PSYCHOLOGY 1010

Psychological Foundations
The History of Psychology
● Define psychology: Psychology refers to the scientific study of the
mind and behavior
● Summarize the history of psychology, focusing on the major schools
of thought:
● Schools of thought
- functionalism: focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its
environment
- structuralism: understanding the conscious experience through introspection
- psychoanalytic theory: focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting
conscious behavior
- behaviorism: focus on observing and controlling behavior
- humanism: perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for
good that is innate to all humans

Contemporary Fields in Psychology

● List and define the five major domains, or pillars, of contemporary
psychology:
● (1) biopsychology and evolutionary
● (2) cognitive
● (3) developmental
● (4) social and personality
● (5) mental and physical health.
- biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior.

- evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of

behavior.
 - cognitive psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on
studying cognitions, or thoughts and their relationship to our
experiences and our actions

- Developmental psychology is the scientific study of development

across a lifespan

- Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or
implied presence of others

- Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that

propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific
ways

- Mental and physical health the study of abnormal psychology,

with its focus on abnormal thoughts and behaviors, as well as
counseling and treatment methods, and recommendations for
coping with stress and living a healthy life.

Careers in Psychology
● Describe educational requirements and career options for the study
of psychology
- Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the
diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other
problematic patterns of behavior
Educational requirements: PhD or Psyd
- Counseling psychology is a similar discipline that focuses on
emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in
individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.
Educational requirements
- Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve
better health through public policy, education, intervention, and
research.
Educational requirements: Bachelors and masters
 - School psychologist: provide advice and training on how schools
might help children to learn and develop and they recommend
methods, or develop strategies in partnership with schools, to help
children learn more effectively.
- Industrial-Organizational psychology (I-O psychology) is a
subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles,
and research findings in industrial and organizational settings.
Educational requirements: Bachelors and Masters.

Psychological Research
The Scientific Method
● Explain the steps of the scientific method
The basic steps in the scientific method are:
- Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question
about it
- Make a hypothesis or potential solution to the question
- Test the hypothesis
- If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find
counter-evidence
- If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try
again
- Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is
never-ending, and no result is ever considered perfect
● Differentiate between theories and hypotheses
- -A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an
explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make
predictions about future observations.
 - A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from
a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all
night, I will get a passing grade on the test).
- The difference between the two of them is, a hypothesis is a
prediction of what could happens, meanwhile a theory is a
well-developed set of ideas used to explain a phenomena.
● Explain how research involving humans or animals is regulated
- Researchers who use animals as experimental subjects must design their
projects so that pain and distress are minimized. Animal research
requires the approval of an IACUC, and all animal facilities are
subject to regular inspections to ensure that animals are being treated
humanely.

Approaches to Research
● Differentiate between descriptive, experimental, and correlational
research
- Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically
describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what,
where, when and how questions, but not why questions.
- Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a
scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that
can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be
measured, calculated and compared. Most importantly,
experimental research is completed in a controlled environment.
- correlational research design investigates relationships between
variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of
them.
● Explain the strengths and weaknesses of case studies, naturalistic
observation, and surveys
- Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you
record the behaviors of your research subjects in real world settings.
Strenghts: Only requires small samples, Statistically powerful, Removes
the effects of individual differences on the outcomes.
 Weaknesses: its lack of scientific control, ethical considerations, and
potential for bias from observers and subjects.

- Case studies: case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a

person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies
are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.
Strenghts: Ability to see a relationship between phenomena, context, and
people. Flexibility to collect data through various means. Ability to capture
the context and lived reality of participants. Flexibility to be used at
various points in a research project, including pilot research.
Weaknesses: Lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for
generalization of results to the wider population. Researchers' own
subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias). Difficult
to replicate. Time-consuming and expensive.

- Survey: collecting information about a group of people by asking them

questions and analyzing the results.
Strengths: cost effectiveness, generalizability, reliability, and versatility
Weakenesses: inflexibility and lack of potential depth.

● Explain what a correlation coefficient tells us about the relationship between

variables
- Correlation coefficients: are used to measure the strength of the linear
relationship between two variables.
- The correlation coefficient is measured on a scale that varies from + 1
through 0 to – 1. Complete correlation between two variables is expressed
by either + 1 or -1. When one variable increases as the other
increases the correlation is positive; when one decreases as the
other increases it is negative.
● Describe why correlation does not mean causation
- Correlation tests for a relationship between two variables. However,
seeing two variables moving together does not necessarily mean
we know whether one variable causes the other to occur.

