Purposive Communication

Communication Processes, Principles and Ethics

Learning Outcomes:

1. Give the meaning of communication and explain why it is a complicated process;

2. Recall the elements of communication and identify them in different texts;

3. Name and interpret the principles of communication; and

4. Discuss the ethical issues in communication.

Definition of Communication

The word communication comes from commun which implies “something in common" and ication which suggests
“understanding."

So, communication means a common understanding of something.

Here are the following definitions:

"Communication is the simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction.”

"It is a systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.

"Communication is the process of creating and sharing meaning by using verbal and nonverbal symbols in varied
contexts."

The Process of Communication

The communication process involves eight parts:

1. Source

2. Message

3. Encoding

4. Channel

5. Decoding

6. Receiver

7. Feedback

8. Context

1. Source. This is you, the sender of the message.

To be a good sender, you have to know exactly what information you want to communicate, why you have chosen
that particular information, and what result you expect from that message.

2. Message. This is the information you want to convey; without it, you have no reason for communicating. The
details of the information should be very clear to you before you communicate it.
3. Encoding. This is the process of converting your idea or thoughts of the information into verbal and/or nonverbal
symbols that can be understood by the receiver of the message. Your symbols must be in the language that is not
foreign to the receiver.

4. Channel. This is the manner in which your message or information is conveyed. It may be done through face-to-
face conversation, telephone call, video conference, or written communication.

5. Decoding. This is the receiver's mental processing of your message into the meaning suggested by the verbal
and/or nonverbal symbols you use as sender. To be able to do this, he needs to get an accurate picture of the
message.

6. Receiver. This is the person or group of people who will get your message.

7. Feedback. This is the receiver's response to your message. If you get your desired result, the communication is
successful; otherwise, the communication fails. When this happens, you have to find out why it is unsuccessful,
learn from your mistakes, and strive to do better next time.

8. Context. This refers to the situation in which the communication takes place. It includes:

a. environment (the location, time of the day, temperature)

b. the relationship between the communicators

c. cultural backgrounds

d. topic

Elements of Communication

1. Sender (who the source is)

2. Message (what the idea being communicated says)

3. Channel (through what medium the message is relayed)

4. Receiver (to whom it is directed),

5. Effect (what the desired result of the communication is)

Key Principles of Communication

1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable.

• It is not possible for anyone not to communicate. Even one's poker face as you listen to somebody means a
lot.

2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible.

• "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again." - Russian proverb

3. Interpersonal communication is complicated.

• Whenever you communicate with anyone, you simultaneously interpret both his verbal and nonverbal
language, and that is often both confounding and demanding.
What makes communication even more complicated? You are actually communicating with at least six "people."

1. The person whom you think you are.

2. The person whom you think the other person is.

3. The person whom you think the other person thinks you are.

4. The person whom you think the other person thinks he is.

5. The person whom the other person thinks you think you are.

6. The person whom the other person thinks you think he is.

4. Interpersonal communication is contextual.

Communication is affected by several factors:

a. psychological contexts. (Your desire, values, beliefs, and personality)

b. Relational contexts. (Your reactions to other person based on your relationships- boss, colleague, friend, sibling.)

c. Situational context. It deals with the psycho-social “where" you are communicating. An interaction that takes
place in a classroom, which is quite formal, will be very different from one that takes place in a bar, which is very
informal.

d. Environmental context. It refers to the physical "where" you are communicating objects in the room and their
arrangement, location, noise temperature, season, level, time of day.

e. Cultural context. It includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. (Bodily movement,
facial expression, gesture, distance, and eye contact vary in different cultures.)

Communication may then be classified according to:

(1) communication mode,

(2) context, and

(3) purpose and style.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

• A message may be conveyed via these types: verbal - non-verbal and visual. Though communication is
often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally essential as it enhances one's message.

