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Contents
vii
Chapter
The Evolution of Lighting
1 Design
This chapter looks at the innovations in the use of light in performance dur-
ing the Renaissance period. What is significant about this period is that it
is possible to identify it as the first time when light was used coherently as
an integral aspect of the staging of performance events and that the creative
potential of light to performance was acknowledged for the first time.
Significant evidence is provided through contemporary accounts from
audience members who witnessed performances and detailed written doc-
umentation that describe the first systematic approaches to lighting the
stage.
Many of these accounts are by architects who were responsible for design-
ing and coordinating these events. The complexities inherent in staging
lavish performance spectacles, and the way in which light was used as an
integral aspect of Renaissance scenography in Italy, are fundamental to the
development of all future performance lighting design principles and prac-
tice. For this reason it is important to understand both the way in which light
was used in performance by a number of early lighting designers and the
way in which this use of light contributed directly to the evolution of the art
form itself.
This chapter describes the work of these key figures and give examples
of some of the staged events in which lighting played an essential part.
These first-hand accounts explain the techniques and principles of early light-
ing practice and record the discoveries made in using light in performance.
These treatises, by artists who were seeking to solve the staging issues aris-
ing from a new style of performance, form the first known documents that
focus on lighting design for performance. They provide substantial evidence
to suggest that Italy is the birthplace of creative lighting for the stage.
In order to understand the way in which light was used on the Renaissance
stage, it is important to understand the scenic conventions that were estab-
lished during this period. Theatrical presentation and performance design
underwent radical change in the period following the discovery of linear per-
spective and the rediscovery of the classic text De architectura, written by the
Roman architect Vitruvius. The link between fine art and architecture was
to have a profound influence on the development of the scenic stage. In the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, artists were employed by Italian courts to
produce paintings and sculpture. Following in the footsteps of Brunelleschi,
(see Chapter 2) many of these master painters were also commissioned as
architects as they had acquired a sophisticated range of skills encompassing
engineering and geometry. Their achievements in the design and construc-
tion of buildings, often with overtly theatrical facades, led logically to these
architects and artists also being employed as theatrical designers. They were
commissioned not only to create a theatrical space and auditorium, often
within an existing room at court, but also to design the stage environment
and the conditions for viewing it. Architects understood that light was not
only important to the way a building was perceived but also an essential
component in the way that performance was experienced.
During the early sixteenth century the link between perspective paint-
ing and the theatrical backdrop was firmly established and was exemplified
in the work of designers such as Pellegrino, Genga and Peruzzi, who pro-
vided the catalyst for the evolution of a new theatrical form that employed
semi-permanent, three-dimensional perspective scenes. These scenic stages,
constructed in relief, required new approaches to lighting in order to com-
plete the visual illusion. A number of these architects therefore sought to
quantify the theories and practices of this new staging by publishing rules
for the design, construction and lighting of these new perspective scenes.
Pellegrino da San Daniele1 (1467–1547), a master painter and architect,
was employed by the court at Ferrara in the role of theatre designer. He is
credited with the first perspectival backdrop for a performance of Ariosto’s
La Cassaria in 1508 and although there appears to be no evidence for how this
may have been lit, this new approach to scenic design seems to have inspired
1
Also known as Martino of Udine.
2
Performed on 6 February 1513.
3
This technique is described later by both Serlio and Vasari.
4
See Zorzi and Sperenzi (2001: 145).
5
There were nearly 60 editions in seven languages by 1619. First published in both Italian and
French in Paris (1545), translated into Flemish (1553), Dutch (1606), German (1608) and English
from an inaccurate Dutch translation in 1611.The English edition cited below was published
in 1657 and was also translated from a Dutch version.
Among all the things that may be made by mens hands, thereby to yield admi-
ration, pleasure to sight, and to content the fantasies of man; I think is placing
of a Scene, as it is shewed to your sight, where a man in a small place may see
[. . .] a thousand faire things and Buildings, adorned with innumerable lights great,
middle sort, and small, [. . .] which are so cunningly set out, that they shew forth
and represent a number of the brightest stones, as Diamonds, Rubies, Saphirs,
Smaragdes, Jacinths, and such like. There you may see the bright shining Moon
ascending onely with her hornes, and already risen up, before the Spectators are
aware of, or once saw it ascend. In some other Scenes you may see the rising of
the Sun with his course about the world, and at the ending of the Comedy, you
may see it goe down most artificially, whereat many beholders have been abasht.6
(Serlio [1545] 1657: 23)
This is the first reference we have to back and side-lighting, although these
angles of light are suggested for the lighting of the setting rather than for the
performers.
