer children to look after aging parents.
This has put pressure on the health care system to provide more long-term
care for the elderly. The cost of health services for the aged continues to rise
as medical technology becomes more complex.
FIGURE 11–21 The years between 1947 and 1966 are generally referred to as the
baby boom years in Canada, with the peak occurring in 1959 when 479 000 babies
were born. According to Statistics Canada, baby boomers make up more than
30 percent of Canada’s population, which is why much of Canada’s population
today is aging.
Canada’s Immigrant Population

The age structure of Canada’s population is one of the main factors the fed-
eral government considers when deciding on the number of immigrants
Canada will accept each year. Today, immigrants account for a large and
increasing proportion of labour force growth in Canada. According to
Statistics Canada, “immigrants who arrived during the 1990s accounted for
about 70 percent of net labour force growth between 1991 and 2001.” This
percentage will likely grow substantially over the next decade, partly as a
result of low rates of natural increase in the Canadian-born population.
The 2006 census indicates that 1.1 million of the 1.6 million growth in
the Canadian population since 2001 was due to immigration. By 2012, all

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KEY TERM net growth in Canada’s labour force is expected to come from immigration.
accreditation recognition of Without these levels of immigration, the average age of the Canadian popu-
meeting an official standard lation would increase rapidly.
The number of immigrants entering Canada fluctuates above or below
the 200 000 level. This is far from the federal government’s goal, which is to
have annual immigration equal 1 percent of the population. The difference
between planned and actual immigration levels is shown in Figure 11–22.
Immigration numbers have never come near the record level of 400 870
immigrants in 1913, which represented 5.5 percent of a population of
7.3 million.
350 000
300 000
250 000
Number of Admissions
FIGURE 11–22
Immigration admission 200 000
levels, 1995–2005. Over
the years, there have
150 000
been many reports and
alleged promises of a
one-percent immigration
100 000
intake target for Canada.
However, government 1% of population Actual admissions
statistics show that not 50 000
once in the past 13 years
has Canada’s immigra-
tion intake met a target 0
of one percent of the 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
population. Year
Canada Looks to Immigrants

● Why is immigration important
to Canada’s population and As Canada’s birth rate remains low and the population ages, the workforce
economy? will decline as the number of retirees increases. This will increase demands
for government services while the tax base will be shrinking. Immigration
provides the only source of replacement workers, ensuring continued eco-
nomic growth and a sustainable tax base. The main difficulty the govern-
ment faces is in attracting young, skilled workers and entrepreneurs to offset
the aging workforce. Many skilled immigrants, such as those in health care
and other professions, find it difficult to get professional accreditation in
Canada. There is also fierce competition among countries for highly skilled
labour. As Industry Canada noted in a 2008 report, “In recent decades,
highly skilled workers have become more mobile internationally.
Furthermore, high demand for skills in industrialized countries has led to
intense international competition for these mobile workers.”

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Canada accepts approximately 25 000 refugees a year, but increasing

numbers of refugees from Eastern Europe and Mexico led the government
to impose visa restrictions on those countries in 2009. More money is now
spent on handling refugee claims than on processing regular immigration.
Critics have claimed budget cuts and the time spent processing refugees are
the reasons Canada has not reached its immigration targets.
Canada’s Aboriginal People Pass One Million

Data from the 2006 Canadian census shows that the number of people who
identified themselves as an Aboriginal person surpassed the 1-million mark.
Aboriginal people’s share of Canada’s total population is on the rise. In 2006,
they accounted for 3.8 percent of the total population of Canada enumer-
ated in the census, up from 3.3 percent in 2001 and 2.8 percent in 1996.
Factors Accounting for Growth

Several factors may account for the growth of the Aboriginal population.
These include demographic factors, such as high birth rates. In addition,
more individuals are identifying themselves as Aboriginal, and population
data for Indian reserves has been more complete since 1996. Other high-
lights from the 2006 census include the following:
• The number of status Indians living off reserves has increased since
1996, from 50 percent to 51 percent.
• Eighty percent of Aboriginal peoples lived either in Ontario or in the
four Western provinces in 2006.
• The average age of the Aboriginal population in Canada is 27, compared
to 40 for the non-Aboriginal population. Almost half (48 percent) of the
Aboriginal population is under the age of 25.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What information can you discover about a coun- b) How would the age structure of the population
try’s past and future by analyzing a population in Canada be different if there had been no
pyramid? immigration?
2. a) What effects do migrations have on the struc- 3. What factors have accounted for the growth of
ture of the receiving country’s population? Canada’s Aboriginal population since 1996?

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counter points
Optimists versus pessimists: Are there

limits to population growth?
With a United Nations projected world population of In the 1980s, William Catton modernized and
9 billion by 2054, the debate continues as to whether expanded the views of Malthus. He coined the term
there are limits to the number of people Earth can sup- carrying capacity and claimed that Earth has been
port. Optimists have focused on humankind’s ability to exceeding its carrying capacity for many years, at the
adapt to a growing population, while pessimists highlight expense of environmental damage. In his book
the problems that population growth has caused or will Overshoot, he states:
cause.
If, having overshot carrying capacity, we cannot
avoid crash, perhaps with ecological under-
The Pessimists
standing of its real causes, we can remain
Thomas Malthus was a British economist who began human in circumstances that could otherwise
writing about the risks of population growth in the late tempt us to turn beastly.
1700s. He claimed that population would soon outstrip –William Cotton, Overshoot, 1982
food supply, leading to famine, disease, and social disor-
In 1996, William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel
der. Malthus’s predictions were not realized, since he did
from the University of British Columbia published a book
not foresee the improvements in agriculture, hygiene,
in which the term ecological footprint was introduced.
and medicine. Also, millions of people migrated to
They pointed out that if all the world’s population lived
British colonies to cultivate farmlands there, which
by North American standards, the resources of three
eased population pressure.
Earths would be required.
Neo-Malthusians Indeed, we believe that confronting together the

Some thinkers, called neo-Malthusians, predict that dis- reality of ecological overshoot will force us to
aster will overtake populations in the world’s poorest discover and exercise those special qualities that
developing countries in the next 50 years due to increas- distinguish humans from other sentient species,
ing global warming, shortages of arable land, conflicts to become truly human. In this sense, global eco-
over fresh water, declining fish stocks, and the spread of logical change may well represent our last great
opportunity to prove that there really is intelli-
AIDS or other diseases. Africa will be most vulnerable to
gent life on Earth.
these threats.
–Mathis Wackernagel and William E. Rees,
Neo-Malthusians claim that migrations, technology, Our Ecological Footprint, 1996
and new farming lands cannot solve the problems in
these countries. A leading neo-Malthusian, Lester Brown
of the Worldwatch Institute, says that millions of people The Optimists
will die while the population in the developing world tries Those with an optimistic outlook on population growth
to return to a balance with the environment’s ability to are called cornucopians. They have faith in mankind’s
provide food. By 2050, the populations of many poor ability to find innovations, such as solar and wind
countries are projected to double in size. Ethiopia, with energy, that will increase Earth’s carrying capacity.
85 million people, will reach a population of 174 million, In the 1960s, American demographer D.J. Bogue
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s population identified his theory of demographic regulation, mean-
will rise to 147 million. Unless there are profound ing that as living standards around the world improve,
changes, the population in these countries will be population growth will naturally level off. Many countries,
checked by famine, disease, and war. such as Sweden, illustrate this levelling off of population
growth. Bogue’s theory of demographic regulation is also

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Perspectives
● What problems are associated

with population growth?
supported by the demographic transition model, as well

as the measures adopted by China and India to limit
population growth (see Case Study on pages 368–370).
Organizations such as the United Nations, the World
Bank, and most international aid agencies are also posi-
tive in their outlook on population growth. They claim
technological developments, increased trade, and more
efficient ways of sharing Earth’s resources will ease the
problems of developing nations. They point to the rapid
increases in population in the 20th century that were
always matched by increased food production—26 per-
cent since the 1960s. New developments in genetic
engineering of crops and animals could repeat this suc-
cess. Famines in large parts of the world predicted by
the pessimists have not happened. Educational pro-
grams will increase awareness of the benefits of popula-
tion control. The programs show that enough food is
produced to feed everyone adequately, and it is the dis-
FIGURE 11–23
tribution system that causes malnutrition in some coun-
Interpreting a Cartoon What is the point of view of the
tries. Increased globalization, optimists believe, will cartoonist regarding present world population figures? Is
create a more equal distribution of food and resources. the cartoonist a neo-Malthusian or a cornucopian? Explain.
Analyzing the Issue

KEY TERMS
1. Explain the concept of carrying capacity.
neo-Malthusians people who share Malthus’
2. What technological changes in the 20th century increased pessimistic views regarding population growth
the carrying capacity of farmland in Canada? Can the example of carrying capacity the maximum number of peo-
Canada be duplicated in the developing world in the 20th century? ple that can be sustained by an environment
Why or why not? ecological footprint the impact of humans on the
environment
3. Summarize the viewpoint of each of the following people on world
population trends: Malthus, Brown, Catton, Rees and cornucopians people who have optimistic views
on population growth due to advances in science
Wackernagel, and Bogue. Which do you find most credible? Why? and technology
4. Use a two-column organizer to compare and contrast the views demographic regulation the theory that popula-
of optimists and pessimists on the effects of future population tion growth will level off as living standards
improve
growth. Then use the information to determine your viewpoint.
Explain why you are an optimist or a pessimist regarding the
growth of world population.
5. In what ways might a 16-year-old from the slums of Mumbai,

India have a different perspective on the future from you?

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● What is the difference between Where Do Six Billion–Plus People Live?

population distribution and
density? Population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over Earth’s
surface. The Greek fathers of geography studied population distribution.
They called their part of the world ecumene, and we now use this word to
KEY TERMS describe permanently inhabited places. As Figure 11–24 indicates, global
population distribution the pattern of population is unevenly distributed. The majority of the world’s population
where people live in an area lives north of the equator in mid-latitudes, with most living close to the
ecumene the populated area of the world world’s oceans.
population density the number of people
living in a given area; calculated by divid-
ing the population by its area
N
NORTH EUROPE
AMERICA
ASIA
ATLANTIC PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
AFRICA
Equator
PACIFIC SOUTH INDIAN

OCEAN AMERICA OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
One dot represents 0 1500 3000 km

100 000 persons
ANTARCTICA
FIGURE 11–24 World population distribution

Reading a Map
1. Why do you think the dot method is used for distribution 4. Compare this map with a map showing climate. What is
maps rather than other methods, such as shading? the relationship between population distribution and areas
2. Are the most densely populated areas north or south of the that are
equator? a) very cold throughout the year?
b) very dry?
3. Compare this map with a map showing landforms or relief.
What relationship do you see between 5. Identify two very dry areas that are densely populated.
Refer again to the relief map, and give an explanation for
a) densely populated areas and lowlands?
this population density.
b) sparsely populated areas and highlands? Identify two
6. Which two continents are most densely populated? Make a
highland areas that are densely populated.
list of reasons that might account for the density in these
two continents.

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Population density measures the number of

people in a given area. Population densities for the Population
—————– = POPULATION DENSITY
countries of the world are shown in Figure 11–26. Area in km2
These are crude densities. They are calculated by
dividing the population of a country by its area. These
figures are useful for general comparisons, but do not
take into account the wide variations that exist within Asia and Oceania
61
larger countries. For example, the Canadian popula-
tion density of 3.5 persons per square kilometre is one
of the lowest in the world. Yet with an 80-percent Europe
urban population, most Canadians live at far higher 11
densities than those indicated for Canada by calculat-
ing the small population against its large size. Rural
and urban densities also differ dramatically in most
countries. There are many explanations for the differ-
ent population densities found in countries. The web Americas and Africa 14
Caribbean 14
in Figure 11–27 shows some of the major physical and
human factors affecting population density. FIGURE 11–25 Earth’s population as a village of 100 people
ATLANTIC PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Equator
INDIAN
People per
OCEAN
square kilometre
1000 or more
500 –999
250 – 499
100 –249
75– 99 Top 10 countries
50 –74 Monaco 22 083 Malta 1297
30 – 49 China–Macao 21 061 Bermuda 1226
Singapore 7082 Bahrain 1163
10 –29
China–Hong Kong 6433 Bangladesh 1142
0– 9 Gibraltar 5179 Maldives 1053 0 1500 3000 km
FIGURE 11–26 Population density of the countries of the world, 2008

Reading a Map
1. List a number of uses for a map like this.
2. How does this map reinforce the information in Figure 11–24?

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PHYSICAL FACTORS
Climate – Areas that are very PHYSICAL FACTORS
dry or very cold generally have
lower densities.
Landscape – Lowlands near Soils
the rims of continents have the
highest densities. Resources Vegetation
Resources – Areas rich in a
variety of resources will attract
higher densities.
Landscape Water
Soils – Rich river valley and
lowland soils result in higher
densities.
Vegetation – Areas of very
dense vegetation, such as rain- Climate Accessibility
forests, have low densities. In
temperate zones, former
forested areas and grasslands
have high densities.
Water – A reliable water supply POPULATION DENSITY
from rainfall or rivers is neces-
sary for higher densities.
Accessibility – Areas that are
easier to reach by land or sea
will increase in population.
HUMAN FACTORS Government Communication

Communications – Areas that policies
are easier to reach by land or
sea will increase in population.
Culture – Nomadic or agricul- Disease Culture
tural cultures may determine
the level of density. Development
Development – Areas with a
highly developed economy will
have much higher densities.
Disease – Areas with a high HUMAN FACTORS
incidence of disease will have
low densities.
Government policies – May FIGURE 11–27 Major factors affecting population density
encourage settlement in remote Interpreting a Diagram
areas, as in the case of Brazil
1. The density of most countries is determined by a combination of some factors shown in
and the Amazon basin, the
the ideas web. Which factors apply best to Canada? Which factors apply best to British
Soviet Union moving workers to
Columbia? For each area, rank the factors in order, starting with those having the great-
new cities in Siberia, or in
est effect.
Canada’s eastern Arctic where
Innu settlement was forced. 2. Working alone or with a partner, choose a country from each of the categories in the
legend of Figure 11–26. Use the ideas web to give reasons for each country’s inclusion
in the category.

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Nutritional Density
There are great differences in the productivity of farmlands
Country Densities in km2
in different parts of the world. For example, the Fraser
Valley in southern British Columbia has exceptionally rich Crude Nutritional
agricultural soils, but its output is restricted by a short Australia 3 46
growing season. Canadian farms cannot match the output
of areas like southern China, where rich soils and ideal cli- Canada 3 62
mate produce three crops a year. This means that a square Egypt 84 2181
kilometre of farmland in southern China can produce far
Japan 336 2741
more food for people than a similar area in the Fraser
Valley. Nutritional density of land is a measure of how FIGURE 11–28 Crude population densities and nutri-
much nutrition in calories can be produced from the land. tional densities for selected countries
The nutritional density column in Figure 11–28 shows the Interpreting Statistics Why are the differences
between crude and nutritional densities for Canada
average nutritional densities for the countries listed.
and Australia lower than for the other two countries?
Use a climate map from an atlas to help explain why
the nutritional density of Egypt and Japan is so much
Earth’s Crowded Future higher than the crude density.
The world’s population will continue to grow in the 21st
century. What is not certain is how fast it will grow. Given the large popula-
tions of China and India, the attempts and varying success of these coun-
tries at bringing their population growth under control are important
considerations in the overall world population. KEY TERM
Age structure is an important factor in determining how fast a popula- nutritional density a measure of how
tion will increase. Developing countries with high numbers of young much nutrition in calories can be pro-
duced from a certain area; an area with
dependants will likely experience greater population growth than developed fertile soil and adequate temperatures and
countries. The number of developing countries that will improve their precipitation will have a higher nutritional
standards of living to a point at which birth rates begin to fall cannot be density than an area such as Canada’s
North
predicted. Changes in birth rates in the developed world also cannot be fore-
told. For example, it is possible that a major cultural change in Canada and
the United States could change fertility rates and bring about another baby
boom.
Birth rates will continue to decline worldwide, but the large base in
countries such as India means increases will continue to be too high for
their population to be sustained without environmental damage. The future
will be determined by the youth of developing nations. The age at which
they choose to marry, and the number of children they have, may be the
most important deciding factors of the 21st century.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Define population distribution and population 3. Why is nutritional density a more accurate meas-
density. ure of density in the developing world?
2. How useful are crude densities in giving a picture

of how many people could live in Canada?

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CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION What is the significance of changes in global population

for Canada and the world?
Significant changes in world population have occurred in the past 50 years. As you read in this
chapter, this has brought benefits to some and problems for others. As the world’s population
moves toward 7 billion and beyond, a number of issues must be addressed.
1. Use the organizer below to list the five most pressing population issues for the present and
future. Beside each issue, note a country or region of the world in which it is a problem or
concern and a country or region in which it is not a problem or concern. For each, briefly
describe why this is the case.
Issue A concern or problem Not a concern or problem
1. Example of a country or region and explanation Example of a country or region and explanation
2.
3.
4.
5.
a) Which of the issues should be of greatest con- c) If these issues are not dealt with effectively by
cern to the world? To Canada? Explain. 2050, what might be the consequences for the
world and Canada? What impact might these
b) Which issue should be of least concern to the
consequences have on your life?
world? To Canada? Explain.
Vocabulary Focus Knowledge and Understanding

2. Define the following terms using an example from 3. How do each of the following influence populations?
the chapter to explain how each provides insights a) fertility
into changes in world and regional populations.
b) mortality
c) migration
demography
developed country 4. What role do population structures and characteris-
developing country tics play in population change?
demographic transition model
population pyramid 5. How do present rates of world population growth
life expectancy affect the future of people in developing and
one-child policy developed countries?
dependency ratio
carrying capacity 6. Sketch imaginary population pyramids for the
birth rate following populations:
death rate a) expanding rapidly following a lengthy war
net migration
population distribution
b) expanding after experiencing a devastating
population density famine
nutritional density c) stable with an aging population
d) experiencing a negative growth rate

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7. Using three countries from different regions of the

Evidence
world as examples, explain how population density
figures for countries can often be deceiving. 10. With a partner, discuss the effects the aging popula-
tion will have on the workforce in Canada. Prepare
Critical Thinking to discuss the measures the government should
take to deal with this problem. Suggest career
8. Compare the typical shapes of population pyramids choices that they might consider as a result of your
for developing nations and developed nations. discussions.
Describe the differing dependency problems for
11. Reviewing all you have studied in this chapter, iden-
these nations.
tify the country you feel has the best prospects of
9. Use Figure 11–23 as a model to draw a cartoon successfully coping with problems that will result
about population growth that might appear in a from world population growth in the next 50 years.
future year based on the UN estimates of future Provide evidence to support your choice.
growth given in Figure 11–1.
Document Analysis
12. Examine the following images and respond to the
questions below.
a) Describe the methods or techniques used in
each poster to encourage people to limit the size
of their family. Be specific.
b) What are some of the similarities or differences
between the two posters?
c) Who is the target audience for each poster? Be
specific.
d) Which poster is more effective in your opinion?
Justify your choice.
FIGURE 11–29 Family planning

information poster from India
FIGURE 11–30 The Chinese government used posters to promote its one-child policy.

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12
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Living Standards
in a Changing World
● What are the different ways of

measuring a country’s
development?
● What is the impact of

population growth on a
country’s standard of living?
● What are the main causes of

poverty?
● What problems are created by

high debt in developing
countries?
● How does improving the status

of women improve a country’s
economic development?
● What factors contribute to

mortality rates?
● What is the relationship

between the levels of health of
populations and their
economic development?
● How do we determine the

success of aid programs in
assisting developing countries?
Autonomy & World Presence
● What role does Canada play in

aiding developing countries?
TIMELINE
1944 1948 1949 1960s 1968 1970

UN sets up the World Bank Marshall Plan U.S. President Truman World Bank, IMF, and Canadian International UN sets foreign aid
and International Monetary created to help coins the terms OECD loan billions of Development Agency target of 0.7 percent
Fund (IMF) to help improve rebuild European “developed” and dollars to developing (CIDA) created to of the loaning nation’s
standards of living through economy after the “underdeveloped” countries administer Canada’s GNP
economic growth Second World War nations foreign aid to developing
countries

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Change
How do living standards in Canada compare with those of developing
countries and what is being done to close the poverty gap and improve Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
human development around the world?
Cause and
We live on a planet divided between the rich and the poor.