VERBAL - NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

• it is to use the non-verbal code through a handshake, an approving facial expression, and a kind disposition
or character.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

• is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey information and/or messages.
• examples are signs, symbols, imagery, maps, graphs, charts, diagrams, pictograms, photos, drawings or
illustrations, and even various forms of electronic communication.
 • visual communication even more advantageous is that it makes use of technology that provides apps
(applications), videos, and images that rely less on the printed word making presentations more
interesting.
• they should pay attention to graphic elements, such as position, color, size, shape, and orientation as all
these play an important role in the preparation of slides.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

• context in communication is referred to as a composite of people interacting with each other.

Communication may also be classified according to context: (1) intrapersonal; (2) interpersonal; (3)
extended; (4) organizational communication; and (5) intercultural communication.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

• The Latin prefix intra- means within or inside. Intrapersonal communication then means talking to oneself.
• Some label it as self or inner talk, inner monologue, or inner dialogue. Psychologists call it with other names
such as self-verbalization or self-statement.
• Self-talk can be advantageous as it can enable you to practice what you ought to say in times when you lack
the motivation and confidence to speak.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

• the Latin prefix inter- means between among, and together.

• interactive exchange takes place as interpersonal communication takes place.
• as it occurs a transaction does not necessarily take place since it can only be a simple interaction such as
greetings, getting to know a person, or ordinary conversations that happen between or among the
interactants.
• This may occur in dyads or small groups, also known as group communication.
• A communication situation is interpersonal if it is meant to establish or deepen one's relationship with
others. However, if the objective is to achieve something at the end of the conversation, it becomes
transactional.
• interpersonal talks are meant for maintaining social relationships, transactional talks aim to accomplish or
resolve something at the end of the conversation.

EXTENDED COMMUNICATION

• Extended communication involves the use of electronic media. Unlike before when it only called for the use
of television and radio, nowadays, the description of extended communication may be expanded as to
include tele, audio, or phone conferencing; video-conferencing; Skype calls; and other technological means.
• Since extended communication is public in nature, speakers are expected to be prepared when they speak,
making their language more formal. With the use of electronic media, messages are transmitted quickly.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

• the focus is on the role that communication plays in organizational contexts. Organizations comprise
individuals who work for the company.

There are two types of organizational structure:

(1) formal and (2) informal.

 • Formal structure allows communication to take place via designated channels of message flow between
positions in the organization.

This may make use of four approaches:

(1) downward communication, is the type that flows from upper to lower positions

(2) upward communication, is bottom-up in which subordinates send communication to their superiors/bosses
bearing their views/feedback on organizational policies

(3) horizontal communication, is lateral in approach as it takes place among people belonging to the same level but
coming from different departments or units to facilitate performance of tasks through proper coordination.

(4) crosswise communication. is diagonal in nature as employees from different units or departments working at
various levels communicate with each other.

• Informal Communication comes from unofficial channels of message flow. Also known as 'grapevine,
messages coming from the different levels of the organization are transmitted.
• Each organization has its own culture. This is referred to as 'organizational culture. Based on its history and
development, an organization develops its own core values, vision and mission statements, goals, and
objectives.
• Organizational culture is of utmost significance since it will dictate the kind of behavior that employees
should possess as well as the extent of commitment expected from them by the organization.
• Peter Drucker's famous quote, “Company cultures are like country cultures. Never try to change one. Try
instead, to work, with what you've got,” underscores the view that indeed, culture is within the control of
the entrepreneur or company owner.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

• it is communication between or among people having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social, and
professional backgrounds. Even gender difference affects communication.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE AND STYLE

the types of communication in relation to purpose and style are formal and informal.

Formal communication employs formal language delivered orally or in written form. Lectures, public talks/speeches,
research and project proposals, reports, and business letters, among others are all considered formal situations and
writings.

• To inform, to entertain, and to persuade are the main objectives of this type of communication.

Informal communication certainly does not employ formal language. It involves personal and ordinary conversations
with friends, family members, or acquaintances about anything under the sun.

• The purpose is simply to socialize and enhance relationships.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Difference between morals and ethics Morals are personal codes while ethics are societal.

Morals are our own set of rules, so others are neither expected nor required to follow them.

