ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,

ISLAMABAD
Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Haifa Naveed
User name:0000071072

Muhammad Amir Askari

Course code: 8602

Assignment#no1
Q1: What are the types of assessment? Differentiate assessment for training of learning
and as learning.
In The Difference Between Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning, we
explained that “assessment for learning is commonly referred to as formative assessment–
that is, assessment designed to inform instruction.” Below, we identify types of assessment
of learning–very briefly, with simple ways to ‘think about’ each so that you hopefully wake
up with a better
grasp of each type.
6 Types Of Assessment Of Learning
1. Diagnostic Assessment (as Pre-Assessment)
One way to think about it: Assesses a student’s strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and
skills prior to instruction
Another way to think about it: A baseline to work from
One way to think about it: Assesses a student’s strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and
skills prior to instruction
Another way to think about it: A baseline to work from
What Is Project-Based Learning?
2. Formative Assessment
One way to think about it: Assesses a student’s performance during instruction, and usually
occurs regularly throughout the instruction process
Another way to think about it: Like a doctor’s ‘check-up’ to provide data to revise
instruction
3. Summative Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student’s achievement at the end of instruction. It’s
like talking to someone about after the movie is over.
Another way to think about it: It’s macabre, but if formative assessment is the check-up,
you might think of summative assessment as the autopsy. What happened? Now that it’s all
over, what went right and what went wrong?
Tip: By using measurements of student performance, summative assessments can be useful
for teachers to improve units and lessons year over year because they are, in a way, as
much of a reflection on the quality of the units and lessons themselves as they are the
students.
4. Norm-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Compares a student’s performance against other students (a
national group or other ‘norm’)
Another way to think about it: Place, group or ‘demographic’ assessment. Many
standardized tests are used as norm-referenced assessments.
Tip: These kinds of assessments are useful over time in student profiles or for placement in
national-level programs, for example.
5. Criterion-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student’s performance against a goal, specific
objective, or standard
Another way to think about it: a bar to measure all students against These can be a kind of
formative assessment and should be integrated throughout your curriculum to guide the
adjustment of your teaching over time. Mastery or competency-based learning would use
criterion-referenced assessments.
6. Interim/Benchmark Assessment
One way to think about it: Evaluates student performance at periodic intervals, frequently
at the end of a grading period. Can predict student performance on end-of-the-year
summative assessments. A benchmark assessment is a type of interim assessment so it
could be useful to think of them as distinct even though they function in a similar way.
Another way to think about it: Bar graph or chart growth throughout a year, often against
specific ‘benchmarks’ Benchmark assessments can be useful for communicating important
facts and data to parents, district officials, and others to, among other goals, inform the
allotment of resources (time and money) to respond to that data.
Assessment for learning (AFL) is an approach to teaching and learning that creates
feedback which is then used to improve students’ performance. Students become more
involved in the learning process and from this gain confidence in what they are expected to
learn and to what standard.
One way of thinking about AFL is that it aims to ‘close the gap’ between a learner’s current
situation and where they want to be in their learning and achievement. Skilled teachers
plan tasks which help learners to do this.
AFL involves students becoming more active in their learning and starting to ‘think like a
teacher’. They think more actively about where they are now, where they are going and
how to get there.

AFL and the relationship with formative and summative assessment

Traditionally, AFL has been closely associated with formative assessment because practices
such as questioning and providing feedback help ‘form’ or ‘shape’ student learning. This
differs from summative assessment which typically is an attempt to measure student
attainment at the end of a period of learning
The following table, based on the UK’s National Foundation for Educational Research
report (NFER 2007), classifies types of formative and summative assessment as either
formal or informal.
A good example of using a summative assessment strategy in an AFL context is where a
test or exam is used to identify a lack of understanding (e.g. in a particular area of the
syllabus) and subsequently targets are set to rectify this.
Assessment OF Learning is summative (includes quizzes, tests, exams, projects) where
judgement are made based on established criteria to certify learning. Results are
interpreted through scores that determine how well students are learning. This is also used
as basis to make report to parents about the students progress in school.
Assessment FOR learning on the other hand is a formative process of gathering and
interpreting evidences to be used by teachers to determine next stage of students learning,
where they need to go, and how to get there. The two key factors are providing Descriptive
Feedback and Coaching for Improvement. Student and teacher share learning goals and
criteria to ensure that they both have common understand of these goals and criteria as
the learning progresses. Gathering evidences about student learning can be done before,
during and after the learning has taken place using a variety of assessment tools and
strategies.
Assessment AS Learning focuses on developing the student’s capacity to be their best
assessor's overtime. With the goal of being independent and autonomous, students will be
able to rethink their ways on learning to monitor individual goals, monitor their own
progress, determine the next step, and reflect.
Teachers has an important role to model structured opportunities for students to learn to
personally, monitor what they are learning, and be able to make adjustments and/or to
make changes in their learning by using the feedback given to them.

