Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Only
Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Only
Form 1 Geography Notes New Curr Online Only
TOPICS
# Introduction……….………..…………………………………1-3
1: Weather and Climate…………………………………...........4-18
2: Landforms and Landscape processes……………………....19-32
3: Ecosystems………………………………………………......33-7
4: Natural Resources…………………………………………...38-9
5: Energy and Power…………………………………………...40-3
6: Map work and GIS………………………………………....44-60
7: Minerals and Mining………………………………………...61-5
8: Environmental Management………………………………...66-9
9: Agriculture and Land Reform……………………………….70-5
10: Industry…………………………………………………….76-8
11: Settlement and Population………………………………...79-83
12: Transport and Trade………………………………………84-93
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Introduction to Geography
Definition of Geography
It is a study of the Earth and the interaction between the human race and nature.
Environment
The surroundings
All external conditions surrounding an organism which has influence over its behaviour.
1. Facilitates good relationship among nations by studying geography of other regions of the world.
2. It’s a career subject in that it enables one to go for advanced studies in specialised fields e.g. geography
teachers, meteorology, surveying etc.
3. Enables us to appreciate other people’s way of life by learning economic activities of different
communities within our country and other parts of the world.
4. Enables us to conserve our environment when we learn negative and positive effects of human
activities on the environment.
5. Enables us to conserve our resources when we learn wise use of resources in conservation and
management of resources e.g. wildlife, forests, energy, etc.
6. Inculcates in us virtues of cooperation and patience as we work in groups.
7. Makes us to appreciate manual work as we are involved in practical geography which may lead to
self-employment.
8. Promotion of industry such as tourism by guiding tourists to places of interest by using maps,
calculations of distances etc.
Branches of Geography
1. Physical Geography
Deals with the study of natural physical environment of human kind.
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The areas covered include:
a) Mining
b) Forestry
c) Agriculture
d) Fishing
e) Wildlife and tourism
f) Industry
g) Energy etc.
3. Practical Geography
A smaller branch which equips the learner with practical skills that enhance their understanding
and interpretation of human and physical geographical information.
The areas are:
a) Statistical methods
b) Map work
c) Field work
d) Photograph work
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TOPIC 1
Weather
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Measuring and recording temperature
This thermometer records the highest temperature during the day. The thermometer is filled with
mercury and the metal index (indicator) is above the mercury.
Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 250 ℃ and is also clear.
Temperature rises causing mercury to expand.
Mercury pushes the index up.
When temperature falls mercury contracts.
The maximum temperature is read from the scale at the lower end of the index.
Thermometer is reset by shaking it to force mercury back into the bulb.
The metal index may be reset by using a magnet or by tilting the thermometer.
This is a piece of equipment which combines the maximum and minimum thermometers used to
measure maximum and minimum temperatures.
It was developed by a man called Six, hence the name.
The instrument contains two liquids, mercury and alcohol.
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The six’s thermometer
Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 250℃ and is also clear.
Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -70 or ℃-115 ℃ and it does not stick
to the sides of the glass tube.
How it works
Records max. & min. temps over a 24hr period.
Maximum thermometer contains mercury the minimum contains alcohol.
As temperature rises mercury expands & pushes up a metal index when it cools & mercury
contracts the index is left in place at highest temp.
As temperature falls alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with it, but as the alcohol expands it
flows passed the index leaving it in place at the lowest temp.
Both indexes are read once every 24hrs from the bottom of the index.
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It is measured using a hygrometer/ psychrometer
Weather satellite can also be used to measure humidity
A hygrometer measures the humidity using two sets of thermometers: the dry and wet bulb
thermometers
The wet bulb is wrapped in a thin muslin cloth dipped in container with pure/distilled water to
keep it wet
If the air is dry, water evaporates from the muslin cloth and cools the wet bulb such that mercury
contracts to give lower temperature.
The dry bulb is not affected and so mercury in it expand to give atmospheric temperature readings
Thus the wet bulb gives a lower reading while the dry bulb gives higher reading
Depression of wet bulb/ Difference between the dry and wet bulb is calculated by subtracting
wet bulb reading from dry bulb reading
The humidity is then found by reading humidity tables
If there is no difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb it means the air is saturated
Relative humidity is given in percentage.
Types of humidity
Absolute humidity- the total mass of water vapour in a given volume of air
Relative humidity- the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a given temperature
Specific humidity- the ratio of the mass of water vapour compared to the mass vapour of the parcel of
air
Pressure
Is the force/weight exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere on the earth.
It is measured in millibars using an instrument called barometer.
There are two different types of barometers namely the mercury barometer and the aneroid
barometer
When air is warm it normally rises and creates an area of low pressure, when it is cool it sinks
and creates an area high pressure.
The standard units of pressure are millibars.
Areas of the same pressure are joined together on a map using isobar.
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Simple Mercury barometer The mercury barometer is made of a glass
tube of about 1m high
Its open end is dipped in a bowel filled with
mercury
When atmospheric pressure rises, it exerts
force on mercury in the bowel compressing
it,
This forces mercury to push up the glass
tube, at sea level the mercury would rise to
about 760mm
When pressure decreases, the mercury
contracts and moves down the bowel.
Barometers are normally kept inside Stevenson screens to keep them safe. A barometer has a movable
needle (pointer). The pointer can be moved to the current reading so that you can then make a comparison
with the reading from the following day.
Aneroid barometer
of levers and a pointer that gives readings on
a scale
If pressure increases the box is squashed
inwards
If pressure decrease, the box expands
outwards
During these inward and outward
movements, the levers attached to the box
are also moved.
The lever movement cause the pointer to
move and indicate amount of pressure
exerted on the scale
The lever amplifies the expansion and
Aneroid barometer is a small portable air- contraction of the box in accordance to
tight partial vacuum box fitted with a system atmospheric pressure .
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Disadvantages
It is less accurate
It requires great skill and expertise to make some readings.
Wind is the movement of air across the earth’s surface due to difference in pressure between two
areas.
Air moves from high pressure region to low pressure region.
The difference in pressure can be caused by differential heating of the earth’s surface by the sun.
Two aspects of wind are measured at a weather station, namely wind speed and wind direction.
Wind direction refers to the direction that the wind is blowing from
Wind direction shown by the wind vane above is south
A windsock is a kite made from a tube of nylon cloth
One end of the tube is held open by a ring
Windsocks point in the direction opposite of wind
For example, if a windsock is pointing west, the wind is coming from the east i.e. it goes were
the wind is going
The faster the wind blows the straighter and more horizontally the windsock extends.
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The compass
Cup Anemometer
Anemometers measure wind speed and its units are knots/km/hr/ nautical miles.
Anemometers are normally placed on top of buildings so that they can freely measure wind speed.
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Sunshine recorder
Sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere surrounded by a metal frame that support/hold a
sensitive card.
The glass sphere focuses the sun’s rays onto the card
As the sun moves across the sky, it burns a trace on the card
At the end of each day the card is taken out and the length of the burnt section is measured in hours
and minutes.
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4. The height H or D is ……………………….
5. The standard with of A shown as x is ……………………….
Weather station
A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea with instruments and equipment for measuring
atmospheric conditions to provide for weather forecast and to study weather and climate.
Most instruments used in measuring weather elements are found in a weather station
A weather station is a place where weather events are recorded.
Important factors to consider when selecting a site for the school weather station
Should be in an open area, away from buildings that may block wind movement.
Should be away from tall trees that may cover the instruments with their shade and may also
intercept rainfall.
Should be on short grass that allow water to soak or flow without splashing into instruments.
Should not be on hard ground/ concrete surfaces because the hard surfaces will cause water to
splash into rain gauge and may also radiate heat to instruments .
The station should be in a fenced and gated place so as to protect the instruments from theft,
vandalism and destruction by people and animal.
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State two advantages of the modern digital weather station compared to the traditional weather station
Modern digital weather station is small and compact such that it does not require large area as done by
the traditional weather station.
Modern digital weather station records data automatically which eliminates human errors experienced
when using traditional weather station
Modern digital weather station can be installed in remote places and recordings are sent automatically
to faraway places by means of GIS and satellites.
Is used to house instruments such as Maximum thermometer, Minimum thermometer, Six’s thermometer
and hygrometer-wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer.
Importance
(i) Provide shade conditions for accurate temperature recording.
(ii) Ensure safety of thermometers because they are delicate.
(iii)
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Features of a Stevenson screen
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Rainfall types and patterns
Types of rainfall
Relief or orographic
Results when warm moist air
rises over a barrier e.g.
mountain.