Ethics, on the other hand, are rules accepted and approved by society, so they are imposed upon everyone.
Ten Ethics in Communication

1. Mutuality. Pay attention to the needs of others as well as yours.

2. Individual dignity. Do not cause other person embarrassment or a loss of dignity.

3. Accuracy. Ensure that others have accurate information. Tell them everything they have a right and need to know,
not just what is true.

4. Access to information. Never bolster the impact of your communication by preventing people from
communicating with one another or by hindering access to the supporting information.

5. Accountability. Be responsible and accountable for the consequences of your relationships and communication.

6. Audience. As audience or receiver of information, you also have ethical responsibilities. A good rule is the “200%
rule" where both the sender and the receiver have full or 100% responsibility to ensure that the message is
understood, and that ethics are followed.

7. Relative truth. As either sender or receiver of information, remember that your own point of view may not be
shared by others and that your conclusions are relative to your perspectives, so allow others to respectfully disagree
or see it differently.

8. Ends vs. means. Be sure that the end goal of your communication and the means of getting to that end are both
ethical although no rule can be applied without reservation to any situation.

9. Use of power. In situations where you have more power than others, you also have the responsibility for the
outcome.

10. Rights vs. responsibilities. Balance your rights against your responsibilities even if you live in a wonderful society
where your rights are protected by law; not everything you have a right to do is ethical.

Communication and Globalization

• Globalization - it is the process of bringing people together and making them interact and exchange ideas
across traditional borders. (Nowaczyk, 2017)
• Globalization is the increasing economic, political, and cultural integration and interdependence of diverse
cultures. (Gamble and Gamble 2013)

Definition of Culture

• Culture is the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings.
• Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms that affect the behaviors
of a relatively large people.
The preceding definitions mean that we are all part of various "groups" and "subgroups" that can be characterized
by:

• Nationality
• language
• gender
• age or generation
• ethnicity
• religion
• social class
• region
• profession

Characteristics of Culture

1. Cultures are learned, not innate. We think and act as Filipinos because our parents brought us up this way.
We acquired knowledge and understanding of our cultural norms from our parents, teachers, relatives and
friends.
2. Cultures are shared. We act as members of our own cultural group, not as individuals, because belong to a
culture means following the norms of the group. Fitting into a group means acceptance and fellowship, and
it provides us members with feelings of security and love.
3. Cultures are multifaceted. We are surrounded by cultural norms that affect language, religion, basic world
view, education, technology, social organization, politics and law, all interacting with one another.
Behaviors and things common to people who live together in social groups are considered cultural
universals, but the performance of these activities and things differs dramatically from culture to culture.
4. Cultures are dynamic. Cultures constantly change as cultural contact increases, new technologies emerge,
and economic conditions vary. Globalization has greatly changed relationships of nations and governments.
Cell phones have drastically changed interpersonal communication, and the availability of the Internet has
affected how people of varied cultures recognize and respect their differences.
5. Cultural identities are overlapping. We belong to multiple, overlapping cultures as we interact with one
another. Some of these cultures work together while others clash. We all belong to national, regional,
social class, ethnic, professional, religious, and gender cultures.

Adaptation to New Cultures

1. Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes the beliefs, practices of
another group without sacrificing the characteristics of its own culture.
2. Cultural assimilation occurs when members of one cultural group adopt the language, practices, and beliefs
of another group, often losing aspects of their traditional culture in the process. Ex: Immigrants voluntarily
adopt their new country's language.
• The counterpart of cultural assimilation is multiculturalism, in which cultural diversity is
encouraged and valued as beneficial to the society.
• Multiculturalism is the belief that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those of minority
groups, should be accorded special acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant
political culture.
3. Cultural accommodation refers to the process by which individuals may take on values and beliefs of the
host culture and accommodate them in the public sphere while maintaining the parent culture in the
private sphere. Ex: Filipinos who migrate to another country speak their native language at home but
outside, they use the language of the receiving country.
The Nature of Common Cultural Differences

1. Leadership. The key characteristic of leadership is power or influence - the right to manipulate the outcome of
health, welfare, and critical decisions of protection.