Serlio identifies a third category of lighting which he terms ‘mobile light’
and represents the visible point source on stage – the physical simulation
of celestial objects moving across the sky, in the way that Brunelleschi and
Peruzzi had employed earlier. The passing of the sun or moon was important
for delineating the passage of time within the drama, and the creation of
an ‘artificial day’ was often essential to preserve the dramatic and temporal
unity.
We understand the way in which lighting techniques had evolved dur-
ing the Renaissance period because Serlio describes where to place lighting
instruments and how to create specific effects such as lightning. The bozze
that Serlio identifies were glass vessels in both concave and convex forms that
could be used to hold oil and a wick to provide a lighting source, or alterna-
tively were filled with coloured liquid and used in front of light sources fixed
on boards behind the perspective scene to create coloured light. In this pas-
sage, Serlio notes the practical concerns about fixing these properly so that
they are not dislodged by the dancers.
Serlio also describes the placing of a polished barber’s basin to act as
a reflector behind the glass sphere which, in turn, becomes a crude lens.
Together these materials created an early prototype of the spotlight and
particularly interesting is that this instrument was used to create a type of
keylight – ‘a great light to shew more than the rest’ – and this is the first indi-
cation of the artistic need for a differentiation of intensity between lighting
sources.
The bozze were the first dedicated theatre lighting instruments and Serlio
provides recipes for tinting liquids to achieve specific colours, although it
6
A modern translation of the last section of this text might read: The horned moon rises slowly –
so slowly that the spectators have not been aware of any movement. In other scenes the sun
rises, moves on its course, and at the end of the play is made to set with such skill that many
spectators remain lost in wonder.
was discovered that this technique reduced the intensity of the light and
therefore tended to be reserved for special scenic effects, such as creating the
jewelled windows of street scenes. For pastoral scenes (where there were no
windows on stage), coloured silks were backlit instead to create variations in
coloured light. Bergman (1977: 59–60) argues that these decorative lighting
techniques that created a gleaming, jewelled stage were a natural develop-
ment of mediaeval traditions of using precious stones, and the effect was a
theatrical equivalent of the stained glass window.
ARCHITECTS OF LIGHT
As the perspective scene began to become a part of the acting space rather
than simply an architectural backdrop to the performance, a number of
architect-designers began to develop lighting techniques for different styles
of performance.
I believe that these four Dialogues – which truly were composed more for my own
personal convenience than from any desire of securing fame – may be of use to
others and myself as a set of rules, or at least as a record of what must be done
in writing or in producing any dramatic poem; otherwise, I have no doubt, they
would prove but useless and ill-pleasing. [. . .]
7
Nicholl (1948: 237–238) observes that this was probably written in 1561 and that the first
publication was mistakenly dated by the copyist and should actually read 1565.
Fourth Dialogue
Interlocutors; Verdico, Santino, and Massimiano
Santino. [. . .] I want you to tell me one thing, Veridico. Here on your stage are many
lighted lamps, giving ample illumination and· making a most lovely show; what,
then, is the use of and how originated those many lamps burning on the roofs of
the stage-houses? They do not seem to me to aid the perspective, and for ordinary
purposes of illumination there are torches enough.
Veridico. I think I have said more than once that plays are produced for the purpose
of providing pleasant instruction and of alleviating noyance of mind. Whence
I declared, and again I repeat it, the actor should above all other things endeav-
our to enunciate his lines in a bright and joyous manner. Such, granted that the
author provides us with a pleasant, charming plot and that the actor gives to this
a vivid interpretation, surely it is equally essential that the architect should rep-
resent gladness and joy on the stage. Now it has been a custom, both in ancient
and modern times, to light bonfires and torches in the streets, on the housetops,
and on towers, as a sign of joy; and hence arises this theatrical convention-the
imitating of such festive occasions. The lights are put there for no other purpose
but to imitate, in the very first scene, this mood of gaiety.
Santino. I suppose, then, that these lights would not appear in a tragedy.
Veridico. Perhaps they would not be so wholly out of place even in such a play.
