JawapanKeseluruhan 2
JawapanKeseluruhan 2
JawapanKeseluruhan 2
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan dan Pertumbuhan
1 Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth
(a) bilangan / number 2. Aseto-orsein mempunyai bau seperti cuka yang kuat dan
• kecil / small merengsa. Penutup foil mengurangkan pelepasan bau tersebut.
• besar / large Acetic orcein has a strong vinegar-like smell which can be an irritant.
• Tiada / No The foil reduces the escape of fumes from the tube.
• Padat / Dense
• nipis / wall
Jenis Pertumbuhan
mitosis / mitotic Types of Growth
(b) saiz / size
Dinding sel nipis / Thin cell wall Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
Vakuol kecil / Small vacuole • panjang / length
• Sel mengambil air secara osmosis. • meristem apeks / apical meristems
The cells take in water by osmosis. • Semua / All
• Membentuk banyak vakuol kecil dan sel memanjang.
To form many small vacuoles and the cells elongate. Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth
• Pemanjangan sel menolak meristem apeks akar ke • lilitan / girth
bawah dan meristem apeks pucuk ke atas. • meristem lateral / lateral meristems
Elongation of the cells pushes the apical meristem in the root Di batang / At the stem
downwards and that in the shoot upwards.
Aktiviti kambium vaskular / Activity of vascular cambium
Dinding sel tebal / Thick cell wall
Vakuol besar / Large vacuole • gelang kambium / cambium ring
• Penvakuolan berlaku. Vakuol kecil dalam sel bergabung • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
untuk membentuk vakuol besar. secondary xylem, secondary phloem
Vacuolation occurs. Small vacuoles in the cells fuse to form a • empulur; epidermis / pith, epidermis
large central vacuole. • lignin / lignin
• Mensintesis bahan organik, lebih gentian selulosa Aktiviti kambium gabus / The activity of cork cambium
terbentuk di dinding sel, menjadikannya lebih tebal dan • sel gabus; korteks sekunder / cork cells; secondary cortex
kuat. • suberin / suberin
Synthesis of organic matters, more cellulose fibres are made and
added to the cell walls, therefore the cell walls become thicker Di akar / At the root
and more rigid. • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
(c) saiz; bentuk / size; shape secondary xylem; secondary phloem
khusus; fungsi / specialised; functions • kambium gabus / cork cambium
• sel gabus / cork cells
Eksperimen 1.1 Pertumbuhan Primer dan Sekunder
Primary and Secondary Growth
(a) atas / upwards
Keputusan / Results:
(b) cabang sisi / side branches
Keratan memanjang hujung akar / Longitudinal section of the root tip (c) bercabang / branches
Zon pembezaan sel (a) Kepentingan pertumbuhan primer
Zone of cell differentiation The importance of primary growth
✓ fotosintesis / photosynthesis
✓ air / water
Zon pemanjangan sel
Zone of cell elongation (b) Kepentingan pertumbuhan sekunder
The importance of secondary growth
Zon pembahagian sel ✓ sokongan mekanikal / mechanical support
Zone of cell division ✓ pengangkutan air; bahan organik; sokongan
transport of water; organic substances; support
Jidal akar ✓ melindungi, kehilangan air / protects, water loss
Root cap gelang tahunan / annual growth rings
• musim / season
• gelang cerah / brighter rings
Lukisan hujung akar / Drawing of root tip
• kecil, gelang gelap / small; darker ring
Zon pembezaan sel • gelang tahunan / annual ring
Zone of cell differentiation • satu tahun / one year
Persamaan / Similarities
Zon pemanjangan sel 1. primer, sekunder / primary, secondary
Zone of cell elongation 2. serentak / simultaneously
Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
Zon pembahagian sel (a) percambahan / germination
Zone of cell division (b) Semua / All
(c) hujung akar, pucuk / tips of roots, shoots
Jidal akar (d) pemanjangan / increase
Root cap (e) pucuk, akar muda / shoots, roots
(f) xilem primer, floem primer / primary xylem, primary phloem
Perbincangan / Discussion:
1. Untuk mewarnakan kromosom menjadi merah Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth
To stain the chromosomes red.
Lengkung Pertumbuhan
1.3 Growth Curves Praktis SPM 1
Tumbuhan semusim / Annual plants Soalan Objektif
satu tahun / a single year 1. B 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. B
• pokok padi; soya; dan bunga matahari
Paddy plants; soya; plants and sunflowers Soalan Struktur
Tumbuhan dwimusim / Biennial plants Bahagian A
dua tahun / two years
1. (a) • Untuk mengelakkan haiwan menggigit kulit muda yang
• karbohidrat / carbohydrates lembut dan merosakkan tisu pengangkutan.
• berbunga, membiak / flowers, reproduce To prevent animals nibbling the soft young bark and destroying
• lobak merah, bawang, kubis / carrot, onions, cabbage. the transport tissue.
Tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants • Kulit kayu yang tidak dirosakkan di sekeliling batang
bertahun-tahun / year after year tumbuhan tidak akan mati, memastikan pengangkutan
• berterusan / continues air naik ke atas batang, dan pengangkutan bahan
organik ke bawah ke akar.
• pokok getah, mangga, durian / Rubber tree, mango, durian
The bark is not destroyed all around the trunk ensured the
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan semusim plant not die, as water can move up the trunk, and organic
Growth curve of annual plants substances can move down to the roots.
Peringkat A / Stage A: (b) • Lignin memberikan kekuatan tetapi adalah ringan
berkurang, membekalkan tenaga / decreases, provide energy Lignin gives strength but is lightweight
Peringkat B / Stage B: • Kayu boleh diperbaharui / Wood is renewable
• bertambah / increases • Kurang konkrit dan keluli digunakan
• lebih tinggi / faster Less concrete and steel are used
• Tidak mengembang dalam keadaan panas tetapi
Peringkat C / Stage C: mengering dan menjadi lebih kuat
berkurang / decreases Does not expand in heat but dries out and gets stronger
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan dwimusim • Penebat haba dan bunyi yang baik
Growth curve of biennial plants Good heat and sound insulator
• Dua / Two • Terdapat banyak jenis kayu yang sesuai dengan tujuan
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants yang berbeza
There are many types of wood to suit different purposes
• kecil / small
• Nilai estetik / Aesthetic value
• pertumbuhan / growth
• Menentang daya mampatan / Resists compression forces
• Tidak retak ketika dipotong atau dipaku dan mengekalkan
Eksperimen 1.2 kekuatannya.
Doesn’t crack when cut or nailed and keeps its strength.
Pemboleh ubah / Variables
Dimanipulasikan / Manipulated:
Bilangan hari penanaman / The numbers of day of planting Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 1
Bergerak balas / Responding:
Ketinggian pokok jagung / Height of maize plant 1. D 2. D 3. B 4. C 5. D
6. C 7. D 8. C 9. B 10. B
Dimalarkan / Fixed:
Jenis dan saiz benih jagung / The variety and size of the maize seed
Struktur Daun
2.1 Structure of a Leaf
Kutikel / Cuticle
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis
Mesofil palisad
Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Palisade mesophyll
Vascular bundle
Floem / Phloem
Mesofil berspan
Spongy mesophyll Epidermis bawah
Lower epidermis
Ruangan udara
Air space Sel pengawal
Stoma / Stoma Guard cell
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis Kutikel / Cuticle
Mesofil palisad
Palisade mesophyll Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Vascular bundle
Mesofil berspan Floem / Phloem
Spongy mesophyll
Ruangan udara
Epidermis bawah Air space
Lower epidermis
Sel pengawal
Guard cell
Ruangan udara
Air space
Kutikel / Cuticle
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis
Sel pengawal
Epidermis bawah
Guard cell
Lower epidermis
• oksigen; karbon dioksida / oxygen; carbon dioxide Kesan Kekurangan Air dalam Tumbuhan Terhadap
• karbon dioksida; oksigen / carbon dioxide; oxygen Pembukaan dan Penutupan Stoma
• resapan / diffusion The Effect of Water Deficiency in Plants on Stomatal Opening and
Closing
Siang / Day Malam / Night
Fotosintesis & respirasi Respirasi • tertutup / closed
Photosynthesis & respiration Respiration • asid absisik / abscisic acid
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide • oksigen; karbon dioksida • transpirasi / transpiration
• oksigen / oxygen oxygen; carbon dioxide
• oksigen / oxygen
Mekanisme Pembukaan dan Penutupan Stoma Organ Utama Transpirasi
Mechanism of Stomatal Opening and Closing 2.3 Main Organ for Transpiration
• buka; tutup / open; close
• pengawal / guard Keperluan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
Mekanisme Pembukaan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Opening The Necessity of Transpiration in Plants
1. pam proton; Proton / proton pumps; Protons
2. kalium; vakuol / Potassium; vacuoles • Transpirasi, sejatan / Transpiration, evaporation
3. bahan larut; Air / solute; Water 1. penyerapan / absorption
4. segah; liang; terbuka / turgid; pore; opens 2. transpirasi; air; mineral / transpiration; water; minerals
Mekanisme Penutupan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Closing 3. fotosintesis; kesegahan / photosynthesis; turgidity
1. sukrosa; menurun; Sukrosa; kanji 4. haba; penyejukan / heat; cooling
sucrose; declines; Sucrose, starch
2. bahan, larut, Air / solute, Water
Faktor Persekitaran yang Mempengaruhi Kadar
3. kesegahan, liang, tertutup / turgidity, pore, closes
Transpirasi
The Environmental Factors that Affect Rate of Transpiration
Eksperimen 2.1
1. (a) cahaya / Light
Perbincangan / Discussion: (b) Suhu / Temperature
1. (a) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf (c) Udara / Air
(b) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf
(d) Kelembapan / humidity
Rate of transpiration
The rate of transpiration increases
Kadar transpirasi
other factors become the limiting factor.
with the increase in light intensity.
• Apabila suhu meningkat, kadar penyejatan air daripada permukaan sel mesofil
meningkat.
As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells
increases.
• Lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar melalui stoma daun.
Suhu
More water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.
Temperature
Keadaan udara tidak bergerak, kadar Semakin tinggi kelajuan angin, semakin tinggi kadar transpirasi.
transpirasi rendah. The higher the wind speed, the higher the rate of transpiration.
In still air, the rate of transpiration decreases.
Rate of transpiration
Kadar transpirasi
2. Potometer / potometer
Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis
Tindak balas tidak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-dependent At high light intensities,
reactions there is no change in the
1. tilakoid / thylakoids rate of photosynthesis.
3. Air; ADP / Water; ADP • Faktor selain keamatan
4. Oksigen; ATP; hidrogen / Oxygen; ATP; hidrogen cahaya menjadi faktor
5. fotolisis / photolysis penghad, contohnya
Tindak balas tidak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent Keamatan cahaya
karbon dioksida.
reactions Light intensity The rate is now limited by
1. stroma / stroma a factor other than light
3. Karbon dioksida; ATP; hidrogen / Carbon dioxide; ATP; hydrogen intensity, e.g. carbon dioxide
4. Glukosa / Glucose Tanpa cahaya, fotosintesis tidak
5. penurunan / reduction berlaku.
Without light there is no photosynthesis.
Pada suhu yang lebih tinggi daripada suhu optimum, kadar fotosintesis menurun.
At temperature higher than the optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis decreases.
Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis
Suhu
Temperature
• Peningkatan
kepekatan CO2
selanjutnya, kadar
Rate of photosynthesis
fotosintesis menjadi
fotosintesis meningkat dengan malar.
peningkatan kepekatan karbon B C
As the CO2 concentration
dioksida. Di antara A dan B, further increases, there is
kepekatan CO 2 adalah faktor no change in the rate of
penghad. photosynthesis.
Initially, the rate of photosynthesis A • Faktor lain menjadi
increases with increasing carbon Kepekatan CO2 faktor penghad.
dioxide concentration. Between A and CO2 concentration The rate becomes limited
B, CO2 concentration is the limiting by other factors.
factor.
Titik Pampasan
2.5 Compensation Point
Titik Pampasan
Compensation Point
using a Graph
Kadar fotosintesis
20
Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah
Light intensity increases even further
15
• fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Keamatan cahaya bertambah / Light intensity increases further
10
• lebih tinggi / higher
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
5
Dalam gelap / In darkness
0 • fotosintesis; respirasi / photosynthesis; respiration
Peratus kepekatan karbon dioksida • karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide
Percentage concentration of carbon dioxide
Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah pada waktu siang • Stoma membenarkan kemasukan karbon dioksida untuk
As light intensity increases in the daylight fotosintesis; Ruang udara membolehkan gas mencapai
• bertambah / increases sel-sel fotosintesis
The stoma allows entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis; the
Pada titik pampasan / At compensation point
air space allows the gas to reach the photosynthesising cells
• sama / equal
(e) • Kebanyakan daun adalah lebar dan memberi permukaan
• respirasi; fotosintesis / respiration; photosynthesis
penyerapan cahaya matahari yang besar untuk
• Tiada / no
fotosintesis.