Standards of living vary widely between nations and within
nations. In both rich and poor countries, disparities exist KEY TERMS
between the “haves” and the “have-nots.” Some people are very Human Development Index
rich, while others try to live on less than $2 a day. This gap in standard of living
living standards will continue to be one of the most important literacy rate
issues in the 21st century. GDP per capita
non-governmental organizations
While most people in Canada enjoy a comfortable stan- (NGOs)
dard of living, people in many parts of the world still struggle developed countries
to eke out a living. They strive to survive each day and cannot developing countries
see better lives for their children in the future. According to mortality
the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), “Every year, malnutrition
United Nations Children’s Fund
nearly 10 million children die totally preventable deaths.” (UNICEF)
The international community is hoping to address the World Health Organization (WHO)
problems of developing countries through the United Nations’ multilateral aid
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). One of these goals tied aid
Canadian International Development
is to halve extreme poverty by 2015. In this chapter, you will Agency (CIDA)
learn how the development gap has a profound impact on
people’s quality of life including their mortality, nutrition,
health, education, and general welfare. You will also explore
standards of living in various developed and developing
countries and consider the problems in comparing standards
of living. How and what do we measure? Why is there such a
huge gap between the wealth of the “have” and “have-not”
countries and what is Canada’s policy regarding this gap?
It is now our responsibility to make up lost ground—and

to put all countries, together, firmly on track toward a
more prosperous, sustainable and equitable world.
–Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General, United Nations
1980s–1990s 1990 1996 2000 2008

HIV/AIDS pandemic reaches crisis UN publishes first Heavily Indebted Poor UN member states Half the world’s
point in Africa Human Development Countries (HIPC) adopt the population live in
World Bank and IMF encourage developing Report Initiative launched to Millennium cities for the first
countries to adopt Structural Adjustment provide debt relief Development Goals time in history
Programs (SAPs) to pay off their debts
Chapter 12 ■ Living Standards in a Changing World 387

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● What are the different ways Measuring Development

of measuring a country’s
development? Each year since 1990, the United Nations has published a Human
Development Report. The report contains the Human Development Index,
which ranks the standard of living in UN member countries according to
KEY TERMS three indicators: life expectancy, literacy rate, and the GDP per capita. GDP,
Human Development Index the UN’s or gross domestic product, is the total value of all goods and services pro-
index used to rank standards of living in duced in a country in one year. Dividing this number by the population
its member countries
gives the average GDP per person, or per capita.
standard of living a measure comparing The purpose of the UN index is to give a crude indication of different
how well people live in different countries
based on three indicators: life expectancy,
levels of economic and social development among the countries of the
literacy rate, and gross domestic product world. As you can see in Figure 12–1, there is a huge gap between the 10
(GDP) per capita countries at the bottom of the index and the 10 at the top. The 2009 report
literacy rate the percentage of a popula- explored the gap between rich and poor countries, and between rich and
tion that is able to read and write poor people in those countries. It showed that people in 85 countries were
GDP per capita gross domestic product, worse off than they were in the 1980s. In more than 34 countries, life
or the total value of all goods and services expectancy at birth was still 50 years or younger, a full 30 years less than in
produced in a country in one year, divided
by the population Canada. Yet the wealth of the 200 richest people in the world—nearly
US$800 billion in 2008—was greater than the combined income of approxi-
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
non-profit local, national, or international mately 40 percent of the world’s population. Despite the efforts of organiza-
groups that work independently of govern- tions like the United Nations, along with aid from government agencies and
ment on issues such as health, the envi-
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as Save the Children and
ronment, or human rights
Oxfam, the gap between rich and poor continues to grow.
Life Expectancy Adult Literacy GDP per Capita

FIGURE 12–1 Top Ten and Bottom Rank Country
at Birth (Years) Rate (%) (PPP* $US)
Ten Countries, UN Human
Development Index, Statistical 1 Norway 80.5 99.0 53 433
Update, 2009 (2007 data) 2 Australia 81.4 99.0 34 923
Thinking Critically From your 3 Iceland 81.7 99.0 35 742
reading of Chapter 11, what are
4 Canada 80.6 99.0 35 812
the characteristics of the birth,
death, and infant mortality rates in 5 Ireland 79.7 99.0 44 613
the top and bottom countries? Are 6 The Netherlands 79.8 99.0 38 694
these three measures adequate to 7 Sweden 80.8 99.0 36 712
show human development in a
country? 8 France 81.0 99.0 33 674
9 Switzerland 81.7 99.0 40 658
10 Japan 82.7 99.0 33 632
173 Guinea-Bissau 47.5 64.6 477
174 Burundi 50.1 59.3 341
175 Chad 48.6 31.8 1477
176 Dem. Rep. of the Congo 47.6 67.2 298
177 Burkina Faso 52.7 28.7 1124
178 Mali 48.1 26.2 1083
179 Central African Republic 46.7 48.6 713
180 Sierra Leone 47.3 38.1 679
181 Afghanistan 43.6 28.0 1054
182 Niger 50.8 28.7 627
*PPP stands for Purchasing Power Parity, which compares the currency of the country to the U.S.
dollar to help account for relative cost of living and inflation in the different countries.

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The Divided Planet KEY TERMS

infrastructure structures such as roads,
In 1949, U.S. President Harry Truman referred to a world of “developed” railways, power grids, and communica-
and “underdeveloped” nations. He saw “developed” countries as industrial- tions links that are basic to the functioning
ized, with their people well-housed, healthy, and possessing generally good of a modern economy, as well as buildings
such as schools and hospitals
literacy skills. Their infrastructure—such things as transportation and
developed countries the world’s wealthiest
communications links, electric-power distribution systems, schools, and
countries; they have well-established infra-
hospitals—was well-developed. “Underdeveloped” countries had few structures and their people are well-
schools, doctors, and hospitals; roads were mainly unpaved; there were few housed, healthy, and have good literacy
skills
railways; few people had telephones, and only the cities had electrical power.
In the mid-1970s, the geographical location of “developed” and “under- newly industrializing countries countries
that are experiencing rapid economic and
developed” countries led some to refer to the industrialized countries as the industrial growth; many are switching from
North and the countries with lower incomes as the South. Today the agricultural to industrial economies
accepted terms are developed countries for the most wealthy countries, developing countries countries that have
newly industrializing countries for places like Indonesia and Brazil, which lower standards of living than developed
are building up their industries and infrastructure, and developing countries countries; many have extensive poverty
for countries that do not have a modern infrastructure or many industries. heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs)
Most of the countries at the bottom of the UN Human Development Index countries at the low end of the UN Human
Development Index that are in debt to
are in debt to the developed nations, and they are now being called heavily developed nations
indebted poor countries (HIPCs).
High human development

Medium human development
Low human development
Not ranked 0 2000 4000 km
FIGURE 12–2 The Human Development Index for 2009

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KEY TERM Closing the Development Gap

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
eight goals developed by the member In 2000, a major worldwide initiative was launched to close the gap in living
states of the United Nations to close the standards between developed and developing countries. All member states
gap in living standards between developed of the United Nations (189 at that time) adopted eight Millennium
and developing countries
Development Goals (MDGs) targeting the world’s main development chal-
lenges. By 2015, the world would have less poverty, hunger, and disease,
WEB LINK • greater survival rates and prospects for mothers and their infants, education
Visit the Pearson Web site to find out for all, equal opportunities for women, an improved physical environment,
more about the UN’s Millennium and a partnership between developed and developing countries to achieve
Development Goals.
these objectives. These goals are designed to deal with the interdependence
between growth, poverty reduction, and sustainable development.
Goal Targets 1990 to 2015
1. Eliminate extreme poverty • Halve the percentage of people whose income is less than $1 (PPP) a day
and hunger • Achieve full and productive work for all, including women and young people
• Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
2. Achieve universal primary • Ensure that children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete
education primary school
3. Promote gender equality • Eliminate gender inequality in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005,
and empower women and in all levels of education by no later than 2015
4. Reduce child mortality • Reduce by two thirds the under-five mortality rate
5. Improve maternal health • Reduce by three quarters the number of women who die during pregnancy and childbirth
• Make sure every woman has access to reproductive health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, • Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
and other diseases • Make sure everyone who needs it has access to treatment for HIV/AIDS
7. Ensure environmental • Incorporate the idea of preserving the environment into policies and programs and reverse
sustainability the loss of environmental resources
• Reduce biodiversity loss
• Halve the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic cleanliness
• By 2020, significantly improve the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
8. Develop a global • Address the special needs of the least developed countries, landlocked countries, and
partnership for small island developing states
development • Develop an open, rule-based, non-discriminatory trading and financial system
• Deal with developing countries’ debt
• Provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries
• Spread benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications
FIGURE 12–3 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Thinking Critically Which three of the MDGs do you think are the most important? Give reasons for your answer. Which
of the goals are most likely to be met? Which are least likely to be met? Explain.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What would Canada have to do to improve its 3. What should the UN do to hold nations to their
ranking on the UN Human Development Index? commitments? How can citizens keep their gov-
ernments accountable to the MDGs?
2. Should Canada feel any responsibility to nations at
the bottom of the index? 4. What are the characteristics of “developed” and
“developing” nations?

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B u i l d i n g Yo u r S k i l l s CRITICAL
INQUIRY Evidence
Evaluating the Accuracy of Web Sites
Until recently, researchers could not easily access How to Decide

accurate and up-to-date information on population What should you do when information on different sites
and living standards. The Internet has made it easier varies? For example, two reliable sources each give
to find these statistics for Canada and the world. different numbers for Mexico City’s population in 2005.
However, as with any resource, the World Wide Web The UN sets it at 19 million. The U.S. Department of
should be used with care. Some Web sites may not be State lists 22 million. So which number do you use? The
reliable sources of information. Because there is no best advice is to check the source against the six steps
agency to control what is put on the Internet, you must and use the figure that seems to come from the most
be selective in those sites you choose to use, and all reliable source. If a number of reliable sources agree on
content must be approached with caution. the same figure, you can usually assume it is accurate.
Be sure to include your source for the information.
Steps to Evaluating Web Sites The following Web sites are credible sources of
particular interest to people studying demographics and
1. Authority: Are the authors or producers of the
material clearly identified, and do they have living standards. Bookmark these and other sites that
expertise in the subject area? Is the person or are reliable sources of information.
organization responsible for the page clearly indi- • The United Nations Web site has data from many
cated? Check the site for credentials, a title, or countries in a variety of formats.
whether it represents an organization or commer- • Statistics Canada gives you access to a wealth of
cial body. Is it from a preferred domain, such as data on Canada’s population and social trends.
.gov, .edu, or .org? • For a world perspective, the U.S. Census Web
2. Accuracy: Are sources of information credited? site has links to population and statistics relating to
Are dates given for current data? Is bibliographic population and development for various countries.
information provided, such as external links, jour- • The Population Reference Bureau is a non-
nals, or books? Is the purpose of the site clear? governmental site that has reliable data on
Does the domain name reflect the site’s purpose? population and development.
Is the information verifiable? Are the links appro-
priate to the content of the site? Applying the Skill
3. Bias: Does the author or producer of the informa-
tion have a particular point of view? Is more than 1. Which of the steps listed would you consider to be
one perspective presented? Are facts clearly dis- the most important? Why?
tinguished from opinions? Use external links and 2. Search for Web sites with population and develop-
statements of purpose to determine the target ment statistics. Rate the sites as good, fair, or poor
audience for the site. based on the evaluation checklist. Compare your
4. Coverage: Are all topics that you need to know findings with other students.
about covered? 3. Find data for a country of your choice, such as liter-
5. Current: Is the information up to date? Most Web acy rates or GDP per capita, on several Web sites.
sites have a copyright date or tell you the last time Account for any variations you may find.
they were updated. Does the site link to other up-
to-date sites?
6. Usability: Do you understand the material? Check WEB LINK •
for spelling, grammar, and consistency. How much Visit the Pearson Web site for links
to the sites above and checklists for
advertising is on the site? Does it seem reliable? evaluating Web sites.

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● What is the impact of Measuring Living Standards

population growth on a
country’s standard of living? Levels of economic development are hard to measure accurately. The devel-
oped world has accounting systems that can determine such things as the
level of industrialization, value of services, and exports and imports. It is
KEY TERMS much harder to measure these things in developing countries.
mortality death rate, calculated as
Deciding what to measure is another problem when trying to compare
number of deaths per 1000 people in a levels of development. Developing economies have many people who make
population goods at home and trade them in local communities. Bartering, rather than
malnutrition poor, or lack of, nourishment currency, may be used in these transactions, making it impossible to meas-
globalization the spread of ideas, informa- ure output. This kind of production is not included in the countries’
tion, and culture around the world through accounting systems.
advances in communication, technology, If the wealth of a country is not shared among the people, the average
and travel
income figure does not reflect the standard of living for the majority. In
multinational corporations (MNCs)
Qatar, for example, the 2009 GDP per capita (PPP) was US$121 400 because
companies that do business in more than
one country of the income from the sale of oil resources. However, the wealth from these
sales is in the hands of a few very wealthy families.
Quality of Life
Standards of living are not only measured in
incomes people earn. The quality of life
includes such things as health, levels of nutri-
tion, life expectancy, literacy rate, and the sta-
tus of women and children. A person living
in poverty in Canada has access to govern-
ment programs that provide a safety net of
services, such as health care and education. In
developing countries, a very poor urban fam-
ily is likely to live in a dwelling made from
scrap materials with no electricity, sanitation,
or access to safe water. Getting water and
basic supplies may take women hours each
day.
Quality of life depends on more than
meeting the necessities of life. Many people
in countries with repressive regimes can be
denied freedom of expression, economic free-
dom, and the right to a safe and clean envi-
ronment. For example, advocates for the poor
in Canada are free to promote their cause. In
some developing countries, the homeless and
the illiterate may be denied the vote, or may
be intimidated by government-hired thugs if
they try to improve their conditions. Even in
countries that are recognized as democracies,
the illiterate may have no way of confirming
that their vote is recorded as requested.
FIGURE 12–4 Approximately 1.3 million people live in the 750 slums, or
favelas, of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

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An Urban World Push Factors Pull Factors

More people live in cities than ever before. As Figure 12–5 Underemployment Labour opportunities
indicates, people move to urban areas for many reasons.
Ethnic or religious Medical and social
Various factors can push people to leave the land. Others are tensions provisions
attracted to cities by the prospect of a better life. Many
Requisition of land for Greater access to food and
migrants find themselves in the growing slums of major cities
industrial or other uses resources
without a significant improvement in their standard of living.
The UN-HABITAT State of the World’s Cities 2006–2007 Droughts or floods Greater anonymity
report found that poor people living in urban areas are as Land degradation Social networks estab-
badly off, if not worse off, than rural populations: “...there are lished by migrants attract
relatives and friends
two cities within one city—one part of the urban population
that has all the benefits of urban living, and... the slums and Lack of resources
squatter settlements, where the poor often live under worse Environmental impacts,
conditions than their rural relatives.” The urban poor and such as deforestation
people in rural environments face similar issues in health,
FIGURE 12–5 Reasons for rural–urban migration in the
education, employment, mortality, and malnutrition. developing world
Thinking Critically What do you know about work opportu-
nities and medical or social programs for migrants in your
Globalization area? Do you think migrants usually find what they expect
when they move to the city? Explain.
Many people in the developed world believe globalization
brings freer trade, cheaper goods, and access to technology,
which in turn contribute to wealth and improved standards of living.
By joining large trading blocs, such as the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC),
countries create larger markets for their goods and services. These blocs
stimulate economic growth, which helps to improve living standards. The UN defines slums as
Opponents of globalization note that these trade agreements limit the con- Urban households lacking one
trol a government has over its trade, economy, and even social policies. or more of the following:
Many people in manufacturing see globalization as a threat because their durable housing; sufficient liv-
job may be sent to a country with cheaper labour or fewer environmental ing area; secure tenure; access
protection policies. to improved water source and
Some countries, such as China and India, have benefited from globaliza- sanitation.
tion and have seen a rise in their standard of living. Other developing coun- –UN Human Settlements
tries find it hard to compete in the global economy because they lack a Program, 2003
functioning infrastructure. Many developing nations are in debt and their
industries and natural resources are controlled by multinational corpora-
tions (MNCs). Some developing countries also worry that globalization
brings social changes that overwhelm local cultures and traditions. Yet, for
countries with expanding populations, globalization promises employment
and improved living standards.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why is it difficult to accurately measure levels of 3. Explain the problems faced by people moving from
economic development? rural to urban areas in developing countries.
2. Compare and contrast the lives of Canadians who 4. Create a Plus-Minus-Interesting (PMI) chart for
live in poverty with those in developing countries. globalization.

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KEY TERMS
Measuring Poverty
World Bank an international group of five
financial institutions that provide financial Poverty is measured differently in developed and developing countries. The
and technical help to developing countries most common measure is the poverty line, which is the minimum income
Organisation for Economic Co-operation required to pay for basic needs. In developing countries, the absolute poverty
and Development (OECD) originally line is about $1.25 (2005 PPP) per person per day. Using this measure, the
created as the Organisation for European
Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to admin- World Bank—an international lending agency—estimated that in 2008
ister the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe approximately 1.4 billion (one in four) people in developing countries were
after the Second World War; OECD’s mis- living on less than $1.25 per day, putting them below the poverty line. Yet
sion is to improve living standards in
developing countries there are people who earn $2, $3, or even $5 a day in these countries who
remain poverty-stricken. Critics of the World Bank’s measurement prefer
to look at individual countries to determine at what level people are unable
to afford a minimum of food, clothing, shelter, health care, and education
services. This is closer to the way poverty is measured in Canada and the
United States.
Measuring Poverty in Canada

Until recently, a set income figure was used to
measure poverty in Canada. This figure did not
take into account the differences in cost of living
across the country. Today, Statistics Canada uses a
low income cut-off (LICO) to determine those liv-
ing in poverty. LICO is defined as a household that
spends more than 70 percent of its income on
food, clothing, and shelter. The National Council of
Welfare (NCW), a federal government agency, dif-
fers from Statistics Canada in determining LICOs.
The NCW uses after-tax income to measure
FIGURE 12–6 Homeless people and poverty protestors pitched poverty, whereas Statistics Canada uses before-tax
this “tent city” to raise awareness about the plight of the poor in income. The difference can be seen by comparing
Vancouver, B.C.
the number of seniors living in poverty using the
Thinking Critically What policies could the various levels of
government adopt to improve the standard of living of poor people
two approaches. The NCW’s after-tax measure
in Canada? shows 201 000 seniors living in poverty (see Figure
12–7), while Statistics Canada’s before-tax measure
shows 524 000 poor seniors. (See Chapter 10 for a
Category
Number Living
Poverty Rate
discussion of child poverty in Canada.)
in Poverty
All persons 2 952 000 9.2% Measuring Poverty in the United States
Adults (18–64) 2 113 000 9.9% In the United States, poverty is measured against
Children (0–17) 637 000 9.5% the cost of a minimum adequate diet multiplied
Seniors (65+) 201 000 4.8% by three to allow for other expenses. In the 1960s,
the U.S. government declared a “war on poverty”
FIGURE 12–7 Canadian poverty rates in 2007
and chose a set income figure to define poverty.
Thinking Critically How would the life of a child living in poverty be the
In 2009, it was US$10 830 for a single person,
same as and different from yours? How do Canada’s social services
help people living in poverty? US$14 570 for a family of two, rising to US$37 010
for a family of eight or more. For the family of two,
this translates to about US$40 a day.

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Human Poverty Index

To accommodate the differing living standards between countries, the UN
Human Poverty Index uses different indicators when comparing developing
and developed countries. For developed countries, the UN uses data from
selected member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD). Looking at the different indicators may help
those in developed countries see the types of advantages that they take for
granted.
Human Poverty Index Human Poverty Index

for developing for selected OECD
countries countries
A long and healthy life • Probability at birth of not • Probability at birth of not
surviving to age 40 surviving to age 60
Knowledge • Adult literacy rate • % of adults lacking

functional literacy skills
A decent standard • % of population not • % of people living below

of living using an improved water the poverty line
source
• % of children under-
weight for age
• Deprivation of a decent
standard of living
Social exclusion Not included as a • Long-term unemploy-

dimension ment rate
FIGURE 12–8 The Human Poverty Index

Thinking Critically Which dimension (in blue) do you feel is most significant in deter-
mining the level of poverty in the developing countries? In the OECD countries? Would
you add or delete any dimensions in either index? Why or why not? Why do you think
there are different indicators for developing and OECD countries?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the Human Poverty Index? b) Brainstorm in a group to think of other terms to
How effective is it in highlighting the differences describe the differences in standards of living in
between rich and poor countries? countries.
2. a) How is poverty defined in Canada? 4. Evidence From what you have learned about
measuring poverty levels, what are the five most
b) What difficulties are there in comparing poverty
important basic needs that must be met ade-
in Canada with poverty in developing countries?
quately for a person not to be considered impover-
3. a) How useful do you think the terms developed ished?
and developing are in describing the differ-
ences in standards of living between countries?
Explain.

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● What are the main causes of

The Poverty Trap
poverty?
About 1 billion people in developing countries go hungry every day. Yet the
world produces enough food to feed all 6.79 billion people on Earth. For
● What problems are created by many poor people, the problem is that they cannot afford the food that is
high debt in developing
countries? available. Farmers who do not own their land and migrant labourers are the
first to feel the effects of droughts, crop failures, or economic downturns
(see Case Study on page 398).
Loans to Developing Countries

At the end of the Second World War, the International Monetary Fund
WEB LINK •
(IMF) and the World Bank were set up as agencies of the United Nations.
Visit the Pearson Web site to learn
more about the World Bank, IMF, and The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
OECD. was also created after the war to help administer the Marshall Plan
(an American program for rebuilding Western Europe and its economy).
These organizations gave loans and development assistance to help improve
standards of living through economic growth. The World Bank, IMF, and
OECD encouraged developing countries to engage in megaprojects to pro-
mote economic growth. Many of these initiatives caused environmental
damage and did not improve the countries’ economies.
In the 1960s, Western banks loaned billions of dollars to newly inde-
pendent African countries for megaprojects. These nations’ main income
came from exporting minerals and agricultural products. A world economic
slowdown led to a collapse in prices for these commodities, making it diffi-
cult for them to repay the debts. Also, some of the loaned money had gone
into overseas bank accounts of corrupt dictators.
FIGURE 12–9 Critics of the World Bank and IMF say that the SAPs and strict loan
conditions of these agencies add to poverty since some countries need to cut social
programs to meet their debt obligations.

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The Cycle of Debt KEY TERMS

The Western banks and their governments encouraged the IMF and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) an
international organization designed to pro-
World Bank to lend countries money to pay off their debts. The lenders had mote economic stability and development
changed, but the debt remained. Today, African countries alone owe $227
megaproject a very large-scale, costly
billion. Along with the loans, the IMF told these countries to restructure project to help develop infrastructure,
their economies to help repay their debts. The IMF encouraged poor coun- such as building roads, dams, or irrigation
tries to pursue foreign investment, cash crops for export, and private com- systems
panies to run some government services. These measures are called commodities goods or services that are
bought or sold
structural adjustment programs (SAPs).
Critics have been quick to point out the negative effects of SAPs. They structural adjustment programs (SAPs)
programs designed by the World Bank
suggest that poor countries are forced to sacrifice spending on health and and IMF to adjust the economies of devel-
education to meet the demands of SAPs and repay their debts. For example, oping countries as a condition of receiving
in 2005, the IMF instructed the Niger government to increase taxes on basic loans
goods and services such as milk, bread, water, and electricity. The people of
Niger, impoverished by years of bad harvests and SAPs, reacted by taking to
the streets in protest. The protesters eventually won a reduction in the pro-
posed tax.
The Burden of Debt

Many countries that are in debt have few natural resources or receive low
prices for them on the world market because there is an oversupply. In addi-
tion, their resources are under the control of foreign multinational corpora-
tions. For example, West Africa produces 70 percent of the world’s cocoa,
but it must sell its crops to four multinational corporations that control the
price. Very little of the profit filters back to the farmers. This makes it very
difficult for these countries to earn the money to pay their debts.
The burden of debt for governments in developing countries means
they are hard pressed to pay for services that could improve the standard of
living of their people. Mozambique, for example, spends 10 times more on
debt repayments than on health care. As well, many countries and regions in
Africa have suffered natural disasters, such as the devastating floods in
Mozambique, drought in East Africa, or brutal civil wars such as those in
Rwanda, Sierra Leone, or the Darfur region in Sudan.
Debt Relief
The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative was launched in
1996 by the International Development Association (IDA) and International
Monetary Fund (IMF). The goal of this initiative is to ensure that poor
countries are not crippled by their debts. The HIPC Initiative provides debt
relief to poor countries with external debts that severely burden export earn-
ings or public finance. In 1999, the initiative was enhanced to help more
countries to qualify for debt relief. By the end of 2008, the World Bank and
International Monetary Fund had committed more than US$57 billion to WEB LINK •
help HIPC countries restructure their debts. Visit the Pearson Web site to find out
In a 2009 report, the IMF noted that 40 HIPCs were eligible for debt how citizens can help fight poverty in
their own communities and around the
relief under the initiative, and 31 of these nations are in Africa. Of the eligi- world.
ble countries, 35 had qualified for HIPC Initiative assistance. Twenty-six
countries have reached the completion point, where the HIPC’s debt is for-
given by the governments of developed countries. The IMF notes that some
creditors have been reluctant to provide debt relief.