Quite apart from the fact that there are tragedies with happy endings, we note
that nearly all tragedies open in a happy strain; and consequently it will not be
unfitting to arouse the mind, so far as we may, to this happiness, although disas-
ters and deaths are to ensue later. I remember once I had to produce a tragedy of
this kind. During all the time when the episodes were happy in mood I had the
stage brightly illuminated, but so soon as the first unhappy incident, occurred-
the unexpected death of a queen-while the chorus was engaged in lamenting that
the sun could bear to look down on such evil, I contrived (by prearrangement,
of course) that at that very instant most of the stage lights not used for the per-
spective were darkened or extinguished. This created a profound impression of
horror among the spectators and won universal praise.
Santino. It could not have called forth anything but praise.
Massimiano. Will you now please tell us why most of your lights have in front of
them transparent or coloured glasses?
Veridico. This was invented by some men who realized a little-appreciated fact-that
a brilliant light striking directly upon the eye for any length of time becomes
exceedingly irritating. Since, then, the spectator must keep his eyes fixed on the
stage, watching the actions proceeding now on this side, now on that, the shading
of the lights was devised to minimize the annoyance.
Massimiano. I should be willing to bet that not ten persons out of a hundred who
make use of these shades appreciate their object.
Veridico. They would at any rate say that the shades were used to produce a more
beautiful effect, and in so doing they would be enunciating part of the whole.
Not by my own theorizing, certainly, but from long practice and experience
I have made observation of these things and have tried to get at their origins.
I have found that it was the ancients who, as the saying goes, snatched them
from obscurity. While we are dealing with this subject I should like to point out
also that the small mirrors which some managers set at appropriate places in the
perspective settings and the far sides of the wings are very effective. They reflect
those concealed lights which the architects cleverly place behind columns and
in the openings between the wings, thus serving to make the set more gay and
bright. Not only can these reflections give no annoyance to the eyes; they have
the further advantage that here we obtain light without smoke-a great considera-
tion. I may take this occasion to remark that the producer who does not take care
to have a number of holes made behind the scenes so that the smoke from the
lamps may have a means of escape will land himself in serious difficulties, for
otherwise this smoke, gradually increasing and becoming thicker, will produce
so effective a screen that before the second act be done the actors will seem to be
not men but shadows, while the spectators, as if blinded, will, without realizing
the cause, get the impression that they are losing their sight. Great care ought
to be taken of this, though it is a matter to which few pay sufficient attention.
So far as my experience goes, there is no real difficulty provided adequate pains
are taken beforehand.
Massimiano. Now that you bring these things to my attention I do recall that at the
close of plays we have often found our eyes smarting uncomfortably and that we
have not been able to see nearly so much as we did at the beginning. I realize that
this must have been due to the cause you have referred to.
Veridico. To avoid the smoke screen I have found that the best remedy is to open
as many windows as possible under the proscenium, so that the air, entering
from below, drives all the smoke through the holes bored in the roof behind the
scenery.
Massimiano. That, I believe, would be an excellent device.
Veridico. It is, I assure you.
Santino. I see, Veridico, that on your stage there are many lamps both behind the
scenes and in front of them; yet in the auditorium here you have made arrange-
ments for but twelve standing candelabra. The reason I can’t imagine; for I have
often counted as many as 250 torches in this large hall.
Veridico. It is a natural fact-as no doubt you are aware-that a man who stands in
the shade sees much more distinctly an object illuminated from afar; the rea-
son being that the sight proceeds more directly and without any distraction
toward this object, or, according to the peripatetic theory, the object impinges
itself more directly upon the eye. Wherefore I place only a few lamps in the
auditorium, while at the same time I render the stage as bright as I possibly
can. Still further, these few auditorium lights I place at the rear of the specta-
tors, because the interposition of such lights would but be dazzling to the eyes.
Over them, as you see, I have made small openings so that their smoke can cause
no damage.
Santino. By thus introducing only a few lights in the auditorium, then, you obviate
the trouble of smoke-fumes and to a certain extent you render the seeing clearer.
Massimiano. There is yet another advantage: he saves the Duke fifty ducats in
respect of the torches usually set in the hall.
Veridico. That, I confess, had not come into my mind, nor does his Excellency need
to think of such economies, but, as the proverb says, in the end every good
proves good.
Santino. Concerning the illumination of the scene you have said, in my opinion, all
that can be said.