Kesan kadar fotosintesis dan kadar respirasi sel yang kekal pada Most leaves are broad and offer a large absorbing surface to
titik pampasan terhadap pertumbuhan dalam tumbuhan the sunlight, which they need for photosynthesis.
The effect on plant growth if the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of • Daun adalah tipis, ciri yang mengurangkan jarak
cellular respiration remain at its compensation point
peresapan karbon dioksida untuk mencapai fotosintesis
1. sama / same sel-sel di daun.
2. makanan / food The leaves are also mostly thin, a feature which reduces the
3. gula berlebihan / excess sugars distance over which carbon dioxide has to diffuse in order to
4. gas oksigen / oxygen reach photosynthesising cells in the leaf.
2. (a) (i) X: Membran tilakoid / grana / granum
Praktis SPM 2
Thylakoid membrane / grana / granum
Y: Stroma / Stroma
(ii) • X / thylakoid / grana / granum /
Soalan Objektif X / thylakoid / grana / granum
(b) • Sel mesofil / sel mesofil palisad / sel pengawal / sel
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. A
mesofil berspan
6. B 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B Mesophyll cell / palisade mesophyll cell / guard cell / spongy
mesophyll cell
Soalan Struktur
(c) Tindak balas fotokimia berlaku di X
Bahagian A Photochemical reactions take place at X
1. (a) A. Epidermis atas / Upper epidermis 1. Yang membekalkan ATP dan NADPH
Which supplies ATP and NADPH
B. Kloroplas / chloroplast
2. Untuk pengikatan karbon di Y
C. Ruang udara antara sel / intercellular air space For carbon fixation that takes place at Y
D. Epidermis bawah / lower epidermis
E. Sel pengawal / guard cell (d) 1. Komponen sel itu ialah kloroplas yang mengandungi
klorofil untuk menyerap / memerangkap tenaga cahaya
(b) • Bentuk sel mesofil palisad adalah memanjang The cell component is chloroplast which contains chlorophyll to
sementara sel mesofil berspan berbentuk bulat. absorb / trap / capture light energy
The palisade mesophyll cells are elongated while the spongy
mesophyll cells are rounded. 2. Ditukar ke tenaga kimia / ATP
Converted / changed it to chemical energy / ATP
• Sel mesofil palisad mempunyai banyak kloroplas
sementara sel mesofil berspan mempunyai sedikit (e) 1. Komponen sel adalah kloroplas / sel haiwan tidak
kloroplas. mempunyai kloroplas
The palisade mesophyll cells have many chloroplasts while The cell component is chloroplast / animal cells do not have
the spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts. chloroplast
2. Tidak perlu menyerap tenaga cahaya
(c) • Ruang udara antara sel / C membenarkan resapan
Does not need to absorb light energy
gas oksigen, karbon dioksida dan wap air ke dalam
atau keluar daripada sel di dalam daun. 3. Tidak menjalankan fotosintesis
Does not carry out photosynthesis
The intercellular air spaces / C permit the diffusion of oxygen,
carbon dioxide and water vapour to or from the cells inside 4. Haiwan adalah heterotrof / holozoik / haiwan memakan
the leaf. makanan / memperoleh nutrien dari organisma lain
(d) • Sel mesofil palisad yang memanjang membenarkan Animals are heterotroph / holozoic / animals ingest food / obtain
nutrients from other organisms
cahaya matahari menembusinya tanpa diserap oleh
dinding sel.
The elongated palisade mesophyll cells allow the sunlight to
penetrate without being absorbed by cell walls.
Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 2
• Kloroplas yang banyak di sel mesofil palisad menyerap
1. D 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. D
dan menggunakan tenaga cahaya matahari.
The abundant chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll cells 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. A 10. C
absorb and use the energy from sunlight.
• Terdapat lebih banyak kloroplas di lapisan atas di mana
kebanyakan cahaya matahari diterima.
The chloroplasts are more abundant in the upper layers where
most sunlight is received.
Akar rambut
Root hair
Epidermis
Epidermis
Korteks
Cortex
Endodermis
Endodermis
Floem / Phloem
Xilem / Xylem
Penyesuaian akar untuk pengambilan air dan garam mineral / Root adaptations for water and mineral salts uptake
air; mineral / water; minerals
3.3
Kepelbagaian dalam Nutrisi Tumbuhan
Diversity in Plant Nutrition
Praktis SPM 3
Soalan Objektif
Penyesuaian Nutrisi dalam Tumbuhan
The Nutritional Adaptations of Plants 1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. D
• (a) karnivor / Carnivorous
Soalan Struktur
(b) parasit / Parasitic
(c) Epifit / Epiphytes Bahagian A
(a) Tumbuhan karnivor / Carnivorous plants 1. (a) 1. Mineral diperlukan untuk membina molekul utama
fotosintesis; serangga; mineral / photosynthesis; insects; minerals seperti klorofil, asid amino, kalsium pektat dan ATP
(b) Tumbuhan parasit / Parasitic plants Minerals are needed to make critical molecules such as
air; perumah / water; hosts chlorophyll, amino acids, calcium pectate and ATP
(c) Tumbuhan epifit / Epiphytic plants 2. Tanpa mineral tumbuhan tidak dapat tumbuh atau
tumbuhan / plant berfungsi dengan baik.
• makanan / food The plant cannot grow or function well without minerals
• hujan / rain (b) Magnesium - Sebahagian molekul klorofil
Magnesium - Part of chlorophyll molecule
Liang
Pit
Perforations
Pits
Pit / Pit
Salur
xilem
Vessel Trakeid Pit
element Tracheid Pits
Penyesuaian Struktur Tiub Tapis dan Sel Rakan dengan Pengangkutan Bahan Organik
Structural Adaptations of Sieve Tubes and Companion Cells to The Transportation of Organic Substances
Tiub tapis
Sieve tube
Plat tapis
Sieve plate
Nukleus / Nucleus
Liang / Pore
Sel rakan
Companion cell
Nukleus
Nucleus
H 2O Persamaan / Similarities
• air berlebihan / excess water
H 2O
Perbezaan / Differences
Translokasi
Tindakan kapilari
Capillary action
4.3 Translocation
B
B Translokasi / Translocation
• organik; disimpan / organic; stored
• floem / phloem
1. sukrosa; aktif / sucrose; actively
2. meresap; osmosis / diffuse; osmosis
3&4. tekanan hidrostatik / hydrostatic pressure
5. pengangkutan aktif / active transport
6. tinggi; osmosis / high; osmosis
A Peranan Tisu Floem dalam Pengangkutan Bahan Organik
The Role of Phloem Tissue in the Transport of Organic Substances
B. Tindakan kapilari / Capillary action
1. lekitan; lekatan / cohesive; adhesive Keputusan / Results Penerangan / Explaination
2. xilem; berterusan / xylem; continuous
A. Tekanan akar / Root pressure • Floem / phloem
• bertambah; berkurang
• Nutrien / nutrient
3 2 1 increases; decreases
• Bengkak / swelling
• bengkak; layu
• Layu; xilem; air / wilt; xylem; water
swells; wither
• Mati; nutrien / die; nutrients
Fitoremediasi
4.4 Phytoremediation
Fitoremediasi / Phytoremediation
• tanah; air / soils; waters
Fitostimulasi
Phytostimulation
Fitoekstrakan
Phytoextraction
Penggunaan Fitoremediasi dalam Kehidupan (b) (i) Tarikan transpirasi / Transpirational pull
The Uses of Phytoremediation in Life (c) 1. U ntuk menghasilkan kesan penyejukan kepada
tumbuhan / mengekalkan suhu tumbuhan
1. hijau / green To produces a cooling effect on plants / maintains plants
• menyingkir / remove temperature
2. bersihkan / purify • air menyerap haba daripada tumbuhan
water absorb heat from the plants
• menyerap / absorb
3. bersihkan / purify • untuk menyejat / menjadi wap air
to evaporate / become water vapour
• menyingkir / remove
2. Mewujudkan tarikan transpirasi yang membantu
penyerapan air dan mineral
Eksperimen 4.1 Creates transpirational pull which aids in the absorption of
water and minerals
A. Pencemaran air / Water pollution • m
embolehkan aliran air berterusan dari tanah ke
Perbincangan / Discussion akar dan seterusnya ke daun
llows continuous flow of water from the soil into the
a
1. • Paku pakis air / water ferns (Salvinia minima)
roots and to the leaves
• Lemna / duckweeds (Lemna minor)
• Kiambang / water lettuce (Pistia stratoites) 3. Untuk kesegahan tumbuhan / mengekalkan tekanan
osmosis tumbuhan
2. Punca / Cause For turgidity of the plant / maintain osmotic pressure of the
Air sisa tanpa rawatan daripada domestik, perindustrian, plant
pertanian dan penternakan • menyokong tumbuhan / sokongan mekanikal
Untreated wastewater from domestic, industrial, agricultural and farming
support the plant / mechanical support
Bahan pencemar / Pollutants 4. enghasilkan pengangkutan air dan mineral di
M
Racun perosak, minyak, pewarna, organik toksik, fosforus, sepanjang salur xilem
pepejal terampai, dan logam berat Results in the transport of water and minerals along the
Pesticides, oils, dyes, toxic organics, phosphorous, suspended solids, xylem vessels
and heavy metals
• untuk fotosintesis / pertumbuhan tanaman
B. Pencemaran tanih / Soil pollution photosynthesis for the growth of the plant
Perbincangan / Discussion
Bahagian B
1. membuang segala kehidupan dalam tanah
get rid of all the living thing in the soil. 2. (a) (i) X: Floem / Phloem
2. logam berat; merkuri / heavy metals; mercury Y: Xilem / Xylem
Kesimpulan / Conclusion (ii) 1. Mempunyai dinding sel berlignin
tanah / soil It has lignified wall
• T
eguh dan kuat untuk mengelakkan Y daripada
runtuh
Praktis SPM 4
Tough and strong to prevent Y from collapsing
• Untuk menahan tekanan air
To withstand water pressure
Soalan Objektif 2. Mempunyai tiub berongga yang panjang dan
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. C sempit
It has long and narrow hollow continuous tube
7. B 8. C 9. B 10. B 11. C
• Terbuka di kedua-dua hujung / Open at both ends
Soalan Struktur • Memastikan aliran air secara berterusan
Ensure continuous flow of water
Bahagian A
• D
engan menghasilkan tindakan kapilari melalui
1. (a) daya lekatan dan lekitan
By creates capillary action through adhesion and
Keratan rentas kawasan X Keratan rentas kawasan Y cohesion forces.
Transverse section of region X Transverse section of region Y
3. Mempunyai pit di dinding sel / Has Pit in cell wall
• Membenarkan air bergerak keluar dari salur xilem
ke salur xilem yang lain atau ke tisu bersebelahan.
Allows movement of water out of the vessel element to
other vessel elements or to neighbouring tissues.
(iii) Pelbagai fungsi air dalam tumbuhan termasuk:
mengekalkan kesegahan sel untuk struktur dan
pertumbuhan; mengangkut nutrien dan sebatian
organik ke seluruh tumbuhan;
The various functions of water in plants include:
maintaining cell turgidity for structure and growth;
transporting nutrients and organic compounds throughout
the plant;
Perbandingan antara Gerak Balas Tropisme dan Gerak Balas Nasti dalam Tumbuhan
Comparison between Tropism and Nastic Responses in Plants
Pergerakan akibat
rangsangan luar Gerak balas
Gerak balas berarah Movement induced by tidak berarah
Directional response external stimuli Non-directional
response
Pergerakan adalah
Pergerakan tidak berbalik
The movements
berbalik
The movements are
are irreversible
reversible
Gerak balas
Gerak balas nasti
tropisme Nastic response
Tropism response
Pergerakan perlahan Pergerakan pantas
Slow movements Quick movements
• Auksin / Auxin
Fitohormon • Etilena / Ethylene
5.2 Phytohormone • Sitokinin / Cytokinin
Eksperimen 5.1
Pemerhatian / Observation
Awal eksperimen
Selepas hari ke-1 Selepas hari ke-2
At the beginning of
Beg plastik After day 1 After day 2 Pemasakan
the experiment
Plastic beg Ripening
Keadaan buah pir Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji
Condition of pears Condition of pears Starch test Condition of pears Starch test
Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak
A1 – –
Hard Hard Highly stained Unripe
Keras Sederhana Sedikit berwarna Masak
B1 – –
Hard Intermediate Stained Ripe
Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak
A2 – –
Hard Hard Dark blue stained Unripe
Terlalu
Keras Lembut Tiada berwarna
B2 – – masak
Hard Soft Unstained
Overripe
Perbincangan / Discussion Since auxins are synthesised in the shoot tip, they will move
1. Beg plastik B – yang ada buah pisang down and accumulate on the lower side of the shoot.
Plastic bag B – with banana • el di bahagian bawah memanjang dengan cepat
S
2. Buah semakin berwarna, semakin banyak kanji dan semakin daripada bahagian atas.
tidak masak.Sebaliknya, buah semakin kurang berwarna, lebih The lower cells elongate rapidly than the upper side.
masak. • Maka, pucuk membengkok ke atas.