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case study
Kenya: Trapped in Poverty

Kenya is an example of a country in which most people are underweight. More than a million people are infected
are caught in the cycle of poverty. This East African with HIV/AIDS. The median age of Kenya’s population is
country is about 60 percent of the size of British 18 years, compared to 39.4 in Canada.
Columbia, but it is estimated to have a population of Drought, floods, and ethnic and political violence
40 million in 2010. This represents an increase of nearly have forced many Kenyans to leave the countryside to
35 million people in 60 years. With a growth rate of 2.7 move to cities. Each day, thousands of people move to
percent, nearly a million people are added to Kenya’s Nairobi, the nation’s capital, which has industries,
population each year. Economic opportunities are limited: services, and is the centre of tourism. More than 60
many people cannot afford education, and the country’s percent of the population of Nairobi live in slums. In the
unemployment rate is 40 percent. According to the 2009 shantytowns of the Mathare Valley, just outside the capi-
Human Development Report, the per capita income is tal, one-room shacks made of wood and cardboard are
about US$1542. home to an estimated 500 000 people. The settlement
Kenya has three main geographical regions. The has one paved road and no electricity, running water, or
tropical coast has rainforests and sandy beaches that are sanitation system. People live in a maze of lanes littered
now a tourist destination for Europeans. In the central with garbage, which turn into rivers of mud in the rainy
plateau region, there are natural parks with abundant season. The shantytowns provide a pool of cheap labour
wildlife that form the basis of a tourist industry. About one for Nairobi.
quarter of the plateau is too dry for farming and has Ethnic rivalry and government corruption hamper
scrub vegetation that is poor grazing land. Another 37 efforts to improve this situation. Transients in the shanty-
percent of the plateau is tropical grassland, and is tradi- towns have little influence on the government. The new
tionally used by nomadic herders for grazing cattle. The arrivals from the countryside put added pressure on the
highlands in the west are the one good farming area in few services available. All the problems facing Kenya are
the country, but represents only about 7 percent of the made worse by a crushing national debt.
land. This area produces tea,
coffee, and flowers for export.
Kenya has suffered from a
series of droughts in the past
two decades. The most dev-
astating one lasted from
2007 to 2009, drying up 80
percent of the wells, wither-
ing crops, and killing cattle.
About 75 percent of the
population makes a living
from farming. There is now
less food produced per capita
than 30 years ago, because
of the population increase
and the use of good cropland
to produce cash crops for
export. Less than half of the
population has access to safe
drinking water, and nearly 20
percent of children under 5
FIGURE 12–10 There are several shantytowns like Mathare near Nairobi.

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Cause and Consequence
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
Lake
Turkana N
UG
AN D A
SOMALIA
KENYA
0˚
FIGURE 12–12
Lake Dromedary camels
Victoria in the Koroli Desert
Nairobi
FIGURE 12–13 Sisal

fields on the Vipingo
Estate
INDIAN
OCEAN
TANZANIA Mombasa
Kenya
0 75 150 km
36˚E 40˚E
Highlands (fertile)
Central plateau (arid)
Coastline (tropical)
FIGURE 12–11 Kenya’s geographic regions

Reading a Map Match each of the photographs with the appro-
priate region on the map. How is Kenya’s geography related to
FIGURE 12–14 A lodge on a beach near Kiwayu
its poverty?
Life Urban/Rural Number of

Total Growth Expectancy Population People with Internet Doctors per
Population Rate (%) (Years) (%) HIV/AIDS Users 1000 People
Canada 33 890 000 0.8 81 80/20 73 000 28 million 19.0
Kenya 40 863 000 2.6 57 22/78 1.4 million 3.36 million 1.4
FIGURE 12–15 Canada and Kenya: A Comparison, 2005–2010
Looking Further
1. List the principal problems faced by Kenya as a

3. Cause and Consequence What two strategies would
result of the increasing population.
you suggest to help Kenya break out of the cycle of
2. Make an illustration modelled on the diagram of the poverty?
cycle of poverty in Figure 12–22 for people leaving
4. Which two factors in Figure 12–15 do you think most
the countryside in Kenya and moving to Nairobi.
clearly illustrate the differences in development
between Kenya and Canada?

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KEY TERM Canada and Debt Relief

bilateral aid assistance from one country Canada has called for an easing of the debts owed by HIPCs. As of 2004, the
to another
federal government has spent $312 million on HIPC programs. The goal is
to reduce the debt load of HIPCs so their scarce resources can go toward
poverty reduction programs rather than paying interest and service charges.
Canada has forgiven all overseas development aid debt to all HIPCs except
Myanmar, which is governed by a military dictatorship.
Since 1986, all of Canada’s bilateral aid for development has been in the
form of grants, as opposed to loans. Also, 10 Latin American countries have
been allowed to repay debts by investing in environmental and other sus-
tainable development projects in their own countries.
EUROPE
NORTH
40 ASIA N
AMERICA
39
5 38
7 6 18 19
20 25
8 17
1 9 16 AFRICA
2 4 10 1314 21 37
11 15 22 36
35
12 24 23 26 34
33
SOUTH 32
31
AMERICA 27
3
29 30
28
AUSTRALIA
0 2000 4000 km
13 Côte d’Ivoire 23 Republic of Congo
14 Ghana 24 São Tomé Príncipe
15 Togo 25 Sudan 33 Burundi
16 Benin 26 Democratic Republic of Congo 34 Rwanda
1 Honduras 7 Senegal 17 Burkina Faso 27 Zambia 35 Uganda
2 Nicaragua 8 The Gambia 18 Mali 28 Mozambique 36 Somalia
3 Bolivia 9 Guinea-Bissau 19 Niger 29 Malawi 37 Ethiopia
4 Guyana 10 Guinea 20 Chad 30 Madagascar 38 Eritrea
5 Haiti 11 Sierra Leone 21 Central African Republic 31 Comoros 39 Afghanistan
6 Mauritania 12 Liberia 22 Cameroon 32 Tanzania 40 Kyrgyz Republic
FIGURE 12–16 The 40 developing countries classified by the International Monetary Fund as HIPC, 2009
Thinking Critically Do you think Canada is right to forgive debts and put money into debt reduction plans for these countries?
What might be the positive and negative outcomes for Canada and the countries whose debts we are forgiving?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. How has the debt burden in developing countries 3. How is the HIPC Initiative meant to help the poor-
prevented governments from looking after the est developing countries?
basic needs of their people?
4. Write a letter to your Member of Parliament
2. In a two-column chart, list the reasons for and explaining your point of view on debt forgiveness.
against completely forgiving the debt of developing
5. What role have the World Bank and IMF played in
countries with the highest debt loads.
the economies of developing countries? Explain
some of the problems with SAPs.

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CRITICAL
counter points
Offshore farms: Food for whom?

Each day, one in six people—mostly women and chil- Against Offshore Farming
dren—does not get enough food to be healthy. In poorer Opponents of offshore farming accuse wealthy countries
countries where most people depend on agriculture to of preying on the misfortunes of very poor countries. The
survive, the costs of oil and fertilizer affect food produc- UN report Land Grab or Development Opportunity?
tion. In turn, the prices of imported food have soared. raised a number of concerns: local farmers’ ability to
A recent development in world agriculture threatens prove they own their land, political corruption in many
to put further pressure on food supplies in some of the poor countries, and environmental issues (such as the
poorest countries. Wealthy countries with little agricul- use of herbicides and diverting water resources for irri-
tural land or water purchase or lease farmland from poor gation). As another UN report noted: “The sale of farm-
countries. Food is grown and then shipped back to the land to international investors is not without risks for
country that owns the land. This practice is called off- developing countries. Experiences show that they can
shore farming. cause land expropriation or lead to an unsustainable use
China began the trend in 2000 when it purchased of resources, thereby undermining the livelihoods of
land in Cuba and Mexico. Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, local populations.”
India, and South Korea are some of the countries that
have followed China’s lead. A research group has esti-
For Offshore Farming
mated that foreigners have bought 15 to 20 million
Supporters of offshore farming argue that foreign invest-
hectares of farmland in poor countries since 2006.
ment in agriculture helps poor countries. It provides
There are concerns that offshore farming threatens
export revenues, creates jobs and infrastructure, and
the future of food production in many developing coun-
gives developing countries access to new agricultural
tries. In 2009, Saudi Arabia received its first food crop
technology. They say that without foreign investment, the
harvested from the farms it owns in Ethiopia. While
land may never be used. According to an investor from
this food was being exported, the UN World Food
Saudi Arabia: “We can become the farmers of the world
Programme helped to feed more than 10 million people
in terms of food security to Africa. Although we’re taking
in Ethiopia.
so many hectares, we are actually going to be helping
farmers contiguous [next] to our farms, assist them in
repairing the land, plant seedlings, and have an agree-
ment if they wish so that we can buy their products.”
Analyzing the Issue
1. Do you think the benefits of offshore farming out-

weigh the drawbacks for the poor country? Explain.
2. Cause and Consequence Japan, which owns off-

shore farms, has suggested that there should be an
international code of conduct for foreign farmland
deals. What three protections for poor countries
would you include in such a code?
3. Canada has vast amounts of farmland, but foreign

ownership rules prevent other countries from buying
FIGURE 12–17 Children in Malawi pump water to irrigate the land. List some reasons for and against selling
maize. Some experts worry that offshore farming may
endanger food security in Africa. some of Canada’s farmland to other countries.

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KEY TERMS
The Vulnerable Ones: Women and Children
subsistence farming a form of farming in
which the crops grown are used to feed The burden of poverty creates particular hardships for women and children.
the farmer and his or her family, with little Many developing countries have male-dominated societies in which females
or nothing left over to sell or trade
and children have lower status than men. Women and children may have no
desertification the spread of desert-like legal rights, or the legal system may allow them to be treated as property.
conditions in an area, sometimes caused
by human activity Women may even be killed to satisfy a family’s honour. In some tribal soci-
eties, women and children may have to eat whatever is left after the men
have finished their meals, which can lead to malnutrition.
● How does improving the

The Position of Women
status of women improve a
Women in developing countries may have to work more than twelve hours
country’s economic
development? each day to ensure the survival of their families (see Figure 12–18). They are
responsible for more than two thirds of the food production and are often
left to support the family when men migrate in search of work.
In much of the developing world, the literacy rate is lower among
women than among men. Education is often a luxury restricted to males.
Only one third of girls in rural India go to school compared to more than
half of boys. Many families in this area will keep girls at home to look after
the younger children and help with chores until they are married and move
to their husband’s village.
Education Is the Solution

8:30 to 9:30 p.m. 9:30 p.m. 4:45 to 5:00 a.m.
Wash children Bedtime Wake up, wash, Demographers agree that economic
and dishes and eat
development and the fertility rate of
5:00 to 5:30 a.m. countries are connected. A decline in
12 Walk to fields
11 1 the number of children a woman has in
her lifetime frees her to improve her lot
10 2
and that of her children. Studies show
9 3 that better-educated women tend to
marry later and have fewer children.
6:30 to 8:30 p.m.
Cook dinner
8 4 Because they are literate, they have a
and eat
7 5 better understanding of contraception,
6 and may be able to resist family pres-
5:30 to sures to have more children.
6:30 p.m. 5:30 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.
Collect
The children of educated women
Work in fields
water 4:00 to are also more likely to survive because
5:30 p.m.
Pound and
3:00 to 4:00 p.m. their mothers know the importance of
Collect firewood
grind corn immunization, clean water, and good
nutrition. A study in Peru showed that
the infant mortality rate dropped for
every year of schooling the mother had.
When mothers are sure that their chil-
dren will survive, they are less likely to
FIGURE 12–18 The illustration shows how a rural woman typically spends her have large families.
day in developing countries like Zambia.
Thinking Critically How does this woman’s day compare to yours? How would
this workload prevent a woman from improving her status?

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Women in Niger Between 20% and 35% Fewer than 20% of

of women are literate women are literate
The African country of Niger, a landlocked nation
almost entirely in the Sahara Desert, is one of the Benin Afghanistan
world’s least-developed countries (see Figure 12–1). Burkina Faso Guinea
Niger ranked last on the UN’s 2009 Human
Central African Republic Mali
Development Index, with a life expectancy at birth of
Chad Niger
50.8 years and a literacy rate of 28.7 percent. As the
poorest country in the world, the average income of Ethiopia
people in Niger is US$280 per year. A 2010 study Mozambique
estimated that more than half of Niger’s population of
Senegal
15 million face food insecurity, which includes missing
meals, malnutrition, or famine. Many people survive by FIGURE 12–19 Women’s literacy rates in some developing
subsistence farming, producing enough to feed their countries
families with little left over to sell. Niger’s economy Interpreting Statistics On what continent are most of these
countries located? What do the countries with the lowest
centres on exporting livestock and natural resources literacy rates for women have in common?
(it has some of the world’s largest uranium deposits).
Fluctuations in world prices affect Niger’s economic
stability. Drought cycles, desertification, population
growth, and political instability have also undercut the
economy. Debt relief provided under the HIPC Initiative
significantly reduced Niger’s annual debt, freeing
government funds for basic health care and primary
education.
Women in Developing Countries

Niger is a traditional Muslim society, and women are
bound to obey the wishes of their husbands, fathers,
brothers, and other male relatives. Polygamy, or the
practice of having more than one wife, is widespread,
and the average marrying age for women is 17.6. The
average number of children per woman is 7.75. In
Niger, most of a woman’s time is dedicated to raising
and feeding her children, and she has little opportunity
for education. Because of the prevalence of forced early
marriage and violence against women in the country,
Niger was criticized for ratifying the UN convention on
women’s rights. Niger is an extreme example of the situ-
ation for women in many developing countries.
Several aid agencies are working to improve the
standard of living of women in Niger. Many of their
programs focus on women’s equality and education for FIGURE 12–20 Women in Niger, one of the world’s least-
girls. They believe that community-based programs will developed countries, sell what they can at markets like this
help women work together to improve their status. As a to support their families.
result of these and other programs, women are taking a Thinking Critically Do you think women’s larger role in their
country’s economy might lead to other changes in their
larger role in the economy by selling pottery, firewood, lives? Why or why not?
cloth, and anything else that they can to keep their fami-
lies from starving.

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The World’s Children Children in Crisis

Every six seconds, a child dies Children are often the first victims of underdevelopment. Famine, disease,
because of hunger and related war, and a host of other problems prey on society’s most vulnerable people.
causes.
Even if they survive the critical first five years, children in some developing
Worldwide, 148 million nations have few educational opportunities and are often exploited as child
children under age five were labour. Some are even trapped in the sex trade. The high birth rates in many
underweight in 2007. More
than 93 percent of underweight developing areas mean that this problem will continue in the future. In
children live in Africa and Asia. 1992, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) published the
Progress of Nations Report (PNR) on the welfare of children. The PNR
In 2007, 9.2 million children
under five died worldwide. launched the 21st century with a new index that measures the risk for chil-
Malnutrition and hunger-related dren in countries worldwide on a scale of 0 to 100. The measure is based on
diseases caused 60 percent of five factors: the mortality rates of children under the age of five, the percent-
these deaths.
age of children who are moderately or severely underweight, numbers of
Every year, the World Food children who do not attend primary school, risks from armed conflict, and
Programme (WFP) feeds more risks from HIV/AIDS.
than 20 million children in school Canada, the United States, Australia, Japan, and other highly developed
feeding programs in 70 different
countries. In 2008, WFP fed a nations had risk scores of five or below, which UNICEF considers of no con-
record 23 million children. sequence. Africa is the continent where children face the greatest risks.
Africa’s average score was 61, compared to Europe’s average of six, and the
FIGURE 12–21 Snapshot of the
world’s children
world average of 30.
Baby born to
a malnourished
mother
Family in Baby's
debt development
is slowed
Marry young; Poor nutrition

few job and
prospects medical care
Limited diet, Physical and

poor general mental
health development
are slowed
Reduced Poor
likelihood of performance
economic in school
success
Low literacy level
FIGURE 12–22 The cycle of poverty

Thinking Critically At what stage do you think intervention in the poverty cycle
would be most effective? How might remedies applied to developing countries differ
from those applied to poverty in Canada?

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Under-Five Mortality Rate

● What factors contribute to
UNICEF’s main measure of human development is the under-five mortality mortality rates?
rate (U5MR). Although the difference in U5MR between developing and
developed countries is slowly narrowing, children born in developing coun-
KEY TERM
tries are 13 times more likely to die under the age of five than in developed
United Nations Children’s Fund
countries. In addition, 19 of the 20 countries with the highest U5MR are in (UNICEF) a UN organization that works to
Africa. protect children’s rights, to make sure the
According to UNICEF’s 2008 report The State of the World’s Children, an basic needs of children are met and to
help children reach their full potential;
average of 26 000 children under the age of five die worldwide each day. originally called United Nations
Almost all of these children are in developing countries, and most of them International Children’s Emergency Fund
die of preventable causes. About one third die before they are one month old
because they do not have access to basic health care. Up to half of the deaths
of children under the age of five are due to undernutrition. Diseases like
measles, which is controlled by a vaccine in industrialized countries, are often
widespread and contribute to the U5MR. Many children also die of diseases
related to poor sanitation, lack of hygiene, and no access to clean water.
FIGURE 12–23 Save the Children, an interna-

tional organization working to improve children’s
lives around the world, helped children in Haiti
after the 2010 earthquake that devastated this
HIPC.
Thinking Critically What indicators would you
use to determine quality of life? How would you
measure whether you have a good life?
FA S T F O R WA R D
Controlling the Under-Five Mortality Rate

One of the UN Millennium Development Goals prevent malaria, and vitamin A supplements are
(MDGs) is to reduce the under-five mortality rate by examples of some of the initiatives that are helping to
two thirds between 1990 and 2015. In 2009, save children in developing countries. Progress has
UNICEF reported that the death rate of children been made in all parts of the world, including Malawi
under five years of age continued to decline. and some of the other least-developed countries.
Approximately 10 000 fewer children are dying every While progress has been made, the global rate of
day compared to 1990. improvement is still short of the MDG target. Combined,
The under-five mortality rate has decreased over Asia and Africa account for 93 percent of all under-five
the past two decades, with the highest rate of decline deaths that occur in developing countries each year.
(2.3 percent) between 2000 and 2008. Key health
1. What measures need to be taken to meet the
interventions have contributed to the declining mor-
MDG target to reduce the under-five mortality
tality rates. Immunizations, including measles vacci-
rate? Do you think it can be achieved?
nations, the use of insecticide-treated bed nets to

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KEY TERM Children at War

ethnic cleansing the elimination of one
ethnic group from an area by another According to a 2000 UNICEF report, about 540 million children in the
ethnic group world live in dangerous situations. Civil wars, ethnic cleansing, land mines,
and other dangers threaten children in many countries.
Each year, at least 300 000 children and young adults under the age of 18
are engaged in armed conflicts around the world, many of them in Africa.
These children have to fight as soldiers, attack civilians, and even provide
sexual services to army commanders. In Uganda, the Lord’s Resistance Army
forced new recruits to prove themselves by killing their family. War Child
International, a network of organizations that helps children affected by war,
estimates that children are employed in nearly 75 percent of all armed con-
flicts worldwide, by both regular armies and rebel groups. Approximately
80 percent of these children are younger than 15.
Amnesty International and other human rights organizations would like
to outlaw the participation of children in armed conflict. They want the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child to forbid military recruitment before
the age of 18. Countries that have 16-year-old soldiers in their armies
oppose this proposal. Other critics point out that the African population is
generally younger than 18, and that in many tribal societies a 16- or 17-year-
old is not considered a child. In Sudan and Somalia, 11- and 12-year-olds
have been involved in battle. The key issue, critics argue, should be whether
the involvement of young people in military activity is voluntary.
up close
Emmanuel Jal: Child Soldier to Child Advocate
and personal
Emmanuel Jal grew up in Southern Sudan, a country

torn apart by civil war. When he was seven years old,
his father joined the Sudan People’s Liberation Army
(SPLA), his mother was killed, and his village was
destroyed. Emmanuel was alone in a war zone. Like
thousands of other orphans lured by the promise of
an education, he decided to flee to Ethiopia. Many of
these children, including Emmanuel, were kidnapped
by the SPLA and forced to fight.
After enduring the horrors of war for four years,
he decided to join a group of child soldiers, or “lost FIGURE 12–24 In the documentary “War Child,” Emmanuel
Jal (centre) travelled back to the Sudan to help raise aware-
boys,” escaping to eastern Sudan. Of the 300 that set
ness about and help protect child soldiers.
out, fewer than 20 survived the journey across the
war zone. Emmanuel was lucky. He was taken in by a with hip hop. He promotes peace through his songs,
British aid worker, who smuggled him out of the and has used his celebrity to help fight violence and
country. raise awareness of the plight of child soldiers. His
Once free from the violence of war, Emmanuel music has been featured in several films, and a
turned to music to tell his story. He has become an documentary has been made about his experience
international star, combining traditional African styles as a child soldier.