Q.2 What do you know about taxonomy of educational objectives? Write in detail.

Educational objectives describe the goals toward which the education process is directed–
the learning that is to result from instruction. When drawn up by an education authority or
professional organization, objectives are usually called standards. Taxonomies are
classification systems based on an organizational scheme. Taxonomies are classification
systems based on an organizational scheme. In this instance, a set of carefully defined
terms, organized from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract, provide a
framework of categories into which one may classify educational goals.
Such schemes can:
• Provide a common language about educational goals that can bridge subject matter
and grade levels
• Serve as a touchstone for specifying the meaning of broad educational goals for the
classroom
• Help to determine the congruence of goals, classroom activities and assessments
• Provide a panorama of the range of possible educational goals against which the
limited breadth and depth of any particular educational curriculum may be
contrasted
The First Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Cognitive Domain
The idea of creating a taxonomy of educational objectives was conceived by Benjamin
Bloom in the 1950s, the assistant director of the University of Chicago's Board of
Examinations. Bloom sought to reduce the extensive labor of test development by
exchanging test items among universities.
He believed this could be facilitated by developing a carefully defined framework into
which items measuring the same objective could be classified. Examiners and testing
specialists from across the country were assembled into a working group that met
periodically over a number of years. The result was a framework with six major categories
and many subcategories for the most common objectives of classroom instruction–those
dealing with the cognitive domain. Here is an overview of the categories that make up the
framework:
• Knowledge
• Knowledge of specifics
• Knowledge of terminology
• Knowledge of specific facts
• Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
• Knowledge of conventions
• Knowledge of trends and sequences
• Knowledge of classifications and categories
• Knowledge of criteria
• Knowledge of methodology
The taxonomy has been used for the analysis of a course's objectives, an entire curriculum,
or a test in order to determine the relative emphasis on each major category. The
unceasing growth of knowledge exerts constant pressure on educators to pack more and
more into each course.
Thus, these analyses repeatedly show a marked overemphasis on Knowledge objectives.
Because memory for most knowledge is short, in contrast to learning in the other
categories, such findings raise important questions about learning priorities.
Along these same lines is the taxonomy's use to assure that objectives, instructional
activities, and assessment are congruent (aligned) with one another.
Even when instruction emphasizes objectives in the more complex categories, the difficulty
of constructing test items to measure such achievement often results in tests that
emphasize knowledge measurement instead. Alignment analyses highlight this
inconsistency.
The Affective Domain
In addition to devising the cognitive taxonomy, the Bloom group later grappled with a
taxonomy of the affective domain–objectives concerned with interests, attitudes,
adjustment, appreciation, and values. This taxonomy consisted of five categories arranged
in order of increased internalization. Like the cognitive taxonomy, it assumed that learning
at the lower category was prerequisite to the attainment of the next higher one. Here is an
overview of the categories:
• Receiving (Attending)
• Awareness
• Willingness to receive
• Controlled or selected attention
• Responding
• Acquiescence in responding
• Willingness to respond
• Satisfaction in response
• Valuing
• Acceptance of a value
• Preference for a value
• Commitment
• Organization
• Conceptualization of a value
• Organization of a value system
• Characterization by a value or value complex
• Generalized set
• Characterization
The Knowledge dimension. The Knowledge category of the original cognitive taxonomy
included both a content aspect and the action aspect of remembering. These were
separated in the revision, so that the content aspect (the nouns) became its own dimension
with four categories:
• Factual Knowledge (the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a
discipline or solve problems in it)
• Knowledge of terminology
• Knowledge of specific details and elements
• Conceptual Knowledge (the interrelationships among the basic elements within a
larger structure that enable them to function together)
• Knowledge of classifications and categories
• Knowledge of principles and generalizations
• Knowledge of theories, models, and structures
• Procedural Knowledge (how to do something, including methods of inquiry and
criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods)
• Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
• Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
• Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures
• Knowledge (knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and knowledge
of one's own cognition)
• Strategic knowledge
• Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional
knowledge
• Self-knowledge
The Process dimension. In the revision, the concepts of the six original categories were
retained but changed to verbs for the second (process) dimension. The action aspect of
Knowledge was retitled as Remember. Comprehension became Understand. Synthesis,
replaced by Create, became the top category. Subcategories, all new, consisted of verbs in
gerund form.
In overview, the dimension's categories are:
• 1Remember (retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory)
• Recognizing
• Recalling
• . Understand (determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral,
written, and graphic communication
• . Interpreting
• Exemplifying
• . Classifying
• Summarizing
• . Inferring
• Comparing
• . Explaining
• Apply (carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation)
• Executing
• Implementing
• Analyze (breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts
relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose)
• Differentiating
• Organizing
• Attributing
• Evaluate (making judgments based on criteria and standards
• Checking
• Critiquing
• Create (putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an
original product)
• Generating
• Planning
• Producing
Q3: How will you define attitude? Elaborate its components.