SE trade winds are forced over
a barrier and rises, cools and
condense and rain occurs on
the windward side e.g.
Chimanimani or Inyanga.
Leeward side or rain shadow
area is dry with little or no
rainfall e.g the Save valley and
Marange area.
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Convectional Ground surface is overheated
and air gets hot to generate
convectional currents.
Air is heated by conduction,
absorbing more moisture,
expands and rises.
The ascending air remains
warmer and hence become
unstable.
It cools and produces
cumulonimbus clouds.
Due to heat released by latent
heat at condensation and
freezing, thunderstorms are
generated.
Rainfall in West and Central Africa is convectional.
Lightning, fires, death, flooding, strong winds, landslides, destruction of homes, crops, and property.
Measures
Frontal or cyclonic
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Weather Focasting First appearance of sparrows; flock of
swallows preceding dark clouds
Is a prediction of weather phenomena, trend indicates rain is at hand and farmers
and events. should prepare for above normal rains.
Migration of butterflies also indicates it
Is made through data collection on
will rain.
temperature, rainfall and humidity and use Croaking of frogs during dry season
of complicated modelling and simulations to indicate it’s going to rain.
predict future weather. The singing, nesting and chirping of
Importance of weather forecasting certain birds appears to be a useful
indicator for the onset of the rains.
Helps us to be aware of natural calamities Appearance of cicadas (nyenze), day
related to weather before they occur so as to flying chafers (mandere), dragon flies
take precautionary measures. (mikonikoni) signifies imminent
Guiding tourists on when to visit national rainfall.
parks. Frequent appearance of tortoises
Helps farmers to plan their activities such as indicates good rain season.
planting, harvesting, etc. Appearance of certain insects e.g.
Ensures air and water transport is carried out millipedes, spiders Indicates coming of
safely. heavy rains.
Helps sporting people to plan their training If the goat intestines are empty at
and competition schedules. slaughter it indicates drought or famine
Helps people to plan many other activities ahead, and vice versa.
such as mining, electricity generation, Changes in the intensity of sunshine
holiday events, etc. indicate it’s going to rain.
Helps fishing communities to plan their Moon crescent facing upwards indicates
activities. upholding water and when facing
downwards is releasing water in the next
Methods of weather forecasting few days.
Mist-covered mountains is a signal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) good rains.
Are those forms of knowledge that the Appearance of fog/haze in the morning
people survived on before the advent of is an indicator for no rain.
modern technology. Frequent appearance of wind swirls is a
Prediction of weather based on traditional sign of good rains.
beliefs and facts.
Plants shedding leaves or dropping off Modern methods
of young avocado fruits indicates period
of drought.
Prediction of weather using modern
Flowering of certain plants e.g the peach instruments and new technology of
tree and budding of acacia species collecting, transmitting, processing and
indicates the onset of rainfall. analysing weather data.
Abundance of wild fruits such as hacha,
gan’acha and mashuku during the Instruments used
months of December to February signify
an imminent challenging farming 1. Satellites-electronic devices which orbit the
season, earth which collect and transmit weather data
Heavy flowering of the mango trees which is interpreted by computers.
indicate a potential drought season. 2. Radar-an instrument used to see cloud
Safari ants (termites) indicate it will formation.
rain.
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3. Sensors/radiosodes-instrument fixed on a 4. Computers-electronic device used to store,
balloon used to measure atmospheric pressure, analyse and display weather information.
temperature and humidity.
Midlands
Mazoe
Eastern Highlands
Gwaai
Gwanda
Weather report
Is a systematic statement of the existing and predicted meteorological conditions over a particular
area e.g. Kutsaga.
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TOPIC 2
Landforms
These are natural features found on the earth`s surface.
Landforms form a specific terrain and their physical arrangement result in the landscape form known
as topography.
These landforms include mountains, hills, plateaus, canyons, valleys, buttes and basins.
Worldwide, there are wonderful landforms such as rift valleys, lakes, river basins, mountains, valleys,
tors/ cattle kopjes, plateaus, glaciers, hills, deserts, waterfalls and rivers.
1) Basins
Africa`s rivers contain many waterfalls, rapids and gorges. These features affect navigation. The Congo
River has the largest waterways in the continent but some waterfall make the river impassable.
Meandering channels also affect navigation for example River Niger.
To be covered in form 4 syllabus.
Folding
Is the transformation of the earth`s structure into folded landforms as a result of compressional forces.
When forces move horizontally towards each other they are compressional forces.
Rocks are subjected to this force in a process called folding.
Rocks either fold or fault due to their brittleness or flexibility.
In folding, some rock layers buckle and form folds.
Landforms
Anticlines, Nappe folds, Overthrust, Overfold, Recumbent, Fold mountains.
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It results from a simple fold and each side of a fold is called a limb.
The topmost point is called a crest / axial line.
The crest acts as a line of symmetry between two limbs.
2. Syncline
Is a fold that arches downwards to form a fold.
Are made up of rocks units that are folded in the same pattern. Usually concave shaped.
Usually occur in conjunction with anticlines which is like the letter n.
3. Over thrust
If compression forces continue to act on the rock layers, a simple fold is formed; progresses into an
asymmetrical fold, then an over fold and lastly into an over thrust which is actually a fault.
4. Over – fold
Occurs when one fold is pushed over the adjoining limb due to increasing compressional forces.
Also known as overturned fold.
5. Recumbent
Occurs when the limbs are nearly parallel to each other and the axis of the fold is horizontal.
6. Fold mountains Fold Mountains are usually formed from
sedimentary rocks and are usually found
along the edges continents.
This is because the thickest deposits of
sedimentary rock generally accumulate along
the edges of continents.
When plates and the continents riding on
them collide, the accumulated layers of rock
crumple and fold like a table cloth that is
Result due to folding in the upper layers of pushed across a table.
the earth`s surface. The process of mountain formation is
Is a result of compressional forces when orogenesis.
tectonic plates move against each other acting Many fold mountains are formed in narrow
on flexible rock but not brittle. elongated seas called geocynclines.
The movement of the two plates forces Fold Mountains have a short width but are
sedimentary rocks upwards into a series of long extending to thousand killometres e.g.
folds. Rockies and Himalayas, Urals Mountains (in
USA), the Cape Range and Mt Everest in
Nepal
Human activity in fold mountains - The Alps - Roads and other communications links have
- This region is based on the exploitation of the to snake their way up wherever they can, and
coniferous forest. often these roads are not big enough to
- Pasturing dairy cattle. adequately service a large community.
- Tourism. - The climate is very cold and wet, meaning
- The combination of tectonic and glacial that most industrial and agricultural activity
processes makes the area ideally suited for HEP is difficult. For farmers they have a very short
schemes. HEP schemes often involve many growing season, and it is difficult to use
different watersheds. machinery on the steep slopes.
- Avalanches are a constant threat, as was seen
Problems to devastating effect in Ranrahirca, Peru, in
- Difficult to build in due to the steep sided 1962. Huge amounts of money are spent each
valleys. year to try and combat the avalanche threat,
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especially with the large amount of tourists
using the mountains.
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Rift valley and Block Mountains
4. Volcanic landforms
Vulcunicity
Qn: What is intrusive and extrusive Vulcunicity? (4)
Refers to various ways by which molten rock
A Volcano
and gases are forced into the earth and onto its
surface. Is an opening in the earth`s surface through
Includes volcanic eruption forming volcanoes, which magma is injected into the earth or ejected
lava plateaus and geysers. as lava onto the earth`s surface.
Also involves intrusive and extrusive features Rocks below the earth`s crust have a very high
e.g. batholith and sills. temperature but the great pressure exerted on
When magma (molten rock) reaches the surface them by the earth`s crust keeps them in a semi –
is known as lava. solid state.
Vulcunicity occurs most at plate boundaries. Friction at plate boundaries raises their
Vulcunicity is divided into intrusive and temperature and fuelling great pressure due to
extrusive Vulcunicity. faulting and folding hence rocks become molten
and semi- fluid.
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It is this magma that flows up into cracks in the Volcanoes erupt violently or quietly.
earth`s surface forming landforms like dykes,
batholiths, sills and lapolith.
Calderas
Are large craters that form at the top of a volcano
usually two or more killometres in diameter.
They are deep and can extend downwards for
some hundred meter with lakes as in active
volcanoes e.g. Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana.
Formation
Violent eruption
A composite volcano may explode violently that
its top is blown off and disintegrates into rock
masses and ashes. Thereby forming a crater at
the top of the volcano.
Subsidence
It may form due to block subsidence or
downward displacement of the central block.