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Working Children
In many developing countries, children work to help support themselves
and their families. Abandoned children in cities survive by begging, stealing,
or selling sex. According to the UN’s International Labour Organization
(ILO), the root causes of child labour are poverty and no access to educa-
tion. In response to these causes, the first two Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) aim to wipe out extreme poverty and achieve universal
primary education.
Working children generally come from the most vulnerable families. In
its 2006 Global Action Plan to eliminate child labour, the ILO asked UN
members to work toward eliminating the worst forms of child labour by
2016. A dozen countries, including India, Afghanistan, Sierra Leone,
Myanmar, and Somalia, have not signed the agreement. Some developing
countries are reluctant to put restrictions on children working because
70 percent of child labour is in the agricultural sector.
Unsafe Working Conditions

Children are often forced to work in unsafe conditions. An article in the
Guardian states that Plan, a children’s aid agency, “cites research showing
that Malawi has the highest incidence of child labour in southern Africa,
with 88.9 percent of 5- to 14-year-olds working in the agricultural sector. It
is estimated that more than 78 000 children work on tobacco estates—some
up to 12 hours a day... without protective clothing.” According to the article,
“child labourers as young as five are suffering severe health problems from a
daily skin absorption of up to 54 milligrams of dissolved nicotine,” which is
“equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes a day.” A Plan spokesperson concludes:
“These children are risking their health for 11p [15 cents] a day.”
The majority of child labourers are in Asia, where few labour laws regu-
late safety conditions or the hours that children work. The Hindustan Times
reported that “children are widely employed in restaurants, canteens,
garages, tanneries, and brick kilns where they work for up to fifteen hours a
day, without leave for months together. Those working as household help
are just slightly better off.”
FIGURE 12–25 Young children work

alongside adults under the scorching
sun baking bricks in Batapur,
Pakistan.

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KEY TERMS Bonded Labour

bonded labour (or debt bondage) paying Many children are forced to work as bonded labour to help pay off their
off a loan with labour rather than money;
bonded labourers often work for very little families’ debts. Craig Kielburger, a Canadian children’s rights activist,
pay and their labour is worth more than recalled his experiences with children forced to work in a carpet factory:
the original debt
subsidies grants from the government,

intended to help people
While I was [in India], Kailash Satyarthi, a social activist working to
help free children enslaved in bonded labour, led a raid on a carpet fac-
World Health Organization (WHO) a UN
agency that coordinates international
tory in which twenty-one children were rescued. These children had
health activities and helps governments been tricked into thinking that they were going to a training school to
improve health services learn how to make carpets. They were even told that they would be paid
while learning this trade. Instead, they were taken to another state far
away from their homes and forced to work fourteen hours a day for
twenty-five cents a day. They had to give the twenty-five cents back to
the carpet owner in exchange for one bowl of rice and dal, which is all
that they were fed for the day.
–Craig Kielburger
The Burden for Girls

The ILO estimates there are 100 million girls working as child
labourers. Girls are sometimes pulled out of school to earn
money so their brothers can get an education. Girls face the
double burden of working and completing domestic duties in
their own homes.
After quitting school, I started to help my parents finan-

cially. I collect garbage that can be sold from early morn-
ing till afternoon. I give the money I earn to my parents to
buy food so we can survive and send my brother to school.
When I see my friends go to school, I feel I want to cry.
Sometimes, I daydream, imagining myself in school.
–A scavenger girl from Pancur Batu, Medan, Indonesia
FIGURE 12–26 This nine-year-old girl stands in a land-
fill in Jakarta, Indonesia. Children like her scavenge
the piles of garbage for items to sell.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why are women and children more likely than 4. a) Choose five abuses of children in the develop-
men to face hardships in developing countries? ing world. Match them against the list of rights
guaranteed by the UN Convention on the Rights
2. a) What is the relationship between female literacy
of the Child (see Chapter 10).
and reduced birth rates?
b) How effective do you think the Convention on
b) Give three reasons why women’s literacy rates
the Rights of the Child will be in dealing with
in developing countries are lower than men’s.
some of these abuses? Explain your answer.
3. Do you think there should be a set age for
soldiers? Why?

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The Health Crisis ● What is the relationship

between the levels of health
In many developing countries around the world, a lack of clean water and of populations and their
medical care have resulted in a health crisis. economic development?
Clean Water: A Basic Human Need

The UN estimates that, in 2002, about 1.2 billion people around the world
did not have access to clean or enough water. Climate change, which has
On average, people in Europe
contributed to extreme droughts and damaging floods, is adding to the
use more than 200 litres [per
problem. Open water sources are contaminated. Rivers that supply water for
day]—in the United States
human use are also used for washing and disposing of waste. Irrigation for more than 400 litres. When a
agriculture takes the largest share of water supplies in the developing world. European person flushes a toi-
Many developing countries in the tropics have a dry season. The lack of let or an American person
water during this time affects agriculture and, ultimately, people’s health. showers, he or she is using
Aid programs and water subsidies are often relied upon to help those who more water than is available
can afford to pay, leaving the poor with the filthiest water. to hundreds of millions of indi-
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that improving viduals living in urban slums
drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene could prevent about 10 percent of or arid areas of the developing
diseases worldwide. Cholera and typhoid are among the diseases caused by world. Dripping taps in rich
bacteria that breed in unclean water. Almost a quarter of the developing countries lose more water
world’s population lives without any form of sanitation or sewage system. than is available each day to
The WHO believes that a “significant amount of disease could be prevented, more than 1 billion people.
especially in developing countries, through better access to safe water supply –Human Development
Report 2006
[and] adequate sanitation facilities.” Clean water is such an important factor
in living standards that the UN included reducing the number of people
without access to safe drinking water and basic cleanliness as one of its
Millennium Development Goals.
Canada has an enviable record for providing safe water to its citizens.
Yet, in May 2000, an E. coli outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario, showed how the
system can fail. The bacteria contaminated wells that supply municipal
water, making more than 2000 people ill and killing several others.
FIGURE 12–27 Nearly 400 million

people live along the Ganges, a
sacred river in India. Devout Hindus
bathe and pray in the river. The river
is also used to wash clothing, water
livestock, irrigate and drain cropland,
and carry away the cremated remains
of the dead. Industrial contaminants
also find their way into the river.
Thinking Critically What does the way
people treat their rivers tell us about
their cultural and economic values?
What are the clean water issues in
your area?

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KEY TERM The Scourge of Epidemics

malaria a deadly infectious disease
common in tropical climates, transmitted Despite advances in medicine, epidemics of tuberculosis, sexually transmit-
to humans by the mosquito ted diseases, HIV/AIDS, and malaria are widespread in the developing
world. These scourges pose a threat to the health of Canadians and fellow
citizens of the global village. Tuberculosis and malaria, between them, cause
more than five million deaths annually around the world.
WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site to learn Malaria on the Rebound
more about how Canadians can help
support initiatives to stop the spread of In northern wealthy countries, malaria is often thought of as a problem that
diseases like malaria.
has been solved. Yet malaria affects more people than ever before. It is preva-
lent in 106 countries, affecting half of the world’s population. More than 240
million cases of malaria were diagnosed in 2008, causing untold suffering
and loss of productivity in tropical countries. At least a million of these peo-
ple will eventually die. Many of them will be under the age of five, and the
majority of them live in Africa.
Why is malaria an epidemic of the poor in the developing world? For
those in remote areas or the slums of cities, help is not readily available.
Forest clearing in South America and Asia allows sunlight to warm standing
water, creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes in areas that had previously
not been affected. Because the incidence of malaria is on the rise around the
world, the World Health Organization has made fighting malaria a priority.
Currently, there is no vaccine available, so preventing malaria-carrying
mosquitoes from biting people is the the most effective way to fight the
spread of the disease. One way to do this is to use insecticide-treated bed
nets to protect people from being bitten while they sleep. Another effective
remedy is DDT, a chemical that nearly eradicated malaria by the 1960s. Due
to its overuse in agriculture, the chemical accumulated in soil and water and
was eventually banned. In countries such as Zambia, authorities have begun
to spray the inside of houses with DDT to repel and kill mosquitoes in the
hopes of reducing the spread of malaria.
FIGURE 12–28 Warm

temperatures, humidity,
and poor drainage of
surface water make
slums, like this one in
India, the perfect
breeding ground for
malaria mosquitoes.
Thinking Critically
What measures could
be taken to eliminate
mosquito breeding
areas in tropical cities?

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The HIV/AIDS Pandemic Illiteracy and

Low status of limited education,
Possibly the most serious epidemic, now and for the women/gender particularly of girls
inequity
future, is the continued spread of HIV/AIDS. The and women
virus that causes HIV/AIDS destroys the immune sys-
tem, which protects the body from disease. The virus Inadequate
Poverty
access to
passes from person to person through sexual contact, health services
and inequity
blood transfusions, sharing hypodermic needles, or
from mother to child during birth. While treatments
Rapid
are available, they are often too costly for sufferers in population
Social unrest
developing countries, making death a certainty in and armed growth and
rural–urban
many cases. conflict MAJOR migration
DETERMINANTS
The HIV/AIDS pandemic—an epidemic that OF HEALTH
occurs over a wide geographical area—affects 33 mil-
Poor
lion people worldwide. In 2008, 2.7 million people Unhealthy
nutrition/lack
human
became infected, and two million died. More than behaviour of food
security
two million children under 15 years of age were living
with HIV and 430 000 children became newly
Squatter
infected. Environmental
settlements and
degradation
Sub-Saharan Africa remains the centre of this poor housing
epidemic. Developed countries, such as Canada, have
Inadequate
kept their infection rates for HIV/AIDS to less than access to
safe water
one percent of the adult population. But in many and
sub-Saharan countries, the infection rate is out of sanitation
control. Of the 33 million people living with HIV
worldwide, 22 million are from sub-Saharan Africa. FIGURE 12–29 The major determinants of health in devel-
Further, 70 percent of those who died and 91 percent oping countries
of new HIV infections among children were in sub- Thinking Critically Use what you have learned to identify
the causes and effects that are linked on this web.
Saharan Africa (see Figure 12–30).
Adults and Adults and Adult Adult and child

Region children living children newly prevalence deaths due to
with HIV infected with HIV (%) AIDS
Sub-Saharan Africa 22.4 million 1.9 million 5.2 1.4 million
Middle East and North Africa 310 000 35 000 0.2 20 000
South and Southeast Asia 3.8 million 280 000 0.3 270 000
East Asia 850 000 75 000 <0.1 59 000
Oceania 59 000 3900 0.3 2000
Latin America 2.0 million 170 000 0.6 77 000
Caribbean 240 000 20 000 1.0 12 000
Eastern Europe and Central Asia 1.5 million 110 000 0.7 87 000
Western and Central Europe 850 000 30 000 0.3 13 000
North America 1.4 million 55 000 0.6 25 000
World 33.4 million 2.7 million 0.8 2.0 million
FIGURE 12–30 HIV/AIDS statistics for different regions in the world, 2008

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The Effect of the Pandemic

The effect of the pandemic in Africa is being felt in the structure of popula-
tions, as those dying are often the productive workers. In Botswana, life
expectancy fell from 59 in 1990 to 53 in 2007. The long-term effects will be
cultural and economic. Children have lost parents and members of their
extended family. There are at least 1 million AIDS orphans in sub-Saharan
Africa. These children may face poverty, homelessness, or loss of education
and are often forced to take on the role of parent to younger orphaned sib-
lings. As the pandemic spreads, scarce resources will have to be used to deal
with the epidemic, and it is likely to add to problems of poverty, illiteracy,
and malnutrition.
The International Community’s Response

WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site to find out The international community has been slow to react to the seriousness of
more about Canadian activist Stephen the problem. Drugs used to treat HIV/AIDS are expensive, and many coun-
Lewis and his foundation.
tries cannot afford them even though drug manufacturers have promised to
lower the prices. Few countries in sub-Saharan Africa can afford to provide
large-scale programs for their infected
populations. For example, AIDS patients
occupy 70 percent of the beds in some
hospitals in South Africa.
Dealing with the problem of
HIV/AIDS requires the cooperation of
many national and international agen-
cies. Canada has been one of the leaders
in establishing the Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS).
UNAIDS coordinates the work of such
bodies as the World Bank, the World
Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF,
and the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). It helps countries respond
FIGURE 12–31 The Grandmothers’ Gathering, hosted by the Stephen Lewis to HIV/AIDS and provides health work-
Foundation, took place in Toronto on August 11–13, 2006. Grandmothers and ers to educate people and limit the
project facilitators from 11 countries in sub-Saharan Africa came to raise
spread of the disease.
awareness of grandmothers caring for children orphaned due to HIV/AIDS.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Describe three difficulties in providing basic health 4. Why is the spread of malaria increasing?
care in developing countries.
5. Predict how the loss of productive workers from
2. Why should people in the developed world be con- the HIV/AIDS pandemic will affect the future of
cerned about the health of people in the develop- countries such as Swaziland or Botswana.
ing world?
6. What actions have the international community
3. Explain why clean water is important. taken to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic? Comment
on the success of these actions.

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Helping to Improve Living Standards KEY TERMS

United Nations Educational, Scientific,
Since the Second World War, the developed world has been providing aid to and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) a
the nations of South America, Africa, and Asia. A lack of political and eco- UN organization that helps build peace,
fight poverty, and promote sustainable
nomic stability in most of the former colonies in Asia and Africa made the development through education, the
transition to independence difficult. Foreign aid programs were chosen as sciences, culture, communication, and
the way to foster development in these countries, while at the same time information
countering the growing influence of the communist bloc. As the volume of foreign aid aid from rich, industrialized
aid grew, the political and humanitarian motives of aid donors became countries to poorer, developing countries
interconnected. official development assistance (ODA)

aid given to developing countries through
official government programs to promote
economic development and the welfare of
Foreign Aid the people
Development assistance, or the foreign aid received by developing countries, multilateral aid aid delivered through
takes a number of forms: international organizations such as the UN
and the World Bank
• Official development assistance (ODA) is delivered by governments.
tied aid aid given to a foreign country with
• Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) give another type of aid. conditions attached
• Multilateral aid is funded by a number of governments, and usually
involves large-scale programs like dam building.
• Bilateral aid goes directly from one country to another.
Developing nations receive foreign aid from various sources. It can come
through international bodies such as the United Nations or from national
government agencies that manage the distribution of foreign aid. It can also
come from NGOs representing religious groups, service organizations such
as Rotary International, and other non-profit organizations, such as Oxfam.
Tied Aid
Much bilateral aid is often tied aid, given
with conditions attached. For example,
donated money must be spent on goods
bought from the donor country. More
than 40 percent of Canadian bilateral and
multilateral aid has been tied to
Canadian purchases. A criticism of
Western aid projects is that they have
been tied too much to the trade system
that benefits the industrialized countries
at the expense of the developing world.
In 2008, the Canadian government
announced that food aid had been fully
untied and CIDA’s development aid
funding would be fully untied by 2013.
FIGURE 12–32 A soldier prepares supplies from the Canadian Red Cross
and CIDA to be shipped to Iran following a devastating 2003 earthquake
that left thousands dead and injured.

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Development Assistance Goals

In the 1960s, a UN commission led by Canadian Prime Minister Lester
Pearson set a target for development assistance of 0.7 percent of donor
countries’ gross national product (GNP). That goal remains today, although
countries rarely reach it. Canada’s foreign aid has been decreasing for the
past two decades. In 1984, Canada pledged to reach the UN aid target by
2000. As Figure 12–33 shows, Canada’s aid was at 0.32 of the GNP in 2008,
falling short of the 0.7 percent target.
Many UN agencies are dedicated to improving the living standards of
people in the developing world. For example, UNICEF has been in the fore-
front in fighting iodine deficiency disorder, a disease that can stunt growth
and brain development. The addition of a few grams of inexpensive iodized
table salt to the daily diet prevents this disorder. With UNICEF’s help, a
campaign to iodize table salt has all but eliminated iodine deficiency in
Bolivia. Canada was one of the major supporters of this initiative, which was
one of UNICEF’s most successful public health programs.
1.20
1.00 1987
Percentage of GDP
2008
0.80 UN target for official development assistance
0.60
0.40
0.20
0
ay ds en rk ce nd m da ny ly ia d n * m d s d ia *
Ita stral erlan Japa DAC gdo alan State relan ustr ece* urg* gal* ain*
* * *
rw lan wed nma Fran Finla elgiu ana rma
No ther S D e B C Ge u
A w i t z A L K i n Z e d I A r e b o r t u S p
Ne T d w ite G em Po
S TO nite Ne Un Lu
x
U
*DAC = Development Assistance Committee
**1987 data not available
FIGURE 12–33 Official development assistance (ODA) targets in 2008 as a percentage of GNP
Thinking Critically What could be done to ensure Canada meets its target for development assistance? Is there any value in
setting these kinds of targets if there is a consistent lack of political, social, and economic will to see them through?
FA S T F O R WA R D
What If…
What if Canada and the United
States put all of their military Foreign Aid Versus Military Spending
spending for one year into
foreign aid? What do you think Around the world, the money spent on aid is still dwarfed by military
the results might be? spending. In 2008, military spending was an estimated US$1464 billion
worldwide, accounting for 2.4 percent of global GDP. UN aid agencies
estimate that a fraction of this total would be needed each year to meet
the Millennium Development Goals. They believe that the annual cost of
meeting all the MDGs would be about US$143 billion in 2010, rising to
US$189 billion in 2015.

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Canada’s Foreign Aid Program

● What role does Canada play in
Canada’s foreign aid programs began by supporting newly independent aiding developing countries?
Commonwealth countries in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. These pro-
grams took on greater significance under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. In
KEY TERM
1968, his government created the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA) to administer Canada’s aid to developing countries. Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA) Canada’s leading
CIDA is responsible for administering much of Canada’s foreign aid development agency for assistance to the
budget. Like all such organizations, it develops plans and strategies for developing world
administering its budget and directing money to areas it deems worthy.
CIDA has six priority areas: basic human needs; women in development;
infrastructure services; human rights, democracy, and good government;
private sector development; and the environment. The agency maintains
that its programs
• provide people with access to clean water and sanitation
• improve women’s lives by reducing poverty
• promote access to rural services such as rural electricity and communi-
cations
• strengthen democratic development and increase respect for human
rights
• help to create jobs
• protect the environment
One way that CIDA deals with foreign aid is to find “partners”—univer-
sities, non-government organizations (NGOs), and businesses—that will
agree to administer programs or otherwise cooperate with the government.
These partners help CIDA to run projects in more than 100 of the poorest
countries in the world. CIDA is particularly interested in sustainable devel-
opment, and it also helps groups to upgrade technology, find and train
teachers, improve agriculture, and so on. When this book was written, the
Canadian government’s official position was to promote the use of geneti-
cally modified seeds and foods, so CIDA is likely to take a similar position.
FIGURE 12–34 One of CIDA’s

projects involves children in Africa.
How might making living conditions
better for poor children in other parts
of the world benefit Canada?

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CIDA’s Foreign Aid Policy

CIDA distributes aid through UN agencies, directly to
governments, and through NGOs. Multilateral programs
support efforts such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS,
Tuberculosis, and Malaria and the UN’s World Food
Programme. Approximately 53 percent of Canada’s total
aid budget goes to bilateral aid.
In 2009, CIDA announced a change in policy that
focuses 80 percent of Canada’s bilateral assistance on
20 priority countries and areas, with the goal of getting
more resources to those in need. Programs vary by
region. For example, aid is focused on combatting
FIGURE 12–35 Women stall owners in Bolivia’s Sipe Sipe poverty and inequity in South America. Under this pol-
marketplace have taken classes on women’s rights, gender
icy, Canada’s largest aid program will help to rebuild and
equality, and leadership through the CIDA-funded Centre for
the Study of Economic and Social Reality. develop Afghanistan with $1.2 billion over 10 years. The
Thinking Critically Why would women need to take these focus is on security, education, and humanitarian aid,
various courses in order to run a market stall? including food, health care, and clearing land mines.
Critics of CIDA’s focus complain that Canada is not
sending enough aid to Africa. In a 2002 document, CIDA noted that two
thirds of the least-developed countries and two thirds of HIV/AIDS cases
worldwide were in Africa. Although this region will still get aid, most of
WEB LINK • Canada’s bilateral aid will now go to countries on the priority list. Less is left
You can learn more about CIDA
and its programs in the 20 countries
for African countries at the bottom of the Human Development Index, such
of focus at the Pearson Web site. as Niger and Burkina Faso. The government claims that focusing the aid will
make it more effective.
Priority countries
for aid
Other countries
for aid 0 2000 4000 km
FIGURE 12–36 Countries of focus for Canadian bilateral assistance

Americas: Bolivia, Caribbean Regional Program, Colombia, Haiti, Honduras, Peru; Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Indonesia, Pakistan, Vietnam; Eastern Europe: Ukraine; North Africa and Middle East: West Bank and Gaza;
Sub-Saharan Africa: Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Mozambique, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania
Thinking Critically What are the advantages and disadvantages of targeting 80 percent of Canada’s bilateral assistance
on these 20 priority countries and areas (in dark purple)?

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Global Problems, Local Solutions ● How do we determine the

success of aid programs in
Non-governmental organizations’ aid projects often operate at the grass-
assisting developing countries?
roots level, providing help directly to people. Initiatives range from well-
known, large organizations, such as the Red Cross and Doctors Without
Borders, to smaller groups that deal with local projects. Often, the develop-
ment assistance of NGOs has been more effective than the large projects
sponsored by governments because the aid goes directly to the people
who benefit.
In Bangladesh, women—many of them landless labourers or
wives abandoned by husbands—work on a CARE scheme repairing
dirt roads for a four-year period. A portion of their wages of $1 a day
is held back and then given to them as a lump sum to invest. Some
women establish small businesses or buy motorized rickshaws or
plots of land. Most are able to stop the cycle of poverty, improve their
living conditions, and provide for their children’s education.
Changes in Aid
Billions of dollars in aid have been spent in developing countries,
much of it without improving conditions for the poor. Dictators or
local elites are often the winners in the aid sweepstakes. The most
successful forms of aid have come from programs that consult the
local people and listen to their suggestions.
In recent years, governments have followed the lead of NGOs by
promoting small-scale projects that can be maintained locally and FIGURE 12–37 This women’s weaving
are appropriate to the region’s environment. Wells with simple co-operative in Banaue, Philippines, was
pumps replace irrigation projects, tools are made from local or recy- started with a grant and loan from a local
development agency. Members pay a
cled materials, and local people are given the means to sustain their small annual fee, which goes toward the
own development initiatives. purchase of yarn. The weavers sell their
It is clear that poverty is at the root of problems in the develop- products through local craft shops to
tourists. To generate income in the months
ing world. Women and children in particular are trapped in a cycle of
when there are few tourists, the co-op
poverty. High birth rates, high infant mortality rates, low literacy buys and sells rice. Membership in
rates, high instances of disease, and other problems are all connected. the co-op entitles weavers to small, low-
Too many of the world’s people are still poorly housed, malnour- interest loans.
ished, in poor health, and without a secure economic future.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. In an organizer, list the types of aid Canada sends 4. Give three reasons for and three reasons against
to developing countries and comment on the pros the statement that funding NGOs is the most
and cons of each type of aid. effective way to get aid to the developing world.
2. Make a list of the top three priorities Canada 5. In a two-column organizer, list the pros and cons
should follow in distributing aid to the developing of Canada’s official development assistance (ODA)
world. Support each of your choices. policy of focusing 80 percent of bilateral aid on 20
countries. Do you support this change? Why or
3. Make a list of reasons for and against a proposal
why not?
to increase the amount of aid Canada gives to
developing countries.