● Describe the experimental process, including ways to control for bias

- Define a Question to Investigate. As scientists conduct their research, they
make observations and collect data. ...
 - Make Predictions. Based on their research and observations, scientists will
often come up with a hypothesis. ...
- Gather Data. ...
- Analyze the Data. ...
- Draw Conclusions.
To control bias:
- Use multiple people to code the data. ...
- Have participants review your results. ...
- Verify with more data sources. ...
- Check for alternative explanations. ...
- Review findings with peers.
● Identify and differentiate between independent and dependent variables
- Independent variable: a variable that stands alone and isn't changed
by the other variables you are trying to measure.
- Dependent variable: a variable that depends on other factors.
Statistical Thinking
● Define reliability and validity
- Reliability: examination of how consistent and stable the
results of an assessment are.
- Validity: refers to how well a test actually measures what it
was created to measure.
● Describe the role of random sampling and random assignment in
drawing cause-and-effect conclusions
-
random sampling involves numbering every member of the
population and then using a computer to randomly select the
subset to be surveyed.
● Describe the basic structure of a psychological research article
- a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion,
and References sections
● Describe replication and its importance to psychology
- When studies are replicated and achieve the same or similar
results as the original study, it gives greater validity to the
findings. If a researcher can replicate a study’s results, it
means that it is more likely that those results can be
generalized to the larger population.

Biopsychology
 Neural Communication
● Explain the role and function of the basic structures of a neuron
- A neuron is composed of a body, dendrites, and an axon which at the end
of it is the terminals. The dendrites receive information from other
nerve cells and pass the information to the cell body, where the
cell body determines what is the best response to the
information given.
- Role of a neuron:Neurons are information messengers.
● Describe how neurons communicate with each other
- Neurons communicate with each other via electrical events called
'action potentials' and chemical neurotransmitters. At the
junction between two neurons (synapse), an action potential causes
neuron A to release a chemical neurotransmitter.

The Nervous System and the Endocrine System

● Describe the difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems
and the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
- Central nervous system: is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
- The peripheral nervous system: is made up of nerves that branch off
from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.
● Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system.
- The sympathetic nervous system: activates the fight or flight
response during a threat or perceived danger
- the parasympathetic: nervous system restores the body to a state of
calm.
● Describe the endocrine system and explain its primary responsibilities within
the body
- endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These
glands, located all over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body
by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles
and other tissues.
- The responsibilities: controls growth and development during
childhood, regulation of bodily functions in adulthood, and the
reproductive process.
Parts of the Brain
● Explain the relationship between the two hemispheres of the brain
- The 2 hemispheres are connected by a bridge of nerve fibres called
the corpus callosum. The right half of the cerebrum (right hemisphere)
controls the left side of the body. The left half of the cerebrum (left
hemisphere) controls the right side of the body.

● Identify the location and function of the lobes of the brain

- The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes
- The frontal lobe is located in the forward part of the brain,
extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus
The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion,
and language. It contains the motor cortex, which is involved in
planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is
responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s area,
which is essential for language production.
- The parietal lobe rests near the top and center of the cerebral
cortex, just behind the frontal lobe and above the occipital and
temporal lobes
Fucntion of the parietal lobe: The parietal lobe is vital for
sensory perception and integration, including the
management of taste, hearing, sight, touch, and smell. It is
home to the brain's primary somatic sensory cortex, a region where
the brain interprets input from other areas of the body.

- The occipital lobes sit at the back of the head

- Function of the occipital lobe: Responsible for visual
perception, including colour, form and motion.

