FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Research which has concentrated on accounting for differences in the proficiency

levels of learners have tended to emphasize the importance of individual learner
factors. There are six basic dimensions of SLA. The dimensions comprise which
determine the process of language acquisition which are propensity,language
faculty, access to language, the structure of the process, tempo and end state.
Propensity will be looked into in details here:

1. PROPENSITY

This term covers the totality of factors that induce the learner and propel him to
make progress in language acquisition. Some of the factors are personal and differ
from person to another while others are general, common to all L2 learners.

a) Personal factors
An individual may be studying the language or simply obtaining the L2 in-put
from his/her environment. These factors can be discussed as:
i) Group dynamics
In this case, learners make overt comparisons of themselves with other
learners. In another comparison, learners match how they think they are
progressing against their expectations. Competitiveness may be manifested in a
desire to outdo other language learners by shouting out answers in class or by
racing through examinations to be the first to finish. McDough (1978) suggests that
although rivalries can promote confusion, they can also serve as stimulus for
learning.
ii) Attitudes
These attitudes may be towards either the teacher(or the native speaker) or
towards the learning materials. Students have different preferences about the
kind of teacher they think is best for them. Some learners want their teacher to act
informant but others prefer teachers who are logical, clear and systematic. Learners
also vary in their attitude to teaching materials. Generally, adult learners dislike
having a course book imposed up[on them in a rigid way.
Iii) Individual learning techniques
This is discussed under two groups:

a)Those involved in studying the second language. These include preparing and
learning vocabulary lists, learning words in contexts, practicing vocabulary etc.
b)Those involved in obtaining the second language in-put. Here techniques
concern ways in which learners get into contact with the L2. Learners often seek
out situations in which they can communicate with native speakers or make use of
the radio, television or cinema to get maximum exposure to the L2 and may even
pay visits to a given country where the language is used.

b) General factors

i) Age
Researchers have found out that the rate and success of SLA is influenced
greatly by the age of the learner. Research shows that teenagers of around 12 to
15 years learned more rapidly than those below 12 years and those over 15 years.
The research found that age was a factor only when it came to morphology and
syntax, small differences were noted in pronunciation tests.

The critical age hypothesis also suggests that there is a period when language
acquisition takes place naturally and critically. The optimal age for language
acquisition falls roughly within the first ten years of life. During this period, the
brain retains plasticicty but with the onset of puberty, the plasticity begins to
disappear as lateralization of language function on the left hemisphere of the brain
sets in. The increased difficulty is now seen as a direct result of this neurological
change.

Adults acquire primary levels of language more rapidly because of their

greater cognitive abilities. They comprehend language as a formal system and
they learn about language by consciously studying the linguistic rules and also
apply the rules when using the language. The younger children respond to
language as communication tool, they may not be aware of the rules governing the
language.

ii) Intelligence and aptitude

Intelligence refers to the general academic or reasoning ability. This ability is
involved in learning the second language just like any other subject in school.
Aptitude refers to the specific cognitive qualities needed for SLA. Intelligence
underlie our ability to master and use a whole range of academic skills. Aptitude,
on the other hand, can influence the rate of development, particularly where formal
classroom learning is concerned. Those learners with a gift for formal study are
likely to learn more rapidly. Aptitude is also likely to affect the ultimate success in
SLA, particularly if this is measured by formal tests of linguistic competence.
Iii) Cognitive style

This is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive,

conceptualize, organize and recall information. Various dichotomies of
cognitive style have been identified and they are usually presented as dichotomies.

iv) Attitudes and motivation

The definition and distinction between the two concepts is quite difficult to make.
Schumann (1988) states attitude as a social factor on a par with variables such
as size of the learning group and motivation as an affective factor alongside
culture shock. Brown (1981) uses the term attitude to refer to the set of beliefs that
the learner holds towards members of TL. For instance, when they are seen as
interesting, boring, honest or dishonest and also towards hi/her own culture.