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counter points
Should Canada link its foreign aid to human rights?

the events of September 11, 2001, the “war on terror”
revived support for regimes with poor human rights
records, such as Pakistan and Indonesia, in an effort
to combat Islamic militants and al-Qaeda.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
other UN-sponsored agreements, such as the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women, call for protection of
the political, legal, and social rights of women. Two of
the Millennium Development Goals are focused on
women and maternity. CIDA’s Policy Framework for
Women in Development calls for women to be involved
in planning and delivering aid programs in countries
receiving aid. Should Canada insist that all countries
FIGURE 12–38 Since 2003, there have been human rights viola- comply with these requirements?
tions against mostly black, Christian farmers in the south of Darfur,
Sudan. When the International Criminal Court issued a warrant for
Sudan’s president in 2009, he responded by expelling many of the
The Case for Denying Aid
aid agencies helping the refugees who fled their farms. The people Those in favour of denying aid say that it is not enough
of Darfur face continuing government-sponsored violence and are for Canada just to support UN conventions and formu-
in desperate need of aid.
late policy. The best way to change the practice of
these governments is to deny aid whenever human
Most Canadians would likely agree that the 1 billion peo-
rights are violated. Also, there is no guarantee that the
ple living in extreme poverty worldwide should benefit
aid will get to the poor and underprivileged. In support-
from foreign aid programs. Yet many of these people live
ing a strong emphasis on human rights, Lloyd Axworthy,
under regimes that are regularly accused of abusing
human rights. To what extent should Canadian aid be
tied to the human rights records of governments
receiving help?
As outlined in Chapter 10, the interest in human
rights grew in response to wartime atrocities. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the agree-
ments that followed have become international bench-
marks, and the actions of a state toward its citizens are
now measured against these standards. The UN takes
the position that official development assistance (ODA)
cannot reach its potential where human rights are being
violated. Yet places where human rights are abused,
such as Zimbabwe, can also be the countries that have
the greatest need for humanitarian aid.
It was not until the 1970s that human rights began
to feature widely in foreign aid, and Scandinavian coun-
tries were the first ones to express their concern. Before FIGURE 12–39 Many women in developing countries are denied
rights that Canadian women take for granted. In rural societies in
1990, Cold War rivalries meant that foreign aid often India and countries that promote strict interpretation of Islamic law,
propped up dictators and repressive regimes. Following women have little freedom.

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Judgements
a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, noted that

Analyzing the Issue
“...respect for human rights is a critical component of
the Canadian identity and therefore must play an impor- 1. In a two-column organizer, list the reasons for and
tant role in our foreign policy agenda.” against giving aid to countries whose governments
have poor human rights records.
The Case for Giving Aid
2. Which side of the debate do you support? Explain.
Those opposed to denying aid point out that diverse cul-
3. Human rights advocates claim there is a list of basic
tures have different interpretations of rights (see the dis-
human rights that could be accepted by all cultures.
cussion of cultural exceptionalism in Chapter 10). They
a) If this is true, what rights would that list contain
claim the UN Declaration of Human Rights represents a
and how might they appeal to all cultures?
Western view of rights, a view not all people agree with.
b) If you disagree, explain why.
Can there be one code of ethics in a world of diverse
cultures, languages, values, and religions? People must 4. Write a letter to the Minister for International
be allowed to follow their own culture’s teachings about Cooperation outlining the precautions you would
rights and tolerance—including the treatment of women. advise the ministry to take to ensure that Canada’s
These critics maintain that good causes are not development aid gets to poor people in need.
made better by confusing needs with rights, and dia- 5. Humanitarian groups have criticized developed
logue is the key to bringing about change. In practical countries for abuses of human rights, such as the
terms, not addressing poverty in developing nations cre- disproportionate number of Aboriginal people in
ates breeding grounds for social unrest, political instabil- Canadian prisons. What is your reaction to the sug-
ity, and terrorism, as seen in Sudan, Ethiopia, and other gestion that Western countries should not impose
countries around the world. standards for human rights on developing countries
until all human rights claims against themselves
The Pragmatic View have been dealt with? Explain.
Some might argue that aid policies reflect the
donor government’s political and economic EGYPT
LIBYA
interests, and that these will generally out- SAUDI ARABIA
weigh human rights. With democratic govern-
ments facing regular elections, the need to OMAN
CHAD
Khartoum ERITREA
ensure a healthy economy and respond to Asmara
YEMEN
pressure from business and special interest Darfur
groups often means that human rights issues SUDAN
DJIBOUTI Djibouti
are sacrificed. For example, in 2006 Prime N
Minister Stephen Harper said he would not Addis
CENTRAL Abbaba
“abandon important Canadian values” by ton- AFRICAN ETHIOPIA
REPUBLIC
ing down criticism of China’s human rights SOMALIA
record to improve trade relations with China.
DEMOCRATIC UGANDA
During a visit to China in 2009, Harper noted Mogadishu
REPUBLIC KENYA
that “a mutually beneficial economic relation- Kampala
OF CONGO
ship is not incompatible with a good and frank Nairobi INDIAN OCEAN
RWANDA
dialogue on fundamental values like freedom, BURUNDI
TANZANIA 0 250 500 km
human rights and the rule of law.”

FIGURE 12–40 Map of Somalia, Ethiopia, and other countries in the Horn of
Africa

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CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION How do living standards in Canada compare with those of
developing countries and what is being done to close the poverty
gap and improve human development around the world?
As you read in this chapter, there are great differ-

A Developing
ences in the standards of living of people in devel- Factors Canada
Country
oped and developing countries, particularly those in Life expectancy
the least-developed countries. There are many GDP
factors that contribute to living standards and they Employment rates
contribute to the varying standards in countries Living conditions
around the world. Education/literacy
Level of health care
1. a) In an organizer, indicate how each of the fac-
Safe water
tors listed (and others you wish to add) influ-
Diseases
ence living standards in Canada, which is a
Fertility rates
developed country, and a developing country.
Infant mortality
b) Use the list of factors to create a web or Gender equality
mind map. Connect these factors with lines Nutrition
to show how the factors are related and Hygiene
depend on one another in the developed and Sanitation
the developing world. You could use different Number of young dependants
coloured lines to distinguish between Canada Environment
and developing countries, or make a sepa- Land use
rate web or mind map for each. Climate change
Political system
Armed conflict
2. What three factors do you consider most important Human Development Index Millennium Development Goals
in determining Canada’s standard of living and the literacy rate GDP per capita
standard of living of a developing country? Explain heavily indebted poor NGOs
countries WHO
your choices in each case.
multinational companies UNICEF
3. What factor do you think Canadian governments tied aid HIV/AIDS
should target to improve the standard of living of under-five mortality rate World Bank
Canadians? Support your choice. CIDA infrastructure
malaria
4. What factor would you choose to target if you were
to develop an aid program for one of the least devel-
oped countries? Explain your choice. Knowledge and Understanding
6. Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the
Vocabulary Focus life of a child in a developing country involved in civil
5. Match five terms from the left column with five war with that of a child you know in Canada.
terms from the right column. Use a term once only. Summarize the similarities and differences.
In each case, explain how each set of two terms 7. Why is the under-five mortality rate so important?
relates to standards of living. How is it used to gauge living standards?

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8. List the five most pressing problems facing Africa in 17. Some people believe that giving developing coun-
the order they need to be addressed to raise the tries money or relieving their debts is the best way to
standard of living. help them. Others argue that sharing technology
and teaching them techniques to address their
9. The United Nations, International Monetary Fund,
problems will be more beneficial over the long term.
World Bank, and Organisation for Economic
Which approach do you think would be more effec-
Co-operation and Development have set a goal of
tive in solving the problems of developing countries?
cutting in half extreme poverty in the world by 2015.
Explain.
What steps do you think should be taken to achieve
this aim by
a) these world financial institutions? Document Analysis
b) the developing countries? 18. a) Explain the relationship between women’s educa-
c) Canada? tion and fertility that is evident in the graph below
10. Discuss the importance of access to clean water. (Figure 12–41).
11. List the arguments a person from one of the least- b) How would you describe the development level of
developed countries might make for the benefits countries with low secondary school enrolments?
of smaller local development projects over larger With high enrolments?
projects.
12. Outline the main points of an advertising strategy

convincing people that their governments should 8
divert 10 percent of military spending to developing
countries for development aid. 7 Niger
Afghanistan Democratic
Republic of
Chad
Critical Thinking 6 Burkina Faso
Congo
Guinea-Bissau
Mali
13. Almost 20 percent of Canada’s children are esti- Sierra Leone
Total Fertility Rate
5
mated to be living in poverty. With a partner, list in Central Burundi
African
order of priority five steps the government should Republic
4
take to improve their standards of living. Display the
U.S.
list, with appropriate artwork, in a poster. Iceland
3 Ireland
India
14. Judgements With a partner, develop a Charter of Norway
Sweden
Aid. Include in it the criteria Canada should use in Mexico
2 France
China
deciding which countries will receive Canadian Australia
Netherlands
assistance. Canada
1
Switzerland
15. Create a cause-effect-results organizer (see Japan
Chapter 3) for the causes of diseases, their effects, 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
and how safer water supplies might contain their
Literacy Rate (%)
spread.
FIGURE 12–41 Women’s fertility rates in relation to their literacy
16. Why do you think there has been limited progress in rates
achieving the UN’s Millennium Development Goals
to this point in time? Provide reference to specific
goals. Present possible solutions to help increase
the likelihood of meeting the goals.

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13a_Ch13_CP11_2e_se_F.qxd:Layout 1 4/23/10 1:13 PM Page 422
13
GUIDING QUESTIONS
The Environment: Our Challenges
and Responsibilities
Politics & Government
● How has the international

community responded to ozone
depletion?

community responded to
climate change?
● What are the principal

international agreements
concerning the environment?
● How are resources, the

environment, and human
populations interconnected?
● What is sustainable
development?
● What are the environmental

threats to water resources and
how might they be addressed?
● Should Canada treat water as a

resource to be traded?
● How is human activity

affecting the atmosphere and
the ozone layer?
● What is global warming?
● How can we offset

environmental threats at the
local, national, and
international levels?
TIMELINE
1962 1970 1971 1972 1974 1987 1988

Rachel Carson’s First Earth Day Canadian government UN Conference on the Agricultural Land The UN report Our The UN creates
book Silent Spring establishes the Human Environment is held Reserve established Common Future Intergovernmental
is published Department of the in Stockholm, Sweden, and in B.C. urges the developed Panel on Climate
Environment leads to creation of the world to limit the use Change
B.C. activists found United Nations Environment of resources for a
Greenpeace Programme (UNEP) sustainable lifestyle

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Change
How is global development causing environmental issues and what
challenges do they pose for Canada? Judgements CRITICAL Evidence
INQUIRY
Cause and
Earth’s resources, environment, and human populations are intercon-

nected. As the world’s population increases, the scale of human impact
on the planet grows. Oceans, fresh water, soil, forests, minerals, and KEY TERMS
energy resources have been used, and often abused. Our use of fossil deforestation
fuels has caused the thinning of the ozone layer and the greenhouse global warming
effect. We have caused harmful changes in the biosphere, the zone of acid precipitation
earth, water, and air in which we live. Our livelihoods come from this CO2 emissions
groundwater
thin zone, and all things, including people, eventually return to it.
aquifer
Canada has a unique perspective on the effects of changes to the
greenhouse gases (GHG)
environment caused by human activities. The impact of global ultraviolet radiation (UV)
warming is evident in the Arctic’s melting ice and permafrost, and in ozone layer
the decreased water flows from retreating glaciers in the Rocky CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
Mountains. Changes to the environment threaten Canada’s boreal Montréal Protocol
Kyoto Protocol
and temperate forests. The overuse of resources has depleted marine
harvests and other food supplies, and our health is compromised by
toxins in our rivers and soils. Changes to the environment also cause
extreme weather, such as droughts, storms, and floods.
Canada, along with other industrialized countries, must take its
share of responsibility for causing problems related to environmen-
tal changes. As a major consumer and exporter of resources and fos-
sil fuels, we leave a larger environmental footprint than countries of
comparable size. While major decisions are made by government
and industry, many individuals and communities have become
active in helping to protect the environment. Recycling, composting,
and green energy initiatives are all examples of how Canadians can
work to preserve a healthy environment.
In this chapter, you will examine some of the changes in our
environment, including global warming, the depletion of the ozone
layer, and the threats to our water resources. You will also look at
some of the solutions proposed and initiatives launched to help
address the problems created by environmental changes.
1992 1997 2000 2007 2008 2009 2014

Earth Summit in Countries signing Environmental Fourth Assessment Report British Columbia UN Climate Change Fifth Assessment
Rio de Janeiro, the Kyoto Protocol Protection Act of Intergovernmental Panel government Conference in Report of
Brazil, calls for a commit to cut comes into force on Climate Change introduces a Copenhagen, Intergovernmental
sustainable world their CO2 in Canada Bali conference held to carbon tax on Denmark Panel on Climate
economy emissions agree on new treaty to energy Change
replace Kyoto in 2012
Chapter 13 ■ The Environment: Our Challenges and Responsibilities 423

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● How are resources, the Why Care About the Environment?

environment, and human
populations interconnected? People are changing Earth and the effects are seen all over the planet. The
world’s boreal forests are threatened with increased fire risk, water needs are
outstripping supply, flooding and storms are more severe, and tropical dis-
KEY TERMS eases are affecting people farther north. For years, there have been warnings
biosphere regions of Earth occupied by about how people’s actions affect the environment. In 1992, 1700 concerned
living organisms, made up of all the scientists from around the globe signed the World Scientists’ Warning to
ecozones
Humanity:
stewardship careful management of
resources to ensure that they are
sustainable Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course. Human
permafrost subsoil that remains frozen all activities inflict harsh and often irreversible damage on the environ-
year long ment and on critical resources.... A great change in our stewardship of
carrying capacity the largest population the Earth and the life on it is required, if vast human misery is to be
that an environment can support avoided and our global home on this planet is not to be irretrievably
deforestation the process of destroying a mutilated.
forest and replacing it with something else
Despite these warnings, people continue to take

Earth and its resources for granted. In 2009, the
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) report on climate change again warned
that “serious and irreversible changes in Earth’s
Ecosystems due to anthropogenic [human] activ-
ities are increasingly recognized....”
It can be difficult to convince Canadians that
rising temperatures are a problem even though
the changes are evident. Extreme weather condi-
tions, such as the ice storm that hit eastern
Ontario and Québec in January 1998, are hap-
pening more frequently. Warmer weather brings
more droughts that make forest fires more likely.
Canada’s Arctic regions show some of the
most dramatic signs of change. Sea ice is shrink-
ing and the seasonal melt is happening weeks
earlier. Polar bears are in danger of extinction as
they slowly starve because they cannot use the ice
to hunt seals. Arctic communities face sinking
shorelines and transport problems as a result of
melting permafrost. The effects of these climate
changes are also political. Some countries,
including the United States, Russia, Denmark,
and Norway, see the potential for economic
wealth from oil and natural gas deposits in the
Arctic seabed and shipping lanes through an ice-
FIGURE 13–1 The top photograph shows Arctic ice in September, 1979. free Northwest Passage. These nations question
The bottom photograph shows the same view in September, 2005. Canada’s claim to sovereignty over the Arctic, as
Interpreting a Photograph What differences do you see between the two you read in Chapter 7.
photographs? What do the differences mean?

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Population Growth and Sustainability

As you read in Chapter 11, Earth is getting more and more crowded every
day. Each year, nearly 80 million people are added to the world’s population,
putting more pressure on Earth’s natural systems. Because much of the pop-
ulation increase is in the developing world, the impact is not as great as if it
had occurred in the developed world. About 80 percent of the goods and
services produced from the world’s resources are being consumed by 20 per-
cent of the world’s population, mainly in industrialized Western countries.
As an increasing number of nations reach the development levels of the
industrialized world, pollution and waste levels are rising and threaten to
overwhelm Earth’s carrying capacity and
natural systems.
Feeding a Growing Population

The United Nations estimates that the world’s
population will be close to 8 billion by 2028 (see
Chapter 11). Massive amounts of land and water
are required to feed all these people. For exam-
ple, 70 percent of the world’s water is used for
agriculture. It can take up to 1500 litres of water
to produce 1 kilogram of wheat and 500 litres for
1 kilogram of potatoes. As standards of living
improve, people are eating more meat and dairy FIGURE 13–2 The Tata Nano, produced in India, is a compact car
aimed at the millions of motorcycle owners in the developing world.
products, which puts the greatest strain on It features low emissions, excellent fuel economy, and a starting
resources. For example, it takes about 1000 litres price of about $2500.
of water to produce 1 litre of milk, and nearly Thinking Critically What impact do you think the Tata Nano will
16 000 litres to produce 1 kilogram of beef. have on the economy, people’s lifestyles, and the environment if
Added to this are the costs of deforestation to many people in the developing world drive them?
create grazing land, energy use to ship food, and

depletion of resources. The problem may not
only be how to feed the world’s growing popula-
tion, but how to ensure enough resources are Oceans 71%
available to keep up with the increase.
Agricultural Practices
Soil is one of our primary resources. It is the Arable land 3%
basis of plant life, which in turn gives us food
and other resources. It can take hundreds of
years for soil to form in some places. But it can Meadows and
be eroded by wind or water in a fraction of that pastures 7%
time. In North America, the “dust bowl” of the

1930s (see Chapter 4) led to improved farming Forests and Land that supports
woodlands little or no plant life
techniques, such as planting trees to form wind 9% 10%
breaks, contour plowing, and using wheat stub-
ble and straw to return nutrients to the soil and FIGURE 13–3 Only a small percentage of Earth’s surface can be
stop wind erosion. used for growing crops, yet soils are being lost and degraded
around the world.

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KEY TERMS Today, Canada’s farmers face challenges, such as changes in weather
global warming the observed and pro- patterns due to global warming, urban settlements encroaching on farm-
jected increase in the earth’s average tem- land, competition from giant farms operated by multinational corporations,
perature due to burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation
and genetically modified crops mixing with regular crops. More than 100
genetically modified foods, such as soybeans, corn, and potatoes, have been
ecology the science concerned with the
relationship between living things and
approved by the Canadian government. Many of these crops rely on herbi-
their environment cides, which increase the risk of damage to the environment and possibly
acid precipitation any form of precipita- lead to long-term effects on people’s health.
tion that is high in sulfuric and nitric acids
as a result of pollution in the air Making Room for People
Forests are a vital part of world ecology because they take in carbon dioxide
and give off oxygen. Almost half of the forests that covered Earth before
humans began to practise agriculture have been cleared or are in a degraded
state. Every day, approximately 350 square kilometres of forest are lost
worldwide. These forests are being turned into agricultural or grazing land,
harvested for timber, or cleared to make room for human settlements. Many
forests and natural areas are also suffering from the effects of industrial pol-
lution, such as acid precipitation. When the environment can no longer
neutralize the acidic content of the soil and water, plants and animals die,
and entire ecosystems are ruined.
Without the protection of trees and their roots, wind and rain can erode
the soil and leave barren landscapes. This damage is particularly severe on
hillsides, where soil erosion and deadly mudslides can silt lakes and rivers,
affecting water quality and
4. Soil silts up reservoirs, marine ecosystems. Floods are
shortening life of dams
more common when forests are
no longer there to absorb and
1. Trees cut down slowly release rainfall. In
3. Washed-out soil raises
river beds, leading to floods Canada, deforestation deprives
wildlife of habitat, which may
2. Without protection lead to more attacks by bears
of forest cover, soil
is stripped away by
and cougars as urban
rain, melting snow 5. Silt forms new islands settlements encroach on their
in rivers and depletes territory.
coastal fisheries
FIGURE 13–4 The immediate effects of deforestation are dramatic and wide ranging.
Thinking Critically Where in Canada are forests being cleared? What steps could be
taken to slow the rate of clearing?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Write three different headlines, each one summa- 4. Explain why soil is an important resource.
rizing one of the concerns in the World Scientists’
5. List three farming techniques used to protect soils.
Warning to Humanity.
6. Explain the challenges and concerns faced by
2. Provide specific examples of environmental
farmers today.
changes in Canada’s Arctic.
7. Discuss the environmental impact of deforestation.
3. Explain the difficulties of feeding a growing world
population.