Definition of Attitude
Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling, and position about a person or thing, tendency,
or orientation, especially in mind.
According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the
individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”
Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain
institutions, persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has
become one’s typical mode of response.”
Thurstone said, “An attitude denotes the total of man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice
or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and other any specific topic.”
Characteristics of Attitude:
1. Attitudes are the complex combination of things we call personality, beliefs, values,
behaviors, and motivations.
2. It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.
3. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.
4. An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our
actions, and influence how we judge people.
5. Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can
view a person’s attitude from their resulting behavior.
6. Attitude helps us define how we see situations and define how we behave toward the
situation or object.
7. It provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and objects.
8. It can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitude is those that we are consciously
aware of an implicit attitude is unconscious, but still, affect our behaviors.
9. Attitudes cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.
10. An attitude is a summary of a person’s experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct
experience predicts future behavior more accurately.
11. It includes certain aspects of personality as interests, appreciation, and social conduct.
12. It indicates the total of a man’s inclinations and feelings.
13. An attitude is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false, which one holds
towards an idea, object, or person.
 14. It has aspects such as direction, intensity, generality, or specificity.
15. It refers to one’s readiness for doing Work.
16. It may be positive or negative and may be affected by age, position, and education.
Actually, it is frequently used in describing people and explaining their behavior.
For example: -
“I like her attitude,” “He has a good attitude,” etc. Actually, it is characterized by the
tendency to feel and behave in a particular way toward some object.
Components of Attitude:
These are the way of thinking, and they shape how we relate to the world both in work and
Outside of work. Researchers also suggest that there are several different components
that make up attitudes.
One can see this by looking at the three components of an attitude: cognition, affect and
behavior.
3 components of attitude are;
1. Cognitive Component.
2. Affective Component.
3. Behavioral Component.
Cognitive Component
The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that
we would associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It
refers to that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person. Typically,
these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking is
harmful to health’ etc.
Affective Component
Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. It is related to the
statement which affects another person.
It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as
fear or hate. Using the above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all
babies because they are cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health.
Behavioral Component
Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave 'in a
particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the
intention of a person in the short-run or long run. Using the above example, the behavioral
attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we better keep those smokers out of the
library, etc.
Conclusion
Attitude is composed of three components, which include a cognitive component, effective
or emotional component, and a behavioral component. Basically, the cognitive component
is based on the information or knowledge, whereas the affective component is based on
the feelings.
The behavioral component reflects how attitude affects the way we act or behave. It is
helpful in understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitudes
and behavior.
But for clarity’s sake, keep in mind that the term attitude essentially refers to the affected
part of the three components.
In an organization, attitudes are important for their goal or objective to succeed. Each one
of these components is very different from the other, and they can build upon one another
to form our attitudes and, therefore, affect how we relate to the world.
Q.4 What are the type of every questions? Also write its advantages and disadvantages.
4 Types of Questions in English
In this section, we’ll walk you through each question type and provide real-world examples.
1. General or Yes/No Questions
Common questions that can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” are logically called
yes/no questions.As a rule, this kind of question relates to the whole sentence, and not to a
separate element of it.
For example:
• Do you like this country?
• Does Jane know about your new job?
• Can I call my sister?
• Is it cold outside?
 • Are they ready for the trip?
• Are you hungry?
To ask such general questions, the appropriate rising intonation should be used at the end
of the sentence.The answer can be a brief “yes” or “no.” Or, a longer answer can be given:
“Yes, I do.” “No, I don’t like this country.” The response to a question depends on the verb
used.Try to remember this formula: answer the question the way it was asked.
If the question begins with a form of the verb “to be” – am, is, are – then answer “Yes, I
am/he is/they are,” or “No, I am not/he isn’t/they aren’t.”
It is similar to auxiliary verbs (do/does, did, will, have/has):
• Did she clean the room? – Yes, she did/No, she didn’t.
• Have you done your homework? – Yes, I have/ No, I haven’t.
• Will you buy that dress? – Yes, I will/ No, I won’t.
2. Special or Wh-Questions
A special question, as you can guess, uses a certain word at the beginning of the sentence
to ask a specific question. The questions words who, what, where, when, why, how, how
many, etc., are used to begin the question:
• Where is he from?
• When did you come here?
• How did you meet her?
• How many eggs do we need for this cake?
• Whose children are playing in the yard?
Note that questions about a subject (who? what?) have their own special structure; they do
not require an auxiliary verb, we replace the subject with the question word.
For example:
• We go to the cinema. – Who goes to the cinema?
• The glass is on the table. – What is on the table?
• Most girls here wear skirts. – Who wears skirts here?
You can see that after the question words who and what, the third-person singular form of
the verb should be used.
We use special questions to get specific information. This implies that the answer will be
more detailed.
3. Choice Questions
Choice questions are questions that offer a choice of several options as an answer (you
might recognize them from your exams as multiple-choice questions). They are made up of
two parts, which are connected by the conjunction or. Choice questions can be either
general, open-ended questions or more specific ones. If the question does not center on
the subject of the sentence, a complete answer is needed.
For example:
• Does she like ice cream or sweets? – She likes ice cream.
• Where would you go, to the cinema or the theatre? – I would go to the cinema.
• Is he a teacher or a student? – He is a student.
However, when the question concerns the subject, the auxiliary verb comes before the
second option. The answer is short:
• Does she make it or do you? – She does.
• Did they buy that house or did she? – They did.