In a high-power group leadership, the few in power formulate policy and activity of the many.

Ex:
• Dictator
• Chief
• Minister

2. Work Productivity. A bipolar characteristic of being masculine or feminine exists in the work force or a family
organization.

Masculine culture = aggressive, competitive, assertive winning is rewarder with honor

Feminine culture = gives importance to modesty, quality of life, tenderness

• rewards are given for work satisfaction

• salaries are determined based on needs, not on production

3.Group allegiance. A bipolar characteristic of individual and group orientation exists. In an individual orientation
(individualism), an individual can change the standards of culture

Ex:

• Mohandas Gandhi
• Martin Luther King
• Adolf Hitler
• Lee Kuan Yew
• Ferdinand Marcos
• Benigno Aquino

Group orientation (collectivism) puts emphasis on the group, and sacrificing everything for the sake of the group can
change the future. Example: Suicide terrorists.

Individualistic culture focuses on the “1."

Collectivist culture focuses on "we."

.4. Task commitment. The focus is on elements controlling the group, such as tradition and commitment to the
group (high context culture) versus the individual (low context culture).

High context culture resists change. Low context culture work for the good of the cause, not the welfare of the
group.
Communication within and across Cultures

Kinds of Responses

1. Avoiding. We refuse to comply or do business in cultures that operate according to ethical principles that
differ from ours.
2. Accommodating. We can accept the different ethical system and conform to practices different from ours.
3. Forcing. We can insist on doing business in a way we believe is ethically proper.
4. Educating-Persuading. We can try to convince the people with whom we want to do business why our
ethical principle is more appropriate.
5. Negotiating - Compromising. We and the other party can each give up something to negotiate a
settlement.
6. Collaboration - Problem Solving. We can work with the other party to face the problem directly and reach a
mutually satisfying solution.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

1.Ethnocentrism.

• Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that a person's culture (his "in-group” culture), is much better than any
other group's culture ("outgroup” culture), and the tendency is for that person to judge any "out-group
culture by using the norms
• of his "in-group" culture. If our ethnocentricity is high, the effect is negative. If it is low, the effect is
positive. You are interested to interact with those belonging to the "out-group."
2. Stereotypes and prejudices.
• Stereotyping and being prejudiced against cultural groups are the main barriers to intercultural
communication. The negative characteristics attributed to one group can cause beliefs and feelings that
lead to biases and discrimination against that group. The discriminated group often suffers from being
rejected and avoided in cross-cultural interactions.

3, Stereotypes

• are often generalized negative traits assigned to a group of people (e.g., race, nationality, social class,
sexual orientation, age, gender) even if these traits may only reflect a selected few of the group. Simply
said, a stereotype is a generalization of a group o people based on a small sample of these people.
Stereotyping or classifying an entire group of people or culture with defining characteristics, which are
usually unfair and untrue, is much easier than explaining the complexities of the uniqueness of specific
situations and the individual differences essential in each event.

4.Prejudice

• an offshoot of stereotypes, is an unfair thought, belief, or feeling of dislike for a person or group because of
race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, age, religion, and so on. It is a negative preconceived opinion
held by one group toward members of another group that biases perception and provides a reason for
discrimination.

5.Assumed similarities.

• An assumption of similarity is a baseless, unreasonable refusal to see cultural differences where they exist.
This happens when members of one group assume that all groups behave the same way that what is true
to their culture is also true to all other cultures. This results in insensitivity to cultural differences.
6.Anxiety.

• Intercultural communication anxiety is the fear or apprehension associated with either real or anticipated
communication with people from another cultural group. The fear is often caused by differences in
language ability, verbal and nonverbal communication styles, and expression of emotions. Both "in-group"
and "out-group" cultures may experience feelings of impatience, frustration, and suspicion, while
communicating or even in anticipation of the interaction, which can then increase anxiety in both parties.