After an eruption, the supply of magma is
depleted causing a huge chasm to form beneath
the volcano.
The weight of the cone sometimes develops
faults which may cause the cone to collapse into
the chasm beneath e.g. Longonot in Kenya.
Meteor theory
This suggests that solid objects from space fall
by gravity and on impact with the volcanic cone.
Mountain collapse
A mountain may collapse if it has a large mass
floating on a wetter surface resulting in a
caldera.
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Extrusive volcanic landforms Magma sometimes reaches the earth`s surface
through a vent, fissures and cracks (called lava).
Are those landforms resulting as a result of
If the lava emerges from through the vent form
magma solidifying on reaching the earth`s
a cone shaped mound called volcano.
surface e.g. cinder cone, acid cones, composite
If it emerges out of a fissure it builds and forms
cones and plug cones.
a lava plain or plateau.
Volcanic cones
Cinder cone
Lava cone
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The shape and slope depends on whether the lava It spreads over some distance and forms gentle
is fluid or viscous. slopes e.g. Nyamuragira in DRC and Mauna Loa
Basic / shield/ fluid lava is very fluid or mobile. in Hawaii with a diameter of 400km and a height
of 9km from sea bed.
Basic lava cone
Composite cone
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1. Dyke Due to erosion they may form ridge like
Is a sheet of magma that solidifies across escarpments and others remain as caps on top of
bedding plane. hills.
It can be vertical or inclined. They can be dissected by rivers forming isolated
Dykes are easily eroded forming shallow hills.
trenches. The Three Sisters in Cape Province South Africa
Those that resist erosion form ridges. are buttes which have sills.
Dykes normally give rise to waterfalls for
example Howick Falls in South Africa. 3. Batholith
A deep-seated dome like igneous intrusion made
up of granite.
Other examples are the Jos Plateau in Nigeria Is formed when a large mass of magma that
and Kaap in South Africa. accumulates in the earth`s crust which cools and
2. Sills solidifies within or near the earth`s crust.
A sheet of magma that lies along bedding planes. Sometimes they form the root or core of
A sill is a body of tabular rock that solidifies mountains.
along bedding planes sometime are igneous They form features like dwalas and low lying
intrusions. hills after denudation processes.
They are essentially massive underground hills.
Example is Domboshava near Harare.
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They have a pipe-like feeder coming from the For example Mt Mlanje in Malawi.
magma pool very deep down.
Laccolith forces sedimentary rock to curve up
and when exposed to erosion and denudation,
they form low lying hills.
Bedding planes
Are layers of sedimentary rocks.
They result from fossil deposits or layers of
sedimentary materials.
Lava Plateau
5. Desert landforms
Rock pedestals
Wind abrasion attacks rock masses and
sculptures them into strange shapes.
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Zeugen The heaviest material is deposited first while
the finer material and dust is carried further
Wind abrasion turns a rock surface with layers before being dropped.
of horizontal resistant rock underlain a non- As a result loess (which consists of fine
resistant rock into a ridge and furrow. particles) is sometimes deposited thousands of
kilometers from deserts.
Large mounds of sand result from sand
depositions within the desert.
These result in the formation of erg landscapes
such as those found in the Sahara.
Three major types of features result from wind
deposition and form part of the erg landscape:
sand ripples, barchan dunes and seif dunes.
Sand ripples
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Although they take many shapes, there are two Seif dunes
common types of dunes: Barchan and Seif
dunes.
Barchan
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As already mentioned deposition occurs when The removal of the fine particles the lowering
the wind meets with an impediment. of the landform leads to the formation of a
Deflation hollows are usually formed on depression.
surfaces patches where the protective An example is the Qattara Depression
vegetative cover has been lost for example due Sometimes water that falls in these depression
to human activities or periods of extended hollows during freak storms collects to form
droughts. pools in the midst of deserts providing an
Since that portion becomes unprotected, the essential source of water for local ecosystems,
wind deflates and scours continuously at animals and humans and their activities.
relatively unconsolidated material, If an area is eroded down to the water table,
The material is deposited on the edges of the further deflation is prevented unless the water
hollow that are still protected by vegetation table is also lowered by evaporation.
such as marram grass.
A diagram showing the formation of deflation Dunes are made from sand that is deposited at
hollows. the leeward side of the wind.
Some deflation hollows may be formed in part
due to the presence of faults within the rocks
which are exploited and widened by weathering
and the regolith removed by wind erosion.
Note: all oasis are formed by deflation some are
naturally occurring springs and some result as a
result of freak storms and the underlying
geological rocks limiting the amount of
infiltration.
Some oases in the Sahara were formed in this
manner and may be below sea level.
Water action
Various landforms result from water erosion and deposition in deserts viz: wadis, mesas and buttes,
bahadas, playas
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Wadis / canyon Alluvial fans/Bahadas/Bajadas
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Mountain front
It is formed as a result of erosion along a steep slope and sometimes as a result of headward erosion.
It may also be a made up of large rock boulders resulting from weathering.
Bahada
A depositional feature see above.
Knickpoint
A sharp change in profile that marks the transition from the mountain front into a pediment.
Rock pediment
It is the gentle slope that starts at the knickpoint at the foot of the mountain.
This may be made out of bare rock or it can be covered in alluvium deposited during floods
Peripediment
It is made up of deposited material washed across the pediment.
The peri pediment is a depositional feature that is formed in the same way as bajadas but it is larger.
Playas
These are sometimes known as inland drainage basins.
Due to the fact that there are no permanent drainage patterns in deserts any rain that falls either
evaporates or infiltrates into the soil or runs off and drains into basins.
Basins are depressions.
When rain falls temporary rivers that flow in canyons/ bahadas are formed and these may eventually
drain in a basin/depression.
These rivers form lakes in these depressions.
When these lakes dry up due to evaporation they are turned into salt flats.
These temporary lakes and salt flats are known as playas or sebkhas.
Examples of these can be found in the Sahara desert.
When alluvium is deposited at the edge and overlies the edge of the pediment around the playa it is
known as a peri-pediment.
Most deserts are characterised by inland
drainage basins as few rivers e.g. the Nile have
enough water supply to flow and persist through
the deserts.
Most form inland drainage basins/lakes/playa.
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TOPIC 3
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystems
Ecosystem
Is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of biological, chemical
and physical interactions between themselves and with the non-living components.
An ecosystem can be classified according to nature (artificial or natural), its size (large
or small) and duration (temporary or permanent).
Small / micro ecosystem can be temporary or permanent e.g. pond, flowerpot etc.
Large / macro ecosystem is always permanent and mostly natural e.g Ocean, river,
forest and desert.
Biotic Components
The living organisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic component.
They are connected through food, some organisms are producing food whereas others
are consuming.
i) Producers
The role of producers is to manufacture food to provide nutrition to the other organisms.
Two types of producers are photoautotrophs and chemotrophs.
Phototrophs - These are green plants which can trap sun light to form carbohydrate, simple
sugar from carbon di-oxide and water (photosynthesis).
Chemoautotrophs -few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, to utilize free
energy released from the chemical reactions to prepare organic food (chemosynthesis).
ii) Consumers
These are mainly the animals, unable to synthesise their own food but depends on
producers.
Some consumers doesn’t get the food from the producers but they are depended on
other consumers (hetrotrophs)
Primary consumers - grasshopper, rabbit, goat, sheep etc.
Secondary consumers – Carnivores-are flesh eaters. e.g. - Hawks, Tiger and Lion.
Omnivores - eat both vegetables and flesh (cockroaches, fox, and
humans).
Tertiary – predators of predators e.g vultures,
iii) Decomposers
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These are mainly bacteria and fungi to decompose complex organic material into simple
inorganic material so that it can be used by producers to prepare food e.g bacteria, fungi,
worms, nematodes, mites, etc.
Abiotic components
i) Inorganic substances
Inorganic substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon di-oxide, calcium,
phosphorus and their inorganic compounds.
These are available as free form or dissolved in water and may be adsorbed on the soil
particles.
These are factors present in the environment such as temperature, humidity, light, wind,
rainfall and atmospheric gases etc.
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Mineral salts e.g. calcium, nitrates, potassium. All these are used to make food for the
plants.
The inputs contribute to healthy trees, grass and other plants.
Processes
Key processes in ecosystems include the capture of light energy and carbon through
photosynthesis, the transfer of carbon and energy through food webs and the release of
nutrients and carbon through decomposition.
Interdependence in organisms
A food chain
Is the sequence of steps through which Through the process of photosynthesis,
the process of energy transfer occurs in plants use light energy from the sun to
an ecosystem.
make food energy.