4. Disjunctive or Tag Questions

This type of question is also made up of two parts, where the first part is a positive
statement, and the second part is negative, or vice-versa.
The first part of the sentence defines the expected answer. If the statement is positive, a
positive answer is expected; if the statement is negative, a negative answer is expected.
For example:
• She sent him an invitation, didn’t she? – Yes, she did.
• You aren’t getting married, are you? – No, I am not.
• Jane isn’t in France, is she? – No, she isn’t.
• Our dad will come soon, won’t he? – Yes, he will.
There are also exceptions:
I am going with you, aren’t I? – Yes, you are.
You can’t say, “I am a great person, am I not?” That would be incorrect. Just remember
that when the pronoun “I” is used, the tag is are/aren’t.
Tag questions are only used in conversational speech to clarify information or to confirm or
refute something if there are doubts.
You can find more materials on this and other types of questions by reading our article on
conversation questions to sharpen your skills and catch native speaker’s attention.

Q.5 Construct a test, administer it and ensure its reliability

Step # 1. Planning the Test:
Planning of the test is the first important step in the test construction. The main goal of
evaluation process is to collect valid, reliable and useful data about the student. 1. Planning
the Test items
Planning of the test is the first important step in the test construction. The main goal of
evaluation process is to collect valid, reliable and useful data about the student.
Therefore before going to prepare any test we must keep in mind that:
(1) What is to be measured?
(2) What content areas should be included and
(3) What types of test items are to be included.
Therefore, the first step includes three major considerations.
1. Determining the objectives of testing.
2. Preparing test specifications.
3. Selecting appropriate item types.
Therefore before going to prepare any test we must keep in mind that:

(1) What is to be measured?