(trans. Nicholl 1948: 257–262)
Index
286
INDEX 287
Art of Stage Lighting, The (Bentham, 1968) safety of 13, 46, 176fn, 190–1, 197
211, 214 see also auditorium: sightlines,
Art of Stage Lighting, The (Pilbrow, 1997) lighting: made visible to
222 audience
Association of British Theatre auditorium 44–65, 198fn
Technicians (ABTT) 212 darkening of 2, 7, 10–11, 16, 19, 31, 33,
Association of Lighting Designers (ALD) 45, 47–9, 51–3, 56, 79, 119–20, 135,
242, 247, 255 143, 167, 168–9, 176, 177–9, 189,
Astley’s Theatre, London 34 193, 219, 228, 271
atmosphere see mood illumination of xiv, 9–11, 13–14, 28, 29,
audience 44–5, 46, 48, 50, 51–4, 54, 56–7, 64,
active participation of 110, 132–7, 167, 168–9, 174, 175–6, 177–9,
166 189–90, 193, 225–6, 227, 228
assurance of 106 natural light within 46, 47–9, 48,
attention of 20, 37, 39, 67, 90, 103, positioning of lighting controls within
115, 132–6, 177, 184, 192, 195, 226, 231, 236, 241, 242, 245–6
218, 243, 268 see also audience: sightlines 50, 54, 56, 119
imagination automated (moving) light 41, 88, 222,
awareness of lighting design 69–74, 245, 248, 262, 269 see also Vari∗ lite
132–7, 264–5, 268
cue invisible to 245
Bablet, Denis 77, 109
deception of 62–3, 193
Bablet-Hahn, Marie 87fn
hearing actors 55, 125, 142–3, 218
back-light 3, 5, 6, 30, 31, 129, 170, 211,
imagination of 30–1, 46–7, 77–86,
217 see also contralight
103–8, 118–20, 121–2, 192, 252–3
Bähr, Hugo (1841–1929) 87–8, 94
see also audience: attention
Balla, Giacomo (1871–1958) 166–7
impact of light on experience of,
Ballet d’action (Noverre, 1760) 60
xiii–xv, 1, 7, 13, 30–1, 35, 37, 38,
Ballet comique de la Reine (1581) 29
39–40, 46, 52–3, 55, 56, 59, 61–3,
66–76, 78, 79, 90, 95, 103–8, 109, Ballet Russe 166
113, 116–7, 118–20, 124fn, 131–5, Bargagli, (La Pellegrina, 1589) 28–9
136–7, 141, 142–3, 150, 164–6, 172, Baroni, Guido 69–70
184, 189, 193, 195, 209, 213, 218, battens 49, 51, 61, 67, 87, 110, 174, 176,
225–6, 232–3, 251–3, 264–5, 268 179, 180, 187, 190–2, 194, 209, 212,
see also spectacle, light: 213
phenomenological effect, Baugh, Christopher 33, 65, 133fn
physiological effect, Bauhaus 145, 162, 169–71
psychological effect Bay, Howard (1912–1986) 204–5, 222
lighting hidden from view of 7, 10, Bayreuth Festspielhaus 79
13, 16, 18, 31, 33–4, 45, 51, 67, beacon 22–3
206fn, 191, 192, 242 Beaumarchais 64
lighting obscuring view of 10, 50, Beckett, Samuel (1906–1989) 67, 68,
52–3, 56, 61, 122, 178–9 140–1, 162
lighting of 1, 7–11, 44–65, 220, 256 Not I 140
see also auditorium Play 8, 140
relationship to performer 51fn, 55, Waiting for Godot 67
63, 70, 136, 143, 161, 168, 178–9, Beerbohm Tree, Herbert (1852–1917)
207, 220, 241, 263–4, see also 35, 207, 228
audience: hearing actors Beggar, The (Sorge, 1917) 127, 128
288 INDEX
INDEX 289
290 INDEX
dimming of lighting 2, 7, 13, 14–17 19, electricity 21, 35, 36, 78, 88, 89, 91, 94,
61, 134, 198, 225, 231, 233–8, 246 95, 102, 104, 120, 137, 152fn, 153,
see also blackout, dimmer, lighting: 157–61, 164, 165–6, 167, 168, 170–1,
conventions, lighting: cues 173, 174, 177, 182–3, 186, 189, 193–7,
dioramas 34 197–9, 200, 201, 206, 208, 229–32,
director xiv, 45, 61–2, 70, 78, 95, 103, 234, 251, 269, 272
