Ancient Egyptian

agriculture

The civilization of ancient Egypt was

indebted to the Nile River and its
dependable seasonal flooding. The river's
predictability and fertile soil allowed the
Egyptians to build an empire on the basis
of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians
are credited as being one of the first
groups of people to practice agriculture
on a large scale. This was possible
because of the ingenuity of the Egyptians
as they developed basin irrigation.[1]
Their farming practices allowed them to
grow staple food crops, especially grains
such as wheat and barley, and industrial
crops, such as flax and papyrus.[2]

Ploughing with a yoke of horned cattle in ancient Egypt. Painting from the burial chamber of Sennedjem, c. 1200 BC

Beginnings of agriculture
To the west of Nile valley, eastern Sahara
was the home of several Neolithic
cultures. During the African humid
period, this was the area with rich
vegetation, and the human population in
the Sahara had increased considerably
by about 8000 years BC. They lived by
hunting and fishing in the local lakes,[3]
and by gathering wild cereals of the
Sahara, that were abundant. The cereals
such as brachiaria, sorghum and
urochloa were an important source of
food.[4]

The African humid period was gradually

coming to an end, and by about 6,000–
5,000 years ago it was over. Well before
that time, the migrating herders were
going to other parts of Africa, but also
coming west to the Nile delta, where
there were relatively few indications of
agriculture prior to that.

Dakhleh Oasis, in particular, has been the

subject of considerable recent research,
and it supplies important evidence for
early Egyptian agriculture.[5] It could be
considered typical of post-Pleistocene
developments in Northeastern Africa in
general.

Dakhleh Oasis is located in Western

Desert (Egypt). It lies 350 km (220 mi.)
from the Nile between the oases of
Farafra and Kharga. In Dakhleh, the
Bashendi culture people were mobile
herder-foragers during the African humid
period. They lived in slab-built settlement
sites, and in open-air sites consisting of
clusters of hearth mounds. Elsewhere in
the Western Desert of Egypt, Bashendi-
like groups have also inhabited the
Farafra Oasis, and Nabta Playa, to the
south.[5] The Bashendi used sandstone
grinders to grind local wild millet and
sorghum.[6]

At Farafra Oasis, goat dated around 6100

BC (8100 cal BP) was found in the
Hidden Valley village. At Nabta Playa,
remains of sheep/goat and cattle are
present beginning about 6000 BC (8000
cal BP). Yet goats and cattle are almost
the only Neolithic elements from the
Near East that were accepted by the
oasis dwellers. Other cultural
developments, such as the lithic industry,
originated locally, or at least from within
Northeastern Africa.[5]

Faiyum Oasis of Egypt also provides

evidence for agriculture from about the
same period. Domesticated sheep, goats,
pigs, and cattle are here. Sheep at the
site of Qasr El-Sagha is dated at 5350 BC
(7350 cal BP), and sheep, goats, and
cattle at 5150 BC (7150 cal BP).[7]

As for crops, emmer wheat and barley

are found in the Faiyum at the sites of
Kom K and Kom W, dated ca. 4500-4200
BC.[8][7] Plentiful pottery is found at these
sites, but there is little evidence of
permanent structures being built.

The Merimde culture is dated from

around 4800 to 4300 BC. These peoples
came to develop a fully agricultural
economy. Also the site called Merimde
Beni Salama, about 15 miles northwest
from Cairo, is believed to be the earliest
permanently occupied town in Egypt.[9]

Merimde culture overlapped in time with

the Faiyum A culture, and with the Badari
culture in Upper Egypt, which are dated
somewhat later. These were all
agricultural cultures.
Donkey domestication

Scholars believe that donkey (Equus

asinus) was domesticated on the African
continent, possibly in the Nile valley. The
predynastic site of El Omari has the
earliest domesticated donkey in Egypt
dated 4800–4500 BC (6800–6500 years
BP). The site of Maadi comes next (4500-
4000 BC).[10]

