Dewitte 1999
Dewitte 1999
Dewitte 1999
European Journal
of Work and
Organizational
Psychology
Publication details, including
instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/
pewo20
Organizational Culture
Karel De Witte & Jaap J. van Muijen
Published online: 10 Sep 2010.
To cite this article: Karel De Witte & Jaap J. van Muijen (1999)
Organizational Culture, European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 8:4, 497-502, DOI: 10.1080/135943299398122
Organizational Culture
Karel De Witte
Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
culture can only be influenced in an indirect way and is the result of the
interaction between the individual and organizational processes.
Other researchers who are searching for more predictable methods of
organizational control believe that organizational culture can be managed. These
researchers follow the opinion that an organization has a culture or produces a
culture, and usually define organizational culture as the social and normative glue
that holds the organization together (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
It is not the intention of this special issue to give final answers to this ongoing
discussion. Rather, the intention is to contribute to the debate by offering diverse
contributions. In this Introduction, we first offer a framework on organizational
culture and will then site the different contributions within this framework.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 20:52 04 July 2014
NATIONAL CULTURE
PRESSURE, CRISIS S
T
P
B O A
R
U V U K
O
S I T E
C
I S INTERACTION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL C H
E
N I O O
S
E O AND ORGANIZATION M L
S
S N E D
E
S S E
S
R
LEADERSHIP S
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
zational culture forms and develops from the interaction between individual and
organization. This is visualized by the horizontal line in the middle of Fig. 1,
which represents different organizational processes, such as operational pro-
cesses, selection, training, evaluation, R&D, maintenance processes, etc. The
organizational culture can be “tasted” and “smelled” through these different
business- and personnel-related processes. Finally, we find the outcomes of
organizational culture: What is the impact on the individual members of the
organization?
The Environment
From the literature it becomes clear that a diverse constellation of variables has
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 20:52 04 July 2014
The Organization
The following influencing factors are situated in the more direct environment of
the organization.
The importance of a vision is often emphasized in the literature (Frohman,
1997; Katz & Miller, 1996; Kotter, 1996; Simpson & Beeby, 1993). This vision
should be inspiring and challenging (Nixon, 1992). Kotter (1996) mentions the
following criteria for an effective vision: conceivable, attractive, realistic,
directed (targeted), flexible, and communicable. Rites of rationalization and
legitimation (Beyer & Trice, 1988) help the individuals understand the content
and reason of the vision. These sensitizing acts legitimate the thinking, making it
appear worthwhile, acceptable, and necessary.
The development of a clear vision is often difficult for managers. Different
authors stress the importance of leaders in the organization (Frohman, 1997;
Kotter, 1996; Simpson & Beeby, 1993; Zamanou & Glaser, 1994). Through the
last decades organizations have learnt that good management is one of the most
important factors for optimal daily functioning. They have more experience in
controlling the current situation than in changing it into new required directions,
although the latter is required more and more nowadays. An organization not
only needs leaders at the top, but at all levels (Kotter, 1996)! Some authors
underline that a change in leadership is required to realize significant organi-
zational culture change (Dyer, 1985; Gordon, 1991), whereas for others
500 DE WITTE AND VAN MUIJEN
is a stimulus that leads to the release of the tensions built up by the precipitating
pressures.
Outcomes
Brown (1985) finds the following outcomes in the literature: conflict reduction,
co-ordination and control, uncertainty reduction, and a higher motivation among
the employees. The evolvement of an organizational culture consistent with the
vision and strategy leads to an effective and competitive organization. It is dif-
ficult to describe this competitive advantage in hard business facts, because it
differs from organization to organization.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 20:52 04 July 2014
CONTRIBUTIONS
Each contribution investigates the relation between different elements of the
framework.
Koopman, Den Hartog, and Konrad et al. refer on the one hand to the national
culture and on the other hand to leadership. Differences in leadership prototypes
mirror differences in national culture. Leadership is needed for changing
organizational culture, but leadership itself appears to be influenced by national
culture.
Ruigrok and Achtenhagen analyse four cases of change in organizations and
study the role of organizational culture in this change process. In addition, the
influence of the business and international orientation are under scrutiny.