115–17, 118, 125, 127, 139, 145, 147, creative possibilities of 35, 92, 94,
173, 209, 216–20, 222, 230, 232, 157–61, 164–8, 193–9, 206, 229–30
233–4, 236–7, 247, 256, 259–60, Eliasson, Olafur 172
263–6, 267–8 Elizabethan playhouses 46–7
D’Oyly Carte, Richard (1844–1901) 159 Elliston, Robert William (1774–1831) 65
Dramatic Imagination, The (Jones, 1941) Elsinore (Lepage, 1995–98) 242
103–8 Emerson, Ralph Waldorf 105
Dramatic Poetry and How to Produce Plays End to Masterpieces, An
(Ingegneri, 1598) 10 (Artaud, 1933) 39
dramaturgy 30, 36, 49, 63, 68, 69, 70, Engel, Alfred von 200fn
118–41, 229, 243 Engel, André 69
Drummond, Thomas (1797–1840) 181 Engrenage, L’ (Sartre) 138
Drury Lane Theatre, London 32, 52–3, Entertainment at Theobalds
60–3, 65, 174, 181 (Jonson, 1607) 30
Duboscq, Louis Jules (1817–1886) 87, Equity 239
152, 153fn, 183–5 Essig, Linda 223
Esslin, Martin 68–9
East London Theatre 175
Esthetics of Dramatic Art (Zich, 1931) 66
Eco, Umberto 21–2
Eumenides, The 208
economic factors of lighting 10–11, 17,
event industries 40, 245, see also concert
31, 41, 48, 51–2, 57, 58, 61–2, 152fn,
lighting
182, 192, 194, 202, 214, 234–5, 262,
Evreinov, Nikolai (1879–1953) 37–9
269
expressionism 125–32, 137, 139, 140,
Edison, Thomas (1847–1931) 159–60,
198, 207–8, 256
191, 193
education 104, 204–6, 212, 214, 222–3
Eidophusikon, The 32–4, 65 fairy scenes 32, 62, 130, 157–61, 160,
Einstein on the Beach (Glass/Wilson, 183, 186, 187
1976) 115 Farblichtmusiken 169
Eisenhauer, Peggy 245 Faust (Irving’s productions 1885–88,
electric carbon arc 35, 87–8, 129, 152–3, 1894) 35, 157, 193
162–3, 173, 176, 180, 182–6, 209, 226 festival 15, 16, 20–1, 23–4, 24–8, 41–3,
see also limelight 47, 91, 93
electric fairy 158–61, 160 feux d’artifice see fireworks
electric jewellery 158–61, 160 Feux d’Artifice (Fuochi d’artificio, 1917)
electric light see electricity 166–7
Electric Light and Colour Company, The fire 20–3, 28, 31, 83, 85
183 fire (stage lighting causing) 10, 176fn
electrician 91, 108, 111, 132–3, 151–3, fireworks 20, 23–4, 25–6, 27, 31, 38, 83,
152, 155, 179, 196, 210, 216, 218–9, 166–7
232, 237 see also technician, lighting Fischer-Lichte, Erika 70–4
operator Fisher, Jules 245
Electricien, L’ 159 Fisher, Rick 143, 215, 255, 255–65, 266
INDEX 291
292 INDEX
Hamlet 101–2, 107, 109, 110–13, 112, 242 image (in competition with language)
Hampstead Conservatoire 94–5 21, 30–1, 34
Handke, Peter 66–7, 70 Independent Theatre Council (ITC) 239
Harlequin and Peeping Tom of Coventry Ingegneri, Angelo (1550–1613), 10–11,
(1837) 182 31, 45, 56
Harmony of the Spheres (1589) 29 Inspector Calls, An (National Theatre
Hartmann, Louis 200, 230fn, 230–1, production 1992–2012) 255, 255–6,
271–3 257–9
Hasenclever, Walter (1890–1894) 126, ‘intelligent’ moving light see automated
129 light
Sohn, Der 126, 129 intermezzi 14, 16, 28–31, 32, 45–6
Haymarket Theatre, London 108fn inverse square law 53fn
haze 40, 108–14, 123, 161, 172 Irigaray, Luce 75
Heidegger, Martin 75 Irving, Henry (1838–1905) 35, 173–4,
Helios (Rosalie, 2007) 171 185, 188–97, 200, 227, 228, 230
Hellerau Festpielhaus, Dresden 93, 145 Coriolanus (1901) 189
Helson-Judd effect 210 Corsican Brothers, The (1880) 93