- Where is the temporal lobe located: behind the ears

- Functions: processing auditory information and with the encoding
of memory. The temporal lobes are also believed to play an
important role in processing affect/emotions, language, and certain
aspects of visual perception.
● Identify and describe the role of the parts of the limbic system, the
midbrain, forebrain, and hindbrain

Limbic system
- Limbic system: is the part of the brain involved in our
behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it
comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and
caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.
The limbic system is composed of four main parts: the hypothalamus,
the amygdala, the thalamus, and the hippocampus
Amyglada: processing fearful and threatening stimuli (4), including
detection of threat and activation of appropriate fear-related behaviors in
response to threatening or dangerous stimuli.
Hypothalamus:The function of the hypothalamus is to maintain your
body’s internal balance, which is known as homeostasis. To do this, the
hypothalamus helps stimulate or inhibit many of your body’s key
processes, including:

● Heart rate and blood pressure

● Body temperature
● Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst
● Appetite and body weight
● Glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines
● Production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release hormones
● Sleep cycles

- thalamus: your body's information relay station. All information from

your body's senses (except smell) must be processed through your thalamus
before being sent to your brain's cerebral cortex for interpretation. Your thalamus
also plays a role in sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning and memory.
 - Hippocampus: hippocampus plays a vital role in regulating learning, memory
encoding, memory consolidation, and spatial navigation.

Midbrain

- There are three main parts of the midbrain - the colliculi, the
tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles.
- The mid brain: is associated with vision, hearing, motor control,
sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation, acting as
a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information.
- Colliculi: is a multisensory midbrain structure that integrates visual, auditory,
and somatosensory spatial information to initiate orienting movements of the
eyes and head toward salient objects in space.
- Tegmmentum:relays inhibitory signals to the thalamus and basal nuclei to
prevent unwanted body movement.
- cerebral peduncles: the main highway for signals that need to be transported
from the cortex to other parts of the central nervous system (CNS), and are
especially important for body coordination.
Forebrain

- forebrain: is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and

processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language, and controlling motor functio
- Part of the forebrain:cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
limbic system, and the olfactory bulb.
- Cerebrum:initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature:
- Thalamus: : your body's information relay station. All information from
your body's senses (except smell) must be processed through your thalamus
before being sent to your brain's cerebral cortex for interpretation. Your thalamus
also plays a role in sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning and memory.
- Hypothalamus:The function of the hypothalamus is to maintain your body’s
internal balance, which is known as homeostasis. To do this, the hypothalamus
helps stimulate or inhibit many of your body’s key processes, including:
● Heart rate and blood pressure
● Body temperature
● Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst
● Appetite and body weight
● Glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines
● Production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release hormones
● Sleep cycles
- Pirtutitary gland: regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction
through the hormones that it produces.
- Lymbic system: The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our
behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we
need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or
flight responses.
 - olfactory bulb: receive information about smells from the nose and send it to
the brain by way of the olfactory tracts.

Hindbrain

- The hindbrain: coordinates functions that are fundamental to

survival, including respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and
wakefulness.
- Parts of the hindbrain:pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata
- Pons: providing a route for signals to travel to and from your brain.
- Cerebellum: is primarily involved in coordinating movement
and balance. I
- medulla oblongata: The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in
transmitting signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of
the brain and in controlling autonomic activities, such as heartbeat
and respiration.
● Describe the types of techniques available to clinicians and
researchers to image or scan -
- functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) : is a technique for
measuring and mapping brain activity that is noninvasive and safe

- computerized tomography (CT) positron emission tomography

(PET):A CT scan can be used to visualize nearly all parts of the body and
is used to diagnose disease or injury as well as to plan medical, surgical or
radiation treatment.
 - electroencephalography (EEG):is a test that measures electrical
activity in the brain using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the
scalp.
- magnetoencephalography (MEG):is a non-invasive technique for
investigating human brain activity. It allows the measurement of ongoing
brain activity on a millisecond-by-millisecond basis, and it shows where in the
brain activity is produced.

Nature and Nurture

● Investigate the historic nature vs. nurture debate and describe techniques
psychologists use to learn about the origin of traits
- the adoption study:a research design that investigates the
relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the
development of personality, behavior, or disorder by comparing the
similarities of biological parent–child pairs with those of adoptive
parent–child pairs.
- twin studies:Twin studies are a special type of epidemiological
studies designed to measure the contribution of genetics as opposed
to the environment, to a given trait
- quantitative genetics:is the study of the genetic basis underlying
phenotypic variation among individuals, with a focus primarily on
traits that take a continuous range of values.

● Describe epigenetics and examine how gene-environment interactions are

critical for expression of physical and psychological characteristics
- Epigenetics: the study of how your behaviors and environment can
cause changes that affect the way your genes work.

Lifespan Development
Theories of Development
● Describe the three major issues in development: continuity and
discontinuity, one common course of development or many
unique courses of development, and nature versus nurture
- The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession
of changes that produce different behaviors in different age-specific life
periods called stages.
- The continuity view says that change is gradual.