The more stain the fruit shows, the more starch it contains and the less As a result, the shoot bends upwards.
ripe it is. Conversely, the less stain the fruit shows, the riper the fruit is.\ • pabila pucuk menegak, penyebaran auksin menjadi
A
3. Etilena / Ethylene simetri.
4. • Mempercepatkan pemasakan buah Once the shoot tip is vertical, the distribution of auxins
Ethylene speed up the ripening of fruits become symmetrical.
• Merangsang penghasilan enzim selulase yang • Maka, batang tumbuh tegak ke arah cahaya.
Hence, the stem then grows straight up towards the light.
menghidrolisis selulosa dinding sel, dan buah menjadi
lembut • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme positif/ geotropism
Stimulating the production of cellulase which hydrolyses the negatif.
cellulose in the cell walls, making the fruit soft. This shows positive phototropism/ negative geotropism.
• Merangsang penukaran kanji kepada gula. • uksin yang diangkut dari pucuk ke akar akan
A
Promotes the conversion of starch to sugar berkumpul di bahagian bawah akar.
Auxin which is transported from the shoot down to the root
will also accumulate on the lower side of the root.
Praktis SPM 5 • epekatan auksin yang tinggi yang menyebabkan
K
pemanjangan pucuk akan merencatkan pemanjangan
Soalan Objektif
sel akar.
High concentration of auxin that causes elongation of the
1. C 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. C shoot inhibits the cell elongation in the root.
6. A 7. B 8. B • ahagian bawah hujung akar memanjang lebih lambat
B
berbanding dengan bahagian atas.
Soalan Struktur The lower side of the root elongates slower than the upper side.
Bahagian A
• Maka, akar membengkok ke bawah.
As a result, the root bend downwards.
1. (a) • ujung pucuk / The tip
H • pabila akar telah bergerak ke bawah, penyebaran
A
• Ini kerana jika dipotong atau rangsangan tersekat, auksin menjadi seragam pada kedua-dua sisi.
tiada pembengkokan berlaku Once the root is pointing directly downwards, the auxin
Because if it is removed or blocked from the stimullus no distribution becomes equal on all sides.
bending growth movement occurs.
• Akar terus memanjang ke bawah.
• embengkokan berlaku jika bahagian bawah
P The root continues to go straight downwards.
koleoptil ditutupi penutup legap • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme negatif/ geotropism
Bending growth movement occurred if the lower part of the
positif.
coleoptile is covered with opaque shield
This shows negative phototropisme/ positive geotropism.
(b) Untuk menunjukkan bahawa kegagalan gerak balas (b) • uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
A
hujung koleoptil di susunan III bukan disebabkan oleh akibat tarikan graviti.
hujung koleoptil yang dipotong. Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the shoot due to gravity.
To show that the failure to produce response in set-up III is not
due to the removal of the tip. • epekatan auksin yang tinggi merangsang
K
pertumbuhan pucuk.
(c) • Terdapat bahan yang dihasilkan di hujung koleoptil High concentration of auxin stimulates growth in shoot.
Some substances are produced from the tip of the coleoptiles
• Yang meresap melalui blok agar • leh itu sel-sel di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
O
Which can diffuse through the agar block bertumbuh dan memanjang lebih cepat.
• Ke bahagian bawah koleoptil Therefore, the cells at the underside of the shoot grow and
To reach the lower part of the coleoptile elongate faster.
• an membolehkan bahagian bawah hujung
D • Akibatnya pucuk geotropisme negatif.
koleoptil membengkok This results the shoot showing negative geotropism.
And lead to bending growth at the lower part of the coleoptile • uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung akar
A
akibat tarikan graviti.
Bahagian B Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the root due to
2. (a) • alam situasi Q, apabila pasu diletakkan
D gravity.
secara mengufuk, kedua-dua cahaya dan graviti • epekatan auksin yang tinggi merencatkan
K
menyebabkan auksin diangkut ke bahagian bawah pertumbuhan akar.
pucuk dan akar. High concentration of auxin inhibits growth in root.
In situation Q, when the pot is placed horizontally, both light • Pemanjangan sel pada bahagian bawah akar terencat
and gravity causes auxins to be transported to the lower side Cell elongation at the underside of root is inhibited.
of both the shoot and root.
• Akibatnya akar menunjukkan geotropisme positif.
• leh kerana aukin disintesiskan di hujung pucuk,
O This results the root showing positive geotropism.
aukin akan bergerak ke bawah dan berkumpul di
bahagian bawah pucuk.
Struktur Bunga
6.1 Structure of a Flower
Struktur Bunga
Structure of a Flower
1. Bunga / Flower
2. pedunkel; sepal; petal; karpel; stamen
peduncle; sepal; petal; carpel; stamen
3. Keratan membujur sekuntum bunga:
Longitudinal section of a flower:
Ovul / Ovule
Petal / Petal
Menghasilkan ovum
Produces ovum
Biasanya berwarna-warni
dan bau wangi untuk menarik
serangga pendebungaan
May be brightly coloured and scented Sepal Melindungi kudup bunga
to attract pollinating insects Sepal Protects the flower bud
Pedunkel / Peduncle
Menyokong bunga
Supports the flower
Bahagian jantan bunga / Male flower part Bahagian betina bunga / Female flower part
Stigma
Debunga Stigma
Pollen grain
Stil
Style
Filamen
Filament
Ovari Ovul
Anter Ovary Ovule
Anther
(a) Stamen : Berada di luar karpel (b) Karpel : Berada di dalam bunga
Stamen : Occurs outside the carpel Carpel : Occurs at the centre of the flower
Sel induk
mikrospora
Microspore
Anter Nukleus
mother cell
Anther Nucleus
Nukleus penjana
Generative
Debunga nucleus
Pollen grain
Nukleus tiub
Tube nucleus
Integumen Meiosis
Integument Meiosis
Sel sinergid
Synergid cells
Sel sinergid
Synergid cells
1. pundi embrio / embryo sac 1. bunga / flower
2. megaspora; meiosis; megaspora 2. zigot; ovari / zygote; ovary
megaspore; meiosis; megaspores 3. buah; biji benih / fruit; seed
Buah
Fruit
Parut
Scar
Stigma dan stil
Remains of stigma
and style
Bijih benih
Seed
Petal
Layu dan
gugur
Wither and Stamen Kulit biji benih
Ovul
fall off Seed coat
Sepal Ovule
Ovari Integumen
Ovary Integument Buah
Fruit
Zigot Embrio
Zygote Biji benih diselaputi oleh kulit bijih benih keras, yang
Embryo
berasal daripada lapisan integumen ovul.
The seed is surrounded by a tough, seed coat derived from the
integuments which are the outermost layers of an ovule.
Ovul tersenyawa
Fertilised ovule
1. Buah / fruit
2. Terdapat empat jenis buah / They are four types of fruits:
Jenis buah
Types of fruits
Contoh: kacang pis, lemon Contoh: raspberi, strawberi Contoh: nanas Contoh: epal
Example: pea, lemon Example: raspberry, strawberry Example: pineapple Example: apple
Biji benih kekal dorman dalam keadaan persekitaran yang tidak sesuai untuk percambahan termasuk
kekangan suhu atau air.
Seeds maintain dormancy under unfavourable environmental conditions for germination including temperature or water
restrictions.
Kepentingan Biji benih memberi perlindungan maksimum kepada anak benih pada peringkat awal perkembangan.
biji benih untuk Seeds afford maximum protection to the young plant at its early stage of development.
kemandirian
The importance of
seeds for survival
Biji benih mempunyai makanan simpanan untuk perkembangan anak benih sebelum fotosintesis bermula.
Seeds contain stored food that allows young plant to develop before photosynthesis begins.
Biji benih disesuaikan untuk penyebaran, ini membantu perpindahan gen tumbuhan ke habitat baru.
Seeds are adapted for dispersal, facilitates the migration of plant genotypes into new habitats.
6
Bahagian B
Praktis SPM 1. (a)
• Butir debunga terbentuk dalam anter, satu anter
mempunyai empat kantung debunga.
Soalan Objektif Pollen grains are formed in the anther, an ather has four
pollen sacs.
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C
• Setiap kantung debunga mengandungi ratusan sel
Soalan Struktur yang dikenal sebagai sel induk debunga (2n).
Each pollen sac contains hundreds of cells called pollen
Bahagian A mother cells (2n).
1. (a)
J: Ovul / Ovule • Setiap sel induk debunga mengalami meiosis untuk
K: Pundi embrio / Embryo sac membentuk empat sel debunga yang haploid/
(b) mikrospora (n).
The microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four
haploid microspore cells (n).
• Nukleus setiap mikrospora membahagi secara mitosis
untuk membentuk nukleus tiub dan nukleus penjana.
Nukleus kutub The nucleus in each microspore divides by mitosis to produce
Polar nuclei tube nucleus and generative nucleus.
The left megaspore enlarges and nucleus undergoes mitosis • Pada mikropil, nukleus tiub merosot, hujung tiub debunga
three times to form eight haploid nuclei. pecah.
• Tiga daripada lapan nukleus (berpindah ke hujung At the micropyle, the tube nucleus degenerates, the tip of
sel) untuk membentuk sel antipodal, dua lagi nukleus pollen tube burst open.
membentuk nukleus polar dan satu daripada tiga • Nukleus jantan masuk ke dalam pundi embrio.
nukleus lagi berkembang membentuk sel telur dan dua Male nuclei enter into the embryo sac.
lagi menjadi sel sinergid. • Satu nukleus jantan bergabung dengan nukleus sel telur
Three of the eight nuclei (move to one end of the cell) to form untuk membentuk zigot diploid.
antipodal cells, two nuclei form polar nuclei and another three One male nucleus fuse with egg cell nucleus to form a diploid
nuclei will develop to form an egg cell and two synergid cells. zygote.
(c) • Butir debunga dibebaskan oleh anter dipindahkan oleh • Satu lagi nukleus jantan bergabung dengan dua nukleus
lebah ke stigma, pendebungaan berlaku. kutub untuk membentuk nukleus endosperma triploid.
Pollen grains released by anther are transferred by bees to Other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a
the stigma, pollination occurs. triploid endosperm nucleus.
• Stigma merembes sukrosa untuk merangsang • Persenyawaan ganda dua berlaku.
percambahan butir debunga untuk membentuk tiub Double fertilisation occurs.
debunga. • Selepas persenyawaan, nukleus endosperma triploid
Stigma secretes sucrose to stimulate the germination of pollen
grains to produce pollen tube. membahagi untuk membentuk tisu endosperma.
After fertilisation, the triploid endosperm nucleus divides to
• Nukleus tiub merembes enzim untuk menghidrolisis form endosperm tissues.
tisu stil dan mengarah pertumbuhan tiub debunga • Zigot berkembang menjadi embrio.
dalam stil. Zygote develops into embryo.
Tube nucleus secretes enzyme to hydrolyse the style tissues
and direct the growth of pollen tube down the style. • Ovul berkembang menjadi biji benih
The ovules develop into seeds.
• Tiub debunga tumbuh di sepanjang stil untuk memasuki
ovul melalui mikropil. • Integumen ovul berkembang menjadi kulit biji.
Pollen tube grows along style to enter ovule via the micropyle. Integument of ovule develops into seed coat.
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. A
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. D 10. A
Penyesuaian / Adaptations: (b) • Ciri-ciri penyesuaian untuk hidup dalam keadaan yang
• Pokok bakau mempunyai daun hijau dengan kandungan sangat kering diwujudkan melalui mutasi.
kloroplas tinggi untuk fotosintesis. Adaptive feature(s) for survival in very dry conditions arise by
Mangrove plants develop green leaves with abundant chloroplasts mutation.
that facilitate the process of photosynthesis. • Daun kecil / dikecilkan menjadi duri / kutikel berlilin
• Pokok disejukkan secara transpirasi yang memberi kesan tebal / batang sukulen / akar yang panjang / mendalam
penyejukan. / permukaan daun / batang berkilat / stoma tutup pada
The plants are cooled down by transpiration that provides a cooling waktu siang / apa-apa contoh yang sesuai.
effect. Small leaves / leaves reduced to spines / thick waxy cuticle /
succulent stems / long, shallow roots / deep roots / shiny surface
• Pokok bakau mempunyai kutikel berlilin tebal untuk
of leaves / stem / stomata close during the day / any example(s)
mengelakkan kehilangan air berlebihan semasa air surut. of these features.