Garner and Lambert (1972) concluded that motivation and attitude are
important factors as they help determine the level of proficiency achieved by
different learners. They also found that most successful learners will be those
who have both talent and a high level of motivation.

v) Personality
Personality traits in aggregate are said to constitute the personality of the
individual. Personality is also seen as using a series of dichotomies i.e cool/warm,
shy/venturesome, not assertive/dominant. Two traits are generally identified as
representing dichotomies; extrovert/introvert and Neurotic/stable.

There have been investigations to suggest that extroverted learners learn more
rapidly and are more successful than introverted learners. It has been
suggested that extroverts find it easier to make contact with other users of the L2
and will obtain more in-put. Social skills, also an aspect of personality may also
influence the SLA. Some researchers argue that the social skills of the learners
determine the amount of exposure to the L2. Those children, for example, who
found it easier to interact with English speaking children progressed more rapidly
than those who do not.

c) Social Integration
This is argued as more important to a child learning L2 in overlap with his L1 than
to immigrant worker. The desire to learn a L2 for example, by a migrant worker
depends on how he/she feels the need to become integrated into the wider society
and the host community. Social integration factor may on occasions have a
negative effect if a learner is well integrated in and possesses a social identity
within his native community. He may shrink back from becoming integrated into
the new language community for fear of losing this social identity.

d) Communicative Need
This goes hand in hand with social integration. However, both are totally different.
The vocabulary acquired by a speaker for communicative purposes is likely to
belong to those domains that correspond to his needs. The vocabulary
developed for specific purposes is always more one sided than the vocabulary
required achieving social integration.

Ordinary interaction within the community is dominated by ritual conversation

patterns that are routine expressions and figures of speech and also by delicate
balance of explicitness and implicitness, direct and indirect speech acts. A
person's mastery of these linguistic forms prejudices his integration into the given
community; mere communication can do without it. There are communicative
needs whose influence on SLA is correspondingly valid.

THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

The main aim of this section is to review a number of theories of SLA. The review
theories and models are however, not exhaustive as research still continues. The
selected ones reflect the variety of perspectives evident in SLA studies. They are:

a) The Acculturation Model( Nativization model)

Accultur ation is defined as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture. It
is seen as an important aspect of SLA because language is one of the most
observable expressions of culture and because in second language settings the
acquisition of a new language is seen as tied to the way in which the learner's
community and the TL community view each other.

Schumann (1978) asserts SLA is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to
which a learner acculturates to the TL group will control the degree to which he
acquires the TL. Acculturation, and hence SLA, is determined by the degree of
social and psychological distance between the learner and the TL. Social
distance is the result of a number of factors which affect the learner as a member of
a social group in contact with the target language group. The psychological factors
come into play in cases where the social distance is indeterminate (i.e where social
factors constitute neither a clearly positive nor a clearly negative influence on
acculturation), although they can also modify the modal level of learning
associated with a particular social situation.

The social variables govern whether the overall learning situation is 'good' or 'bad'.
For instance, it is good when the TL and L2 groups view each other as socially
equal, share social facilities, culture congruent with that of TL, learner stays
in TL region for an extended period etc. The psychological factors are affective
in nature. They include language shock (learner experiences doubt and possible
confusion when using the L2), culture shock (stress,disorientation, fear etc) as
a result of differences between the cultures, motivation, ego boundaries etc.

Anderson builds on Schumann's Acculturation Model by providing a cognitive

dimension which Schumann does not consider. Anderson sees SLA as the result of
two general forces which he labels nativization and denativization. Nativization
consists of assimilation ie the learner makes the in-put conform to his own
internalized view of what constitutes the L2 system. The learner simplifies the
learning task by building hypothese s based on the knowledge he already
possesess. Nativization is apparent in pidginization and the early stages of both L1
and L2 acquisition.