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B u i l d i n g Yo u r S k i l l s CRITICAL
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Problem solving is the process of figuring out how to Practising the Skill
reach a desired goal. Decision making is the process of Canadians are used to discarding their solid waste in
selecting one of two or more possible solutions to a landfills. In some large urban centres, landfills are full
problem. and there is nowhere for the garbage to go. Some peo-
ple worry that if landfills are not managed properly,
Steps to Problem Solving and Decision they can pollute groundwater and emit methane gas.
Making What are some possible solutions to the problem of
1. Identify the problem. Analyze the components of solid waste disposal?
the issue and any relationships among the parts. • Many cities encourage people to decrease waste
State the problem clearly and concisely. by using the three Rs—reduce, reuse, and recy-
2. Gather all the information you can. Research the cle. Some cities also restrict the amount of waste
issue. Take note of cause and effect when they they will accept. This approach can be expensive,
apply. as cities need to collect, sort, and recycle the
materials they collect, as well as promote their pro-
3. Brainstorm possible options or solutions.
grams and convince people to change their habits.
Generate ideas on the subject. Include those you
have read about as well as any ideas you come up • Other cities incinerate some of their solid waste to
with. Do not try to evaluate ideas at this stage. keep it out of landfills. This approach has the
advantage of producing heat, which in turn can be
4. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of
used to produce electricity. But some people argue
each option. Use organizers or other aids to help
that the smoke and ash released into the air con-
you categorize the options and solutions.
tain hazardous chemicals.
5. Rank the options. Evaluate the options or
• Another option is to ship solid waste to rural areas.
solutions and select the top three choices.
While this might solve the problem for one city, it
6. Decide on the option you think is the best. Be
could cause problems where the new landfill is
able to support your decision with a number of
created. It also costs money and uses fuel to ship
reasons.
the waste, which increases the environmental foot-
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of your decision. If you print of the landfill.
are dissatisfied with the results, return to step five
and select from the remaining two choices.
Applying the Skill
1. Evaluate the solutions presented and look for other

options. Decide which option you think is best and
support your decision with reasons.
2. Use the steps to problem solving and decision

making to examine the following issues.
a) The Alberta oil sands
b) Rising water levels in coastal areas
c) Alternative energy sources in British Columbia
d) Preserving sufficient natural habitat for wildlife
FIGURE 13–5 Some experts estimate that more than 90

percent of waste from Canada’s cities ends up in landfills.

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● What is sustainable
Sustainable Development
development?
Although scientists have warned of the harmful effects of environmental
change for many years, developed nations have made only moderate
KEY TERMS progress toward sustainable development. Globalization and the emphasis
sustainable development a way to main- on economic growth have encouraged wasteful consumption habits. One
tain economic growth without damaging example of the devastating effects of abusing natural resources is the
the environment
collapse of the cod fisheries off the coast of Newfoundland. Overfishing
Earth Summit a meeting of world leaders,
depleted cod stocks to the point that the Canadian government imposed a
held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, to
discuss environmental changes and sus- moratorium on cod fishing in 1992 and finally banned cod fishing alto-
tainable development gether in 2003. This marked the end of an industry that thousands of
Agenda 21 a statement of environmental Newfoundlanders depended on. Future generations depend on today’s lead-
action, produced at the 1992 Earth ers and individuals to find sustainable ways to support economic growth.
Summit, that outlines actions that should
be taken to protect the planet and achieve
sustainable development
International Efforts
herbicides substances used to kill plants
Many international meetings have discussed how to maintain economic
growth without damaging the environment so much that it compromises
pesticides substances used to kill pests
such as unwanted plants and animals the future of life on Earth. In 1987, the United Nations World Commission
on Environment and Development published its report, Our Common
organic grown or produced without chem-
ical fertilizers or pesticides Future, asking people in the developed world to reduce resource consump-
CO2 emissions carbon dioxide emissions
tion and develop a sustainable lifestyle. In 1992, 172 nations participated in
caused by burning of fossil fuels; largest the UN’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. International leaders
contributor to global warming looked at various environmental issues that affect people around the world,
biodiversity having a variety of life forms including toxic chemicals used in production (for example, lead in gasoline
ecotourism tourism to threatened areas and radioactive waste), alternative energy sources to replace fossil fuels, and
that tries to be low-impact and small-scale the scarcity of water. The conference produced a statement of action called
Agenda 21. This document proposed several actions that should be taken
globally, nationally, and locally to achieve sustainable development. Despite
WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site to
having this blueprint for action, there has been little progress in slowing the
learn more about the Earth wasteful consumption that threatens the well-being of the planet.
Summit and Agenda 21.
The First Nations’ Approach
Some approaches to sustainable develop-
ment are modelled on Aboriginal peoples’
practice of environmental stewardship
and responsibility. On their Web site, the
Squamish Lil’wat First Nation says,
“Elders teach that we should keep in
mind seven generations ahead of us in
everything we do, to ensure that we care
for future generations in our present
decisions.” This idea of responsibility has
inspired many people to think about how
their actions affect others and what they
FIGURE 13–6 The Gwa’ni Hatchery, near Alert Bay on Vancouver Island, is can do today to protect the environment
part of the Namgis First Nation Project, which helps to ensure that salmon for future generations.
stocks are managed and sustained for future generations.
Thinking Critically What elements of the First Nations’ approach to decision
making can you see in different environmental protection programs in your
school or community?

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Farming for the Future

The globalization of agriculture has led to unsustain-
able practices such as offshore farms (see Chapter 12)
and large-scale farming operations (often referred to
as “factory farms”). These approaches keep costs down
by using large-scale, assembly-line methods to mass
produce livestock and crops. Multinational corpora-
tions, such as Monsanto and DuPont, have tried to
control markets for their seeds, fertilizers, and pesti-
cides by aggressively promoting the genetically modi-
fied (GM) seeds they develop. These companies argue
that new biotechnologies are necessary to feed the
growing world population. Critics point to the envi-
ronmental effects of using GM seeds. GM crops FIGURE 13–7 The market for natural pest control is growing.
depend on herbicides and pesticides, rather than nat- One ladybug can eat up to 4000 harmful insects in its lifetime.
ural defences, and these chemicals can be dangerous as Thinking Critically What other activities might use chemicals
that would harm the soil and affect the environment?
they seep into groundwater and streams.
Becoming more aware of the impact food produc-
tion has on the environment and their health has prompted many people to
adopt a more sustainable diet. This change is reflected in the increase in certi- WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site to learn
fied organic farms in Canada to more than 3500 in 2006. But organic farms more about foods produced in British
represent only 0.9 percent of Canada’s agricultural land, and most of these Columbia.
farms grow cereal crops for export. At the same time, nearly 90 percent of
organic food bought in Canada is imported. Concern over the environmental
impact of shipping food great distances has led some people to become “loca-
vores,” eating foods that are grown or produced locally. Supporters of this
diet say it is more sustainable because shorter shipping distances reduce
CO2 emissions. Despite this growing demand, many local farmers find it
hard to compete with low-priced imported food and must produce crops in
demand for export in order to make enough money to get by.
Can We Preserve Our Forests?

Around the world, 1.6 billion people depend on forests for food, shelter, and
employment. Forests also protect biodiversity and remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. To emphasize the importance of forests and support
efforts to promote sustainable management and conservation, the UN
declared 2011 the International Year of Forests.
Several measures have been introduced to preserve and manage the
world’s forests. Some programs focus on reforestation, replanting trees where
they have been cut down for timber or paper. Other programs grow trees
specifically for these purposes, thus preserving existing forests. Another
approach is to show that there is economic value in preserving forests instead
of cutting them down. Ecotourism programs allow people to explore threat-
ened natural environments, while the tours raise money for conservation
efforts. Individuals can also help to preserve forests by conserving paper. One
fifth of wood harvested worldwide ends up in paper, and nearly half of that is
used for packaging. In 2003, Canadians used more than 2 million tonnes of
paper, which is about 20 000 pages per person.

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Tropical rainforest Equator

Tropical forest
Mediterranean
Broadleaf and some
mixed forest
Coniferous
Tropical grassland
Temperate grassland
Desert or scrubland
Tundra
0 2000 4000 km
Ice-cap/high altitude
vegetation
FIGURE 13–8 This map shows forested areas that existed under natural conditions. Much of the forested
areas in India, China, Western Europe, and eastern North America have been cleared.
Protecting British Columbia’s Forests

KEY TERMS
In 1993, the government of British Columbia launched the Protected Areas
Protected Areas Strategy (PAS) a plan to
preserve approximately 12 percent of Strategy (PAS) to preserve about 12 percent of provincial land for parks,
B.C.’s provincial land for parks, recreation, recreation, and wilderness. However, the PAS only included a portion of
and wilderness
B.C.’s coastal old-growth watersheds. Once considered only as a source of
watersheds river basins drained by a river revenue, they are now seen as a resource for recreation, research, industry,
and flowing into the same large body of
water
and—in the case of First Nations peoples—culture. These diverse needs
must be balanced with careful management and stewardship to ensure the
sustainability of British Columbia’s economic and heritage resources.
One example of the clash between these
interests is the Great Bear Rainforest. This area is
one of the last remaining tracts of unspoiled tem-
perate rainforest left in the world. It is home to
thousands of species, including the Kermode (or
spirit) bear. These bears are rare, and logging and
industrial development in the area threaten their
habitat and existence. In a 2006 agreement, First
Nations communities, environmentalists, and
logging companies agreed to conserve part of the
6.4 million hectares of the Great Bear Rainforest.
FIGURE 13–9 The Great Bear Rainforest is located on B.C.’s Two million hectares are protected from logging,
central coast between the northern tip of Vancouver Island and with lighter-touch logging outside that area. The
the southern tip of the Alaska Panhandle.
agreement supports conservation-based
Thinking Critically In what other areas might an agreement to
economies in coastal communities and strength-
conserve land be used to promote sustainable use of resources?
Explain. ened First Nations involvement in deciding the
future of the forest.

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up close Simon Jackson: Create the CRITICAL

INQUIRY Perspectives
and personal Change You Want to See
When Simon Jackson learned about the plight of the WEB LINK •
spirit bear, he wanted to do something to help. In Find out more about the Spirit Bear Youth
Coalition on the Pearson Web site.
1995, when he was 13 years old, he founded the
Spirit Bear Youth Coalition (SBYC) to unite young peo-
ple to save British Columbia’s endangered white bear.
He wanted to give young people a voice as the future
stewards of the rainforest and get them involved in
protecting the environment.
Since it began, the SBYC has reached nearly
6 million young people in more than 70 countries,
becoming one of the world’s largest youth-run envi-
ronmental organizations. Today, two thirds of the FIGURE 13–10 Simon Jackson, shown in 2000 when he was
spirit bear’s old-growth rainforest habitat is protected. 17 years old, advises young people to “Position yourself so
But the SBYC still has work to do. As part of their you’re ready to take advantage of success when opportunity
knocks.”
efforts to protect the bears’ remaining habitat, Simon
and the SBYC have helped to produce an animated Simon encourages young people to become involved
film called The Spirit Bear. This movie will spread in environmental and social issues, and to use the
the SBYC’s message, and all proceeds from the film experiences they gain as a way to make a difference
will go toward saving the rest of the bears’ habitat. in the world. He says, “I don’t really think what I’ve
Simon works hard to get his message to young done is unique or special. Anybody has the capacity
people and decision makers alike. He learned from to create change.”
experts in the environmental movement, such as Dr.
1. Make a list of environmental issues that concern
Jane Goodall, and from people in business, media,
you. Choose one and outline how you might
and politics. Simon and the SBYC have received vari-
begin a campaign to create change.
ous awards, and Time magazine named Simon one of
its 60 “Heroes for the Planet.” Through the SBYC, 2. How important and necessary are organizations
such as SBYC in protecting the environment?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which countries or areas of the developed and 3. Explain the issues related to large-scale farming
developing worlds might be most affected by operations.
a) population growth? 4. How have some people tried to make food produc-
b) resource use? tion more sustainable?
2. If the First Nations’ approach to decision making 5. What strategies are being used to better manage
were used, do you think there would be so many the world’s forests?
endangered species? Keeping that approach in
6. Explain how the Great Bear Rainforest has
mind, how would you respond to the comments in
become an example of environmental steward-
the World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity?
ship.

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● What are the environmental Water: The Indispensable Resource

threats to water resources and
how might they be addressed? People cannot survive without water. Every person needs at least 1.8 litres of
fresh water each day for good health. With water so readily available,
Canadians seldom think of it as one of the planet’s scarcest resources.
The State of the World’s Water

Only 2.5 percent of the world’s water is fresh water. About 70 percent of that
is in the form of ice caps and glaciers, and most of the remaining amount is
groundwater. Only 0.3 percent of the world’s fresh water is in lakes and
rivers. As Figure 13–11 shows, surface water is by far the most used source
of water.
In its World Water Development Report
(2009), the United Nations World Water Assess-
Surface water ment Programme (WWAP) noted that many peo-
73.42%
Desalination ple still lack adequate access to water. The UN’s
0.34%
media release on the report states that freshwater
withdrawals from surface and groundwater
sources “have tripled over the last 50 years, while
Non-renewable
groundwater the area under irrigation doubled during the same
0.77% period.” The report links this increase to popula-
Wastewater tion growth, noting that “demand for freshwater is
re-use 2.41% increasing by 64 billion cubic metres a year.” Much
of this demand comes from growing populations
Drainage water
re-use 4.82% in the developing world, where water is already
Groundwater
18.25% scarce.
But water scarcity does not only threaten
FIGURE 13–11 Global water withdrawals by supply source developing countries. The UN’s 2009 report
revealed that many sources of fresh water are
threatened. Industrialization and rising living
standards are rapidly increasing the demand for water. Diets are changing to
include more foods, such as meat, that require larger amounts of water to
produce. The UN report predicts that if demands for water keep increasing,
nearly half of the world’s people will face severe water shortages by 2030.
Threats to Our Freshwater Supply

Canada’s major water resources contain about 20 percent of the world’s total
fresh water and 7 percent of the world’s renewable freshwater supply. Much
of the fresh water is in northern regions, held in glaciers and the polar ice
caps, inaccessible to fast-growing urban centres in the south. The Great
Lakes contain 18 percent of all the surface fresh water on Earth, but we share
them with the United States and they are becoming increasingly polluted.
The average Canadian uses about 343 litres of water per day, compared to
Germany’s 193 and China’s 86 litres per person per day (Figure 13–15).

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Surface Water Pollution KEY TERMS

People often build settlements and cities around sources of surface water, groundwater water beneath Earth’s sur-
face in underground streams and other
such as lakes, rivers, and coastal waters, but they sometimes neglect to take forms
care of these resources. Surface water can be polluted from municipal, agri-
surface water water that is readily avail-
cultural, and industrial sources. Municipal wastewater may contain human able on Earth’s surface in streams, rivers,
waste, detergents, and solvents. Agricultural chemicals like herbicides and lakes, wetlands, and oceans
pesticides can also make their way into surface water. Industries such as oil wastewater water that has been used in
refineries, pulp mills, and chemical factories release wastes into rivers and homes or industries and, as a result, con-
tains waste products
oceans.
The effects of surface water pollution are apparent in Canada. For exam- watermilfoil weed a plant that grows and
spreads quickly, choking out native plants,
ple, toxic wastes such as mercury have been found in whales and polar bears affecting spawning areas for fish, and pos-
in the Arctic. Beluga whales in the St. Lawrence River are threatened by ing a safety problem if it grows around
water pollution from industrial, agricultural, and human wastes. In British public beaches
Columbia, sturgeon in the Fraser River are also at risk. Sewage is a major aquifer an underground layer of rock,
threat to the ecology of the Fraser River. An estimated 90 percent of the gravel, etc., from which water can be
drawn for wells and which is a source of
municipal waste in the river originates in the Fraser Valley and Vancouver springs
areas. In lakes near populated areas, chemicals and wastes promote the
growth of algae and weeds, which can deplete the lakes’ oxygen supply,
harming other living things, and affect recreational use. In the Okanagan,
the spread of watermilfoil weed could threaten a multimillion-dollar tourist
industry.
Abusing an Underground Resource

Increasing populations are the main threat to the world’s freshwater supply.
Falling groundwater tables and diversion of surface supplies for crop irriga-
tion are the main causes of shortages. The Yellow River in China, the Ganges
River in India, the Nile River in Africa, and the Colorado River in the United
States are examples of rivers that run dry, or have little water left when they
reach the sea. These shortages threaten world agricultural production. About
36 percent of the world’s harvests comes from irrigated croplands. The
United States, China, and India
are all facing reduced ground-
water supplies. These countries Rains replenish
produce half of the world’s WELL groundwater
food. In the latter half of the
20th century, the amount of
Pumping Water percolates downward Seepage from rivers and lakes
irrigated land increased to exceeds
more than 250 million WATER TABLE recharge
hectares. Using new well-
drilling technologies and tech- SATURATED POROUS
niques, farmers were able to ROCK (AQUIFER)
Overpumping lowers water table
Permeable rock is porous and
tap the groundwater in holds water in the aquifer
aquifers beneath their land. Deeper wells tap arsenic and other minerals = fluorosis
The problem is that, unlike
surface water supplies, aquifers IMPERMEABLE BEDROCK
are not rapidly replenished.
FIGURE 13–12 Groundwater depletion. Overpumping with diesel and electric pumps
mines the water faster than it can be recharged by rain or seepage from surface sources.
The falling water table means wells must be dug deeper.

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counter points
Should Canada treat water as a resource to be traded?

As freshwater supplies diminish around the world, busi- Some water experts think that the whole issue of
ness people from Vancouver Island to Newfoundland bulk water exports is overblown. They claim that trans-
have been quick to suggest ways to take advantage of porting bulk water over long distances may not be prof-
Canada’s abundant water supply. Although the federal itable. A report to the government of Québec pointed out
government has officially opposed large-scale export of that desalination plants could turn salt water into fresh
water since 1987, there have been conflicts over treating water for less than the cost of transporting it long dis-
water as a sellable resource on the provincial level. In tances by tanker. U.S. studies show that conservation
1996, the government of British Columbia banned the
export of bulk water and was sued by a California com-
pany under the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) for compensation for lost opportunity. Public
outcry forced the government of Ontario to cancel a deal
to export Lake Superior water to Asia. In Newfoundland,
a plan to export lake water to the United States and the
Middle East raised questions about Canada’s water
export policies.
Water Exports: Drinking Canada Dry

Some Canadians argue that Canada’s fresh water should
be treated like other resources exported for profit. They
point out that this new industry would increase revenues
and create jobs in areas of high unemployment, such as
the Maritimes. Opponents claim that water is different
from other natural resources. They argue that it is essen-
tial to human survival and Canada’s supply should be
treated as a public resource rather than a commodity
sold to profit only a few. Maude Barlow of the Council of
Canadians, a nationalist lobby group, strongly opposes
exporting water. She believes that “Once you turn on the
FIGURE 13–13 The southwestern U.S. is an arid region with scarce
tap, you can’t turn it off again.” Nationalists claim that,
water resources. All of the surface water is regulated by legislation,
under the terms of NAFTA, exporting any bulk water will and overreliance on groundwater has led to dramatic drops in the
mean that all water can be treated like any other trade water table.
good and Canada will lose control of its water.
TIMELINE Water Export Decisions in Canada
1967 1970 1988 1998

U.S. Supreme Court authorizes removal of Canada Water Act does Canada Water Preservation Act A California company, Sun Belt Water Inc., files
bulk water from Lake Michigan into the not mention exports of introduced but not passed due suit under NAFTA after B.C. government bans
Mississippi River system through the bulk water. to election. Would have banned bulk water exports.
Chicago Diversion—the Chicago Shipping the export of bulk water and Public pressure forces Ontario government to
and Sanitary Canal. This is the only major large-scale diversions. cancel permit for bulk water exports from Great
diversion out of the Great Lakes Basin. Lakes to Asian markets.

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CRITICAL
INQUIRY Patterns and Change
methods, such as low-flush toilets and drip irrigation,

make far better economic sense than schemes to import
large amounts of water. However, rich countries like the
United States and Canada do not always adopt the most
obvious or lowest-cost solutions to resource issues. The
southwestern U.S. sunbelt states are looking for a quick
solution to water shortages, and some see Canada’s vast
freshwater lakes as a resource they are willing to pay for.
Since 2002, the United States has linked a safe and
reliable water supply to its national security. Global Water
Futures, an American institute contracted by the U.S.
government, has noted that “Water issues are critical to
U.S. national security and integral to upholding
FIGURE 13–14 While government regulations have prevented the
American values of humanitarianism and democratic export of bulk water, few Canadians pay attention to the fact that
development. Moreover, engagement with international Canada exported about $38 million worth of bottled water in 2008.
water issues guarantees business opportunity for the
U.S. private sector, which is well positioned to contribute
Analyzing the Issue
to development and reap economic reward.” As a result
of this new policy, the U.S. is putting pressure on 1. Why might Québec be opposed to regulation of the
Canada to give Americans access to Canadian freshwa- export of water supplies?
ter supplies.
As the population grows and lifestyles put more 2. With a partner, script and act out a short dialogue
pressure on water resources, sustainable water supplies between a Canadian opponent of water exports and
may reach a crisis state in North America in the 21st a Texas farmer whose wells are running dry.
century. In their 2008 report Climate Change and Water, 3. Do you think Canada should allow the export of bot-
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) tled water, bulk water, both bottled and bulk water,
states, “Climate change will constrain North America’s or no water? Give reasons for your answer.
already over-allocated water resources, thereby increas-
4. Write a short opinion piece for a blog entitled “Three
ing competition among agriculture, municipal industrial,
Good Reasons to (or Not to) Export Canada’s
and ecological uses.” The integration of the North
Water.” Include a suggestion for an appropriate pic-
American economy and Canada’s reliance on U.S. agri-
ture to accompany your opinion piece.
culture for much of our vegetables may force Canada to
face difficult choices about our water resources. 5. Debate the pros and cons of bulk water exports.
2001 2005 2006 2007

Canadian government amends the International Great Lakes Charter Annex Businessman applies to the B.C. Closed-door discussions in
Boundary Waters Treaty Act prohibiting bulk water Agreement signed by Ontario, government to export 1 million Calgary between Canada,
removals from boundary water basins within Canada. Québec, and eight U.S. states that gallons of water a day from a Mexico, and U.S. on bulk
Government of Newfoundland and Labrador cancels border the Great Lakes, banning the Kamloops Lake for export to the water exports for North
plans to export water because it is unprofitable. diversion of water other than to Middle East. Public opposition American Future 2025
communities beside the Great Lakes. forces withdrawal of the proposal. Project.
Government of Québec bans bulk water exports.