Mangrove plants have thick waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water
loss during low tide.
• Tumbuhan yang mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini
bersaing dengan tumbuhan spesies sama yang tidak
• Pokok mempunyai pneumatofor yang tumbuh di permukaan
mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini.
laut untuk pertukaran gas. Plants that have these adaptive feature(s) compete well with
The plants develop pneumatophores that grow above the sea level plants of the same species that do not have these adaptive
for gas exchange. features.
• Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di • Tumbuhan ini dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan lebih
pinggir daun. baik dan membiak.
Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf These (better adapted) plants survive and reproduce.
margins.
• Mewariskan gen ini kepada generasi seterusnya.
• Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di Pass on their genes to the next generation.
pinggir daun. • Tumbuhan yang tidak dapat mengekalkan kemandirian
Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf akan mati.
margins.
Plants that are not able to survive die.
• Pokok mempunyai akar jangkang untuk sokongan dalam
tanah berlumpur yang lembut.
The plants have prop roots for better support in the soft muddy soil.
Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 7
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. C
6. A 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. B
1. pengelasan / Classification
Hierarki Pengelasan
Hierarchy of Classification
(a) Bakteria sulfur (a) Protozoa (a) Tumbuhan tanpa biji benih (a) Invertebrata / Invertebrates
Sulphur bacteria Protozoa Seedless plants (b) Vertebrata / Vertebrates
(b) Alga (b) Tumbuhan berbiji benih
Algae Plants with seeds
(c) Kulapuk lendir
Slime molds 5. Fungi
catus
Nama spesies / Species name
Bermula dengan huruf kecil
Begins with a small letter
Kekunci Dikotomi
Dichotomous Keys
Biodiversiti
8.2 Biodiversity
Konsep Biodiversiti
The Concept of Biodiversity
Variasi gen individu dalam satu populasi.
1. organisma; ekosistem / organisms; ecosystems The individual genetic variation within a population
2.
Diversiti ekosistem / Ecosystem diversity
Pokok Filogeni
Phylogenic Tree
1. evolusi / evolutionary
2. filogeni / phylogenetic
3. leluhur / ancestor
4. (a) Leluhur / ancestor
(b) Leluhur / ancestor
Plasmid Plasmid
/
Bebenang
Kapsul Capsule DNA di dalam sitoplasma
/ Circular
DNA lying free in cytoplasm
Flagela
untuk pergerakan
Flagellum Dinding sel
for locomotion terdiri daripada murein
Cell wall
made of murein
Sitoplasma
Cytoplasm
4. heterotrof / heterotrophic
Bakteria mempunyai tiga bentuk asas, iaitu basilus, kokus dan 5. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
spirilum. (c) Alga / Algae
There are three basic shapes of bacteria, namely bacillus, coccus and
spirillum.
1. fotosintesis / photosynthesis
2. daun / leaves
(d) Kulat / Fungi
1. yis; kulat / yeasts; moulds
2. heterotrof / heterotrophic
3. patogen / pathogens
Bakteria basilus Bakteria kokus Bakteria berpilin (e) Virus / Viruses
Bacillus bacteria Cocci bacteria Spiral bacteria 1. bukan hidup / non-living
2. nukleik; kapsid / nucleic; capsid
3. envelop / envelope
(a) penyakit / diseases 4. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
(b) pengeluar / producers
(c) nutrien / nutrient Peranan Mikroorganisma dalam Kitar Nitrogen
(b) Protozoa / Protozoa The Roles of Microorganisms in Nitrogen Cycle
1. haiwan / animal 1. 78
2. air / water 2. nitrat / nitrate
3. dinding sel / cell wall
N2 di atmosfera (78%)
N2 in atmosphere (78%)
Protein haiwan
Protein tumbuhan
Protein in animals
Protein in plants
4 3 Asimilasi
Assimilation
Tumbuhan 6
Plants
Kematian
Death
2 Kematian
Death
v) Bakteria pendenitritan
Denitrifying bacteria
vi) Pengurai
(bakteria dan fungi)
i) Bakteria pengikat nitrogen di Decomposers
nodul akar legum (Bacteria and fungi)
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legume
root nodules Nitrat (NO3–)
Nitrate (NO3–)
Penitritan
Nitrification
1
Peranan mikroorganisma dalam kitar nitrogen / The roles of different microorganisms in nitrogen cycle
Peranan Mikroorganisma
The Roles of Microorganisms
Salmonella sp.
Mikroorganisma sebagai pengeluar
Microorganisms as producers
(a) klorofil / chlorophyll
Jenis patogen: Kulat
(b) makanan; oksigen / food; oxygen Types of pathogens: Fungi
Mikroorganisma sebagai pengurai
Microorganisms as decomposers
(a) Saprofit; enzim; mati / saprophytic; enzymes; dead
(b) Pengurai / Decomposers Kurap
Ringworm
(c) nutrien / nutrients
Mikroorganisma sebagai simbion
Microorganisms as symbionts
Trichophyton sp.
(a) Liken / Lichen
(b) Alga; fungi / Algae; fungi
(c) Fungi; alga / Fungi; algae
Mikroorganisma sebagai parasit Praktis SPM 8
Microorganisms as parasites
(a) bakteria; protista / bacteria; protists Soalan Objektif
(b) hati; sel darah merah / liver; red blood cells 1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. B
6. B 7. D 8. B
Patogen dan Vektor
Pathogens and Vectors Soalan Struktur
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. B
6. B 7. C 8. C 9. B 10. A
(h) Herbivor
(b) Keamatan Herbivores
cahaya Makan tumbuhan
Light intensity Eat plants
Pengguna
Consumers
(i) Karnivor
(c) Suhu Carnivores
Temperature Makan haiwan
Eat animals
(e) pH tanah
Soil pH (k) Bakteria di permukaan tanah Pengurai
Decomposers
Bacteria on surface of mud
Pengurai
dan detritivor (makan tinja dan organisma mati)
Decomposers
and detritivores (feeding on faeces and dead organisms)
1) Cahaya matahari 2) Pengeluar, iaitu tumbuhan hijau, 3) Pengguna adalah organisma Pengguna sekunder
ialah sumber memerangkap tenaga cahaya yang mendapat tenaga daripada ialah karnivor yang
utama tenaga melalui fotosintesis, dan kemudian organisma hidup yang lain. makan haiwan lain
dalam rantai menukarnya kepada tenaga kimia Consumers are organisms that obtain (pengguna primer).
makanan. dalam sebatian makanan. energy from other living organisms. Secondary consumers are
Sunlight is the main A producer, usually green plants captured ✓ Pengguna primer ialah herbivor carnivores which feed on
source of energy in light energy through photosynthesis, and yang makan pengeluar. other animals (primary
the food chain. then is converted to chemical energy in consumers).
Primary consumers are herbivores
food compound. which feed on producers.
5 5 5
3 3
Anak panah
menunjukkan arah
aliran tenaga di Pengguna
rantai makanan. sekunder boleh
4) Pengurai, kulat dan bakteria, memperoleh tenaga dan nutrien Arrows point the
daripada bahan buangan (najis) dan sisa (bangkai) organisma direction of energy flow
dimakan oleh
lain. along the food chain. pengguna tertier.
Secondary
Decomposers, fungi and bacteria, obtain the energy and nutrients
consumers can be
from the wastes (eg. faeces) and remains (eg. dead bodies) of other
4 eaten by tertiary
organisms
consumers.
5) Tenaga hilang melalui perkumuhan dan bahagian yang tidak dimakan. Ia juga hilang sebagai haba semasa respirasi.
Energy is lost through excretion and in the form of uneaten body parts. It is also lost in the form of heat during respiration.
Piramid Ekologi
Ecological Pyramids
Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers 1 Helang / Eagle
Jadi / So
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Ulat / Caterpillar (80 g/m2)
• Piramid biojisim akan menjadi songsang apabila organisma di aras trof rendah membiak dengan kadar yang lebih tinggi
berbanding organisma pada aras trof yang lebih tinggi.
A pyramid of biomass may become inverted when organisms at a lower trophic level have a much higher reproduction rate than organisms at a
higher trophic
Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers Helang / Eagle 10 kJ m–2
Pengguna sekunder
Secondary consumers Katak / Toads 1,00 kJ m–2 year–1
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Belalang / Grasshoppers 1,000 kJ m–2 year–1
Simbiosis
Symbiosis
• Simbiosis / Symbiosis
• Simbion / symbionts Tumbuhan membekalkan Bakteria hidup dalam nodul
molekul organik tinggi akar, membekalkan sebahagian
1. Mutualisme / Mutualism
tenaga kepada bakteria besar nitrogen yang diperlukan
• Mutualisme, simbiosis, keuntungan (+, +) simbion. oleh tumbuhan kekacang.
Mutualism, symbiotic, benefit (+, +) The plants supply energy- The bacteria live inside nodules on
rich organic molecules to the the root of legumens, supply the
bacterial symbionts. plants with the most of the nitrogen
their required.
Mikoriza - gabungan antara kulat dan akar tumbuhan (b) Ikan badut dan tentakel buran laut.
Mycorrhizae - associations between fungi and the roots of plants Clownfish among sea anemone’s tentacles
Tumbuhan membekalkan
karbohidrat kepada fungi.
The plant provideds carbohydrates
to the fungi
Parasit bertambah
Parasite increases
Parasit berkurang
Umang-umang menggunakan tentakel buran laut untuk Parasite decreases
mendapatkan makanan dan perlindungan diri.
The crab uses the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone to gather (a) Ektoparasit / Ectoparasites
food and to protect itself. Luar; ektoparasit / surface; ectoparasites
(b) Endoparasit / Endoparasites
2. Komensalisme / Commensalism dalam, endoparasit / within, endoparasites
• Komensalisme; keuntungan (+,0) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
Commensalism; benefit (+, 0) • Saprofitisme; mati / Saprophytism; dead
• Saprofit / Saprophytes
(a) Ikan remora dan jerung / Remora fish and the shark • Penguraian; nutrien / Decomposition; nutrients
Saprofit: Organisma yang
mendapat nutrien daripada bahan
organik yang mati atau reput.
Saprophytes: Organisms which obtain
nutrients from dead or decaying
organic matter.
✓ Contoh: kulat, bakteria
Examples: fungi, bacteria
Ekologi Populasi
Ekosistem Paya Bakau 9.2 Population Ecology
A Mangrove Ecosystem
Taburan tumbuhan dipengaruhi oleh faktor abiotik berikut
• tropika / tropical
Plant distributions are affected by abiotic factors such as
Komponen biosis / Biotic components • Cahaya / Light
(a) Pengguna / Consumers • Suhu / Temperature
(b) Pengeluar / Producers • Air / Water
• pH / pH
(c) Pengurai / Decomposers
• Kandungan garam / Salinity
Komponen abiosis / Abiotic components • Mineral / Minerals
(a) cahaya / sunlight Taburan haiwan dipengaruhi oleh / Animal distributions are affected by
(b) Angin / winds • Makanan / Food
(c) Air laut / Seawater • Suhu / Temperature
(d) Tanah / Soil • Air / Water
• Tapak pembinaan / Breeding sites
Penyesuaian Pokok Bakau / Adaptations of Mangrove Trees • Faktor geografi / Geographical factors
(a) Oksigen; lentisel / Oxygen; lenticles Taburan organisma akuatik dipengaruhi oleh
(b) pneumatofor / pneumatophores Aquatic organism distributions are affected by
(c) bercabang luas; sokongan / cable; support • Cahaya / Light
(d) jangkang; menyokong / prop; anchor • pH / pH
• Kandungan garam / Salinity
(e) vivipari / viviparous
(f) Hidatod; garam / Hydathodes; salt Faktor biotik yang mempengaruhi taburan organisma seperti
Biotic factors affecting distribution of organisms such as
(g) sukulen / succulent • Pemangsaan / Predation
(h) berkutikel / cuticle • Herbivor / Herbivory
• Persaingan / Competition
Pengkolonian dan Sesaran Suhu / Temperature
Colonisation and Succession • suhu optimum / optimum temperature
• enzim / enzymes
• sesaran ekologi / ecological succession • ternyahasli / denaturation
• mengubah; pertumbuhan / modify; replace • tenaga; pertumbuhan / energy; growth
• kepelbagaian; bertambah; komuniti klimaks Cahaya / Light
diversity; increases; climax community • Cahaya matahari / Sunlight
• fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Spesies perintis / Pioneer species • pertumbuhan / grow
Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp.