At Abydos, Egypt, in the Nile Valley,

archaeological remains of 5000-year-old
domestic donkeys have been found in
the pharaonic mortuary complex.
Osteological lesions typical of load
carrying indicate that donkeys might
have been domesticated in this area.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that
the domestication occurred among the
pastoralists of the Horn of Africa, or in
Yemen. This may have been prompted by
the increasing aridity of the Sahara
starting at 7000 BP.[10]

Also, the spread of donkeys was

probably connected to the increase in the
long-distance trade that was occurring at
the time, and the need for pack animals.
Farming systems

The Nile and field planting

The Nile's watershed

The civilization of ancient Egypt

developed in the arid climate of northern
Africa. This region is distinguished by the
Arabian and Libyan deserts,[11] and the
River Nile. The Nile is the longest river in
the world, flowing northward from Lake
Victoria and eventually emptying into the
Mediterranean Sea. The Nile has two
main tributaries: the Blue Nile which
originates in Ethiopia, and the White Nile
that flows from Uganda. While the White
Nile is considered to be longer and easier
to traverse, the Blue Nile actually carries
about two-thirds of the water volume of
the river. The names of the tributaries
derive from the color of the water that
they carry. The tributaries come together
in Khartoum and branches again when it
reaches Egypt, forming the Nile delta.[12]
The Egyptians took advantage of the
natural cyclical flooding pattern of the
Nile. Because this flooding happened
fairly predictably, the Egyptians were able
to develop their agricultural practices
around it. The water levels of the river
would rise in August and September,
leaving the floodplain and delta
submerged by 1.5 meters of water at the
peak of the flooding. This yearly flooding
of the river is known as inundation. As
the floodwaters receded in October,
farmers were left with well-watered and
fertile soil in which to plant their crops.
The soil left behind by the flooding is
known as silt and was brought from
Ethiopian Highlands by the Nile. Planting
took place in October once the flooding
was over, and crops were left to grow
with minimal care until they ripened
between the months of March and May.
While the flooding of the Nile was much
more predictable and calm than other
rivers, such as the Tigris and Euphrates, it
was not always perfect. High floodwaters
were destructive and could destroy
canals that were made for irrigation.
Lack of flooding created a potentially
greater issue because it left Egyptians
suffering from famine.[13]
Irrigation systems

To make the best use of the waters of

the Nile river, the Egyptians developed
systems of irrigation. Irrigation allowed
the Egyptians to use the Nile's waters for
a variety of purposes. Notably, irrigation
granted them greater control over their
agricultural practices.[1] Floodwaters
were diverted away from certain areas,
such as cities and gardens, to keep them
from flooding. Irrigation was also used to
provide drinking water to Egyptians.
Despite the fact that irrigation was
crucial to their agricultural success, there
were no statewide regulations on water
control. Rather, irrigation was the
responsibility of local farmers. However,
the earliest and most famous reference
to irrigation in Egyptian archaeology has
been found on the mace head of the
Scorpion King, which has been roughly
dated to about 3100 BC. The mace head
depicts the king cutting into a ditch that
is part of a grid of basin irrigation. The
association of the high-ranking king with
irrigation highlights the importance of
irrigation and Egypt

Basin irrigation

Egyptians developed and utilized a form

of water management known as basin
irrigation. This practice allowed them to
control the rise and fall of the river to
best suit their agricultural needs. A
crisscross network of earthen walls was
formed in a field of crops that the river
would flood. When the floods came, the
water would be trapped in the basins
formed by the walls. This grid would hold
water longer than it would have naturally
stayed, allowing the earth to become
fully saturated for later planting. Once the
soil was fully watered, the floodwater
that remained in the basin would simply
be drained to another basin that was in
need of more water.[13]
Horticulture

Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century B.C.