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KEY TERMS Conserving Our Water Resources

carbon footprint the total amount of car-
bon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse Experience has shown that conserving water by using it more efficiently
gases emitted over the full life cycle of a makes sound economic and environmental sense. Infrastructure costs for
product or service water supply and wastewater treatment are reduced. The ecosystem is sus-
troposphere the lowest level of Earth’s tained and improved because less water is withdrawn.
atmosphere
greenhouse gases (GHG) various gases in Improving Supply

the atmosphere that absorb and emit radi-
Water development programs are moving toward conservation and efficient
ation, including carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone small-scale supply systems. Some experts are optimistic that technology can
ultraviolet radiation (UV) invisible rays
help us manage our water supplies. Large-scale projects can be replaced by
from the sun that can cause skin cancer micro-dams, hydro systems that run with a river’s natural flow, shallow
ozone layer a thin layer of ozone in the wells, and more efficient rainwater harvesting. As technologies develop,
atmosphere 15 to 30 kilometres above experts believe we will use more reclaimed or recycled water and, to a lesser
Earth; the ozone layer filters the sun’s degree, desalinated sea water. Low-energy sprinkler systems and drip irriga-
ultraviolet (UV) rays
tion, which directs water to plant roots, are reducing agricultural water con-
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) chemicals
sumption in water-scarce Israel and could be used worldwide.
used in coolants, solvents, and aerosol
cans that damage the ozone layer
Reducing Water Consumption
Montréal Protocol an international agree-
ment signed in 1987 to phase out the In developed countries, industrial and domestic water use can be reduced
ozone-depleting chemicals CFCs using the same thinking. For example, high-efficiency and low-flow toilets
reduce the amount of water needed to flush millions of toilets by 70 percent.
Many Canadian municipalities are offering rebates to encourage people to
switch to energy-efficient toilets. Taxes or user rates could also be intro-
duced to encourage people to conserve water.
In 2009, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities called on cities to
promote municipal drinking water to reduce the consumption of bottled
water. Only 5 percent of these bottles are recycled and they leave a carbon
footprint from processing and distribution. A total of 50 municipalities
have voted to introduce restrictions on bottled water.
Water poverty Litres

threshold 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Mozambique
Angola, Cambodia, China India Denmark Canada Italy

Ethiopia, Haiti, Bangladesh, United Germany Spain Japan Australia United States
Rwanda, Uganda Kenya Kingdom Brazil Norway Mexico
Burkina Faso, Niger Ghana, Nigeria Peru France
Philippines Austria
FIGURE 13–15 Average water use per person per day, 1998–2002
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Do you agree that increasing populations are the 3. In a two-column organizer, list the benefits and
main threat to the world’s freshwater supply? problems associated with groundwater use.
Explain your answer.
4. Which of the solutions to water management do
2. What are the main threats to surface water in you consider to be the most practical? Explain.
Canada?

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Change Is in the Air ● How is human activity

affecting the atmosphere and
The lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere, the troposphere, contains the ozone layer?
most of the atmospheric gases, including “greenhouse” gases
(GHG): water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone. These gases occur naturally and play a vital role in regulating
Earth’s temperature, but human activities have upset the balance,
causing ozone layer depletion and global warming.
The Hole in the Ozone Layer

Ozone, a special kind of oxygen (O3), is the only gas in the atmos-
phere that blocks the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. Ultraviolet radia-
tion can cause skin cancer in humans, and can damage other animal
and plant species.
In 1978, satellite observation of the atmosphere revealed that the
ozone layer was thinning. Ozone depletion is most evident over the
polar regions, where seasonal thinning, or a “hole,” appears in the
FIGURE 13–16 The hole in the
ozone layer during winter and early spring each year. As much as 60
ozone layer above Antarctica on
percent of the layer disappears over Antarctica in the spring, filling in September 24, 2006
again over the summer.
The Montréal Protocol ● How has the international

Chemicals, particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), destroy the ozone depletion?
ozone layer. CFCs have been widely used since the 1930s in coolants
for refrigerators and air conditioners, and in foams, solvents, and
aerosol cans. It is believed that the release of CFCs into the atmos-
phere has done 80 percent of the damage to the ozone layer.
The United Nations Environment Programme created the
Montréal Protocol to phase out the use of ozone-depleting chemi-
cals. In 1987, all industrial nations agreed to the protocol, which
allowed countries of the developing world to use CFCs until 2000.
The Montréal Protocol successfully united
countries in the effort to reduce CFCs. In 2009,
97 percent of all the chemicals controlled by the China 22%
protocol had been phased out.
South Korea 20%
In 2007, the countries involved in the
Russia 9%
protocol met again in Montréal to deal with
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), the less- Brazil 6%
harmful replacement for CFCs. With new chemi- Iran 5%

cals available that do not damage the atmosphere, Mexico 1%
the world agreed to phase out HCFCs in devel- United States 0.2%
oped countries by 2030 and in developing coun-
Canada 0.0006%
tries by 2040. Only the complete elimination of
HCFCs will begin to halt the damage to the ozone 0 5 10 15 20 25
layer. The United States Environmental Protection CFC Consumption
Agency claims that even when all ozone-depleting FIGURE 13–17 CFC consumption, 1999 (percentage of world totals)
chemicals are phased out, it could take a century Thinking Critically What reasons might account for the countries
before the annual thinning of the ozone over with the top and the bottom CFC emissions?
Antarctica does not reappear.

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FA S T F O R WA R D Greenhouse Gas Emissions

A previously unforeseen source While natural emissions from volcanoes and other processes collect in the
could increase Canada’s GHG atmosphere, the results of human activities have the greatest effect. Since the
emissions dramatically. Arctic Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, industrial and chemical contami-
permafrost soils store staggering
nants have polluted the air. These pollutants cause smog, acid rain, and the
amounts of carbon, holding twice
as much carbon as the
widening hole in the ozone layer.
atmosphere. Melting permafrost Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—are at the centre of global
will release this carbon. warming. Coal is widely used outside Canada for heating and energy gener-
ation. China and other Asian countries are the world’s greatest producers
and consumers of coal. As Figure 13–18 shows, greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions in Canada have increased since 1990. Environment Canada
reports that there was significant long-term growth in emissions between
1990 and 2007. These emissions came from increases in oil and gas produc-
tion (much of it for export), motor vehicles, and coal electricity generation.
Canada ranked seventh in the world for carbon emissions from fossil
fuels. It will move up on this list if it continues to produce greenhouse gas
emissions at the same rate. One reason for increasing emissions is the devel-
opment of the Alberta tar sands, where natural gas is used to process the tar
sands. According to the oil industry, 29.5 megatonnes of greenhouse gases
are emitted from the tar sands each year. This accounts for nearly 5 percent
of Canada’s total emissions. According to Sierra Club Canada, that figure
will rise to more than 50 megatonnes by 2015. If that happens, the tar sands
would be the single greatest contributor to GHG emissions growth in
Canada. Carbon stored in peatlands disturbed by tar sands
development will also add to the total GHG output.
GHG Emissions (Megatonnes of CO2 Equivalent)
800
750
F-gases (fluorinated gases Carbon dioxide (CO2)
such as HFCs and HCFCs) Mainly from fossil fuels
700 Mainly from refrigeration, and deforestation 76.7%
aerosols, and solvents 1.1%
650
600
Kyoto target
550
500
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 07
19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
Year
FIGURE 13–18 Canadian greenhouse gas (GHG) Nitrous oxide Methane

emissions, 1990–2007. The green line indicates Mainly from fossil fuels, Mainly from combustion
Canada’s GHG emission targets outlined in the deforestation, and fertilizers and use of fossil fuels
Kyoto Protocol (see page 444). 7.9% 14.3%
Thinking Critically In 2009, the Conservative
government set a target of reducing emissions by FIGURE 13–19 Greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming
20 percent from 2006 levels. Why do you think Reading a Graph Which are the two main greenhouse gases? What
they picked 2006 as a baseline date? Do you percentage of greenhouse gases comes from burning fossil fuels and
agree or disagree with this target? Why or why not? deforestation?

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Things Are Warming Up

● What is global warming?
The gases in the atmosphere work like the glass in a greenhouse. They trap
heat energy from the sun, creating our climate and making life on Earth
possible. If these gases—especially carbon dioxide—are out of balance, they KEY TERMS
can cause major changes to our climate. Natural factors, such as volcanic
peatlands wetlands with soil formed
explosions and meteor impacts, have caused dramatic climatic changes in mostly from decomposing plants
the past. Scientists estimate that carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere greenhouse effect greenhouse gases trap
has increased by 30 percent since the Industrial Revolution and the subse- heat in the atmosphere, causing Earth’s
quent burning of massive amounts of fossil fuels. By increasing the heat- temperature to rise
trapping gases, we have increased the greenhouse effect. The global
temperature has risen by about 0.74˚C in the past 100 years. Scientists
predict that it could rise by an additional 0.2˚C every 10 years for the next
two decades. Even minor increases in Earth’s temperature can have pro-
found effects on life on Earth.
In 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) summarized the state of global climate change:
(1) Warming of the world climate system is undeniable.
(2) The rise in global average temperature is very likely due to increases in
greenhouse gases. WEB LINK •
(3) Despite present policies, emissions will continue to grow over the next For more information about Earth’s
few decades. temperature increase and a summary of
the Fourth Assessment Report of the
(4) Present adaptation strategies do not adequately address the threat of IPCC, 2007, visit the Pearson Web site.
climate change.
SOLAR ENERGY
3. About 30% of infrared
radiation escapes back
into space 1. Solar radiation absorbed by Earth
dioxide 4. He
c arbon a t tra
cess ppe
db y ex d by
a ppe e xce
tr ss
at car
He bo
4. nd
2. Earth’s surface radiates iox
Carbon dioxide ide
released by aircraft heat (infrared radiation) back
into atmosphere
FIGURE 13–20
How the green-
Factories release house effect works.
carbon dioxide Excess carbon diox-
Forests cut down; less carbon
5. Oceans warm; water dioxide absorbed ide accumulations
evaporates, and vapour trap heat that would
adds to heat trap otherwise be radi-
Burning of fossil fuels and vehicle exhaust ated back into
Ships burn fossil fuels in atmosphere adds to carbon dioxide space.

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Consequences of Global Warming

Scientists agree that the increased number of heat waves and violent storms
in recent years are linked to global warming. Above-average temperatures in
polar regions are melting glaciers, and sea levels are rising as a result. Other
effects are harder to link directly to global warming. These include diseases
extending their ranges because of warmer temperatures, and the earlier
arrival of spring in many parts of the world. Plant and animal ranges are
shifting as species try to adapt to changing temperatures by moving to dif-
WEB LINK • ferent habitats. Coral reefs in more than 30 countries are experiencing coral
The full UNEP report on climate change
is available on the Pearson Web site.
bleaching as the microscopic algae that give them their colours fail to adapt
to warmer water temperatures and die.
Geographic Area Results of Climate Change

Summer sea ice melts, exposing darker ocean, absorbing more heat
Arctic regions
accelerating melting and increasing sea levels
Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets Ice sheet breakup exposes land accelerating warming and rise in sea levels
Dry spells and lengthier cultivation seasons result in a higher susceptibility to pests
Boreal Forests
and fire
Loss of forest cover affects regional hydrological cycle and climate
Tropical Rainforests
triggering further forest dieback
Ocean circulation systems of winds and currents destabilized by
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
temperature changes and addition of fresh water from ice sheets
Indian, Saharan, and West African
Monsoons, seasonal winds and rain critical to agricultural economies disrupted
Monsoons
FIGURE 13–21 A 2009 UN Environment Programme (UNEP) report on climate change outlined the elements of
Earth’s system vulnerable to possible change.
up close David Suzuki: Can One CRITICAL

Cause and Consequence
and personal Person Make a Difference? INQUIRY
Scientist David Suzuki became internationally famous for his

commitment to the environment. Suzuki was born in
Vancouver in 1936. From an early age, Suzuki’s father fostered
a love and appreciation of nature in his son. During the Second
World War, Suzuki and his family were interned with thousands
of other Japanese Canadians. His internment camp was
located in a deserted mining town in the Slocan Valley. Later,
Suzuki trained as a geneticist, but he has also applied his sci-
entific knowledge to many environmental issues. He has con-
tributed to a growing awareness of environmental issues in
Canada and around the world through his popular books and
radio and television programs. Today, he continues his role as
FIGURE 13–22 David Suzuki
a warrior for the environment through his speaking engage-
Understanding Significance In what ways might
ments and the David Suzuki Foundation. Most recently, he has
David Suzuki’s background have encouraged his
been focusing on the disastrous effects of climate change. commitment to the environment?

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Forests and Climate Change KEY TERM

Even small changes in temperature and precipitation can affect forest carbon sink a reservoir that can absorb
and store carbon dioxide from the atmos-
growth. Although changes in forests will differ regionally, they will affect phere, including forests, peat, and oceans
Canada’s economy, society, and culture.
Warmer temperatures have already had damaging effects on British
Columbia’s pine forests. Warmer winters allowed the mountain pine beetle
to survive in previously inhospitable areas and to extend its range. Westerly
winds have allowed the insect to migrate over the Rockies and take root in
the pine forests of northern Alberta. This has raised fears for the rest of
Canada’s pine forests. The spruce budworm is also a concern in the boreal WEB LINK •
forests of Western Canada. The effect of these insects goes beyond the loss of For more information about the
mountain pine beetle, visit the Pearson
wood. Dead trees act as fuel for wildfires that threaten communities. Once a Web site.
forest dies, it no longer acts as a carbon sink, but emits carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere instead.
FA S T F O R WA R D
A Walk in the Arctic Woods

In 2009, the International Union of Forest Research spread to Baffin Island, the coastline of Hudson Bay,
Organizations claimed that, as a result of global northern Québec, and Labrador. This shift of forests
warming, trees might someday spread to Canada’s will change the ecology in the new forested areas and
Arctic where only tundra now exists. The report says in the old areas where different species of plants and
that in areas of northern Canada, Sweden, Finland, animals will now thrive. The authors of the report
and Russia, the evergreen trees of the boreal forests caution that it will take a long time for new forests to
will start to shift northward. By 2070, forests may establish themselves in warming areas.
Present day Doubled-CO2

climate
Tundra Boreal Temperate Grassland Semi-arid Unclassified
FIGURE 13–23 Projected changes to vegetation boundaries with doubled CO2 levels
Using Evidence What changes do you see in the forest and grassland boundaries with the doubled
CO2 climate?

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Agriculture and Climate Change

Climate change is expected to impact
POSITIVE IMPACTS NEGATIVE IMPACTS
Canada’s agriculture in both positive
and negative ways. For example,
Increased productivity Increased insect warmer temperatures would make the
from warmer infestations
temperatures growing season longer, but they could
PROJECTED CHANGES Crop damage from
also increase crop damage due to heat
Possibility of growing • Warmer temperatures extreme heat stress and pest problems. Warmer tem-
new crops • Drier or wetter conditions
peratures may make it possible to grow
• Increased frequency of
extreme climatic events Planning problems due crops farther north, but the soils will
Longer growing to less reliable forecasts
• Enhanced atmospheric CO2 not be as rich. Impacts would vary by
seasons
• Changing market
conditions Increased soil region and crop.
Increased productivity erosion Agriculture is extremely sensitive
from enhanced CO2
to any changes in climate, particularly
Increased weed growth
Accelerated and disease outbreaks
the levels of moisture available. Global
maturation rates warming will likely affect water supply
Decreased herbicide for agriculture. For example, less
Decreased and pesticide efficacy meltwater from receding glaciers in
moisture stress
the Rocky Mountains will mean less
Increased moisture
stress and droughts
available water for Alberta and British
Columbia agriculture during the dry
summer months. The benefits of a
The net impact on Canadian crops is uncertain, and depends longer growing season may then be
largely on the adaptation measures undertaken.
offset by water shortages. Warmer win-
FIGURE 13–24 Potential impacts of climate change on agricultural crops in Canada
ters may mean less protective snow
Thinking Critically Natural Resources Canada suggests that, as a result of climate
cover and could also bring thaws that
change, extreme events such as floods, storms, and droughts present the greatest damage crops. As Figure 13–24 shows,
challenge to Canadian agriculture. Give examples of how these threats would affect the impact of climate change on agri-
agricultural production and what impact that would have on Canadian consumers. culture will vary widely and have sig-
nificant impacts on the Canadian
economy.
Water and Climate Change

The uneven distribution of water resources and yearly variations in precipi-
tation have led to droughts, floods, and water quality problems around the
world. Many areas face dire prospects as increased pressure is put on this
limited resource. For example, as the Himalayan glaciers (Asia’s “water
towers”) melt due to global warming, the reduced water supply will have
devastating effects on the human, agricultural, and industrial needs of South
and Southeast Asia. Subsistence farmers living in the valleys of the Indus
River in Pakistan, the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar, or the Mekong River in
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam may be further threatened by
changing weather patterns.
Changes in ocean temperatures could have an effect on the temperatures
of ocean currents. In turn, these ocean currents may affect the regularity and
moisture content of winds, such as the monsoons of Asia. In 2009, an Indian
newspaper reported that “Farmers from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar said the
precipitation and the number of rainy days had come down significantly
and disrupted the entire agricultural cycle in the region during the last five

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years.” Changes in wind and precipitation patterns also bring damaging KEY TERMS
floods or droughts. The latter results in desertification as deserts expand meltwater melted snow or ice, including
into previously semi-arid areas. When rivers and lakes dry up in these areas, ice from glaciers
millions of people will be forced to leave their farms and livestock, becoming runoff water from rain and melting snow
environmental refugees. that cannot be held in the soil so makes
its way into streams, rivers, lakes, and
In Canada, changes in temperature and precipitation can affect runoff, oceans
evaporation, and the storage of water in lakes, soils, and glaciers. Arid
regions, such as the Okanagan Valley and parts of the Prairies, will be
particularly vulnerable due to present supply problems. Reduced flows from WEB LINK •
glaciers and less precipitation will decrease summer flows of rivers, which Visit the Pearson Web site to explore the
possible effects of rising sea levels on
will in turn affect agriculture and salmon spawning. In winter, less ice cover, Canadian cities.
winter thaws, and snow-rain precipitation may increase the risk of flooding
in many regions.
Despite its relative abundance of water on a per-capita basis, many
regions of Canada have experienced water-related problems. Changes in
water levels and warmer temperatures could
increase bacteria and contamination in some
N
areas. Elsewhere, increased flooding could Coastal Sensitivity
flush urban and agricultural waste into rivers BRITISH to Sea-level Rise
COLUMBIA Low
and municipal water systems. In coastal areas,
Moderate
rising sea levels may increase saltwater inva- QUEEN
High
CHARLOTTE
sion into freshwater supplies. In the North, ISLANDS Prince
George
melting permafrost may make the ground
unstable and affect the transmission of water
supplies. PACIFIC
Melting glaciers and ice caps, and warm- OCEAN
ing oceans, will result in rising sea levels.
Port Hardy
These changes will have a serious impact on Kamloops
Canada’s coastline. Some effects might Whistler
VANCOUVER Kelowna
include cliff erosion, land destabilization, ISLAND Vancouver
flooding of low-lying areas, and the disrup- Nanaimo
Abbotsford
tion of infrastructure, such as roads and
0 50 100 km Victoria
pipelines. Low-lying deltas, such as the Fraser
River delta in British Columbia and the
FIGURE 13–25 Coastlines of Canada likely to be affected by
Mackenzie River delta in the Northwest rising sea levels
Territories would be severely affected by a
significant rise in sea levels.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Create a two-column chart with the headings 4. Use a two-column organizer to show the advan-
“Ozone Depletion” and “Global Warming.” Under tages and disadvantages of global warming for
each heading, list the causes, effects, and possi- Canadian agriculture. Do the advantages outweigh
ble solutions to these issues. the disadvantages? Explain.
2. How successful was the Montréal Protocol? 5. What effects will rising sea levels have on coastal
Explain. communities?
3. What areas of Canada might be most affected by 6. Patterns and Change Describe how global warm-
changes in agriculture due to global warming? ing will affect economic activity, settlement, and
Give examples to support your answer. transportation in the future.

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Taking Action on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
In 2006, noted economist Nicholas Stern released a report for the British
climate change?
government presenting a compelling case for decisive action against global
warming. The Stern Review stated:
● What are the principal
international agreements
concerning the environment? Our actions now and over the coming decades could create risks of
major disruption to economic and social activity, on a scale similar to
those associated with the great wars and the economic depression of
KEY TERMS the first half of the 20th century. And it will be difficult or impossible to
United Nations Framework Convention reverse these changes.
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) the UN’s –Nicholas Stern
plan to keep greenhouse gas concentra-
tions from increasing, created at the 1992
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Kyoto Protocol an international agreement Kyoto Protocol

that sets binding targets for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions; the average The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
target is 5 percent of 1990 levels by (UNFCCC) was created at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
2008–2012 This treaty outlined a plan to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
carbon credit if an organization produces atmosphere to prevent dangerous interference with Earth’s climate system.
more greenhouse gases than it is allowed,
Several protocols that set emission limits came out of this convention,
it can purchase a credit from an organiza-
tion that is below its target emission levels including the Kyoto Protocol. This document outlined target reductions for
GHG emissions. It also introduced the system of carbon credits, which
allow countries that do not meet their reduction targets to buy credits from
countries that keep emissions below their allotted levels. In 1997, Canada
signed the Kyoto Protocol, promising to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
6 percent of its 1990 level by 2012. In 2007, the Canadian government
announced it could not meet its Kyoto Protocol targets, and developed a
separate plan to reduce pollution and GHG emissions (see Case Study).
Idea Description
Carbon Tax In 2008, British Columbia introduced a tax on fossil fuels to reduce
use and meet the government’s goal of reducing GHG emissions by
33 percent by 2020. The money raised is returned in reductions of
other taxes.
Cap and A ceiling is put on emissions, and companies exceeding it must buy
Trade permits on the “carbon market” from companies under the allow-
able limit. If no permits are available, the rights to higher than tar-
geted emissions could also be bought. These costs are meant to
encourage companies to reduce emissions. The Western provinces
and the U.S. favour this system.
Carbon Carbon dioxide would be collected and shipped to a geologically
Sequestration suitable area below layers of impermeable rock. Storage areas might
(locking be depleted fossil fuel reservoirs. The technology is already in use
away) with water and natural gas. Saskatchewan and Alberta are promot-
ing this system.
FIGURE 13–26 Three approaches to limiting GHG emissions being discussed in Canada and
the United States
Thinking Critically What might be the drawbacks of each of these approaches? How could
governments be convinced to apply any of these approaches?