(2) What content areas should be included and

(3) What types of test items are to be included.

Therefore, the first step includes three major considerations.

Step # 2. Preparing the Test:

After planning preparation is the next important step in the test construction. In this step
the test items are constructed in accordance with the table of specification. Each type of
test item need special care for construction.
2. Preparing Test Specifications:
The second important step in the test construction is to prepare the test specifications. In
order to be sure that the test will measure a representative sample of the instructional
objectives and content areas we must prepare test specifications. So that an elaborate
design is neces-sary for test construction. Appropriate item types should be selected
according to the learning outcomes to be measured. For example when the out-come is
writing, naming supply type items are useful. If the outcome is identifying a correct answer
selection type or recog-nition type items are useful. So that the teacher must decide and
select appropriate item types as per the learning outcomes.
Step # 3. Try Out of the Test:

Once the test is prepared now it is time to be confirming the validity, reliability and usability
of the test. Try out helps us to identify defective and ambiguous items, to determine the
difficulty level of the test and to determine the discriminating power of the items.

Try out involves two important functions:

(a) Administration of the test.

(b) Scoring the test.

(a) Administration of the test:

Administration means ad-ministering the prepared test on a sample of pupils. So the

ef-fectiveness of the final form test depends upon a fair administra-tion. Gronlund and Linn
have stated that ‘the guiding principle in administering any class room test is that all pupils
must be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of learning out-comes being
measured.’ It implies that the pupils must be provided congenial physical and psychological
environment during the time of testing. Any other factor that may affect the testing
procedure should be controlled.

Physical environment means proper sitting arrangement, proper light and ventilation and
adequate space for invigilation, Psychological environment refers to these aspects which
in-fluence the mental condition of the pupil. Therefore steps should be taken to reduce the
anxiety of the students. The test should not be administered just before or after a great
occasion like annual sports on annual drama etc.

One should follow the following principles during the test administration:

1. The teacher should talk as less as possible.

2. The teacher should not interrupt the students at the time of testing.

3. The teacher should not give any hints to any student who has asked about any item.

4. The teacher should provide proper invigilation in order to prevent the students from
cheating.

(b) Scoring the test:

Once the test is administered and the answer scripts are obtained the next step is to score
the answer scripts. A scoring key may be provided for scoring when the answer is on the
test paper itself Scoring key is a sample answer script on which the correct answers are
recorded.

When answer is on a separate answer sheet at that time a scoring stencil may be used for
answering the items. Scoring stencil is a sample answer sheet where the correct
alternatives have been punched. By putting the scoring stencil on the pupils answer script
correct answer can be marked. For essay type items separate instructions for scoring each
learning objective may be provided.
Step # 4. Evaluating the Test:
Evaluating the test is most important step in the test con-struction process. Evaluation is
necessary to determine the quality of the test and the quality of the responses. Quality of
the test implies that how good and dependable the test is? (Validity and reliability). Quality
of the responses means which items are misfit in the test. It also enables us to evaluate the
usability of the test in general class-room situation.
Evaluating the test involves following functions:

(a) Item analysis.

(b) Determining validity of the test.

(c) Determining reliability of the test.

(d) Determining usability of the test.

(a) Item analysis.

Once the item analysis process is over we can get a list of effective items. Now the task is to
make a file of the effective items. It can be done with item analysis cards. The items should
be arranged according to the order of difficulty. While filing the items the objectives and
the content area that it measures must be kept in mind. This helps in the future use of the
item.

(b) Determining Validity of the Test:

At the time of evaluation it is estimated that to what extent the test measures what the
test maker intends to measure.
(c) Determining Reliability of the Test:

Evaluation process also estimates to what extent a test is consistent from one
measurement to other. Otherwise the results of the test can not be dependable.

(d) Determining the Usability of the Test:

Try out and the evaluation process indicates to what extent a test is usable in general class-
room condition. It implies that how far a test is usable from administration, scoring, time
and economy point of view.