Denativization involves accommodation ie the learner adjusts his internalized

system to make it fit the in-put. The learner makes use of inferencing strategies
which enable him to remodel his interlanguage system in accordance with the
'external norm'.The Acculturati on and Nativization Models address naturalistic
SLA where the L2 learner has contact with the TL community.

b)Accommodation Theory
Accommodation Theory derives from the research of Giles and associates in to the
intergroup u ses of language in multilingual communities such as Britain. His
primary concern is to investigate how intergroup uses of language reflect basic
social and psychological attitudes in interethnic communication. The
Accommodation Theory shares certain premises with the Acculturation Model but
it also differs from it in a number of significant ways. Giles argues that it is how
the ingroup defines itself in relationship to the outgroup that is important for SLA.
For Giles, intergroup relationships are dynamic and fluctuate in accordance with
the shifting views of identity held by each group vis-a-vis the other. The theory
takes into account the variability inherent in language-learner language and also
the native speaker's in-put.

c) The Monitor Model

This section summarizes current second language acquisition theory. Krashen's
theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses. They are
discussed below:

i) The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

According to Krashen, there are two independent systems of second language
performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. 'The acquired system'
or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the
process children undergo when they acquire their L1. It requires meaningful
interaction in the TL-natural communication-in which speakers are concentrated
not in the form of their utterances but in the communicative act.

The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and

it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about'
the language for example, knowledge of grammar rules. Learning is being aware
of the rules and being able to talk about them.

Some L2 theorists have assumed that children acquire while adults can only
learn. The acquisition-learning hypothesis claims,however, that adults also
acquire, that the ability to 'pick up' languages does not disappear at
puberty. This does not mean that adults will always be able to achieve
native-like levels in a L2. It does mean that adults can access the same natural
'language acquisition device' that children use.

ii) The Natural Order Hypothesis

The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested
that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order'
which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend
to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the
learner's age, L1 background, conditions of exposure etc. Thus when the
learner is engaged in natural communication tasks, he will manifest the
standard order. But when he is engaged in tasks that require or permit the use
of metalinguistic knowledge, a different order will emerge.
 iii) The Monitor hypothesis
The Monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language
performance. It utilizes 'learnt' knowledge by acting upon and modifying
utterances generated from 'acquired' knowledge. The monitor explains the
relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the
latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned
grammar.

According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while

the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The
'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three
specific conditions are met: that is, the L2 learner has sufficient time at
his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness and
he/she knows the rule.

There is individual variation in Monitor use. There are monitor over-users

who attempt to monitor all the time, performers who are constantly checking their
out- put with their conscious knowledge of the L2. Such speakers are so
concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency.
Monitor under-users are performers who have not learned or if they have,
prefer not to use their conscious knowledge even when conditions allow it.
They are typically uninfluenced by error correction. The optimal monitor user is
a performer who uses the monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not
interfere with communication. These users can use their learned competence
as a supplement to their acquired competence.

iv) The Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis attempts to answer what is perhaps the most important

question in this field and gives an answer that has a potential impact on all areas
of language teaching. The hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition' not
'learning'. The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when
he/she receives L2 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of
linguistic competence.

The hypothesis maintains that increased input will result in more

language acquisition and that increased output will not. There is no clear
evidence that more output, written or oral results in more language
acquisition. A correlate of this position is that when teachers correct output,
they do not help the student as error-correction has no or little effect upon
learner's competence. Evidence supporting the hypothesis are the caretaker speech,
foreigner-talk, teacher-talk, silent period etc( explain these).

v) The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective
variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in SLA. These variables
include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that
learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image and a low level
of anxiety are better equipped for success in SLA. The attitude one has
predisposes oneself for acquiring language.
Low motivation, low self-esteem and debilitating anxiety can combine to
'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible
input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it
impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary,
but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

In conclusion, it is clear that the five discussed hypotheses are all required to
achieve the goal of second language acquisition.