pH / pH
• lumpur; organik / sediments; matter • besar / larger
• padat; tinggi / compact; firm • mineral / mineral
• Rhizophora sp. / Rhizophora sp. • nitrogen; fosforus / nitrogen; phosphorus
Contoh / Examples:
Menganggarkan Saiz Populasi Organisma
Estimate Population Size of Organisms 1. Saiz populasi pepatung =
The population size of the dragonflies =
• kuadrat / Quadrat (30 × 20)
• Kuadrat / quadrat N= = 120
5
2. Saiz populasi siput =
The population size of the snails =
Menggunakan Kuadrat
Use of The Quadrat (200 × 130)
N= = 520
50
1. rawak / random
2. dikenal pasti / identified
3. Frekuensi; kepadatan; peratus litupan / frequency; density; Praktis SPM 9
coverage percentage
(i) Frekuensi / frequency Soalan Objektif
(ii) Kepadatan / density 1. C 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. D
(iii) litupan / coverage 6. D 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. A
Contoh / Examples:
Soalan Struktur
1. Frekuensi / Frequency
F = ( 3 / 5) x 100 = 60% Bahagian A
Kepadatan / Density = 1. (a) (i) • Unit yang terdiri daripada organisma hidup /
D = 7 / (5 x 1m2) = 1.4 m-2 komponen komponen biotik dan persekitaran
2. F = ( 6 / 10 ) x 100 = 60% abiotik yang saling berinteraksi
Unit made up of living organisms / biotic component and
Kepadatan / Density = the abiotic environment which interacting together
D = 81 / (10 x 1 m2) = 8.1 m-2
(ii) • Fotoautotrof / menjalankan fotosintesis / menukar
3. Peratus litupan / Percentage coverage = tenaga cahaya kepada tenaga kimia
C = (0.32+0.78+0.18+0.64+0.20+0.15) / (6 x 1 m2) x 100 = Photoautotrophic / carries out photosynthesis / converts
2.27 / 6 x 100 = 37.8 % light energy to chemical energy
• Sintesis sebatian organik kompleks dari sebatian
Teknik tangkap-tanda-lepas tangkap semula bukan organik
Capture-mark-release-recapture technique Synthesises complex organic compounds from inorganic
• haiwan; kutu kayu; serangga / animals; woodlice; insects compounds
• Menduduki aras trof terendah / pertama
Populasi kutu kayu (N) Occupies lowest / first trophic level
A population of woodlice (N) (iii) Tempat organisma hidup yang menyediakan
makanan, perlindungan dan tapak untuk membiak.
The place where an organism lives that can provide food,
Sampel ditangkap secara rawak (n1) shelter and a breeding site for a living organism.
Random sample captured (n1) (b) (i) Populasi / Population
(ii) Komuniti / Community
Ditandakan dengan (iii) Fotoautotrof / pengeluar primer
Ditanda cincin, tag, cat berwarna Photoautotroph / primary producer
Marked atau varnis kuku. (iv) Nic / Niche
Marked with a ring, tag,
coloured paint or nail varnish. 2. (a) (i) • Pokok bunga / Flowering plant
(ii) • Ular dan burung / Birds and snakes
Dan dilepaskan (b) (i) Pokok bunga → ulat beluncas → burung → helang
And released Flowering plant → caterpillars → birds → eagles
(ii)
Helang
Sampel bergaul dengan populasi Eagle
Sample mixed with population Burung
Birds
Ulat beluncas
Caterpillars
Beberapa hari kemudian, sampel kedua Satu pokok bunga
ditangkap di kawasan yang sama (n2) A flowering plant
A few days later, a second sample is caught in the
same locality (n2) (c) Tenaga / haba pada setiap aras hilang
Energy / heat at each level loss because of
1. bahagian tidak dimakan / bukan semua bahagian
Sampel bertanda dikira (n3) organisma boleh dimakan
inedible parts / not all the organism can be eaten
Marked sample is counted (n3)
2. bahagian tidak dicerna / bukan semua dicerna / 3) Apabila populasi pemangsa bertambah, populasi
pembuagan tinja mangsa berkurang
indigestible parts / not all is digested / egestion / faeces When the population of predator increases, the population
3. hilang semasa respirasi / pergerakan / perkumuhan / of prey decreases
pencernaan 4) Lebih banyak mangsa dimakan oleh pemangsa
loss from respiration / movement / excretion / digestion More prey are eaten by predators
(d) (i) 1) Pada mulanya, populasi belalang bertambah kerana (c) Simbiosis / Symbiosis
kurang pemangsa (ular) yang memakannya dan Simbiosis adalah interaksi rapat di antara dua atau lebih
dapat membiak dengan lebih banyak spesies yang hidup bersama.
Initially, the grasshopper population increases as there Symbiosis is a close interaction between two or more species which
are less predators (snakes) feeding on them and they can live together.
reproduce more • Simbion sama ada mendapat untung, tidak terjejas, atau
2) Walau bagaimanapun, populasi menurun secara rugi.
mendadak kerana persaingan untuk makanan The symbionts may benefit from, be unaffected by, or be harmed
However, their population decreases later dramatically due by the relationship.
to the competition for food • Terdapat tiga jenis perhubungan simbiosis:
3) Pokok bunga satu-satunya pengeluar makanan di There are three types of symbiotic relationships
jaring makanan ini / tidak menghasilkan makanan 1) Mutualisme / Mutualism
yang mencukupi untuk populasi yang semakin Mutualisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
meningkat. kedua-dua organisma mendapat untung → (+,+).
The flowering plant is the only producer of food in this Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both
food web / does not produce enough food for the growing organisms benefit → (+,+).
population
2) Komensalisme / Commensalism
(ii) 1) Pada awalnya, populasi ulat beluncas kekal kerana Komensalisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
tergolong dalam rantai makanan berlainan / ular satu organisma mendapat untung, dan organisma
bukan pemangsa lain tidak untung atau rugi. → (+,0).
Initially, the caterpillar population remains constant because Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one
they belong to two different food chains / snakes / do not organism benefit, and the other one is neither benefit nor
prey on them harmed → (+, 0).
2) Kedua-dua belalang dan ulat beluncas memakan
3) Parastisme / Parastism
sumber makanan yang sama (daun pokok bunga),
Parasitisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
pertambahan populasi belalang akan bersaing
satu organisma hidup di organisma lain. Oleh itu,
dengan ulat untuk makanan
parasite untung dan organisma perumah rugi.
However, both grasshoppers and caterpillars feed on the
same food source (leaves of flowering plant), an increase → ( + , – ).
in the population of grasshopper provides competition for Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism
food with the caterpillars lives in or on another organism. Thus, the parasite benefits
and the host organism is harm. → ( + , – ).
3) Tiada ular, populasi belalang meningkat, lebih
Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
banyak makanan untuk burung, populasi burung
meningkat, lebih banyak ulat beluncas akan Saprofitisme adalah interaksi di mana organisma hidup
dimakan. mendapat makanan daripada bahan organik yang mati.
No snakes, grasshopper population increases, more food Saprophytism is an interaction in which living organisms feed on
for birds, bird population increases, more caterpillars are dead organic matter.
eaten. • Saprofit menguraikan bahan organik itu.
Saprophytes responsible for decomposition of the organic
Bahagian B matter.
3. (a) (i) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism • Penguraian membebaskan nutrien ke ekosistem yang
(ii) • Cendawan tumbuh pada bahan organik yang dapat diserap oleh tumbuhan.
mati
Decomposition releases nutrients into the ecosystem which can
Mushrooms grow on dead organic materials be absorbed by plants.
• Cendawan mengeluarkan enzim Pemangsaan / Predation
Mushrooms secrete enzyme Pemangsaan adalah interaksi antara spesies, pemangsa,
Mengurai sebatian organik kompleks kepada produk membunuh dan memakan spesies yang lain, mangsa.
yang ringkas / glukosa Predation is an interaction between species in which one species,
Break down complex organic compound into simple product / the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey
glucose • Dalam pemangsaan, pemangsa untung (+) sementara
(b) (i) Mangsa / Prey: Arnab / Rabbit mangsa rugi (–)
In predation, the predator gains benefit (+) while the prey is
Pemangsa / Predator: Musang / Fox
harmed (–).
(ii) 1) Apabila populasi mangsa meningkat, populasi
pemangsa meningkat
When the population of prey increases, the population of Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 9
predator also increases
2) Ini kerana pemangsa mempunyai lebih makanan 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. B
dan membiak dengan cepat
This is because the predators have more food and
6. A 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. D
reproduce faster
Bermaksud
Means
Keadaan alam sekitar yang kekal sama Keperluan masa kini dipenuhi
The responsible interaction with the environment
Memastikan tanpa menjejaskan keperluan
To ensure
• tanpa mengalami masalah kekurangan atau penurunan sumber semula jadi generasi akan datang.
to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources The needs of today’s population
are met without jeopardising the
• dan kualiti alam sekitar yang terjamin untuk satu tempoh masa yang panjang. ability of future generations to
and allow for long-term environmental quality. meet their needs.
Sebab / Causes
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouse gases CO2 Pengasidan lautan
Karbon dioksida, gas metana, oksida nitrogen, CFC Ocean acidification
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC
Pelunturan karang laut / Coral bleaching Pencairan ais kutub • Kenaikan aras laut
Penurunan tangkapan ikan / Fish stock decline dan glasier Sea level rise
Melting of polar ice • Persisiran pantai tenggelam
Jangkitan penyakit / Spreads of diseases caps and glaciers Coastal submersion
Kesan langsung ke atas kesihatan manusia Migrasi manusia Banjir di bandar dan ladang
Direct impact on human health Human migration Flooding of cities and farmland
Kesan rumah hijau / The greenhouse effect Tanah runtuh dan banjir kilat / Landslide and flash flood
1. solar / solar • tadahan / catchment
2. atmosfera / atmosphere • tanah runtuh / landslides
3. inframerah / infrared • sungai / rivers
4. rumah hijau / greenhouse • Banjir / flood
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouses gas Perubahan kitar semula bahan
(a) Karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide Changes in recycling of materials
(b) metana / Methane - fotosintesis; rumah hijau / photosynthesis; greenhouse
(c) nitrogen / Nitrous - berkurang / drops
(d) CFC Perubahan iklim / Climatic changes
Penyahhutanan / Deforestation • transpirasi / transpiration
hutan / forest • hujan / rainfall
• panas / drought
Kesuburan tanah mengurang / Reduction in soil fertility
• hakisan / erosion Kehilangan biodiversiti dan kepupusan spesies
- akar / root Loss of biodiversity and species extinction
• subur / Fertile • perubatan / medicinal
• kesuburan / fertility • habitat; kepupusan / habitats; extinction
• rantai / chains
Pencemaran Pencemaran ialah pembebasan bahan dari aktiviti manusia yang menjejaskan alam sekitar.
Pollution Pollution is the release of substances from human activities that are harmful to the environment.
2. Kedua-dua SO2 dan NOx bergabung dengan wap air dalam atmosfera untuk
1. Pembakaran bahan api fosil di loji janakuasa, membentuk asid sulfurik dan asid nitrik.
Both SO2 and NOx combine with water vapour in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
kilang perindustrian dan kenderaan bermotor and nitric acid.
membebaskan sejumlah besar sulfur dioksida
(SO2) dan oksida-oksida nitrogen (NOx). Sulfur dioksida Asid sulfurik
The combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, Sulphur dioxide H 2O Sulphuric acid
factories and motor vehicles release large quantity of
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
Oksida nitrogen Asid nitrik
Nitrogen oxides Nitric acid
4. Hujan asid terbentuk (pH air hujan < 5.0) 3. Asid sulfurik dan asid nitrat melarut dalam air hujan.
Acid rain is formed (pH of rain water < 5.0) Sulphuric acid and nitric acid dissolve in rain water.
Kesan / Effects
Eutrofikasi Pengayaan suatu ekosistem akuatik dengan baja berlebihan (nitrat, fosfat, dll.)
Eutrophication The enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem with chemical nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, etc.)
Input kumbahan
tanpa rawatan. Pengaliran baja
Input of untreated bukan organik dari
sewage. Peningkatan kepekatan nitrat dan ladang pertanian.
Leaching of inorganic
fosfat terlarut.
fertilisers from
Increased concentration of soluble
agricultural land.
nitrates and phosphates.
Mati / Die
BOD: Jumlah oksigen yang diperlukan oleh mikroorganisma aerob untuk menguraikan bahan organik dalam suatu sampel air.
BOD: The amount of oxygen consumed by aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic materials in a sample of water.