● Define Freud’s theory of psychosexual development

- Freusd propoedpersonality development in childhood takes place during
five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital stages
● Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according
to Erikson
- According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of
initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those
who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.
● Give examples of behavior and key vocabulary in each of Piaget’s stages of
cognitive development
- (1) sensorimotor intelligence: knowledge that is obtained from
sensory perception and motor actions involving objects in the
environment.
Examples: instances when you hide an object under a blanket, and the
child tries to find it.

- (2) preoperational thinking: children build on object

permanence and continue to develop abstract mental processes.
example:imitating the way someone talks or moves even when
they are not in the room

- (3) concrete operational thinking: characterized by logical

operations, such as conservation, reversibility or classification, allowing
logical reasoning.
 - Example:a child has one friend who is rude, another friend who is also
rude, and the same is true for a third friend. The child may conclude that
friends are rude.

- (4) formal operational thinking:the ability to formulatehypotheses

and systematically test them to arrive at an answer to a problem.
Example: children who can reason the answer in their heads
● Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the stages of reasoning
- description:focuses on how children develop morality and moral
reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in
a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking
and maintaining justice
- 1st stage OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT: we make moral
judgments based on obedience and punishment. Finn’s sense of good
and bad is directly linked to whether he gets punished or not

- 2nd stage SELF-INTEREST: we are motivated by

self-interest.

- 3rd stage INTERPERSONAL ACCORD AND

CONFORMITY:interpersonal accord and conformity guide our
moral judgments

4th stage AUTHORITY AND MAINTAINING SOCIAL

ORDER: we value authority and want to maintain
social-order. When the teacher sees the group fighting, he
immediately steps in and shouts

5th SOCIAL CONTRACT: we understand rules as a social

contract as opposed to a strict order.
 6th stage UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES: we are guided
by universal ethical principles. All those involved now have to face
the headmaster

● Explain the procedure, results, and implications of Hamlin and Wynn’s

research on moral reasoning in infants
- Procedure: in the experiment, they put on a puppet show for the infant to
watch. In the show there is a mean puppet that steal a ball from the other
puppet, and in the a different scenario there is a puppet that give the ball
to the other puppet. At the end they present the kind and meand puppet to
the infant to allow them to choose which one they preferred
- Results: the infant preferred the kind puppet over the mean one 83% of
the time.
- Conclusion: Kohlberg concluded that children younger than about 8 or 9
years of age make moral decisions based on avoiding punishment and
receiving praise

Stages of Development in Childhood

● Describe the stages of prenatal development and the significance of prenatal
care
- The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell
unite in one of the two fallopian tubes.
- the embryonic period is when all the baby's major systems and
structures develop. The embryo's cells multiply and start to take on
specific functions. This is called differentiation. Blood cells, kidney cells,
and nerve cells all develop.
- The fetal stage of prenatal development lasts from week nine until
birth. During this stage, the fetus will continue to develop organs,
including the brain and spinal cord. Between weeks nine and 12, the fetus
will begin to make movements with their arms and legs
● Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood
- In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body’s physical
development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh between 5
and 10 pounds, and a newborn’s weight typically doubles in six months
and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so
we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds.
The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches
by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old
 - 2 years old, Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs, 3 years old Climbs and
runs; pedals tricycle, 4 years Catches balls; uses scissors, 5 years old Hops
and swings; uses fork and spoon.
● Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through
childhood, including attachment, the development of a self-concept

- Attachment: is a long-standing connection or bond with others.

An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have
normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed
that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life.
- A secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety
as he explores
two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be
responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the
caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions

Self-concept:
- by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror
is herself.
- By 24–36 months old children can name and/or point to themselves in
pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.
- Children from 2–4 years old display a great increase in social behavior
once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other
children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions
- By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when
asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age
also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans.
- Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of
group memberships: “I’m a first grader!” School-age children compare
themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some
areas and less so in others (recall Erikson’s task of industry versus
inferiority).