Energy flows through an ecosystem in
one direction – through food chains. Primary consumers eat plants,
Food chains illustrate how energy secondary consumers eat primary
flows through a sequence of consumers, and tertiary consumers eat
organisms, and how nutrients are secondary and primary consumers.
transferred from one organism to
another.
Food chains usually consist of
producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
The sun is the ultimate source of
energy for all food chains.
A food web is a diagram of a complex, interacting set of food chains within an ecosystem.
Human beings feed on plants, birds and other animals. A lion eats a number of animals
including a human being. A zebra is a prey to a number of carnivores and omnivores.
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Pyramids of numbers
It shows the relationship between the producers, herbivores and carnivores in terms of their
numbers.
This indicates the number of organisms at every trophic level.
In a grassland the producers, which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number.
This number shows a decrease towards apex,
The secondary consumers, snakes and lizards are less in number than the rabbits and mice.
In the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are least in number.
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Pyramid of energy Pyramid of Biomass
In an ecosystem the pyramid of energy
shows the amount of total energy trapped The amount of living material in an
by the organism at each trophic level in a organism is called biomass.
unit area and time and expressed as kcal/ Pyramid of biomass shows quantitative
𝑚2 /year. relationship existing at various trophic
levels.
The energy pyramid gives the best
picture of overall nature of the
ecosystem.
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TOPIC 4
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resource
Anything that exist naturally or without humankind (all of the Earth’s organisms, air,
water, and soil, as well as materials such as oil, coal, and ore that are removed from
the ground).
Categorised into Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources
are any resource that cycles or can be replaced within a human life span e.g. water,
crops, biogas, wind, soil, sunlight, animals, etc…
Non-renewable Resources
Any resource that cannot be replaced during the time of a human life span.
Took thousands of years to form and exist in fixed amounts in the Earth.
They need to be conserved before they become depleted e.g metallic ores include
(gold, silver, copper, aluminium, zinc, etc… and non-metallic ores and fossils include:
coal, limestone, salt, sand, gravel etc…)
Resource Exploitation
Involves the deliberate use and exploitation of a resource either to satisfy domestic or
commercial needs.
This is about using our resources, both renewable, and non-renewable carefully so that future
generations could also benefit.
The following are some of the resource conservation methods which can be implemented.
Forests/wood
Afforestation.
Reforestation.
Education campaigns, for example, the National Tree Planting Day.
Penalties against those people who indiscriminately cut down trees.
Limiting timber extraction/harvesting.
Using less resources (twigs/tsotso).
Water
Treat waste before disposing it into water courses.
Avoid stream bank cultivation.
Limit the use of chemicals on land, for example, fertilizers which cause eutrophication
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Recycling used water.
Penalties for those people who carelessly use and or pollute water.
Turning off tapes after use.
Education.
Water harvesting
Mulching to conserve moisture.
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TOPIC 5
Energy Forms
Non-renewable energy: Energy that cannot be reproduced in the time that it takes to consume
it e.g. coal.
Renewable energy: Energy that is naturally occurring and potentially infinite.
Fossil fuels: Any combustible organic matter that is made from the remains of former flora and
fauna.
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Thermal power
Locational factors
Near fuel source e.g. S.E Lowveld uses baggase from sugarcane.
Market based.
Flat land.
Near large rivers or source of sufficient water.
Transport
Fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas can be used to heat water in huge boilers to produce
steam.
The steam at high pressure turns turbines.
Turbines turn generators to produce electricity.
E.g. Hwange and Munyati power station.
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Environmental impacts from generating and use of energy
1. Fossil fuel
Deforestion
Global warming
Acid rains
Dangers posed by leaded fuels
Oil spills
Water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines
Air pollution.
2. Alternate energy resources
The initial cost of establishment of alternate energy generation is costlier than
conventional resources
Maintenance of these structures is difficult.
It requires more space.
Energy supply is unpredictable during natural calamities.
Management Measures
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Agroforestry, afforestation and reforestation programmes to reduce overexploitation of
natural forests.
Banning logging, selective felling of trees and resettling people who have settled into
forests.
Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy is using available energy resources in the most effective manner to
ensure there isn`t wastage.
Conservation measures
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TOPIC 6
A map is a visual representation of the Earth’s surface, drawn to scale and made for a specific
purpose.
Uses of maps
- To locate places.
- To determine where you are going.
- To show distribution of features and type of materials.
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Types of maps
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Topographic maps –will
show you hills, rivers, lakes,
roads, railway lines, farms
and settlement areas.
A topographic map shows
only those features the
mapmaker wants to show.
Includes contour lines to
show the shape and elevation
of an area.
Navigational
maps/Directional maps –
show you where you are
located and where to find
a location.
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Economic map – show the economic activities and resource distribution in a given country or
region e.g distribution of different minerals or mark the areas where certain economics are
concentrated.
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Drawing a map
A Sketch map
Is a simplified representation of the real map or features drawn not to scale. It has a title, key
and direction.
How to draw a sketch map
Step 1: Draw the boundaries of the area which resemble the shape of the map.
Step 2: Draw major roads, strets, rivers and other linear features,
Step 3: Draw settlements, hills and mountains using symbols like rectangles for buildings,
circles for hill and lines for roads and rivers,
Step 4: Shade the features differently and insert a key to represent them,
Step 5: Insert a title and direction arrow.
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Location
Absolute Location
is the exact spot on Earth where a place can be found.
Relative Location
Is the location of one place in relation to other places.
Latitude
- Lines run west to east
- Measures distance north and south of the equator
- Also called “parallels”
- Lines end at 90 degrees North and South
Equator
- The main line of latitude
- divides the world into Northern and Southern Hemispheres
- measures a “0” degrees
Longitude
- Lines run north to south
- Measures distance east and west of the Prime Meridian
- Also called “meridians”
- Lines end at 180 degrees east and west
- two end points of longitude meridians are the North Pole and the South Pole
Prime Meridians
- The main line of longitude
- Divides the world into Eastern and Western Hemispheres
- Measures at “0” degrees
- Runs through Greenwich, England
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Map Referencing / Co-ordinates
Steps
1. Locate the grid square of the particular feature to be found.
2. Read the easting for the south-west of the grid square,
3. Read the northing for the south-west of the grid square (the two lines intersect forming
an L- pattern).
4. Simply write the two numbers together, with the easting first.
5. The 4 fig of the shaded box below is: 2 9 5 1
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It pinpoints actual location by involving the subdivision of the eastings and northings
reference into 10 imaginary lines.
Each tiny square represents 1/100 of the original big (grid) square.
Steps
1. Locate the grid square of the particular feature to be found.
2. Divide the grid square into 10 equal parts along both the northings and eastings.
3. Number these divisions from 0 to 9 along both northings and eastings.
4. Mark the southwest corner of the feature that you are locating.
5. Estimate how far the feature is from the easting first using the scale in tenths.
6. Estimate how far the feature is from the northing using the scale in tenths.
7. Write the value for the easting followed by the northing.
8. The six fig grid reference of the spot height below is: 6 2 5 3 3 3
Note:
The third number is part of the easting and the sixth number is part of the northing.
These numbers refer to the small squares in tenths.
Accuracy of 6 figure grid reference depends on subdividing the parts equally and
ensuring that the (dotted) lines are parallel to the grid lines.
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Now the last 3 figures are computed in the similar way we computed the former 6 figure
grid reference.
4 6 5 0 0 0
We are aware that our grid box has an equivalent length of 1000m, and we can divide it
into 10 segments 100m and each 100m segment can be divided into 10 segments 10m each
and each 10 m segment into segments 1m.
So as you are moving from the main easting into the grid box to a feature you will have
written your small easting as well as the main easting and the fourth figure is obtained by
seeing how many hundreds of meters the feature lies from the main easting, the fifth is how
many tenths of units and the 6th how many units.
Here the usual result can be 465300. The last two zeroes are there because it's not possible
to measure the distance of a normal 1:50000 topographical map.
4 6 5 3 0 0
For the northings, you will notice that they start with a double digit alongside that we used
to identify as the normal northing.
Copy the four numbers and add three zeroes at the end and you will have 13 figure grid
reference.
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5 1 5 6 0 0 0
5 1 5 6 8 0 0
Scale
- A scale is the ratio of a distance between two points on a map and the actual distance of the same
two points on the ground.
Types of scale
The statement scale is when you make a statement saying what the distance on the map
represents on the ground.
One may say 1 centimetre measured on the map represents 1 kilometre measured on the ground
or 1 centimetre to 1 kilometre.