Peiró, Gonzalez-Roma, and Cañero report on a change project of managerial
culture. The importance of dialogue, mentioned previously, as a step in changing
the organizational culture is clarified and how this can be realized in practice is
demonstrated.
Van Muijen et al. describe an instrument to measure organizational culture
and investigate the influence of national culture and sector on organizational
culture.
Vandenberghe and Peiró describe the impact of organizational culture on the
individual members of the organization.
Finally, De Witte & van Muijen offer an overview of critical questions for
research as well consultancy on organizational culture. The practitioners might
be less concerned about some theoretical problems, and the researchers might
have other concerns from the practitioner.
We have not tried to reduce the complexity of the phenomenon of organi-
zational culture. We hope the contributions will be helpful in thinking about
organizational culture and will give some guidance for practitioners and re-
searchers, particularly in avoiding possible pitfalls. But the reader looking for a
definitive answer will encounter another illusion.
502 DE WITTE AND VAN MUIJEN
REFERENCES
Anthony, P. (1994). Managing culture. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Beyer, J.M., & Trice, H.M. (1988). The communication power relations in organizations through
cultural rites. In M.D. Jones, M.D. Moore, & R.C. Sayder (Eds), Inside organizations:
Understanding the human dimension (pp. 141–157). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Brown, A. (1985). Organizational culture. London: Pitman Publishing.
Burack, E.H. (1991). Changing the company culture—the role of human resource development .
Long Range Planning, 24(1), 88–95.
Deal, T.E., & Kennedy, A.A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Dyer, W.G. (1985). The cycle of cultural evolution in organizations. In R.H. Kilmann, M.J. Sax,
& R. Serpa & Associates (Eds), Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 200–229). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 20:52 04 July 2014
Frohman, A.L. (1997). Igniting organizational change from below: The power of personal
initiative. Organizational Dynamics, 25(3), 39–53.
Gagliardi, P. (1986). The creation and change of organizational cultures: A conceptual
framework. Organizational Studies, 7, 117–134.
Gordon, G.G. (1991). Industry determinants of organizational culture. Academy of Management
Review, 16, 396–415.
Katz, J.H., & Miller, F.A. (1996). Coaching leaders through culture change. Consulting
Psychology Journal Practice and Research, 48(2), 104–114.
Kilmann, R.H. (1985). Five steps for closing culture-gaps. In R.H. Kilmann, M.J. Saxton, &
R. Serpa & Associates (Eds), Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 351–369). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Kotter, J.P. (1996). Leiderschap bij verandering. Schoonhoven, The Netherlands: Academic
Service.
Lundberg, C.C. (1985). On the feasibility of culture intervention. In P.J. Frost, L.F. Moore,
M.R. Louis, & J. Martin (Eds), Organizational culture (pp. 169–185). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Martin, J. (1985). Can organizational culture be managed? In P.J. Frost, L.F. Moore, M.R. Louis
& J. Martin (Eds), Organizational culture (pp. 186–199). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Nixon, B. (1992). Developing a new culture for organizations in the 90s. Management Education
and Development, 23(1), 33–45.
Nord, W.R. (1985). Can organizational culture be managed: A synthesis. In P.J. Frost,
L.F. Moore, M.R. Louis, & M. Martin (Eds), Organizational culture (pp. 187–196). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Peters, T., & Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
Schein, E.H. (1985). How culture forms, develops and changes. In R.H. Kilmann, M.J. Saxton, &
R. Serpa & Associates (Eds), Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 17–43). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Simpson, P., & Beeby, M. (1993). Facilitating public sector organizational culture change
through the process of transformational leadership: A study integrating Strategic Options
Development and Analysis with the Cultural Values Survey. Management of Education and
Development , 24(4), 316–329.
Smircich, L. (1983). Concepts of culture and organizational analysis. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 28, 339–358.
Trice, H.M., & Beyer, J.M. (1990). Using six organizational rites to change culture. In
R.H. Killman, M.J. Saxton, & R. Serpa & Associates (Eds), Gaining control of the corporate
culture (pp. 370–399). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Zamanou, S., & Glaser, S.R. (1994). Moving toward participation and involvement: Managing
and measuring organizational culture. Group and Organization Management, 19, 475–502.