Henderson, Mark 266–7 Faust (1885–1888, 1894) 35, 157, 193
Henry VIII 35, 173, 184 Henry VIII, (1892) 35, 173
Herkomer, Hubert von, (1849–1914)
94–5 Jarre, Jean Michel 37
Hippodrome, London 210 Jarry, Alfred (1873–1907) 39
Hiroshige, Utagawa 105 Jessner, Leopold (1878–1945) 102, 207
Hirschfeld-Mack, Ludwig (1893–1965) jeu d’orgue see gas table
169–70 ‘jewel lighting’ 222
Hofman, Vslastislav 110 jewelled lighting 3–6, 45
Hoftheater, Dresden 87 Joan of Arc (Balfe, 1837) 181
Hölle Weg Erde (Kaiser) 125 Johnson over Jordan (Priestley, 1939) 230
Holmberg, Arthur 115–17 Jones, Inigo (1573–1652) 13, 15, 30–1
holographic projection 115 Jones, Robert Edmond (1887–1954)
Holophane 210 103–8, 126, 139
Hoppla, wir Leben! (1927) 137–8 Dramatic Imagination, The (1941)
Hour Glass, The (Yeats, 1911) 101 103–8
houselights 220 see also audience: Jonson, Ben (1572–1637)
lighting of, auditorium, chandelier Entertainment at Theobalds (1607) 30
Hunt, Nick 232fn, 232–40, 256, 256–65, Joseph, Stephen (1921–67) 222
266fn Jouvet, Louis (1887–1951) 102, 207
Hyperion (Rosalie, 2006) 171 junge Deutschland, Das 126
INDEX 293
294 INDEX
INDEX 295
296 INDEX
INDEX 297
performer see actor, dancer, operator Radio City Music Hall, New York 206
perspective scene see scenic stage Raleigh, Walter 46–7
Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481–1536) 2–3, ‘rampe mobile’ 87–8
4, 5 Ramsaur, Michael 242
Petit Palais Bourbon, Paris 29–30 Rebellato, Dan 232, 246–7, 248
Philadelphia Exhibition (1884) 159 Redon, Odilon 106
Pichel, Irving 200–1 Reflecting-Colour-Light-Play
Pilbrow, Richard 220–2, 247 (Schwerdfeger, 1922) 169
Piot, Etienne Adolphe 100 reflectors 5, 6, 10, 17–18, 26–8, 56–7, 61,
Piranesi, Gianbattista (1720–1778) 58–9 63, 111, 113, 178, 190–1, 271
Pircha, Emil 207 Reid, Francis 223, 238, 239
Piscator, Erwin (1893–1966) 126, 132, Reinhardt, Max (1873–1943) xiv, 36,
133–4, 137–8 102, 103–4, 125–32, 139, 198fn, 205,
plasticity, of stage space and light 78, 207
80–1, 90, 108–14, 139–40, 144–9, 201, Beggar, The (1917) 127–8, 128
203 also see choreography Danton’s Death (1916–1921) 126,
Play (Beckett) 8, 140 130–1
playhouse see auditorium Miracle, The (1911–1927) 36, 206fn
playwright xiv, 22, 30–1, 101, 118–23, Orpheus (1921) 36, 126
132, 133, 139–41, 147, 164–6, 204, Salome (1902) 126
216, 220 Rembrandt, Harmenszoon van Rijn
Pleskot, Jaromir (1922–2009) 110 177, 217
Poetics VI (Aristotle) 21 Revue d’histoire du théâtre (1954) 89
Pozzo, Andrea (1642–1709) 57 Reynolds, Joshua 33
Prague School, The 66
‘rhythmic space’ 92–3, 93, 96
Prampolini, Enrico (1894–1956) 164–6
Ricciardi, Achille (1884–1923) 166
Prentice, Herbert (1896–1955) 268
Riccoboni, Marie-Jeanne 55
Preset Electronic 235–6
Ridge, Harold, C (1890–1957) 200fn,
Princess’s Theatre, London 183, 186–7
206–10, 213, 220
profile ‘ellipsoidal’ spotlight 213, 214
Rimington, Alexander Wallace
see also followspot
(1854–1918) 163–4
Projecting Performance 243–5, 244
Rosalie 171
projection 65, 81–9, 92, 101, 108,
Rosenthal, Jean (1912–1969) 214,
115–16, 134, 138, 146, 149, 156, 170,
215–20, 222, 248
171, 183, 209, 218, 221, 224, 242–5,
Round in Fifty (1922) 210
244, 248, 268–9
holographic projection 115 Runaway, The (1776) 62