The smaller distance refers to the map and the larger distance refers to the ground.
The distance on the ground is always given in killometres or metres. Thus, in this case, the
distance of 1 cm on the map represents a distance of 1 kilometre on the ground.
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The linear scale or line scale
This is a special ruler that is drawn below a map that can be used to measure an area or distance.
It is divided into a number of equal parts. The divisions on the line scale measures map
distances and the labelling will give you the distance on the ground.
To the right of zero – each scale division represents a distance of 1 kilometre.
To the left of zero – the distance representing 1 km is shown. This is subdivided into ten equal
parts, each part representing a distance of 100m.
Distances can be measured and read off directly from the scale.
Conventional sign
- Is a standard sign used on a map to indicate a particular feature. The conventional sign may be a
letter of the alphabet or it may be a symbol.
1. Brown: land or earth features - contours, eroded areas, prominent rock outcrops, sand areas and dunes,
secondary or gravel roads
2. Blue: water features - aqueducts, canals, furrows and siphons, coastlines, dams, lakes, marshes, swamps
and vleis, pans, rivers, water-towers
3. Green: vegetation features - cultivated fields, golf courses, nature and game reserve boundaries, state
forest boundaries, orchards and vineyards, recreation grounds, woodland
4. Black: construction features - roads, tracks, railways, buildings, bridges, cemeteries, communication
towers, dam walls, excavations and mine dumps, telephone lines, power lines, wind pumps, wrecks, ruins,
trigonometrical stations, boundaries
5. Grey: construction features - built-up areas, cadastral information.
6. Red: construction features - national, airdrome and main roads, lighthouses and marine lights; pink also
shows international boundaries
Five Elements
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Conventional sign
Distance
Distance can be measured using, a ruler, string, straight edge of paper and pair of dividers.
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Step 1: Put the paper strip with the straight
edge on the first straight part of the road or
curved line. Mark point B onto the strip at
the beginning of it and make another mark
(b) where the road starts to curve away from
the paper strip.
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Step 4: Lay the paper strip against your map scale and read the distance from A to B.
Conversion table
Direction
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Bearing
Calculate the true bearing from spot height 735 to spot height 759.
a) With a pencil, draw a line parallel to the side of the map through spot height 735. (This is your
True North line Oº).
b) Join the two spot heights with a pencil line.
c) Measure (with a protractor) the angle between True North, Oº (i.e. the line through spot height 735
and parallel to the side of the map) and line joining two spot heights.
d) The answer is 106°
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Magnetic bearing Height
Magnetic Bearing is the distance in degrees Height on all maps and photos is shown in
from Magnetic North (i.e. from where the metres above sea level.
compass points to North) to the position of On the topographical map, the contour
the place. interval i.e. the vertical distance between 2
The magnetic bearing between A and B is contour lines is 20 metres.
angle y = 112º On the orthophoto map, the contour interval
is 5 metres.
Height is used to show the following:
Height is shown on maps in various ways –
always in metres above sea level i.e. as
altitude.
Contour lines.
Spot heights.
Trigonometrical beacons.
Bench marks
Finding Area
The formula for the area of a rectangle is length x width (i.e. the length of one long side multiplied
by the length of one short side) and the formula of square is side X side.
Give your answer in either square metres (𝑚2 ) or square kilometres (𝑘𝑚2 ).
Remember to convert your map distances to real distances before you multiply.
L S
W S
Area of a triangle
In the figure given below the length of the base AB of the triangle ABC is 6cm. The perpendicular height
CD is 4cm. using a scale of 1 cm represents 1km. The length of the base is 6 km and the height is 4km.
Calculate the area.
C C
A D B A B
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Area of irregular shape
Follow the rule that parts
of a square are to be
counted if they are half or
more than half occupied,
but are to be ignored if
less than half.
Count the number of
occupied squares and
multiply the total
𝟐
by𝟏𝒌𝒎 .
In the figure above there are 12 whole squares and 20 part squares. Part squares are counted as
half squares. To change 20 part squares into complete squares you calculate 20/2 = 10
The total area is therefore 12 +10 = 22 𝒌𝒎𝟐 .
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TOPIC 7
The country hosts more than 60 different types of minerals, 40 of which have historically been
exploited to various extents. There are a variety of other minerals that have been exploited but
not listed below. These include tin, antimony and a range of semi-precious stones such as
tourmaline, aquamarine, chrysoberyl, topaz, and alexandrite. Zimbabwe also has uranium
deposits estimated at 45, 0000 tons according to the drills made in the Zambezi Valley, and
there are several anomalies elsewhere. In addition, there are potential oil and gas reserves in
the Zambezi Valley.
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Ores and mineral groups
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Coal Hwange, Sengwa Coal Fields
Methane Gas Lupane
Limestone Zvishavane, Umzingwane, Shurugwi, Shamva, Rushinga, Nyanga,
Lupane, Marondera, Makoni, Mutasa, Makonde, Hurungwe, Gutu,
Gwanda, Mberengwa, Mazowe, Mudzi, Murehwa, Muzarabani,
Mwenezi, etc.
Phosphate Buhera
Asbestos Zvishavane, Mashava
Uses of minerals
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Importance of mining to Zimbabwe
Answer:
Employment creation.
Produce raw materials.
Support industries as a market.
Foreign currency from exports.
Development of infrastructure such as roads, railway line, recreational facilities,
hospitals/clinics, schools and houses.
Improve living standards.
Source of income.
Skills transfer.
Case Study
Copper Mining in Zambia
- Copper deposits occur in an axil belt stretching from Zambia to Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) with mines from Nchanga, Mufulira to Ndola.
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- Occurs in seams of various depths such that both open and shaft mining are used.
- Factors that led to development of mining on the copper belt are labour from nearby
countries e.g. Zimbabwe, technology and capital, market, power supply and political
stability.
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TOPIC 8
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Environment
Is the natural and man-made resources, physical resources both biotic and abiotic,
occurring in the lithosphere and atmosphere, water, soil, minerals and living organisms
whether indigenous or exotic and the interaction between them.
Aspects of the environment
Land
Water
Air.
Land
It as an important aspect of the environment, forming the top part of the Earth`s crust
made up of rocks and soils.
Land supports many activities such as farming, construction and many more. It is
affected by land pollution and soil erosion. Land degradation needs to be addressed at
a global level.
Land degradation reduces soil fertility, cause gully formation, and destroys the aesthetic
value of the land.
In Zimbabwe, communal areas are at risk to deforestation and soil erosion e.g.
Zimunya, Hwedza and Chivi.
Urban areas such as Harare, Masvingo, Mutare and others are experiencing sewage
bursting and improper waste disposal.
Water
Water occupies the largest part of the Earth, in Oceans, lakes, rivers and other sources.
It is essential to fauna and flora, needed for domestic and industrial use.
Human activities such as mining, dumping of wastes and farming affects the quality of
water.
Polluted water becomes unsafe and undrinkable and spreads diseases such as cholera
and typhoid.
Siltation, gold panning have affected many rivers in the country for example Save,
Mupfure, and Munyati.
Infestation by water weeds e.g water hyacinth is evidenced in Kariba, Chivero, and
Shaghashe and Mutirikwi rivers.
Air
Air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere which include oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen.
Oxygen is essential during breathing and respiration.
Carbon dioxide is used by plants to manufacture food that will also be needed by
animals.
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Nitrogen is converted into a usable form such as nitrates and used by plants to make
proteins.
The quality of air is affected human activities. Air pollution from industries, domestic,
volcanic eruptions and vehicles alter the composition of air in the atmosphere. This
results in global warming.
The current Zimbabwe air pollution levels are still manageable, certain measures to
reduce air pollution should be adopted and local and national level.
Air composition
Mountains
Several mountains in Zimbabwe are still regarded as sacred today as people say that
they are homes of ancestral spirits.
They are believed to be characterised by mysterious sounds of activities.
In some cases people are not allowed to climb without conducting some rituals.
Visitors to these places are not allowed to divulge what they see lest they risk madness.
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Durika Chipinge
Rasa Gutu
Dungugwi Mwenezi
Forests /Vegetation
Some forests are also believed to be sacred.
Some trees are used for weather forecasting.
Restricted tree use e.g Muhacha, Muonde, Baobab,
Fruit trees not used for firewood.
Conservation of trees for medicinal and warding evil spirits
Type of tree Taboo Traditional belief
Mukamba(pod mahogany);
It is not allowed to be Traditional ceremonies are done
Muonde(fig tree);
chopped for domestic use under any of these trees. They are
Mushakata (parinari
such as firewood associated with ancestral spirits
curatellifolia)
It is placed on a grave after burial.