Development in Adolescence and Adulthood

● Describe physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs during
adolescence

Physical
 Several physical changes occur during puberty, such as adrenarche and
gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands, respectively. Also
during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and
mature.
- Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically needed
for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in
males.
- Secondary sexual characteristics are physical signs of sexual
maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as
development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial
hair and a deepened voice in boys.
- Girls experience menarche, the beginning of menstrual periods,
usually around 12–13 years old,
- boys experience spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14
years old.
- During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height
(i.e., growth spurt). For girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old,
with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old. Boys begin
their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years
old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old.
- Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic
than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular,
confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for
substance abuse and early sexual activity
- Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can
cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies.
These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and
eating disorders
- Late blooming boys and girls (i.e., they develop more slowly than
their peers) may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical
development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late
maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict
with parents
- Brain maturity occurs when there is growth of new neural
connections and the pruning of unused neurons and connections.

Cognitive Development
 - . During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking
and become capable of abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to
this stage as formal operational thought

- teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider

multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate
ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form
new ideas (Figure 3). In addition, it’s not uncommon for
adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal
norms.

- Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we

discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability
to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others

- According to one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive empathy

begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in
boys (Van der Graaff et al., 2013). Teens who reported having
supportive fathers with whom they could discuss their worries were
found to be better able to take the perspective of others
Psychosocial Development
- an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I
want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their
parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in
opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is
common as peer relationships become a central focus in
adolescents’ lives.

- As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from

their parents, and the peer group becomes very important
(Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending
less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings
toward them

- a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural

and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over
day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing,
chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as
teens develop
 ● Describe physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in
adulthood

Physical
- By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 40s), our physical
maturation is complete, although our height and weight may
increase slightly
- n young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak,
including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and
cardiac functioning.
- Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s (Figure 1).
Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and
wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases
during this time.
- Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach
the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50
years old.
- Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the
last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity,
reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell,
taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline
significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal
levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and
Alzheimer’s disease in later years.

Cognitive Development

- Fluid intelligence refers to information processing abilities, such

as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction
time.
- Crystallized intelligence encompasses abilities that draw upon
experience and knowledge.
- Older adults tend to perform poorer than young adults on memory
tasks that involve recall of information, where individuals must
retrieve information they learned previously without the help of a
list of possible choices
 - Finally, it is well established that our hearing and vision decline as
we age. Longitudinal research has proposed that deficits in sensory
functioning explain age differences in a variety of cognitive abilitie
- r experience. For example, older adults often perform as well if not
better than young adults on tests of word knowledge or vocabulary.
With age often comes expertise, and research has pointed to areas
where aging experts perform as well or better than younger
individuals. For example, older typists were found to compensate
for age-related declines in speed by looking farther ahead at printed
text (Salthouse, 1984). Compared to younger players, older chess
experts are able to focus on a smaller set of possible moves, leading
to greater cognitive efficiency (Charness, 1981). Accrued knowledge
of everyday tasks, such as grocery prices, can help older adults to
make better decisions than young adult

Psychosocial Development

- For those in early and middle adulthood, meaning is found through work
- As mentioned previously, adults tend to define themselves by what they
do—their careers. Earnings peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is
more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is
interesting, provides opportunities for advancement, and allows some
independence
- As people enter the final stages of life, they have what Erik Erikson
described as a crisis over integrity versus despair. In other words, they
review the events of their lives and try to come to terms with the mark (or
lack thereof) that they have made on the world. People who believe they
have had a positive impact on the world through their contributions live
the end of life with a sense of integrity. Those who feel they have not
measured up to certain standards—either their own or others’—develop a
sense of despair.
- Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been
found to contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most
adults in the United States identify themselves through their relationships
with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents (Markus et
al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are
 young, research suggests that parents reap the rewards down the road, as
adult children tend to have a positive effect on parental well-being
- Another aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and
social support. As we get older, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests
that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as
close, if not more close than in our earlier years.