Impact of Technology on Communication

1. Technology provides us with unlimited information. Internet provides convenient and fast means of getting
information.
2. It creates opportunities for meeting new people. Many online applications enable us to meet new people
anytime anywhere in the world.
3. It helps us keep in touch with family and friends anywhere in the world. Computers, smartphones, iPads, and
email allow us to communicate quickly and easily.
4. It brings new diversity to our culture and our lives. The pace of change caused by technology is simply amazing.
Google recipes, and you can put sumptuous meals on the dining table. Your cellphone, with its digital camera,
has replaced the film camera.
5. It fosters better cooperation among different cultural groups. New technologies help companies extend
participation on a project to an ever-greater number of people, allowing firms to tap into a wide body of
knowledge and expertise
6. It isolates us. Cellphones take us away from the people we love.
7. It can make us create second lives. Millions of people find solace in virtual communities where they have found
a second life. You might have heard of Sim City, Farmville, and Cities Skylines. In these social networking sites,
users create or choose avatars to interact with other users in anywhere in the world.

Guidelines on Developing Intercultural Competence

1. Widen your field of experience by making new contacts. Getting to know people coming from your
targeted group whose culture differs from yours make you understand the group and their culture better.
2. Learn about the history and the experiences and aspirations of people from different cultures. Taking a
course or reading books about people of diverse cultures makes you experience their cultures vicariously,
allowing you to understand and appreciate them more.
3. Examine yourself for possible stereotypes. Stereotypes and biases result from ignorance about the targeted
group. Being fair-minded and unprejudiced makes you realize the possibility that some of your judgments
are unfair and wrong.
4. Look at the world from someone else's way of looking at and thinking about something, not just yours. Be
emphatic; try to understand other's perspective-how they make sense of their world-and try to experience
what and how they feel.
5. Work on becoming more self-confident. The better we feel about ourselves, the more likely we are to feel
good about others, too, and the more able we are not only to understand them but also to learn from
them.
6. Appreciate cultural similarities and differences. Use cultural resources to do this. It allows you to
understand the members of different cultural groups and helps you establish better intercultural
relationships and interactions.
7. Acknowledge the essential equality and value of all cultures. Never feel superior to people belonging to any
other cultural group, even a minority one.
8. Be sensitive and interpret cultural styles of communication. Develop the ability to understand the
communication symbols of the target culture-its verbal language, signs, gestures, body language, and
customs.
Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Settings

Culturally Appropriate Terms, Expressions, Images

"Every country has its own way of saying things. The important thing is that which lies behind people's words."(Freya
Stark, n.d.)

Cultural differences result in misunderstanding, and "language, more than anything else, is at the heart of culture."

The previous statement implies that being proficient in English does not guarantee our being able to understand
what another speaker of English is trying to communicate unless we become fully aware of how that speaker uses
English based on his own culture.

American English

• first floor
• second floor
• elevator
• apartment
• parking lot
• diaper

British English

• ground floor
• first floor
• lift
• flat
• car park
• nappy

Differences are also found along:

1. Pronunciation

2. Spelling

The Inner Circle covers the native English-speaking countries such as:

• England
• USA
• Canada
• Australia
• New Zealand
The Outer Circle comprises the former colonies such as:

• India
• Malaysia
• Africa
• Singapore
• Nigeria
• Philippines
• Pakistan
• Bangladesh

The Expanding Circle consists of countries such as: China

• Saudi Arabia
• Japan
• Korea
• Germany
• Taiwan
• Turkey
• Egypt
• Israel

When turning to other circles, the question of what counts as a language and what may be considered a variety of
English is somewhat intricate. Pidgins and Creoles belong to this issue. Pidgins are used as lingua franca for trade or
any other practical interaction.

A pidgin uses words from the languages of communicators to understand each other, but it is not the language of
either communicator. The pidgin is a "little more than strings of nouns, verbs and adjectives, often arranged to place
old, shared information first and new information later in the sentence."

The language providing vocabulary is called lexifier, and the language that provides the syntactic structure is call the
substrate. After an extended period of using a pidgin in a community, when the pidgin becomes more fully
developed and serves as the language community, it becomes a "creole.”