Mutarara(lacaniodiscus It is not used for domestic
Witches get confused if they
Fraxinifolinus) purposes
attempt to exhume the body
Murungu(lucky bean tree); It is not cut down for use at It is planted on graves. As it grows
Mupanda the home it signifies life for the dead
Planted on graves to allow the dead
Mvuko Not cut for firewood
to avenge his/her killer
Planted at the homestead to ward
Gonde Not to be used for firewood
off lightning
Fruit trees are not cut down
Muzhanje/mushuku(uapaca Mishaps; crops can be consumed by
for any use such as
kirklania) wild animals
firewood
Bring in evil spirits and confusion
Muzeze (peltiforum Not used as firewood or
at the home; causes decay of
africanum) brought to the home
pumpkins
Some rivers, water bodies and natural caves are also regarded as sacred. Rivers include:
Save (Buhera), Runde (Mwenezi), Mvumvumvu (Chimanimani).
Water bodies such as Lake Kariba (Zambezi River), Lake Chivero (near Harare),
Manjerenje Dam (Chiredzi) and Lake Mutirikwi (Masvingo) are also believed to be
sacred as they are associated with mermaids. People who violate their taboos risk
mysterious disappearance into the water bodies.
Deep pools and springs such as Nyanyadzi prohibited to fetch water using metal tins or
black pots.
Pumps not allowed on springs.
Wildlife
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Use of totems
Totemism is a traditional practice used to protect wildlife resources in Zimbabwe. It is
the ‘practice of symbolically identifying humans with non-human objects (usually
animals or plants).
Nzou/Zhou Elephant
Nyati Buffalo
Mhofu Eland
Hove Fish
Human waste was disposed in bushes or buried in the grounds surrounding homesteads.
This reduced the spread of diseases through vectors such as flies.
Burial places for human corpses were located either close to homes or far away while
strict rules on safeguarding sources of drinking water such as wells and springs were
enforced.
Environmental management
Deals with managing, conserving and using resources at local and international level.
See form 2 notes,
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TOPIC 9
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture
Is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock for a purpose. We grow crops like maize,
sorghum, nuts, cotton, sunflower etc. to feed ourselves and for raw materials for our industries.
Importance of Agriculture
Types of Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture
Involving the growing of crops and /or the keeping of livestock/animals for the family
consumption of the farmer and his family.
Forms of subsistence agric
Shifting Cultivation
Refers to the growing of crops and rearing of crops while moving from one place to another.
It is practiced in northern Zambia in Luapula District by the Bemba-Ushi people, parts of
Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and in the Amazon forests.
Nomadic Pastoralism
Is a system of farming whereby farmers (nomads) move with their livestock from place to
place in search of pastures and water for their animals. Practised by the Masai East of
Kenya.
Settled/Sedentary
Is a type of farming where farmers are permanently stationed at the farms. Communal
farming in Zimbabwe is an example of settled farming.
Commercial agriculture
Is the process of growing of crops and/or keeping of animals (livestock) for sale at the
market.
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Forms of commercial agric
Cattle Ranching
Ranching involves the production of beef.
Market Gardening
This is the production of vegetables, flowers and fruits that is also known as horticulture.
Dairy Farming
A specialised type of farming whereby the farmer rears cows for milk production and other
related products e.g. cheese, cream, butter etc.
Irrigation farming
This is the movement of regular amounts of water from lakes, dams, rivers, wells or
boreholes to cultivated land for various reasons e.g Gezira in Sudan.
Plantation agriculture
It is a large scale system of commercial farming involving the growing of perennial crops
e.g. tea, sugarcane, over a large piece of land on monocultural basis e.g Katiyo tea estate,
Triangle and Hippo Valley.
Labour supply
All farming activities need either human labour or machines to do the work. Availability
of labour may influence the type of farming. The farm wages, the skills and family labour
affect farming.
Demand/Market.
This is the customer who buys farm products. Farmers need to sell their crops and animals
to make a profit. The higher the demand the higher the price of the product: and the lower
the demand, the lower the price. The price of the produce and availability of the market are
important factors that affect farming.
Finance /Capital.
This is money for the payment of wages, purchase of farm inputs/ or imports. This can
affect the type and state of farming. Some crops are capital intensive e.g. money to set up
irrigation facilities etc. Money can be in the form of loans from banks or grants from the
government or capital saved by the farmer.
Government policies
Government provide subsidies and loans or inputs to encourage new farming practices but
they also place limits on production to prevent food surpluses. Government influence
farming through its police or through infrastructural development and support services e.g
providing tillage facilities through DDF.
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Transport
This is needed for the transportation of inputs to the farm and outputs to the market.
Transport network e.g roads and the type of transport affect farming activities. In
Zimbabwe commercial farming is concentrated along main roads.
Technology
Irrigation and machinery are two examples of expensive technology which increase yields.
Genetic engineering allow new plants to be grown, this reduces diseases and droughts and
give higher yields. Computer control in green houses provides suitable conditions for good
quality crops. Type and availability of equipment and service affect farming activities.
Climate
The important considerations for farmers are the hours of sunshine, the average temperature
and the amount of rainfall.
Relief
The relief of the land is a very important factor in determining the type of agricultural
activity that can take place on it. Flat, sheltered areas are usually best for crops as it is easy
to use machinery and there will be the best climatic conditions for crop growth. Steep slopes
are more likely to be used for sheep and cattle farming,
Soils
Crops grow best on deep, fertile, free draining soils. Soil type and fertility influences the
types of crops that can be grown, the yields per unit area and the cost of production.
Aspect
The direction a slope faces. In the extreme northern hemisphere south-facing slopes are
best for growing crops and in the southern hemisphere north facing slopes are best for crop
production. (Why?)
Pest and diseases
These affect workers, crops and animals. Farmers have to fight them in order to avoid
disastrous effects. Pests which affect crops include locusts, birds, boring insects, worms.
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The table below shows the main components of a farming system
Inputs Processes Outputs
a)physical inputs Preparing land, Different variety of
Sun’s energy, soils, minerals, ploughing, animals e.g. cattle,
land, conducive temperature, cultivating, planting, weeding, goats, pigs, sheep,
water/rain. watering/irrigating, dosing animals, chicken etc., different
b) human inputs application of insecticides and variety of crops e.g.
labour, knowledge/skills, pesticides, harvesting, dipping maize, millet, wheat
c) Economic inputs animals, vaccinating animals, etc., money, milk and
Crops/seeds, animals, application of manure/fertilizers and other dairy products,
machinery, capital, other chemicals etc. eggs, different variety
infrastructure, pesticides/ of vegetables,
insecticides, use of the land,
different variety of
fertilizers/manure etc.
fruits, etc.
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QN: a) Classify the inputs of a communal farm into physical, human and economic. (9)
b) Identify elements of market gardening. (9)
c) Discuss the elements of a dairy farm below with reference to a case study. (9)
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Land use zones in a community
Land use planning is the organisation and allocation of land to specialised functions. In a
community land can be used for:
1. Arable land – cultivation is a common land use in rural areas. At a rural home a lot of
land is placed under cultivation or used for growing of crops. However, uncultivated
land can be left.
2. Grazing land – land is allocated for grazing of different livestock. It can be open of put
into paddocks.
3. Residential – used for houses where people live.
4. Transport – land occupied by roads and rail lines.
5. Game parks and wildlife reserves – some of the wildlife will be found in rural areas.
This shows you that one of the land uses in the rural is that of game reserves e.g
Chirisa Game reserve, Gonarezhou National Parks
6. Recreational – land used for dams and sporting activities.
7. Private land – some farms are privately owned for example commercial farms.
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TOPIC 10
INDUSTRY
Industry
Industry-any form of economic activity through which people produce goods and services
for their consumption.
Levels of Industry
Primary
Primary industries are those that extract or produce raw materials from which useful items can
be made. Extraction of raw materials includes mining activities, agriculture, forestry, and
fishing.
Secondary
Secondary industries are those that change raw materials into usable products through
processing and manufacturing. Bakeries that make flour into bread and factories that change
metals and plastics into vehicles are examples of secondary industries.
The term “value added” is sometimes applied to processed and manufactured items since the
change from a raw material into a usable product has added value to the item.
Tertiary
Tertiary industries are those that provide essential services and support to allow other levels
of industry to function. Often simply called service industries, this level includes
transportation, finance, utilities, education, retail, housing, medical, and other services.
Quaternary
Quaternary industries are those for the creation and transfer of information, including research
and training. Often called information industries, this level has seen dramatic growth as a
result of advancements in technology and electronic display and transmission of information.