Sensation and Perception

Sensation and Perception
● Define sensation and explain its connection to the concepts of absolute
threshold, difference threshold, and subliminal messages
- Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to specific types of
stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor,
sensation has occurred.
- Absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy
that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
- It is also possible for us to get messages that are presented below the
threshold for conscious awareness—these are called subliminal
messages.
- Absolute thresholds are generally measured under incredibly controlled
conditions in situations that are optimal for sensitivity. Sometimes, we are
more interested in how much difference in stimuli is required to detect a
difference between them. This is known as the just noticeable difference
(jnd) or difference threshold.
- absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be
present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
- just noticeable difference: difference in stimuli required to detect a
difference between the stimuli
- mere-exposure effects: the result of developing a more positive
attitude towards a stimulus after repeated instances of mere exposure to it.
- priming: the process by which recent experiences increase a trait’s
accessibility.
- sensation: what happens when sensory information is detected by a
sensory receptor
 - signal detection theory: change in stimulus detection as a function of
current mental state
- subliminal message: message presented below the threshold of
conscious awareness
- transduction: conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action
potential
- Weber’s law: Ernst Weber’s discovery that the difference threshold is a
constant fraction of the original stimulus and bigger stimuli require larger
differences to be noticed

● Discuss the roles attention, motivation, and sensory adaptation play in

perception
- Attention: what we choose to focus on intensely blocks out all other
sensory inputs.
- attentional blindness is the failure to notice something that is
completely visible because the person was actively attending to something
else and did not pay attention to other things
- signal detection theory: the ability to identify a stimulus when it is
embedded in a distracting background is called
- What you choose to pay attention to affects what sort stimuli you hear or
see etc.
- Sensory adaptation allows you to for ceratin sexosty inputs to become
more prominent or to become unnoticeable.

Vision
● Describe the basic anatomy of the visual system and how light waves enable
vision
- Visual processing and, ultimately, visual fields begin in the retina. Light
enters the eye; passes through the cornea, anterior chamber,
lens, and vitreous; and finally reaches the retina's
photoreceptor cells.
- Light activates these photoreceptors, which modulate the activity of
bipolar cells.
● Describe the trichromatic theory of color vision and the opponent-process
theory
- The trichromatic theory of color vision is a theory that states there
are three different color receptors in the retina. The cones in the retina
 are what give color vision. This theory says the cones are sensitive to
three different colors: green, blue, and red.
- Opponent process theory suggests that looking at one color for a long
period causes those receptor cells to become fatigued. When they begin
sending weaker signals, their opposing cells fire, sending signals that
cause the perception of the opposing color.

Hearing

● Describe the basic anatomy and function of the auditory system

- The auditory system processes how we hear and understand sounds
within the environment. It is made up of both peripheral structures (e.g.,
outer, middle, and inner ear) and brain regions (cochlear nuclei, superior
olivary nuclei, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate
nuclei, and auditory cortex).

- Our ability to perceive pitch relies on both the firing rate of the
hair cells in the basilar membrane as well as their location
within the membrane. In terms of sound localization, both monaural
and binaural cues are used to locate where sounds originate in our
environment.

Other Senses
● Summarize the chemical process of taste and smell
- Tastants, chemicals in foods, are detected by taste buds, which consist of
special sensory cells. When stimulated, these cells send signals to specific
areas of the brain, which make us conscious of the perception of taste.
Similarly, specialized cells in the nose pick up odorants, airborne odor
molecules
● Describe the basic functions of the vestibular, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic
sensory systems
- The vestibular system provides the sense of balance and the
information about body position that allows rapid compensatory
movements in response to both self-induced and externally generated
forces.
- Proprioception enables us to judge limb movements and positions,
force, heaviness, stiffness, and viscosity. It combines with other senses to
locate external objects relative to the body and contributes to body
image.
 - Our proprioceptive and kinesthetic systems provide information
about body position and body movement through receptors that detect
stretch and tension in the muscles, joints, tendons, and skin of the body.

Perception
● Give examples of gestalt principles, including the figure-ground relationship,
proximity, similarity, continuity, and closure
- Getal principles:similarity, continuation, closure, proximity,
figure/ground, and symmetry & order
- closure: organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as
a series of parts
- figure-ground relationship: segmenting our visual world into figure
and ground
- Gestalt psychology: field of psychology based on the idea that the
whole is different from the sum of its parts
- good continuation: (also, continuity) we are more likely to perceive
continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines
- pattern perception: ability to discriminate among different figures
and shapes
- perceptual hypothesis: educated guess used to interpret sensory
information
- proximity: things that are close to one another tend to be grouped
together
- similarity: things that are alike tend to be grouped together