Punca / Causes
Pemburuan
Kemasukan berlebihan Pencemaran
spesies luar Overexploitation Pollution
Perubahan iklim &
Kehilangan Invasive species
pemanasan global
habitat
Climate change &
Habitat loss
global warming
Pengaruh /Influencers
• Pertumbuhan populasi
manusia
Human population growth
• Peningkatan penggunaan
Increasing consumption Kehilangan biodiversiti / Biodiversity loss
• Penurunan kecekapan sumber Penurunan bilangan gen, individu organisma, spesies, dan
Reduced resource efficiency ekosistem di kawasan tertentu
Reduction in the number of genes, individual organisms, species,
and ecosystems in a given area
Populasi dunia
World population
7 billion
3 billion
2 billion
1 billion
0
10,000 BCE 8,000 BCE 6,000 BCE 4,000 BCE 2,000 BCE 0 2019
Akibat / Effects
Pengurangan sumber semula jadi Pertambahan bahan sisa buangan seperti bahan pencemar udara dan air, bahan toksik
Depletion of natural resources
dan gas rumah hijau.
Increase waste products as a result of consumption such as air and water pollutants, toxic materials
and greenhouse gases
Kehilangan biodiversiti
Loss of biodiversity
Eksperimen 10.1
Keputusan / Results
Botol reagen Sampel air Masa yang diambil bagi warna larutan metilena biru luntur (jam) Nilai BOD
Reagent bottle Water sample Time taken for methylene blue solution to decolourise (hour) Bod value
A Air sungai / River water 1 6
B Air kolam / Pond water 2 5
C Air longkang / Drain water 3 4
D Air paip / Pipe water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 2
E Air telaga / Well water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 3
F Air suling / Distilled water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 1
Perbincangan / Discussion 5. • Nilai BOD yang lebih rendah menunjukkan kualiti air lebih
1. Digunakan sebagai penunjuk untuk menguji kehadiran oksigen baik, dan air tidak tercemar.
dalam sampel air. Ia berwarna biru dengan adanya oksigen dan Low BOD values indicate better water quality, and therefore the
luntur jika tiada oksigen. water is not polluted.
Used as an indicator to test for the presence of oxygen in the water • Nilai BOD yang lebih tinggi menunjukkan sampel air lebih
samples. It is blue when oxygen is present and colourless where there tercemar. Sampel air mengandungi banyak bahan organik,
is no oxygen.
ini mendorong pertumbuhan pengurai khususnya bakteria
2. Untuk mengelakkan teroksida oleh oksigen atmosfera. aerob.
To avoid being oxidised by atmospheric oxygen.
High BOD values indicate the water samples are more polluted. The
3. Untuk mengelakkan oksigen berlebihan terlarut dalam sampel air. water sample contains high organic matter, such condition encourage
To avoid more oxygen from dissolving in the water samples. the growth of decomposers especially aerobic bacteria.
4. Jika warna larutan metilena biru menjadi luntur dengan cepat, ini • Ini menurunkan tahap oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air.
menunjukkan oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air adalah rendah, This reduces the level of dissolved oxygen in water sample.
dan sampel air sangat tercemar.
If the methylene blue solution decolourises rapidly, this shows that the
dissolved oxygen in the water sample is low, and the water sample is Pemeliharaan, Pemuliharaan dan Pemulihan
highly polluted. 10.2 Ekosistem
Preservation, Conservation and Restoration of Ecosystem
Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem
10.3
Amalan dalam Melestarikan Alam Sekitar
Practices in Environmental Sustainability
Praktis SPM 10
Soalan Objektif
Amalan yang Menyumbang kepada Kelestarian Alam
Practises that Contribute to Environmental Sustainability 1. A 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. C
6. D 7. A 8. B
(a) Konsep 5R / 5R concept
1) Fikir semula / Rethink Soalan Struktur
2) Kurangkan / Reduce
3) Guna semula / Reuse Bahagian A
4) Baiki semula / Repair 1. (a) 1. Karbon dioksida memerangkap / menyerap sinaran
5) Kitar semula / Recycle haba yang dipantulkan dari bumi
(b) tenaga / energy Carbon dioxide traps / absorbs heat radiation reflected from
(c) diperbaharui / Renewable earth
(d) air / Water 2. Membawa kepada peningkatan suhu atmosfera
(e) pokok / trees Leading the an increase in the atmosphere temperature
(f) tenaga / energy 3. Menyebabkan pemanasan global
Cause global warming
(g) Pengangkutan / transportation
(h) angin / wind (b) (i) Karbon dioksida adalah bahan mentah proses
fotosintesis
Carbon dioxide is a raw material for photosynthesis
Status Sekuriti Makanan di Malaysia 1. Peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
The Statue of Food Security in Malaysia akan meningkatkan kadar fotosintesis
An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
1. Ketersediaan makanan / Availability of food
will result in an increase in the overall photosynthetic rate
2. Akses makanan / Access to food
2. Oleh itu, lebih banyak karbon dioksida atmosfera
3. Penggunaan makanan / Food Utilisation
akan diserap
4. Kestabilan makanan / Food Stability Hence, more carbon dioxide will be absorbed to counteract
Sekuriti makanan / Food security the increase
mencukupi; selamat; berkhasiat; pemakanan (ii) 1. Ketumpatan stomata tumbuhan menurun dengan
sufficient; safe; nutritious; dietary peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
Stomatal density of plants decrease with an increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
Teknologi Hijau
10.4 Green Technology
2. Ini mengurangkan kadar pertukaran gas tumbuhan
As a result, it will reduce the rate of gas exchange in plants
3. Dan mengurangkan pengambilan CO2 atmosfera
This reduce the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere
Mendefinisikan Teknologi Hijau
Define Green Technology
4. Kadar fotosintesis mungkin tidak meningkat kepada
tahap yang dijangka
produk; sistem; alam sekitar; manusia Photosynthetic rate may not increase to the expected extent
products; systems; environment; human (c) 1. Penurunan kepadatan stomata mengurangkan
Tonggak Dasar Teknologi Hijau Negara transpirasi tumbuhan
Pillars of National Green Technology Policy A decrease in stomatal density will reduce the transpiration in
(a) Tenaga / Energy plants
(b) Ekonomi / Economy 2. Ini akan mengurangkan hujan
This will reduce rainfall
(c) Alam sekitar / Environment
3. Iklim persekitaran akan berubah
(d) Sosial / Social The regional climate will be altered
Kriteria Teknologi Hijau / Criteria of Green Technology 2. (a) (i) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut menurun ketika air
(a) alam sekitar / environment mengalir dari Lokasi X ke Lokasi Y
(b) rumah hijau / greenhouse The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases as water
flows from from Location X to Location Y.
(c) sihat / healthy
2. Pembuangan kumbahan mengandungi sejumlah
(d) tenaga / energy besar bahan organik
(e) diperbaharui / renewable Sewage discharge contains large amount of organic matter
Aplikasi Sains Sosial untuk Menyelesaikan Masalah dan Cabaran 3. Mikroorganisma di hilir menggunakan oksigen
Alam Sekitar terlarut
The Applications of Social Science to Solve Environment Problems and Microorganisms downstream used dissolved oxygen
Challenges 4. Untuk penguraian bahan organik
For the decomposition of the organic matter
(a) Penglibatan / Participation
(b) Kemahiran / Skills (ii) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut adalah sangat rendah
di Lokasi Y, organisma akuatik aktif mati kerana
(c) Sikap / Attitudes
kekurangan oksigen
(d) Pengetahuan / Knowledge As the concentration of dissolved oxygen is very low at
(e) Kesedaran / Awareness Location Y, active aquatic organisms die because lack of
oxygen
3. (a) (i) 1. Pada asalnya tidak banyak Pemuliharaan ex situ / Ex situ conservation:
Not many to begin with • Memulihara spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di luar
2. Adalah karnivor habitat asalnya.
Are carnivorous Conserves plant and animal species outside their natural
3. Bilangan mangsa kurang habitats.
Prey number few • Contoh: Zoo dan Taman Botani
4. Kadar pembiakan lebih perlahan Example: Zoos and Botanical Gardens
Slower reproduction rate (c) 1. Elakkan gangguan pada penyu betina yang bertelur
5. Menghijrah ke kawasan lain Avoid disturbance to nesting females
More likely to migrate to other rate
2. Melindungi penyu kecil daripada pemangsa
(ii) 1. Faktor berkaitan ketumpatan Protect young from predators
Density dependent factors 3. Elakkan pencemaran laut // Jangan membuang
2. Persaingan untuk makanan / tempat tinggal / sumber sampah ke laut / elakkan bahan buangan daripada
Competition for food / nesting sites / resources kapal / elak pencemaran cahaya di pantai
3. Populasi besar memudahkan penyebaran penyakit Avoid sea pollution // Do not throw rubbish into sea / avoid
Large population spreads disease more easily discharge from boats / light pollution at beaches
4. Populasi besar menarik perhatian mangsa 4. Berhati-hati ketika manjala ikan
Large population attracts predators
Take care when fishing with nets
(b) Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem 5. Hentikan pemburuan penyu dewasa / larangan
- Usaha melindungi suatu ekosistem supaya dapat penjualan produk penyu
mengekalkan keadaan semula jadi. Stop hunting of adults / trading ban on turtle products
To maintain some part of the ecosystem unchanged
6. Program Pembiakbakaan dalam Kurungan
- Elak perubahan iklim / Revert climate change Captive Breeding Programmes
- Pembangunan lestari / Sustainable development 7. Pusat pemeliharaan / Zoo / Conservation areas / Zoos
- Ekosistem utuh / Intact ecosystem
8. Pendidikan / ekopelancongan / Education / ecotourism
Pemulihan ekosistem / Restoration of ecosystem
- Proses memperbaiki kemusnahan ekosistem
semula jadi akibat aktiviti manusia dan berusaha Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 10
mengembalikan ke keadaan asal.
The processes of repairing the damage human activites 1. B 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. C
have caused to natural ecosytems and seek to return them
to an earlier state. 6. C 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. C
Unit asas pewarisan yang terdiri daripada satu segmen molekul Bentuk alternatif gen bagi trait tertentu yang menduduki lokus gen yang sama
DNA pada kromosom. pada sepasang kromosom homolog.
The basic unit of inheritance consisting of a segment of a DNA molecule Alternative forms of the same gene for a trait which occupying same gene
on a chromosome. locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Gen
Gene
Sifat ketara organisma yang diwarisi dan ditentukan oleh gen. variasi bagi setiap ciri khusus.
A heritable feature that varies among organisms which is determined by gene. Each variant for a character.
Tujuh ciri kacang pis dikaji oleh Mendel (setiap ciri mempunyai dua trait berbeza).
Seven characters in Mendel’s study of peas plants (each character had two distinctly contrasting traits).
Ciri-ciri / Characters Trait dominan / Dominant trait Trait resesif / Recessive trait
Batang
Stems
Genotip / Genotypes :
Tt Tt
Alel terpisah kepada gamet yang
Segregasi
Meiosis berbeza. (= Hukum )
Alleles have separated into different gametes.
Gamet / Gametes: t T T t (= Law of Segregation )
Fertilisation
yang mungkin dalam kacukan ini.
TT Tt Punnett
A square shows all the possible
T tinggi / tall tinggi / tall combination of alleles in offspring in the cross.
( ) ( )
Nisbah genotip 1 2 1
: :
Genotypes ratio : 144424443
tinggi / tall rendah / short
3 1
:
Generasi F2 : 1 YYRR
F2 Generation : 2 YYRr 1 YYrr 1 yyRR 1yyrr
Genotip / Genotypes : 2 YyRR 2 Yyrr 2 yyRr
4 YyRr
Empat fenotip
Kuning bulat Kuning berkedut Hijau bulat Hijau berkedut muncul di generasi
Fenotip / Phenotypes : F2.
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Green round Green wrinkled
Four phenotypes
Nisbah fenotip : appear in the F2
9 3 3 1 generation.
Phenotypic ratio : : : :
• pengaturan / assortment.
• tidak bergantung; gamet / independently; gamete
• rawak / randomly
Sepasang kromosom homolog, satu diwarisi daripada
Gen – satu segmen molekul tertentu DNA di kromosom, berada
induk jantan, dan satu lagi daripada induk betina.
pada kedudukan yang disebut lokus. A pair of homologous chromosomes, one is inherited from the
Gene – a segment of a DNA molecule on a chromosome, occupying a male parent, and the other from the female parent.
position called a locus.
F F
j j Tiga pasang alel di tiga lokus berlainan.
Pada lokus ini, gen adalah heterozigot (alel berbeza). Three pairs of alleles at three different loci.