Quinary
Quinary industries are those that control the industrial and government decision-making
processes. This level includes industry executives and management and bureaucrats and
elected officials in government. Policies and laws are made and implemented at this level.
Importance of industries
Provision of raw materials and market for primary sector.
Earns foreign currency after exporting manufactured goods.
Industries employ people providing them with income hence raising their standard of
living.
Increase the country`s GDP.
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Development of transport and communication and social amenities such as power,
water, schools and medical facilities where industries have been established.
Agricultural based industries have led to increased agricultural production in the
process of meeting the rising demand for raw materials.
Diversification of the economy thereby helping the country to earn revenue throughout
even when agriculture which is the backbone of the economy fails.
Workers in industries have joined together and formed co-operatives in which they save
money and are then given loans which they use to start projects.
The government also gets revenue through taxation of industries.
Establishment of industries promote development of urban centres.
Distribution of Industries in Zimbabwe
Metallurgical industries – 1. Iron and steel at ZISCO in Kwekwe, 2. Basic metals at ZIM
ALLOYS, ZIMCAST in Gweru, ZIMASCO, SALWIRE in Harare and Bulawayo.
Mechanical engineering – Harare, Mutare, Kwekwe, Gweru, and Masvingo, Car industries
in Harare at Willowvale and Mutare, electrical goods in Harare and Bulawayo.
Light industries – textiles in Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru, Kadoma e.g. Martin Spur, David
Whitehead in Chegutu, food stuffs in major towns, foot wear in Gweru e.g. Bata and
Bulawayo.
Chemical industries – chemicals in Harare, Bulawayo, Triangle, Sable in Kwekwe,
fertilisers in Harare, Bulawayo and Kwekwe.
Other industries – Hi – Tech industries in Harare and Bulawayo e.g. Phillips, paper and
printing in Harare, Mutare, Marondera and Gweru, furniture in Bulawayo and Mutare,
Cotton ginneries near source of raw materials in Kadoma, Chegutu, Muzarabani and
Sanyati and Nembudzia.
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The factors that can account for the distribution has been sited earlier on the factors
affecting industrial location (See form 2 notes).
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TOPIC 11
SETTLEMENT AND POPULATION
Settlement
Is a place where people live.
A settlement can range from being an isolated building, hamlets, villages, business
centre, growth point, towns, cities or even larger settlements known as conurbations or
megalopolis.
Isolated farm house hamlet village business centre growth point town
city primate city conurbation megalopolis .
Types of settlements
Are classified according to size, structure and functions into rural and urban.
Rural settlements
Are mainly concerned with primary activities such as agriculture, mining, fishing,
forestry etc.
Population density is small and the settlement size is small.
Urban settlements
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Interaction between rural and urban settlements
Rural
Rural areas provide raw materials for urban settlement e.g. Mutare obtain timber for
the timber processing industries from Chimanimani, Mutasa e.t.c.
Rural areas are a source of labour
Rural areas act as markets for good and services from urban areas.
Rural areas provides food i.e. source of food supply for urban dwellers.
Rural areas act as recreation areas for the urban people.
Urban
Employment
Urban areas act as market for agricultural produce
They are a source of social services such as educational and health facilities.
Rural areas get skilled personnel,
Get lower and higher order goods
Wet point sites – water supply is a key factor; Many settlements grew up near a river or spring.
Early villages located at springs at base of escarpments or where simple wells could be
constructed e.g. desert oasis.
Dry point sites – are found on areas of higher land away from marshy areas or areas prone to
flooding.
Defensive sites – often found on higher ground so that enemies could be seen from a distance
e.g Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Nyanga hill site. These sites also found on meanders in rivers
– which form a natural barrier e.g. Durham.
Resources – important for industry, e.g. towns such as Hwange, Shurugwi are built to exploit
mineral resource.
Good farming land – was essential to produce food (although ideal location would be suitable
for growing food and rearing animals). Many villages grew up on fertile lowlands
Accessibility and communication – were essential – villages grew up at bridging points (e.g.
Oxford) crossroads/route centres and gaps between hills.
Trading centres – often settlements grow where natural route ways and rivers meet, which helps
the development of roads, railways and canals.
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Aspect – settlements are often found on the sunny side of a mountain or deep valley. This is
common in settlements in the Alps. In the Southern hemisphere, north facing slopes are best
for crop production.
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Circular pattern
Is a common pattern on desert nomadic
camps, around dwalas, volcanic hills or
wells and watering holes in semi-arid
areas.
Some tribes e.g. The Kayapo in the
Amazon Basin live in circular villages for
cultural reasons.
They live in the outer houses and the
central house is a meeting place. Dispersed and Haphazard Settlements
patterns
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local authorities make policies regarding environmenntal management through proper
waste disposal.
3. Council By-Laws
It is law or regulation made by a local authority. The by-lawa are determined by the
objectives and needs of the local authorities and only apply within an area under the
jurisdiction of the council. Some of the by-laws include anti-litter laws, building by-
laws and fire by-laws. These by-laws enables the council to effectively deliver services.
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TOPIC 12
Transport
Transport is the act of moving items and people from one place to another while
communication is the process of transferring information between individuals, groups and
places.
1. Existence of sets of corresponding places with surplus (supply) and deficits (demand) for
goods, services and information.
2. Alternative sources may hinder transport e.g. a nearby source of market of a required
commodity.
3. Infrastructure depending on how it is can lead to establishment of efficient or inefficient
transport.
4. Politics where by the government may decide to be the leading provider of transport
facilities.
Modes of transport
There are 3 common modes of transport namely land, water and air transport.
# Land transport
-The type that involves movement of people and goods on land.
1. Human porterage
-Movement of people from one place to another carrying light goods on their back, hands or
shoulders or by using hand carts, trolleys, bicycles or motorcycles.
2. Use of animals
-Use of domesticated animals to carry goods and people on their back or pull loaded carts
(drought animals).
Disadvantages
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(a) Goods can be stolen or destroyed by wild animals and extreme weather conditions because
they are exposed.
(b) They are a very slow means of transport hence time consuming, tedious and boring.
(c) They can`t transport large quantities of goods because human and animal energy get
exhausted with time.
(d) They can cause congestion on busy urban roads which may delay other forms of transport.
3. Road Transport
-Means of transportation of people and goods by motor vehicles on roads.
Disadvantages
(a) Traffic congestion and jams when there are many vehicles on roads which leads to delays
and fuel wastage.
(b) Its expensive over long distances and when transporting bulky goods.
(c) Vehicles can carry a limited number of people and amount of goods at a time making
them expensive and uneconomical.
(d) It`s adversely affected by weather e.g. during heavy rains, roads become impassable and
foggy conditions hinder visibility making it easier for accidents to occur.
(e) Vehicles pollute the environment by their exhaust fumes and noise which they produce.
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Roads in Zimbabwe are grouped into wide – tarred and other roads.
Are classified using the A system (autobahn) where they vary from the best surfaced to not
surfaced.
There are wide tarred roads in the central, north east and eastern parts of the country due to
lot of economic activities, more towns with large populations and the land is fair and easy
to make roads.
Other roads link communal areas while wide tarred roads also link commercial areas.
Wide tarred roads crosses Zimbabwe`s boarders at six points e.g Chirundu, Mutare and
Victoria Falls for international trade and tourism.
High concentration of tarred roads are in Harare followed by Bulawayo.
Wide tarred roads are fewer because they are expensive to construct.
Other roads are in communal areas due to imbalances created during the colonial era.
# Railway Transport
Disadvantages
(a) Very slow means of movement especially of perishable and urgently required goods.
(b) Expensive to construct as much iron and steel is used to construct railway lines and trains.
(c) Inflexible in that railway lines aren`t available all over the country and their direction cannot
be changed.
(d) Are affected adversely by terrain as where there are steep gradients, tunnels and winding
tracks have to be used which adds to the cost of setting up railway system.
(e) Specific gauge of railway line can only be used by a specific design of train unlike roads
which can be used by many varieties of vehicles.
(f) Trains can`t use rails while they are being constructed unlike roads which can be used while
they are being constructed, improved or even repaired.
Tazara railway- connects Zambia Copper Belt with the sea port of Dar-es-salaam.
Benguela Railway- runs from Zambia Copper Belt to Angola.
Kenya Uganda Railway- runs from Mombasa to Kisumu. It has an extension from Nakuru
through Eldoret to Malaba then through Tororo to Kampala.