Orchards and gardens were also

developed in addition to field planting in
the floodplains. This horticulture
generally took place further from the
floodplain of the Nile, and as a result,
they required much more work.[14] The
perennial irrigation required by gardens
forced growers to manually carry water
from either a well or the Nile to water
their garden crops. Additionally, while the
Nile brought silt which naturally fertilized
the valley, gardens had to be fertilized by
pigeon manure. These gardens and
orchards were generally used to grow
vegetables, vines and fruit trees.[15]

Crops grown

Food crops

The Egyptians grew a variety of crops for

consumption, including grains,
vegetables and fruits. However, their
diets revolved around several staple
crops, especially cereals and barley.
Other major grains grown included
einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, grown
to make bread. Other staples for the
majority of the population included
beans, lentils, and later chickpeas and
fava beans. Root crops, such as onions,
garlic and radishes were grown, along
with salad crops, such as lettuce and
parsley.[2]

Fruits were a common motif of Egyptian

artwork, suggesting that their growth
was also a major focus of agricultural
efforts as the civilization's agricultural
technology developed. Unlike cereals and
pulses, fruit required more demanding
and complex agricultural techniques,
including the use of irrigation systems,
cloning, propagation and training. While
the first fruits cultivated by the Egyptians
were likely indigenous, such as the palm
date and sorghum, more fruits were
introduced as other cultural influences
were introduced. Grapes and watermelon
were found throughout predynastic
Egyptian sites, as were the sycamore fig,
dom palm and Christ's thorn. The carob,
olive, apple and pomegranate were
introduced to Egyptians during the New
Kingdom. Later, during the Greco-Roman
period peaches and pears were also
introduced.[16]

Industrial and fiber crops

Egyptians relied on agriculture for more

than just the production of food. They
were creative in their use of plants, using
them for medicine, as part of their
religious practices, and in the production
of clothing. Herbs perhaps had the most
varied purposes; they were used in
cooking, medicine, as cosmetics and in
the process of embalming. Over 2000
different species of flowering or aromatic
plants have been found in tombs.[2]
Papyrus was an extremely versatile crop
that grew wild and was also
cultivated.[17] The roots of the plant were
eaten as food, but it was primarily used
as an industrial crop. The stem of the
plant was used to make boats, mats, and
paper. Flax was another important
industrial crop that had several uses. Its
primary use was in the production of
rope, and for linen which was the
Egyptians' principal material for making
their clothing. Henna was grown for the
production of dye.[2]

Scene showing the presentation of Egyptian cattle to Nebamun

Livestock

Cattle

Ancient Egyptian cattle were of four

principal different types: long-horned,
short-horned, polled and zebuine.[18] The
earliest evidence for cattle in Egypt is
from the Faiyum region, dating back to
the fifth millennium BC.[18] In the New
Kingdom, hump-backed zebuine cattle
from Syria were introduced to Egypt, and
seem to have replaced earlier types.[18]

Chickens

Manmade incubators, called Egyptian

egg ovens, date back to the 4th century
BC and were used to mass produce
chickens.[19]
Religion and agriculture
In ancient Egypt, religion was a highly
important aspect of daily life. Many of
the Egyptians' religious observances
were centered on their observations of
the environment, the Nile, and
agriculture. They used religion as a way
to explain natural phenomena, such as
the cyclical flooding of the Nile and
agricultural yields.[20]

Although the Nile was directly

responsible for either good or bad
fortune experienced by the Egyptians,
they did not worship the Nile itself.
Rather, they thanked specific gods for
any good fortune. They did not have a
name for the river and simply referred to
it as "River". The term "Nile" is not of
Egyptian origin. [17]

Gods

The Egyptians personified the inundation

with the creation of the god called Hapi.
Despite the fact that inundation was
crucial to their survival, Hapi was not
considered to be a major god.[17] He was
depicted as an overweight figure who
ironically made offerings of water and
other products of abundance to
pharaohs.[14] A temple was never built
specifically for Hapi, but he was
worshipped as inundation began by
making sacrifices and the singing of
hymns.[17]

The god Osiris was also closely

associated with the Nile and the fertility
of the land. During inundation festivals,
mud figures of Osiris were planted with
barley.[17]

See also
Land reform in ancient Egypt
Badari culture

Notes and references

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3. White, Kevin H.; Bristow, Charlie S.;
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Bibliography
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel.
A short history of everybody for the last
13,000 years, 1997.
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