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Bali Road Map

In 2007, delegates from 189 countries met in Bali,
Indonesia, to prepare a new treaty to replace the Kyoto
Protocol in 2012. Two groups emerged at the Bali confer-
ence. One group agreed with the European Union’s sup-
port of the Kyoto model of absolute reduction in GHG
emissions by 25 to 40 percent by 2020. The second group,
which included Canada, Japan, Russia, and many Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperation members, supported the
United States’ call for flexible goals focused on reducing
carbon intensity (the amount of carbon released per unit
of energy produced). This idea was rejected by the EU
group, who argued that it would not reduce overall emis-
sions. The final agreement, called the Bali Road Map,
encouraged countries to cooperate to fight climate change.
Moving to Sustainable Energy Sources

While political debates continue, Earth is still heating up.
Most leaders agree that all nations need to move toward
sustainable development and clean energy sources to slow
down climate change. There are many sustainable sources
of energy that could be used to lessen dependence on
fossil fuels. These include wind turbines, solar power
panels, tidal power, ground-source energy or geothermal
power (which uses heat from underground sources where FIGURE 13–27 Wind turbines would be effective in
windy locations such as along the coast of British
available), and biofuels derived from biomass (plant or
Columbia or in the Alberta foothills.
animal material). The environmental group Greenpeace
Thinking Critically Why would some people oppose
claims that by 2030 wind power could provide 15 percent having wind turbines like these in their area?
of the world’s electricity. Although all these alternative
sources of energy have drawbacks, they are renewable
without harmful emissions.
Source Advantages Disadvantages
Hydroelectric Vast quantities of power. Dams and reservoirs Dams and reservoirs can cause environmental and
power control flooding and provide recreation. social disruption. Transmission lines take land as
right of way and emit waves.
Run-of-river Emissions free. Minimum impact on river flow Power plant, access roads, and transmission lines
hydropower or fish. disrupt ecosystem. River levels may be affected.
Wind power Emissions free. Easily installed for individual or large- Need reliable, strong winds. Noisy and a visual
scale use. Land can have other uses. pollutant.
Threat to migrating birds.
Geothermal No pollutants or emissions. Discharges are safe to Expensive to build. Must be located in geologically
recycle. No storage needed. active areas.
Tidal Regular source. First turbines tested in Bay of Fundy Limited locations. Interferes with aquatic life and
in 2009. coastal transportation.
Biofuels Biodegradable, readily available biomass; few Not as efficient as fossil fuels. Some croplands used
pollutants when burned. for ethanol, leading to higher food prices.
FIGURE 13–28 Advantages and disadvantages of various sustainable energy sources

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case study
Politics, Conferences, and Climate Change
FIGURE 13–29 Low-lying island nations like the Maldives are facing extinction if climate change cannot be
controlled and sea levels continue to rise.
The author of the British government’s 2006 Stern Kyoto, 1997

Review, a report on the economics of climate change, The Kyoto Protocol established GHG emission targets for
remarked: “The first thing that struck me... was the mag- industrialized nations. Countries that ratified the protocol
nitude of the risks and the potentially devastating effects agreed to meet their given targets by 2012. The United
on the lives of people across the world. We were gam- States, which was the largest producer of greenhouse
bling the planet.” Despite this warning, meaningful action gases when the Kyoto Protocol was established, did not
at the international level has been elusive. ratify the treaty.
There are few today who deny that global warming is As Figure 13–30 shows, compliance with Kyoto GHG
changing our relationship to the biosphere. The difficulty targets has varied across different nations. Domestic poli-
in finding an effective and realistic solution lies in getting tics have played a significant role in the failure of Kyoto in
the 192 member countries of the United Nations to agree all but a few countries. In Canada, the Liberal government
on and implement a program to reduce greenhouse gas ratified the treaty and proposed steps to meet its targets,
(GHG) emissions. Each nation wants to protect its right to but emissions continued to rise. One reason for Canada’s
develop and use its industries as it sees fit. inability to meet its targets was that the federal government
The politics of climate change were first evident at signed the agreement, but provincial governments regulate
the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The polluting industries. After the Conservative government
leaders could not agree on how to best deal with green- under Prime Minister Stephen Harper came to power, it
house gas concentrations in a way that worked for all announced that Canada could not meet its limits in the
nations. This debate essentially led to a postponement of Kyoto Protocol and developed its own plans to address air
any action until the next conference in Kyoto, Japan, held pollution and climate change in 2007. Due to the lack of
five years later. social or economic changes that would reduce greenhouse
gases, Canada continues to lead G8 nations in the growth
of emissions.

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United States
Russia When President Obama entered office in 2009, the
Japan United States changed its position on climate change,
Ukraine
which also influenced Canada. Prime Minister Harper
noted that “The alignment of our climate change policies
United Kingdom
with those of the Obama Administration is a critical ele-
Canada
1990
ment of Canada’s overall approach due to the close inte-
France
Kyoto target gration of our economies and our geographic proximity.”
Poland 2007 This sentiment was reflected in Canada’s support of the
Australia U.S. position at the Copenhagen Conference. When
negotiations for a new treaty broke down, the U.S.,
FIGURE 13–30 GHG emissions for selected countries who China, India, Brazil, and South Africa worked together to
signed the Kyoto Protocol
draft a new Copenhagen Accord. This agreement did not
Thinking Critically Why might some countries have signed
but not ratified the protocol?
include specific long-term targets for GHG emission cuts,
but it did promise US$30 billion in aid over the next three
years to help developing countries reduce their emis-
sions. Canada supported the accord, but other countries
Bali, 2007
felt that it was not a fair agreement because it was
World leaders met again in Bali, Indonesia, to discuss cli- drafted by only a few powerful countries. The accord was
mate change. The focus of this conference was on devel- not unanimously accepted, so it did not pass.
oping the next steps after the Kyoto Protocol and to come While developed and newly industrializing countries
up with a timetable for meeting greenhouse gas emission debate, nations facing the immediate consequences of
targets. The final agreement, called the Bali Road Map, global warming grow more frustrated. The president of
proposes long-term cooperation between nations to cut the Maldives, an archipelago of 1200 islands that face
emissions and share technology that promotes clean, steadily rising sea levels, expressed that frustration: “The
renewable energy. The road map was, by necessity, a Maldives has committed to becoming carbon neutral by
compromise. It allows countries to determine how they 2020, using the wind and sun to power the entire nation.
can best address climate change by taking “nationally If that can happen in a relatively poor, developing coun-
appropriate steps.” While this clause is intended to make try, it can happen anywhere. What we lack is not technol-
sure that developing countries are not handicapped by ogy, but political will.”
their targets, critics fear that industrialized nations may
take advantage of this leeway. WEB LINK •
Visit the Pearson Web site to find out more
about climate conferences and agreements.
Copenhagen, 2009
The UN held another meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark,
to finalize the agreement outlined in the Bali Road Map. Looking Further
Once again, politics hampered efforts to come up with a
plan that all nations could agree to. The dividing line fell 1. Why is it so difficult for countries to reach an agree-
between developed and developing nations. Both China ment to reduce GHG emissions?
and India, two of the world’s greatest GHG emitters, take 2. Do you agree or disagree with Canada’s position on
the position that global warming is caused by the accu- the environment? Explain.
mulation of greenhouse gases from developed, industrial-
ized countries and that poor, developing countries should 3. Do you support the position of India, China, and
not have their economic development restricted. The some developing countries? Why or why not?
Prime Minister of India emphasized his country’s position: 4. Perspectives How are the perspectives of the
“For us, the foremost priority is the removal of poverty, for Maldives and India, although opposed, both based
which we need sustained rapid economic growth.” on perceived needs for survival?

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First Nations Lead the Way in Clean Energy

What If… Many of Canada’s First Nations communities are leading the way in adopt-
What might be the impact on ing green energy solutions to meet their energy needs. Projects include
Canada’s energy consumption
small-scale hydro stations, wind generation, solar power, and new
if the rest of Canada follows
the First Nations’ example? approaches to energy efficiency. These initiatives aim to provide reliable and
sustainable energy sources while minimizing GHG emissions.
Many communities in remote locations are forced to use diesel genera-
tors that are expensive, environmentally damaging, and unreliable. Adopting
alternative or green energy sources not only provides clean and sustainable
energy supplies, but also economic development and jobs. The Taku River
Tlingit First Nation in Atlin, B.C., is an example of a community that was
able to replace diesel-generated power with a renewable energy project. A
Tlingit-owned power company operates a run-of-river (meaning that it
relies on the natural force of the river) two-megawatt power project. This
will save 1.5 million litres of diesel and 4500 tonnes of greenhouse gases.
The result is to reduce the community’s carbon footprint by the same
amount as removing 1600 cars from the road.
On Haida Gwaii (the Queen Charlotte Islands) the Haida Nation will
partner with NaiKun Wind Energy to build a Hecate Strait wind-power
project. The 110-turbine project will generate enough power to light
130 000 homes. This project will also create jobs and revenue for the Haida
Nation.
At Sooke on Vancouver Island, the T’Sou-ke Nation has the largest sys-
tem of solar panels operating in B.C. The band office has banks of solar pan-
els that provide electricity and power batteries for emergencies or cloudy
days. The fisheries building is powered entirely by solar power. With the
solar panels and conservation initiatives, energy consumption on the reserve
has dropped by 30 percent. Excess power is sold to B.C. Hydro. Another
benefit has been training the band members as solar panel installers. The
T’Sou-ke Nation has become an example for other remote communities.
There are many other First Nations communities adopting innovative
green projects that set an example for the rest of Canada. As T’Sou-ke Chief
Gordon Planes said: “We are going to change B.C. and we are going to
change Canada.”
FIGURE 13–31 The T’Sou-ke Nation

is going solar powered as part of a
community sustainability push. They
have the largest solar-powered sys-
tem in B.C. and will be selling power
to B.C. Hydro. Here, T’Sou-ke
Nation Elder Linda Bristol stands in
front of some of the solar panels on
the reserve. The residences in the
background have small panels used
for hot water heating only.

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Doing Our Part for the Environment ● How can we offset

environmental threats at the
Since the 1992 Earth Summit, Canada has tried to make its economy more local, national, and
responsive to environmental concerns. In some areas, forest practices have international levels?
improved significantly. Many communities have adopted waste recycling
programs, and Canadian innovations have helped to turn sewage into fertil-
izer and develop more energy-efficient cars and buildings. Canadians have
been less successful at reducing the use of pesticides and herbicides, or in
cutting back paper and water consumption. Canada’s boreal forests, ground-
water supplies, and other resources are still being depleted at a concerning
rate. Greenhouse gas emissions in Canada have increased, even after signing
the Kyoto Protocol.
Individuals Can Make a Difference WEB LINK •

Canadians consume 15 times more energy than people in developing coun- Find out more about what
individuals can do to help fight
tries. Our small population can have as much impact on world energy and climate change by visiting the
resources as a less developed country many times our size. But we can all do Pearson Web site.
our part to help the environment by becoming active in the community and
taking responsibility for our environmental footprint. Individuals can help
fight climate change by recycling, composting, buying local, and
using energy-efficient appliances, lights, and transportation. Each of
us can conserve water by installing low-flush toilets and taking
shorter showers. Drinking tap water rather than bottled water
reduces water consumption and saves the energy needed to make
and recycle plastic bottles. Reuseable shopping bags can help cut
down on the billions of plastic bags used worldwide each year.
These bags can make their way into oceans and rivers, where they
can harm animals and their habitats.
As people like Simon Jackson demonstrate, individuals have the
capacity to bring about change. Becoming aware of the state of the
local environment is the first step. Find out about school-based
groups or community organizations that are working to help pro-
tect the environment, and get involved. Our actions will help set the FIGURE 13–32 Volunteers help to recycle
course for future generations, and as a report from the United donated computers in Vancouver. Many
Nations Environment Programme stated, our “present course is cities have special programs for recycling
unsustainable and postponing action is no longer an option.” electronics.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What was the purpose of the Kyoto Protocol? What 4. Which forms of sustainable energy would be prac-
was Canada’s involvement in this agreement? tical in your area? Support your choices.
2. What two viewpoints emerged from the Bali con- 5. For what reasons have many First Nations com-
ference on greenhouse gas emissions in 2007? munities turned to alternative energy sources?
How might the example of these First Nations help
3. Why have international efforts to reduce GHG
other Canadians reduce their carbon footprint?
emissions been ineffective? What might account
for Canada’s poor record in reducing emissions? 6. Provide specific steps individual Canadians can
take to reduce their environmental footprint.

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CHAPTER
Review
CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION How is global development causing environmental issues and what
challenges do they pose for Canada?
1. In this chapter you have read about the many ways c) In the third column, list the effects of climate
that climate change is affecting Canada’s environ- change that are evident or visible in Canada.
ment. Use an organizer like the one below to cate-
d) In the fourth column, list the long-term conse-
gorize the challenges of climate change described in
quences for Canada and the world.
the chapter.
e) In the last column, list some of the solutions pro-
a) In the first column, list the primary global causes
posed to help meet the challenges of climate
of climate change.
change.
b) In the second column, list the secondary, or more
localized, causes of climate change.
Primary Secondary Effects in Long-Term Possible

Causes Causes Canada Consequences Solutions
2. Use the information you gathered above to develop an outline for an essay discussing Canada’s
role in contributing to climate change and the effects and consequences for the environment.
Vocabulary Focus Knowledge and Understanding

3. For each term below, write a sentence showing its 4. Explain how effective each of the following was in
relationship to environmental issues in Canada. dealing with threats to the environment.
a) ozone layer a) The UN report Our Common Future

b) deforestation b) United Nations creates the Intergovernmental
c) Montréal Protocol Panel on Climate Change
d) Kyoto Protocol
c) British Columbia government introduces a carbon
e) groundwater tax on energy
f) greenhouse effect
d) Agricultural Land Reserve established in British
g) CO2 emissions
Columbia

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5. Describe the effects of global warming on each of 16. Research a First Nations community in British
the following: Columbia and discover how they share their tradi-
a) Arctic regions tional lands and culture with tourists.
b) forests 17. In a group, develop a proposal for a film on one of
c) agriculture the issues in this chapter. Submit a story outline,
cast, setting, soundtrack, and working title.
6. List an advantage and a disadvantage for each of
the following alternative energy sources: 18. In a small group, write and perform a TV spot called
a) wind “Water Minutes” (in the style of “Heritage Minutes”),
b) run-of-river hydro promoting the benefits of water conservation.
c) tidal 19. Does it surprise you that Canada has not been at the
forefront of reducing GHG emissions? Explain why or
7. Note and give reasons for the Canadian govern-
why not.
ment’s record in reducing GHG emissions.
20. Suggest ways that the Canadian government can
8. a) Why is global warming an environmental
take more of an international leadership role in envi-
problem?
ronmental sustainability.
b) Why is international cooperation needed to deal
with this problem?
Document Analysis
9. Make a list of the types of information you would
need if you were sent to determine the amount of 21. This statement was issued by British and U.S.
Canada’s forests that should be preserved. scientists in 1997:
10. Make a list of some of the sources of water pollution It has often been assumed that population
in your community. Find out what action is being growth is the dominant problem we face. But
taken to deal with the worst examples of pollution. what matters is not only the... number of
people... but also how... much natural resource
11. How many of the causes of global warming can be they utilize, and how much pollution and waste
found in Canada? Suggest actions that could be they generate. We must tackle [the problems of]
taken to deal with the emissions in your area. population and consumption together.
Critical Thinking a) What is the problem of consumption? How would

you tackle this problem on a personal level?
12. How successful has the world been at living up to
the goals of Agenda 21 in the past decades? Give b) Why is it difficult to solve the problem of
specific examples from this chapter. consumption?
13. In a short paragraph, summarize the steps c) Do you agree with the scientists’ statement?
Canadians need to take to ensure that freshwater Explain your answer.
supplies are used in a sustainable way. d) Could sustainable development successfully deal
14. Explain which approach to limiting GHG emissions with the environmental problems caused by
you would be in favour of and why. growing populations and consumption? Explain.
15. Send an e-mail or a letter to the federal Minister of

the Environment explaining why that department
should give the highest priority to addressing the
problems of Canada’s forests.

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13b_CP2e_U04 CC-SG_F:Layout 1 4/26/10 10:03 AM Page 452
UNIT 4
Study Guide
Use this Study Guide to bring together some of the key ideas relating to world
population and resources, standards of living, environmental issues, and chal-
lenges facing Canada in the future. As you work through the following steps,
keep in mind the Focus Questions in Chapters 11 to 13. Look for evidence in
your understanding to answer these questions.
STEP 1 Unpacking Knowledge

Construct a chart similar to the one below. In groups of two or three, look
through your notes and the textbook, and categorize and record information
that you have learned regarding issues, causes, solutions, and challenges. Part
of an example for the environment has been done for you.
Issues Causes Solutions Challenges
Population Trends
Living Standards
The Environment rising sea levels • sustained global • global reduction in • shifting ecosystems
warming CO2 emissions and habitats
• melting of polar • relocation of • loss of agriculture
ice caps settlements and sacred sites
STEP 2 Organizing Your Understanding

Create a Venn diagram based on the Chapter Focus
Questions similar to the one below. Using your chart from
Step 1, list the items that could be used as evidence in What is the significance of
changes in global population
answering the Chapter Focus Questions. Remember that for Canada and the world?
many issues, causes, solutions, and challenges are inter-
related and will belong in the overlapping sections of the
circles.
How do living
standards in Canada
compare with those of How is global
developing countries, development causing
and what is being done environmental issues
to close the poverty gap and what challenges do
and improve human these issues pose for
development around the Canada?
world?

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STEP 3 Making Connections

Choose one specific issue from your Venn diagram and use the steps below to
consider how this global issue affects you and your community.
a. Brainstorm a list of all the ways in which the issue affects you and your
community.
b. Use the Internet, the newspaper, and/or personal interviews to research
ways in which your community is dealing with this issue.
c. Identify the challenges that your community faces to deal with the issue
and put possible solutions into action.
d. Identify specific actions you can take on a personal level to begin dealing
with the issue.
e. Present and discuss your findings with your classmates.
STEP 4 Applying Your Skills

Examine the data sources below and discuss the following questions:
a. What global issue is being represented?
b. What does the information in the source tell you about the issue?
c. How effectively and reliably does the source communicate information?
d. What questions do you have regarding the information in the sources or the
issue itself?
e. What type of information is represented and where could you look to
answer questions you may have regarding the issue?
Remember to use the skills you have gained through the chapters in designing
graphs, evaluating web sites, and problem solving and decision making to
assess the reliability of information, and to make global connections between
your community, Canada, and the world.
100+
95–99
90–94
85–89
Male 80–84 Female
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
▲
SOURCE 1: Population 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.2 0 0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6
pyramid, Japan, 2010 Population (millions)
453
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UNIT 4
Study Guide
▲
SOURCE 2: Infant Mortality Rate, Life Expectancy, and Infant Deaths—Less Developed Countries (UN-based) Afghanistan
IMR* Life** Life Life Infant Infant Infant

IMR IMR
Year Both Expectancy Expectancy Expectancy Deaths Deaths Deaths
Male Female
Sexes Both Sexes Male Female Both Sexes Male Female
2010 151.5 155.2 147.7 44.7 44.5 44.9 168 137 90 096 78 041
* Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 births)

** Life Expectancy (in years)
▲
SOURCE 3: Distribution of the world’s poor
Desperately poor
Very poor
Relatively nonpoor
Insufficient data
Industrial nations
▲ SOURCE 4: Seniors practising

yoga and meditation
▲
SOURCE 5: Fish processing plant in China

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▲ SOURCE 6: Cartoon by a
Swiss artist on the subject
Rains replenish
of climate change
WELL groundwater
Pumping Water percolates downward Seepage from rivers and lakes

exceeds
WATER TABLE recharge
SATURATED POROUS
ROCK (AQUIFER)
Permeable rock is porous and Overpumping lowers water table
holds water in the aquifer
Deeper wells tap arsenic and other minerals = fluorosis
SOURCE 7: Diagram showing the IMPERMEABLE BEDROCK

▲
process of groundwater depletion
STEP 5 Thinking Critically

Assess the following quotations and choose an effective means to respond to
the questions below.
“We’re in a giant car heading towards a brick wall and everyone’s
arguing over where they’re going to sit.”
“Our personal consumer choices have ecological, social, and spiritual
consequences. It is time to re-examine some of our deeply held notions
that underlie our lifestyles.”
–David Suzuki
a) What is the brick wall—the consequences—to which Suzuki refers?

CHECK the Pearson
b) What roles do governments have in addressing these problems? Web site for additional
review activities and
c) What roles can individuals have in diverting this “giant car”? questions.
d) What are some challenges to these solutions?
455
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.

Iceland 0.3 Finland 5.3

Human Ireland 4.4

The Future in Luxembourg 0.5

Portugal Spain 10 Turkey 14

47.9 Reunion 0.8

sub-Saharan Africa struggle

Mongolia 2.6 Canada

North United States

Brunei 0.4 Chile Uruguay 3.3

Indonesia 231.6 East Timor

Economy & Human Geography

● What are the components of

● What is the formula used to

● Explain the stages of the

● What measures have countries

● Identify the different types of

● What is the dependency ratio

● What effect does an aging or

● Why is immigration important

● What problems are associated

● What is the difference between

1804 1927 1960 1974 1979 1987

356 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION Significance Patterns and

1999 2008 2013 2028 2054 2200

Chapter 11 ■ Population Trends and Issues 357

358 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

The Census: Counting People KEY TERMS

FIGURE 11–3 A census taker

Chapter 11 ■ Population Trends and Issues 359

• Simple bar graph – Figure 11–6

• Stacked or divided bar graph – Figure 8–6

• Divergent bar graph – Figure 13–27

360 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

FIGURE 11–5 Birth and death rates in Canada

FIGURE 11–6 Immigrant arrivals in Canada, 1945 to 1967

Chapter 11 ■ Population Trends and Issues 361

● What are the components of

Canada 34 086 245 10.6 7.4 3.2 0.32

Gabon 1 501 000 27.5 9.8 17.7 1.77

FIGURE 11–7 Natural increase of selected countries, 2005–2010

362 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

Growth Rate (% per year)

eration, the couple will have 14 descendants. 3.0

This is called an exponential rate of increase. 2.5

Chapter 11 ■ Population Trends and Issues 363

Natural Increase Net Migration

Birth rate 30 per 1000 Immigration rate 3 per 1000

Death rate 20 per 1000 Emigration rate 2 per 1000

Births – Deaths 10 per 1000 Immigrants – Emigrants 1 per 1000

364 Unit 4 ■ Human Geography: The Future in Balance

The Demographic Revolution KEY TERM

1900 1950 2010

Country Males Females Males Females Males Females

Portugal 33.3 35.2 56.9 61.9 75.4 81.9

Japan 42.8 44.3 60.4 63.9 79 86

Mali n/a n/a 35 36 47.6 49

Canada 47 50 66.8 71.7 78 83