At this locus, the gene is heterozygous (different alleles). R r
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
44 autosom
44 autosomes
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18
16 17 18
A IAIA / IAIO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 B IBIB / IBIO
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 AB IAIB
17 18 19 20 21 22 X Y O IOIO
Kromosom tersusun mengikut saiz / Chromosomes organised by size
Kacukan yang mungkin di antara ibu bapa yang mempunyai kumpulan darah yang berlainan:
The possible cross between parents with different blood groups:
Kes 1 / Case 1:
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIO IBIO
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes : IA IO IB IO
IB Io
Female gametes
Gamet betina
IA IAIB IAIO
IO IBIO IOIO
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO IBIO IOIO
AB A B O
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah
AB A B O
Blood group Blood group Blood group Blood group
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :
Kes 2 / Case 2:
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes:
IAIA X IBIB
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: IA IA IB IB
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation
Gamet jantan / Male gametes
IB IB
Gamet betina
Female gametes
IA IAIB IAIB
IA IAIB IAIB
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB
AB AB
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio : Semua All
berkumpulan darah AB / blood group AB
Kes 3 / Case 3
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIA X IBIO
Meiosis
IA IA IB IO
Gamet / Gametes:
IB IO
Female gametes
Gamet betina
IA IAIB IAIO
IA IAIB IAIO
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO
AB AB A A
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Kes 4 / Case 4
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIO X IBIB
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: IA IO IB IB
IB IB
Female gametes
Gamet betina IA IAIB IAIB
IO IBIO IBIO
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IBIO
AB AB B B
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Individu yang mempunyai faktor Rhesus. Individu yang tidak mempunyai faktor Rhesus.
An individual that has the Rhesus factor. An individual that does not has the Rhesus (Rh) factor.
Rh+ Rh–
Antigen D
D antigen
Antibodi Rh
Rh antibody
• Pengaglutinan berlaku apabila antigen bertindak balas dengan antibodi seseorang tanpa antigen.
The antigen results in agglutination when it reacts with antibodies from an individual without the antigen.
Kes 1 / Case 1
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Genotip / Genotypes : Rh Rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh Rh rh rh
rh rh
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh
Kes 2 / Case 2
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh rh rh rh
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes
rh rh
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
rh rh rh rh rh
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rh rh rh rh
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive : Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :
C) Talasemia / Thalasemia
• Talasemia ialah sejenis penyakit pewarisan yang mengurangkan pembentukan hemoglobin normal dalam sel darah merah.
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the production of normal haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
Kes 1: Jika salah seorang induk adalah pembawa / Case 1: If one parent is a carrier:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
BB Bb
Genotip / Genotypes : X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B B B b
B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B BB Bb
B BB Bb
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb
Kes 2: Jika kedua-dua induk adalah pembawa / Case 2: If both parents are carrier:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu pembawa / Carrier mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb Bb
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B b B b
B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb Bb bb
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal Normal Pembawa Carrier Talasemia Thalassemia
/ / /
Nisbah fenotip 1 2 1
Phenotypic ratio : : :
Kes 3: Jika salah seorang induk pengidap Talasemia / Case 3: If one parents is Thalassemia patient:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa talasemia / Thalassemia father
Genotip / Genotypes : BB bb
X
Meiosis
B B b b
b b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B Bb Bb
B Bb Bb
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb
B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
b Bb bb
b Bb bb
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb bb
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Pembawa Carrier Talasemia Thalassemia
/ /
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Kes 1 / Case 1
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah
Ability to roll tongue Inability to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : RR rr
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: R R r r
r r
Female gametes
Gamet betina
R Rr Rr
R Rr Rr
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr
Kes 2 / Case 2
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah
Able to roll tongue Unable to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr X rr
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: R r r r
r r
Female gametes
Gamet betina
R Rr Rr
r rr rr
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr rr
Genotip / Genotypes : Ff Ff
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: F f F f
F f
Female gametes
Gamet betina
F FF Ff
f Ff ff
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : FF Ff Ff ff
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Cuping teinga bebas / Free earlobes Cuping teinga melekap / Attached earlobes
Nisbah fenotip 3 1
Phenotypic ratio : :
Anak perempuan
Female child
44 + XX Sperma membawa kromosom Y atau
Semua ovum yang dihasilkan
kromosom X.
membawa kromosom X.
A sperm carries either a Y chromosome or an X
All the ova produced carry X chromosomes.
chromosome.
Ibu Bapa
Mother Father
Anak lelaki
Male child
44 + XY
22 + X 22 + Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY
22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : 44 + XX 44 + XY
Pewarisan buta warna / The inheritance of colour blindness Pewarisan hemofilia / The inheritance of haemophilia
merah dan hijau / red and green membeku / cloth
Kunci / Key – XB : Alel dominan / Dominant allele Kunci / Key – XH : Alel dominan / Dominant allele
Xb : Alel resesif / Recessive allele Xh : Alel resesif / Recessive allele
Fenotip Genotip / Genotype Fenotip Genotip / Genotype
Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female
Penglihatan normal Penglihatan normal
XB Y XB XB X Y
H
XH XH
Normal vision Normal vision
Pembawa / Carrier – XB X b Pembawa / Carrier – XH X h
Buta warna / Colour-blind Xb Y Xb Xb Buta warna / Colour-blind Xh Y Xh Xh
Kes 1: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki buta warna dan isterinya yang penglihatan normal.
Case 1: A cross between a colour-blind man his wife with normal vision.
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan normal / Normal female Lelaki buta warna / Colour-blind male
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XbY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XB XB Xb Y
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes
Xb Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XB XBXb XBY
XB XBXb XBY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XBY
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Kes 2: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri yang buta warna.
Case 2: A cross between normal vision man and his colour-blind wife.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan buta warna Lelaki normal
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Colour-blind female Male normal
Gamet / Gametes: Xb Xb XB Y
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes
XB Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Xb XBXb XbY
Xb XBXb XbY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XbY
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki buta warna / Male colour-blind
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :
Kes 3: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri pembawa alel buta warna.
Case 3: A cross between a normal vision man and his wife who carries of colour-blind allele.
Gamet / Gametes: XB Xb XB Y
XB Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XB XBXB XBY
Xb XBXb XbY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XBXb XBY XbY
Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki buta warna
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Male colour-blind
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :
Kes 4: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki hemofilia dan isterinya yang normal.
Case 4: A cross between a haemophiliac man and his normal wife.
Gamet / Gametes: XH XH Xh Y
Xh Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XH XHXh XHY
XH XHXh XHY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XHY
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :
Gamet / Gametes: Xh Xh XH Y
XH Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Xh XHXh XhY
Xh XHXh XhY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XhY
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki hemofilia / Male Haemophiliac
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1
:
Kes 6: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki normal dan isteri yang pembawa alel hemofilia.
Case 6: A cross between a normal and his wife who is a carrier of haemophiliac allele.
Genotip / Genotypes : X X H h
XHY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XH Xh XH Y
XH Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XH XHXH XHY
Xh XHXh XhY
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXH XHXh XHY XhY
Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki hemofilia
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Haemophiliac male
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :
Pewarisan manusia dengan mengkaji pedigri keluarga / Human inheritance by studying family pedigrees
• Pedigri; trait / pedigree; traits
Lelaki normal
Setiap baris I Garisan ini Normal male
mewakili
menghubungkan
generasi 1 2
ibu bapa kepada
baharu Perempuan normal
anak-anak.
Each horizontal Normal female
This line links
row represents a
the parents to
new generation.
their offspring. Lelaki mempunyai trait
Male with the trait
II
Perempuan mempunyai trait
Female with the trait
1 2 3
Ini menunjukkan anak-anak yang mempunyai ibu bapa yang sama.
This show the offspring from the same father and mother.
Individu 5 = kumpulan darah A / Individual 5 = blood group A Individu 8 = kumpulan darah AB / Individual 8 = blood group AB
• I0 • A ; B
• IA ; B • O ; IA IB
• IA I0 ; A • AB
(iii) 1. R menerima kedua-dua alel dominan, T daripada
Praktis SPM 11
kedua-dua induk untuk trait tinggi.
R received both dominant alleles, T from both parents for
tall trait
Soalan Objektif 2. R menerima alel dominan B dari induk P dan alel
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. A resesif b dari Q untuk trait bunga ungu.
R received dominant allele B from parent P and recessive
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. A 10. A allele b from Q for purple flower trait.
11. A 12. B 13. B 14. B 3. Alel dominan (T, B) menunjukkan trait.
Dominant allele (T, B) shown the trait.
Soalan Struktur
(c) (i)
Bahagian A
1. (a) Trait : Pokok rendah dan bunga putih TB Tb tB tb
Trait: Short plant and white flower
1. Trait pokok rendah dan bunga putih tidak ditunjukkan TTBB TTBb TtBB TtBb
di generasi F1
The traits of short plant and white flower is not shown in TTBb TTbb TtBb Ttbb
F1 generation
2. Trait resesif hanya ditunjukkan apabila kedua-dua TtBB TtBb ttBB ttBb
alel resesif hadir
Recessive trait will be shown when both recessive alleles
TtBb Ttbb ttBb ttbb
present
(b) (i) (iii) 1. Berdasarkan Hukum Mendel kedua / Hukum
Induk / Parents : P Q pengaturan bebas
Fenotip / Phenotype : Based on Mendel second law / Law of independent
Genotip / Genotype : TtBb TTbb assortment
2. Semasa pembentukan gamet, setiap ahli daripada
Gamet pasangan alel boleh bergabung secara rawak
Gametes dengan mana-mana satu ahli pasangan alel yang
lain
TB Tb tB tb Tb During gamete formation, each member of a pair of alleles
may combine randomly with member of another pair of
allele
3. Nisbah 9: 3: 3: 1 / The ratio = 9:3:3:1
4. Nisbah fenotip = 9 tinggi, ungu : 3 tinggi, puith : 3
Anak TTBb TTbb rendah, ungu : 1 rendah, putih
Offspring R TtBb Ttbb Phenotypic ratio : 9 tall, purple : 3 tall, white : 3 short,
purple : 1 short, white
2. (a) 1. Bapa Aminah adalah buta warna, kromosom X mesti 2. Rajah hanya menunjukkan bilangan dan bentuk
mengandung alel resesif untuk buta warna. kromosom.
As Aminah’s father is colour blind, he must has a X chromosome The diagram only show the number and the appearance
bearing the recessive allele for colour blindness of chromosomes
2. Sebagai seorang perempuan, Aminah mewarisi 3. Rabun warna disebabkan oleh kehadiran alel resesif
kromosom X yang mengandungi alel resesif dari pada kromosom seks
bapanya. Colour blindness is due to the presence of recessive allele
Being a female, Aminah must has inherited the X chromosome on the sex chromosome
bearing the recessive allele from her father. (ii) Perempuan / Female
3. Sebaliknya, Aminah adalah normal, dia mempunyai 1. Pasangan kromosom ke-23 dalam kariotip
kromosom X dengan alel dominan untuk penglihatan mempunyai saiz yang sama
normal daripada ibunya. The 23rd pair of chromosome in the karyotype have a similar
On the other hand, Aminah is normal, therefore she must have size.
a X chromosome bearing dominant allele for normal eye sight
2. Fetus mempunyai kedua-dua kromosom X
from her mother.
The foetus has both X chromosomes
4. Oleh itu, Aminah adalah heterozigot
Therefore, Aminah is a heterozygote.
(b) (i) Tidak / No Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 11
1. Rajah tidak menunjukkan kandungan genetik fetus.
The diagram cannot reveal the genetic make-up of the
foetus.
1. C 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. D
6. D 7. C 8. D 9. D 10. B
12 Variation
• Terdapat dua jenis variasi / There are two types of variations:
Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
Jenis dan Faktor Variasi Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
12.1 Types and Factors of Variation
Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
Variasi Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Variation
1. tidak ketara / not distinctive 1. ketara / distinctive
• fenotip; spesies / phenotypes; species 2. perantaraan; ekstrim 2. tiada; tiada / no; no
(a) membezakan / distinguish intermediate; extremes intermediate; extremes
(b) kemandirian / survival 3. kuantitatif; boleh 3. kualitatif; tidak boleh
(c) penyesuaian / adapt quantative; can qualitative; cannot
4. genetik; persekitaran 4. genetik; tidak
genetic; environmental genetic; not
14
Carta bar ‘bilangan individu’ boleh dilukis semula sebagai graf lengkung licin
12
kerana ada ketinggian perantaraan yang mungkin di antara dua ekstrim.
10
The bar chart of ‘number of individuals’ can be redrawn as a smooth curve because there
8 are many possible intermediate height between the two extremes.
6
4
2
1.59 1.66 1.75 1.83 1.92 2.00 2.08 2.33 Terdapat julat ketinggian yang berbeza.
Ketinggian / Height (cm) There could be differences about the range of the heights.