prompt corner 178, 191, 193, 194 Ryder, Albert Pinkham 106
prompter 61, 167, 178, 195, 196
proscenium 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 45, 50–1, Sabbattini, Nicoló (1574–1654) 13–16,
51fn, 52, 54, 55, 57, 61, 63, 87, 95, 17, 44–6, 55, 56, 225
104, 108, 113, 116, 177, 184, 195, 198, Saggio sopra l’opera in musica (Algarotti,
203, 207, 242, 256, 258fn, 260, 271 1755), 58
Pyrophone 162 St. Augustine 22
St. Bonaventure 22
Quaglio, Ferdinando 57, 58fn St Joan (Brecht) 137
Quinquet, Antoine-Arnault (1745–1803) Salle des Machines, Paris (Spectacle
64 d’optique, 1738) 31
quinquets see Argand lamp Salome (Reinhardt, 1902) 126
298 INDEX
INDEX 299
Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre Stern, Ernst (Ernest) (1876–1954) 126,
(1967) 240–1 128, 130
Sketch, The 152 Stoker, Bram (1847–1912) 176, 185,
sky dome 126, 131 188–197, 200
smoke (from lights) 9, 55, 64 ‘Irving and Stage Lighting’ 190–6
smoke effect 23, 27–8, 33, 85 Storming of the Winter Palace, The
Society of London Theatres 239 (Evreinov, 1920) 37–8
Sohn, Der (Hasenclever, 1918) 126, 129 Strand Electric (Rank Strand) 199, 212,
Somi, Leone Ebreo, di (1527–1592) 7, 214, 220, 222, 230fn, 233–6, 240 see
10–11,14, 45 also Tabs
son et lumière 36–7 street lighting 8, 25, 57, 63–4, 96, 178
Sorge, Reinhard, Johannes (1892–1916) Streetcar Named Desire, A (Williams)
127–8 140
sound (in relation to light) 16, 33, 36–41 Strehler, Giorgio 69–70
47, 49, 55, 73, 80, 120–4, 162–9, 241 Strindberg, August 118–20
see also music, son et lumière sun, sunlight 3, 5, 12, 20, 22, 25, 34,
spectacle d’optique (Servandori, 1738) 31, 67–8, 69, 70–3, 75, 129, 172, 181,
34 203–4, 219 see also daylight, sunset
spectators see audience sunset 22, 32, 34, 82, 187, 188
spotlight 5, 38–9, 68, 87, 93, 95, 104, Sunday Times 181
111, 126–7, 129, 130, 134, 143, 198, Suzdal, Bishop Abraham 26
202, 214, 217, 231, 235, 236, 271–3 Svoboda, Josef (1920–2002) 40, 102,
see also profile, followspot 108–14, 223, 224, 240
Staatstheater, Berlin 207 contralight, 109–10, 113–14, 223, 224
Stael, Germaine de 162fn Hamlet (1959) 109–13, 112
stage designer see scenographer Oedipus (1963) 109, 223
stage director see director Owner of the Keys, The (1962) 110
Stage Lighting (Bentham, 1950) 211–14 ‘polyphonic spectacle’ 109
Stage Lighting (Fuchs,1929) 201 ‘psycho-plastic space’ 108–10
Stage Lighting (Ost, 1954) 214 Seagull, The (1960) 113
Stage Lighting (Ridge, 1928) 207–9 Secret of Theatrical Space, The 109,
Stage Lighting Design in Britain (Morgan, 110–14, 224
2005) 248 Traviata, La 109
Stage Lighting Principles and Practice Tristan and Isolde (1967) 109
(1936, Ridge/Aldred) 207 Swan, Joseph Wilson (1828–1914) 159,
Stage Lighting for Theatre in the Round 191
(Joseph, 1964) 222 Swan Lake 257
stage management 263fn see also Sweeney Todd 263
prompter, prompt corner, scene symbolism 36, 70–4, 129, 141, 149, 156
changes see also light: as symbol
stage manager 65, 123fn, 196, 225, 227, synaesthesia 156–7, 162–3, 164, 167
232–3, 237, 238, 263fn, 264
standard see boom, bunchlight Tabs 174, 212, 220, 222
standing light box 18 Tairov, Alexander 74
Stanislavski, Konstantin (1863–1938) Teatro Argentina, Rome 166