● Define the basic terminology and basic principles of multimodal perception

- crossmodal phenomena: effects that concern the influence of the
perception of one sensory modality on the perception of another
- double flash illusion: the false perception of two visual flashes when a
single flash is accompanied by two auditory beeps
- integrated: the process by which the perceptual system combines
information arising from more than one modality
 - McGurk effect: an effect in which conflicting visual and auditory
components of a speech stimulus result in an illusory perception
- multimodal: of or pertaining to multiple sensory modalities
- multimodal perception: the effects that concurrent stimulation in
more than one sensory modality has on the perception of events and
objects in the world
- multimodal phenomena: effects that concern the binding of inputs
from multiple sensory modalities
- rubber hand illusion: the false perception of a fake hand as belonging
to a perceiver, due to multimodal sensory information
- sensory modalities: a type of sense; for example, vision or audition
- unimodal: of or pertaining to a single sensory modality

● Give examples of multimodal and crossmodal behavioral effects

- Multimodal phenomena concern stimuli that generate simultaneous
(or nearly simultaneous) information in more than one sensory
modality. As discussed above, speech is a classic example of this
kind of stimulus. When an individual speaks, she generates sound
waves that carry meaningful information.
- A famous (and commonly experienced) crossmodal illusion is referred to as “the
ventriloquism effect.” When a ventriloquist appears to make a puppet speak, she
fools the listener into thinking that the location of the origin of the speech sounds is
at the puppet's mouth.
● Explain how and why psychologists use illusions
- How?to explore perception, what parts of the brain are involved in
interpretation of the illusion, and what variables increase or decrease the
strength of the illusion.
- Why? to gain insights into the inner workings of the visual system.

Memory
How Memory Functions
● Explain the two major processes of encoding and the three different ways that
we encode sensory information.
- Encoding information occurs through both automatic processing
and effortful processing.
- the three different ways that we encode sensory information:
visual encoding, acoustic encoding, and semantic encoding.
● Describe the three stages of memory storage
 Sensory Register
- In the sensory register process, the brain obtains information from the
environment. This activity is short, lasting at most a few seconds. During
sensory register, the brain gathers information passively through visual
and auditory cues, known respectively as “iconic” and “echoic” memory.
Short-Term Memory

- short-term memory occurs in two parts: traditionally termed “short-term

memory” and “working memory.” Short-term memory is when the brain
stores information temporarily so that it can be repeated, such as
remembering a phone number you see on TV. Working memory refers to
the brain storing information for the purpose of manipulating it, such as
remembering a set of numbers while working on a math problem.

Long-Term Memory

- the long-term memory process allows information to remain in the

brain for an extended period, nothing in the brain avoids risk.
Information stored in long-term memory can stay in the brain for a short
while (a day, a week) or last as long as a lifetime.

● Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative and semantic

and episodic memory
- There are three types of LTM: (1) semantic memory holds factual
knowledge, for example, the difference between afferent and efferent
nerves; (2) episodic memory involves knowledge of specific events, for
example, your first day of work; and (3) procedural memory includes
knowledge of how to do things, for example, how to properly intubate a
patient.
● Explain retrieval cues and define recall, recognition and relearning
- Retrieval cues are aspects of an individual's physical and
cognitive environment which aid the recall process; they can be
explicitly provided at recall, self-generated, or encountered more
incidentally through the retrieval context
- recall: accessing information without cues
- recognition: identifying previously learned information after
encountering it again, usually in response to a cue
 - relearning: learning information that was previously learned
● Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the
hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory
- The hippocampus is thought to be principally involved in storing
long-term memories and in making those memories resistant
to forgetting
- The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored
because storage is influenced by stress hormones
- The cerebellum's job is to process procedural memories;
- the hippocampus is where new memories are encoded;

- the amygdala helps determine what memories to store,

Forgetting and Other Memory Problems

● Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia
- Anterograde amnesia (AA) refers to an impaired capacity for new
learning.
- retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of information that was acquired
before the onset of amnesia.
● Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony
- They often can't see things accurately when they are far away, or
when they only had a few seconds to see a criminal event
occurring. It can be difficult to provide a proper description of a person,
including exactly what they looked like and any definitive features.
● Explain the misinformation effect
- the “misinformation effect” is the way false or misleading
information distorts a person's understanding of a topic or
event, even if they have a factual understanding of the topic or
event. In short, it's when our memory for past events is altered after
exposure to misleading information.