Variasi tidak selanjar / Discontinuous variation
Carta bar ‘peratus populasi’ tidak dalam bentuk graf lengkung licin kerana
tiada kumpulan darah perantaraan.
The bar chart of ‘percentage of population’ cannot be a smooth curve because there is
no intermediate blood group.
9
3
Hanya ada kumpulan darah A, B, AB atau O.
AB A O B
There can only be A, B, AB or O blood group.
Mutasi / Muttation
chromatids. combinations
C
b
C
b
c
A
B
A
gametes.
Kedua proses berlaku secara rawak dalam penghasilan gamet jantan (sperma) dan gamet betina
(ovum).
Both processes occur randomly in the production of male gametes (sperms) and female gamete (ovum).
• Sesetengah variasi fenotip disebabkan oleh persekitaran dan tidak diwarisi melalui gen.
Some phenotypic variation is caused by the environmental and not passed on through genes.
Variasi yang Berpunca daripada Interaksi antara Faktor Genetik • Fenotip organisma terhasil daripada genotipnya, dan
dengan Faktor Persekitaran pengaruh faktor persekitaran.
Variation Caused by Interaction between Genetic and Environmental The phenotype of an organisms is the product of genotype and
Factors influences of the environment.
• Rupa wajah suatu organisma adalah dipengaruhi oleh faktor
genotip dan persekitaran. Fenotip = Genotip + kesan persekitaran
The appearance of an organism is influenced by both its genotype
Phenotype = Genotype + effects of the environment
and its environment.
Julia Julia
Julia & Kiki Makan makanan Gen obesiti tidak
J J J
Kembar seiras mempunyai J K rendah lemak. dirangsang.
gen yang dapat menyerap Eats low fat foods. Obesity genes not triggered.
lemak dua kali ganda lebih
cepat daripada orang biasa.
Identical twins have genes that
absorb fats twice as fast as the Kiki Kiki
average person.
Makan makanan Gen obesiti dirangsang.
JK tinggi lemak. K Obesity genes triggered.
Eats fatty food.
Mutasi
12.3 Mutation
Mutasi / Mutation
• spontan; kekal / sudden; permanent
• gamet; soma / gametes; somatic
• semulajadi; rawak; mutagen / naturally; randomly; mutagen
Mutagen / Mutagen
Agen fizikal / Physical agents Agen kimia / Chemical agents Agen biologi / Biological agents
• Radioaktif / Radioactive • Benzena / Benzene • virus / viruses
• Sinar - X / X - rays • Fomaldehid / Formaldehyde • makanan / Food
• ultra-ungu / Ultra-violet • Abestos / Abestos - kulat / fungi
• gamma / Gamma • mustard / Mustard - kekacang / nuts
• Suhu / temperature • Tar / Tar - daging / meat
Mutan / Mutan
Gen atau organisma yang diubah secara genetik / Genetically altered genes or organisms.
Jenis mutasi / Types of mutation:
Normal ATG CAG TTT TTA CGC AAT Met – Gln – Phe – Leu – Arg – Asn
Mutasi gen dan anemia sel sabit / Gene mutation and sickle-cell anemia
1. Anaemia sel sabit disebabkan oleh mutasi gen yang menghasilkan hemoglobin sel sabit (Hbs) pada gen β-hemoglobin.
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by gene mutation that produces sickle cell haemoglobin (Hbs) is in the gene for β-haemoglobin.
2. Ini terhasil daripada gantian satu bes pada gen yang mengkod rantai polipeptida di hemoglobin.
It results from the substitution of a single base in the gene that code for a polypeptide chain in haemoglobin.
Mutasi gen dan albinisme / Gene mutation and albinism Sindrom cri du chat / Cri du Chat syndrome
• melanin / melanin • pelenyapan / deletion
• mutasi / mutation
• resesif / recessive
Suara tangisan bayi seperti anak kucing ‘miao’.
Mutasi kromosom / Chromosomal mutations The infant’s cry sounds like a kitten mewing.
• struktur; bilangan / structure; number
A) Perubahan dalam struktur kromosom
Change in chromosome structure Individu terlibat mempunyai / The affected individual has
1. Penyelapan / Deletion • Kepala kecil / Small head
terputus; kehilangan / breaks; loss • Wajah muka abnormal (muka seperti bulan’)
2. Penggandaan / Duplication Facial abnormalities (‘moon face’)
penambahan / gain • Terencat akal / Mental retardation
3. Penyongsangan / Inversion B) Perubahan dalam bilangan kromosom
tersongsang / reversed Change in chromosome number.
4. Translokasi / Translocation • kromosom; kromatid; Tak-disjunsi
terputus; tertukar / breaks; exchanged chromosomes; chromatids; Non-disjunction
Tak-disjunsi di meiosis I
Non-disjunction at meiosis I
2n 2n 2n + 1 2n – 1 2n + 1 2n – 1
Jika persenyawaan
berlaku
If fertilisation occurs
• Perempuan / Female
Kekurangan satu
(a) Sindrom Turner 45 • Organ seks tidak matang / Sex organs do not mature
kromosom X.
Turner syndrome (44+X0) • Mandul / Infertile
Has less one X chromosome.
• Mempunyai kecerdasan normal / Most have normal intelligence
• Lelaki / Male
• Mempunyai testis kecil, menghasilkan kurang sperma
(b) Sindrom Klinfelter 47 Lebih satu kromosom X
Have small testes, produce few sperm
Klinefelter syndrome (44+XXY) Has an extra X chromosome
• Mandul / Infertile
• Payudara membesar / Developed breast
• Lelaki / Male
• Biasanya lebih tinggi / Usually taller than average
• Mengalami masalah jerawat yang berterusan
(c) Sindrom Jacob 47 Lebih satu kromosom Y
Suffer from persistent acne
Jacobs syndrome (44 + XYY) Has an extra Y chromosome
• Mengalami masalah pertuturan dan membaca
Have speech and reading problems
• Tidak mandul / Fertile
(a) Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic cells (b) Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes
• sel / cells • semua / every
• diwarisi / inherited • diwarisi / inherited
Gamet
Gametes Mutasi gamet
Gamete mutation
Embrio
Mutasi soma Embryo
Somatic mutation
Gamet organisma
Gametes of the organism
Tiada gamet Separuh gamet
membawa mutasi membawa mutasi
None of gametes Half of gametes
carry mutation carry mutation
(a) Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic (b) Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes
Kejuruteraan genetik
13.1 Genetic Engineering
Proses manipulasi urutan DNA organisma untuk membentuk kombinasi gen baharu dengan trait baharu.
The manipulation of DNA sequences in organisms to produce new combination of genes with new traits.
Secara / By
Menghasilkan
Creates
GMO ialah organisma di mana maklumat genetik telah diubah secara bukan semula jadi.
GMO is an organism of which genetic information has been changed in a way that does not occur naturally by mating.
(a) Mikroorganisms GM
(c) Haiwan GM
GM microorganisms GM animals
Contoh: Bakteria, yis
Examples: Bacteria, yeast Contoh: Ikan salmon, lembu, kambing
Examples: Salmon, cow, goat
(b) Tumbuhan GM
GM plants
Contoh: Padi, kelapa sawit, kapas, nenas, jagung, kacang soya dan tomato
Examples: Rice, oil palm, cotton, pineapple, corn, soybean and tomato
Susu yang dihasilkan oleh lembu GM Kambing GM menghasilkan faktor Beras GM dengan gen dafodil dapat
mengandungi protein manusia yang sesuai pembeku darah dalam susu untuk pesakit menghasilkan b-karoten yang akan ditukar
untuk bayi pramatang. hemofilia. kepada vitamin A dalam manusia.
Powdered milk from GM cows contains a human GM goats produce clotting factor in their milk for GM rice with daffodil genes can produce b-carotene
protein which is good for premature babies. haemophiliacs. which converted to vitamin A in humans.
Tomato GM boleh disimpan lebih lama Kacang soya GM dengan gen rintang racun Salmon GM dengan gen pengawal hormon
kerana gen yang menyebabkan pelembutan perosak membolehkan petani menyembur pertumbuhan dapat membesar ke saiz
tomato telah disingkir. ladang untuk mematikan rumpai dan bukan pasaran dalam jangka masa yang lebih
GM tomatoes can last longer because a gene pokok kacang soya. singkat.
causing the softening of tomatoes is removed. GM soybeans with a herbicide resistance gene GM salmon with growth hormone regulating genes
allow farmers spray fields and kill weeds, not can grows to market sizes in significantly less time.
soybean plants.
• Insulin haiwan (lembu dan babi) disuntik pada pesakit • Insulin manusia boleh dihasilkan oleh bakteria terubahsuai
diabetes. genetik (E. coli).
Animal (cows and pigs) insulin was injected into patients to control Human insulin can be produced by genetically modified bacteria (E.
diabetes. coli).
• Insulin haiwan adalah / Animal insulin was: • Insulin GM terhasil adalah / The GM insulin produced is:
– mahal – Lebih murah dan tulen
Expensive Cheaper and purer
– Pembekalan terhad – Terdapat dalam kuantiti yang banyak
Available in large quantities
Its supply was limited
– Adalah sama secara kimia dengan insulin manusia.
– Struktur kimia adalah berbeza daripada insulin manusia. Chemically the same as human insulin.
The chemical structure is slightly different from human insulin. – boleh diterima oleh orang ramai yang mempunyai
– Sebilangan pesakit diabetes alergi erhadap protein haiwan kepercayaan agama yang pelbagai
Some diabetics were allergic to the animal forms Acceptable to people with a range of religious beliefs
Sel manusia yang membawa gen insulin. Sel E.coli dengan plasmid
Human cell carrying the insulin gene E. coli cell with plasmid
Gen insulin
Insulin gene
Plasmid 2. Dapatkan plasmid dari
Plasmid bakteria E. coli.
1. Dapatkan fragmen DNA yang Obtain a plasmid from E. coli
mengandungi gen insulin bacterium
Obtain a DNA fragment containing
the insulin gene.
Plasmid
Plasmid
Gen insulin
Insulin gene
3. Potong fragmen DNA dan plasmid dengan menggunakan enzim pembatasan yang
sama (yang berfungsi seperti gunting).
Cut the DNA fragment and the plasmid with the same restriction enzyme (works like a pair of
scissors).
Plasmid terbuka
Open plasmid
Insulin
7. Insulin diekstrak dan ditulenkan untuk digunakan. Insulin
The insulin is extracted and purified for use.
Bioinformatik / Bioinformatics
komputer; perisian; data / computer; software; data
(a) DNA / DNA
(b) gen / genes
(c) protein / proteins
Fragmen DNA (d) protein / proteins
DNA fragments
Kepentingan bioteknologi dalam kehidupan
The importance of biotechnology in life
(a) kesihatan / health
- nutrien / nutrients
4. elektroforesis / electrophoresis (b) pertanian / agriculture
- kualiti / quality
Fragmen DNA pada permulaan DNA (c) perubatan / medicine
Fragments at start - penyakit / diseases
(d) haiwan / animals
– - transgenik / transgenic
Fragmen besar (e) tumbuhan / plants
Fragmen bergerak dengan - ciri-ciri / characteristics
DNA negatif perlahan (f) alam sekitar / environment
bergerak Large fragments move
- pencemaran / pollution
ke hujung slowly
positif Fragmen kecil
Negative DNA
fragments
bergerak pantas
melalui gel
Praktis SPM 13
move to Small fragments move
positive end quickly through gel Soalan Objektif
1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D
+ 6. C 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. B
(b) 1. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap racun (c) 1. Pertambahan kuantiti hasil makanan / hasil pertanian
rumpai Increase quantity of food produced / crop yields
Crop plants modified to be resistant to herbicides 2. Pertambahan kualiti hasil makanan / nilai pemakanan /
• Untuk mengurangkan persaingan dengan rumpai perisa dan tekstur makanan
To reduce competition with weeds Improved quality of food produced / nutritional value / flavour
2. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap serangga and texture of food
perosak 3. Peningkatan rintangan terhadap perosak / mengurangkan
Crop plants modified to be resistant to insect pests pembaziran makanan akibat dimakan perosak
• Untuk meningkatkan hasil tanaman Increased resistance to pests / reduce wastage of food to pests
To increase crop yield 4. Penyingkiran ciri penyebab alergi dalam makanan
3. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk menghasilkan protein bagi Elimination of allergy-causing properties of food
kegunaan perubatan
Plants modified to produce proteins use in medicine
• Untuk mengelakkan masalah pencemaran oleh protein Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 13
haiwan
To avoid any problem of contamination by animal proteins
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. C
4. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk melambatkan kematangan
buah 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. C
Plants modified to delay ripening of fruits
• Kurangkan pembaziran makanan
There is less wastage of food