101–2 , 120–4, 125, 139, 145, 149, 202 Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza 12–13
States, Bert, Olen 66–7 technical rehearsal 113, 136, 151, 260,
Steps, The (Craig, c.1905) 95–100 263–4 see also lighting: plot
300 INDEX
technician xiv, 41, 89, 90, 91, 92, 135fn, Vasari, Giorgio (1511–1574) 3, 26
151–2, 179, 186, 188, 218, 225–47, Veltruský, Jiři 66
250, 254, 268 see also electrician, Verdensteatret 171
operator verfremdung 132–6
Technique of Stage Lighting, The (Williams, verisimilitude 14, 127fn, 230, 231
1947) 210–11 Verklärte Nacht (Rosalie, 2006) 171
Telling Orchestra, The (Verdensteatret, Vieux Colombier, Paris 207
2008) 171 Vilar, Jean 69
Tenebrae 7 Vinci, Leonardo, da (1452–1519) 12
Terry, Ellen 189, 196–7 Vitruvius 2
Tessenow, Heinrich 93 Voltaire 57
Tessin, Nicodemus (1654–1728) 49 Von Morgens bis Mitternachts (Kaiser,
theatre critics (on lighting) 95, 123, 183, 1912) 129
230, 268 vraisemblance 60–1
theatre (stage) designer, see
scenographer Waiting for Godot 67
Theatre in the Round (Joseph, 1967) 222 Wagner, Richard (1813–1883) 78–81, 89,
Theatre of Colour (1919–1920) 166 125, 136, 156, 162
Theatre of Cruelty, The (Artaud, 1932) Art-Work of the Future, The (1849) 79
38, 39–40, 164 ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ 79
Theatrical Lighting Practice (Rubin & Parsifal 79
Watson) 220 Ring Cycle (Ring Des Nieberlungen, Das)
Theatrical Management Association 78–86, 89–92
239 Siegfried 144, 145, 147–8
Three Sisters (Chekhov) 124 Tristan and Isolde 109, 113–14 114
thyratron 206, 236, 238 Walkyrie, Die 81–6
Times, The 158, 183, 187 ‘worttondrama’ 79
Tipton, Jennifer 115, 248 water 3, 6, 20, 24, 25, 30, 31, 34, 41, 46,
toplight 12, 17–18, 45, 49, 52, 56, 81–3, 70, 90, 92, 96, 114, 119, 122, 153–4,
94, 101, 152, 183, 217 153fn, 187, see also fountain
torches, torchlight 6, 8–9, 23, 26, 27–8, Waves (National Theatre, 2006) 243
44, 47, 54, 71, 104, 161 Weather Project, The (Eliasson, 2003)
total theatre (Artaud) 39 172
tragedy, lighting for 4, 7–8, 14, 21, 101 Webster, John 46
Traviata, La 109 Weichart, Richard 126–7, 129
Tribüne Theatre, Berlin 131–2,198fn White, Christine 245–6
Trimingham, Melissa 75 White, Martin 50
tungsten 135fn, 197, 251, 269 White Devil, The (Webster, 1612) 46
Turrell, James 171–2 Wild Duck, The, (Ibsen) 120
Williams, Rollo Gillespie (1903–1982)
Uimonen, Markku 242 210–11, 220
ultraviolet light 104, 110, 166 Williams, Tennessee 139–40
Universal Museum 61 Glass Menagerie, The (1944) 139–40
urban scenography 41–3 Streetcar Named Desire, A (1947)
Utrillo, Maurice 106 140
Wilson, Robert 75, 103, 115–17, 162
vacuum lamps 193, 209 Einstein on the Beach (1976) 115
Varekai (Cirque de Soleil, 2002) 67 Monsters of Grace (1998) 115
Vari∗ lite 41, 248 Quartet (1987) 117
INDEX 301
windows 9, 12, 43, 47–9, 74, 189, World Behind the Scenes, The (Fitzgerald)
192 176–9, 182, 200
wings 9, 29, 49, 116, 180, 191, 206, 207, WYSIWYG 245
263, 264
lighting from 9, 18, 49, 51, 52, 58, 59, Yale University 201, 216
61, 87, 101, 153, 155, 176, 180, 183, Yeats, W.B. 101
185, 187, 188, 206, 231, 263–4 see Yellow Sound, The (Kandinsky, 1909)
also booms, side-light 164
operating position 227, 231, 233, 242
Winsor, Frederick (1763–1830) Zola, Emile 118
175 Zich, Otakar 66