Kenya’s other railway branches are Voi to Taveta, Konza to Magadi, Nairobi to Nanyuki,
Gilgil to Nyahururu, Nakuru to Eldoret and Kisumu to Butere.
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Administration by different colonial governments who constructed railway links only
within areas of their jurisdiction.
Political differences which led to mistrust and hostility which works against effort to
construct railway jointly.
Countries have railways of different gauges making connection to be difficult.
Little interstate trade which doesn`t warrant construction of railways to transport bulky
goods.
Countries lack sufficient capital to establish railways.
Mountainous landscape and swampy terrain which hinder the development of rails to link
the countries.
Competition from other modes of transport which are cheaper and flexible.
High maintenance and expansion costs causing little expansion of rail lines.
Mismanagement of rail services leading to deterioration at lower income.
Vandalism during political unrests and by people dealing in scrap metal.
Zimbabwe`s railway network Was built in the late
1890s and early 1990s
during political
events.
Main railway line runs
along the Central
watershed from
Bulawayo to Harare
and Mutare.
Railway line are
linked to other
countries e.g. to
Pretoria and Zambia
for international trade.
Other line branch from
the main route for
specific reasons e.g. to
move minerals and
goods.
They are few railway
line in the country
because it`s expensive
to build them.
# Air Transport
Advantages
Very fast means of transport.
Can be used in case of emergency e.g. rescue operations in disasters such as floods.
Not affected by relief.
High value goods and perishables are carried fast.
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Disadvantages
Prone to sabotage and terrorism.
Influenced by bad weather like smogs.
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# Pipelines
-Means of movement of fluid or gas products such as water, gas and oil through pipes from
one place to another. Pumping stations are constructed along the pipelines to keep the product
flowing steadily.
Advantages of Pipelines
Disadvantages
(a) Selective in that they can be used to transport fluids and gasses and can transport only one
type of commodity at a time.
(b) Insecure in that they may be sabotaged if they run across a number of countries when there
are political differences or when one country decide to withhold the product.
(c) Pipelines may cause pollution if they burst spilling oil, gas or sewage and the problem
would be grave if it occurred under water.
(d) Inflexible in that they remain permanently in one position and rerouting becomes
impossible and further distribution of the substance from depots has to be done by roads and
railways.
# Water Transport
Cargo Liners
For carrying both goods and people.
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Have loading and unloading facilities.
Slower in speed.
Less prestigious.
Smaller in size compared to passenger liners.
Some carry different products while other carry specialised goods e.g. petroleum.
2. Tramps
- They are ships meant for transporting cargo.
-No fixed routes or schedules.
Advantages of Containerisation
(a) Safety and security because containers are sealed which protects goods from destruction by
bad weather and from being stolen.
(b) Easy to handle because containers are fitted with special devices like hooks and rings which
makes loading and unloading easy.
(c) Time saving because goods are put in one container than being carried in several boxes
which makes loading and unloading easy.
(d) It`s economical in terms of space because containers have a standard shape which reduces
wastage of space by allowing tight packaging of goods.
Are well marked routes through which Ocean traffic passes. They are also called ocean trading
routes because they have come about as a result of trading activities among various regions.
Major ocean routes are concentrated in the northern hemisphere due to the following:
and parts of
Asia.
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6. Trans-Atlantic sea Route- connects Europe to E.S. America.
Examples of Lakes which are inland water ways are such as Victoria (largest inland waterway
in E. Africa, Tanganyika, Malawi, Albert and also man-made lakes such as Kariba, Nasser,
Volta and Kainji.
Factors Which Have Hindered Development of River Transport in Africa
1. Inadequate capital to develop waterways, ports and for the purchase of vessels.
2. Fluctuation of water levels which makes sailing difficult as a result of rivers passing through
dry areas.
3. Presence of rapids and waterfalls which hinders the vessels‟ movement.
4. Siltation of rivers which makes their channels shallow hence hindering movement of vessels.
5. Presence of floating vegetation which makes it difficult for vessels to sail due to narrowing
of the river channel.
6. Most rivers pass through unproductive zones hence it’s uneconomical to develop river
transport.
7. Rivers flow across political boundaries which may require negotiation in order for the
countries involved to use them for transport.
8. Inadequate technology.
Canal Transport
A canal is a water channel that is cut through land for boats or ships to travel along. Some
canals join large water bodies like seas and oceans.
Examples of Canals
Suez Canal which joins Mediterranean and Red Sea.
Panama Canal which connects Caribbean Sea with Pacific Ocean.
Dortmund-Ems Canal which joins R. Rhine to the N. Sea.
So canals which connects connecting L. Superior to L. Huron.
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(a) Offers less friction to the movement of vessels as it’s the case with roads.
(b) Are natural and free transport routes requiring less artificial infrastructures
(c) Less expensive because large loads can be carried at minimal costs and water routes require
minimal maintenance.
(d) It`s a reliable mode of transport since there is very little traffic congestion on waterways
because the waterway is large.
(e) Goods are protected because they are transported in containers or tankers.
(f) It`s a safe mode of transport for delicate goods.
Disadvantages
(a) Many water ways are affected by water fluctuation like low volumes and high volumes
which make them to flow swiftly which make them unnavigable.
(b) Water transport is the slowest and unsuitable for perishables, casualties and medicines.
(c) Great loses are incurred during accidents such as fire outbreaks, typhoons, tsunamis and
mechanical breakdown due to the large carrying capacity of the vessel.
(d) High capital is required in the purchasing of modern shipping vessels and maintenance of
parts.
(e) Ocean transport is available only to people who live near water ways unlike roads which
are flexible.
(f) Insecurity in the oceans where pirates steal from and attack sailing ships.
(g) Sea vessels greatly contribute to water pollution as most of the wastes are thrown into the
sea.
1. Development of trade because buyers are able to move to markets, traders are able to move
to market centres where products are in high demand and order goods for sale without
necessarily going to the suppliers which reduces transport costs and hence increases profits.
2. Development of infrastructure by making tourist attractions accessible.
3. Promotion of industrial development/establishment of more industries since areas with good
transport networks are likely to attract investors to set up industries and finished goods are able
to reach consumers easily..
4. Many people are employed in the transport sectors e.g. drivers, mechanics and engineers.
5. Settlements develop where transport routes converge e.g. Khartoum at the confluence of
blue and white Nile and Mombasa.
6. Transport opens up remote areas for exploitation of natural resources such as minerals, fish,
tourists‟ attractions because labour can be easily ferried to such areas and resources can be
taken easily to processing sites.
7. Transport is source of revenue to the government e.g. tax is levied.
1. Some countries are landlocked i.e. located far inland away from oceans e.g. Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, etc. the solution is to develop good relations among the nations in the
continent so that countries which have access to the sea permit their landlocked neighbours to
have direct access to the sea routes.
2. Regions having rugged relief due to presence of features like mountains e.g. mountains
Kenya and Kilimanjaro which makes construction of roads and railways difficult and
expensive. Presence of rapids and waterfalls which causes swift movement of water makes
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development of river transport difficult. The solution is constructing passes and tunnels through
ridges and slopes and building of bridges across rivers and valleys to allow construction of
roads and railways.
3. Shortage of navigable riversdue to presence of obstacles and fluctuations of water volumes,
narrowness and shallowness all of which makes navigation difficult. Solution is widening and
deepening of river channels through dredging and construction of dams across rivers to
improve navigation.
4. Lack of adequate capital for establishment and maintenance of transport infrastructure e.g.
vehicles and locomotives.
5. Political instability in countries such as Somalia and Zimbabwe which have affected
transport. Solution would be to set peace mission in the affected countries in order to restore
stability.
6. High cost of travelling due to high cost of fuel causing the low and middle class persons to
travel less which reduces profits realised in the transport sector. The solution is management
and conservation of energy to save on the available resources and alternative sources of energy.
REFERENCES
1. Doro, C., Chimanikire, S. and Muzvidzani, M. A (2019) Practical Approach to Geography
Form 1. Secondary Book Press. Harare.
2. Mbizi, N. (2019) New Trends in Geography Form 1, Edulight, Harare.
3. Gariwe, S. , Jerie, S and Madondo, M. (2018) Step Ahead Geography Form 1. Pearson
Education Africa. Cape Town.
4. Bunnet, R.B. (2011) Physical Geography in Diagrams for Africa. Longman Group Ltd.
UK.
5. Gocha, N.T., Moyo, S. N.T., Ncube, R. and Nembaware, L. (2007) Dynamics of O`Level:
Human and Economic Geography. College Press. Harare.
6. Dzoma, G. (2015) ZIMSEC Geography Online Free Notes.
7. Internet.
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