Example of Hawaian Creole Bible text. Day Numba One

• "Den God say, 'I like the light shine!' an the light start to shine. God see how good da light. Den he put the
light on one side, and da dark on da odda side. Da light time, he give um da name 'Day time. Da dark time, he give
um da name 'Nite time.' So, had da nite time and day time, az day numba one.

In the process of learning English as either a second language or a foreign language, people from the outer and
expanding circles develop an interlanguage, a "learner language" that deviates from the norms of the target
language. This is a transitional linguistic system at all levels (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics).

In Philippine English, we hear many Filipinos saying sentences like the following:

1. I already ate. (Kumain na ako.)

2. He will come with us, isn't it? (Sasama siya sa atin,hindi ba?)

3. One of my classmate is inside. (Isa sa mga kaklaseko ay nasa loob.)

4. They will come there. (Pupunta sila doon)

The two examples show how the linguistic for is affected by cultural constraints of politeness in India. The tag (isn't
it) is governed by the politeness principle of non-imposition.

In standard American or British English, tag questions are formed by using the subject of the independent clause
and an appropriate modal auxiliary such as:

1. You have taken my book, haven't you?

2. You are soon going home, aren't you?

Indian culture on grammatical rules is also evident in the use of “may” in Indian English.

Indian English: "These mistakes may please be corrected."

Standard English: "These mistakes must be corrected.”

LINGUISTIC PREFERENCES AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

• Variations in the way different cultures use language – like linguistic preferences and nonverbal behaviors -
also cause miscommunication. Nuances in linguistic preferences provide hints about behavior, manners, and
thinking as a cultural group.

Examples:

• Spaniards and Italians prefer eloquence and expressiveness to exactness, tend to be flowery with their
language.

• The English are very polite, use understatement to avoid confrontation, hence, sometimes end up being
ambiguous.

• Asians, including the Japanese and Chinese, consider harmony an important virtue, so to avoid
confrontation, they often say "yes" to many things with the understanding of "Yes, I hear you" or "Yes, I
understand," and not necessarily "Yes, I Agree.

• People in Latin America, and Southern Europe are not comfortable with ambiguity because they are
conditioned to expect absolute truths.

• Scandinavians tend to be reserved; they are completely focused, dedicated listeners.

• Germans, on the other hand, are very logical in both manner and words.

Edward T. Hall called nonverbal behaviors "the silent language." Nonverbal behaviors are expressive human
attributes that impart feelings, attitudes, reactions and judgment which need to be given continued attention
because they are acquired mainly through acculturation.

DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

• Australia: Thumbs up means obscene V sign with palm facing toward the speaker is the obscene "up yours"
insult.

• France: Your hands should be visible at all times even when seated at a table.

• Germany: It is impolite to put your hands in your pockets. Show respect; be punctual.
• Hong Kong: Maintain a two-arm's-length distance with the person. Touching and patting are taboo. When
you are seated, your feet should be facing the ground; the soles of your shoes should not be shown.

• Indonesia: When you are in a private home or mosque, be sure to remove your shoes. Position them by
pointing them toward the door from which you entered.

• Japan: The bow is still the tradition in greetings. Bend your body a 30-degree angle from the waist. For
men: Palms should be face up, toward the knee. For women: Hands should be folded in front of you as you bow.

• Saudi Arabia: Expect greeting to be very emotional. They consist of a "salaam alaykum" (“May God be with
you") followed by a handshake and then a "keef halak" (“How are you?"). *

• Singapore: Gesture with your entire hand in conversation. Pointing with one or two fingers is rude. Avoid
showing the soles of your shoes. Your feet should be used for walking - nothing else. *

• South Korea: When meeting someone, slight bow is appropriate. It is considered good manners to
acknowledge an older person by standing when the person enters the room. *

• United Kingdom: When meeting someone, respect space by maintaining a two arm's length distance. Men
should wait for a British woman to extend her hand before shaking hands. *