Improving Memory
● Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies: including mnemonics,
rehearsal, chunking, and peg-words.
 - One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to
be remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973). Think about how you learned
your multiplication tables as a child. You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 =
42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts is rehearsal.
- Another strategy is chunking: you organize information into manageable
bits or chunks (Bodie, Powers, & Fitch-Hauser, 2006). Chunking is useful
when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers.
Instead of trying to remember 5205550467, you remember the number as
520-555-0467.
- You could also enhance memory by using elaborative rehearsal: a
technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and
its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory
- Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organize information
for encoding (Figure 1). They are especially useful when we want to recall
larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a
system

Learning
Classical Conditioning
● Explain how classical conditioning occurs
- classical conditioning: learning in which the stimulus or experience
occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the
behavior
● Identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in classical conditioning situations
- conditioned response (CR): response caused by the conditioned
stimulus
- conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that elicits a response due to its
being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
- higher-order conditioning: (also, second-order conditioning) using a
conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
- neutral stimulus (NS): stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
- unconditioned response (UCR): natural (unlearned) behavior to a
given stimulus
 - unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits a reflexive
response

● Describe the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery,

generalization, and discrimination
- acquisition: period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a
human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the
conditioned response
- extinction: decrease in the conditioned response when the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
- habituation: when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is
presented repeatedly without change
- spontaneous recovery: return of a previously extinguished conditioned
response
- stimulus discrimination: ability to respond differently to similar
stimuli
- stimulus generalization: demonstrating the conditioned response to
stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Operant Conditioning
● Define and give examples of operant conditioning
- operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by external stimuli.
- For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or
learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the
stove are "discriminative stimuli". Operant behavior is said to be
"voluntary".
● Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment (including
positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment)
- Positive reinforcement increases the target behavior by adding
something preferred (good).
- Negative reinforcement increases the target behavior by taking away
something aversive.
- positive punishment decreases the target behavior by adding
something aversive (bad).
 - Negative punishment includes taking away a certain reinforcing item
after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future
● Define shaping
- Shaping is the process of training a learned behavior that would not normally
occur. For each action closer to the desired outcome, a reinforcement or reward is
provided until the target behavior is achieved.
● Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers
- primary reinforcer is biological stimulus causing involuntary reflex
- secondary reinforcer is conditioned stimulus causing learned behavior.
● Distinguish between reinforcement schedules
- Reinforcement schedules can be divided into two broad categories:
continuous schedules and partial schedules (also called intermittent
schedules).
- In a continuous schedule every instance of a desired behavior is
reinforced
- partial schedules only reinforce the desired behavior occasionally.

Other Types of Learning

● Explain latent learning and cognitive maps
- cognitive map: mental picture of the layout of the environment.
- Latent learning: learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until
there is a reason to demonstrate it.
● Explain observational learning and the steps in the modeling process
- Observation learning: the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others
- the steps in the modeling process
1. identify and quantify objectives.
2. Draw diagrams for a conceptual model.
3. Formulate conceptual model.
4. Write and debug computer code.
5. Verify computer code.
6. Validate concepts in model.
7. Perform preliminary sensitivity analysis.
8. Collect data to validate model.

Thinking and Intelligence

Thinking and Problem Solving
● Distinguish between concepts and prototypes
 - Concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images,
ideas, or memories, such as life experiences.
- prototype: best representation of a concept
● Describe problem solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics
- a well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you
don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error
- An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides you with
step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome
- heuristic is a general problem-solving framework “like a rule of thumbs”
- heuristic is a general problem-solving framework
● Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving, including
choice blindness
- A mental set is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that
has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.
- Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive
an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.
- confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms
your existing beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not
very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the
professor
- Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced
was predictable, even though it really wasn’t.
- Representative bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you
unintentionally stereotype someone or something;
- availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based
on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available
to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your
decision.
- Choice blindness is the failure to recall a choice immediately after we
have made that choice. If you go to an ice cream store, order a chocolate
cone, and then accept a strawberry cone without noticing, that is choice
blindness.

Language
● Define basic terms used to describe language use
- Common ground is a set of knowledge that the speaker and listener
share and they think, assume, or otherwise take for granted that they
share.
- audience design: constructing utterances to suit the audience’s
knowledge
 - ingroup: group to which a person belongs
- lexicon: words and expressions
- syntax (i.e., grammatical rules for arranging words and expressions
together), as well as speech rate and accent
● Characterize the typical content of conversation and its social implications
- ingroup: group to which a person belongs
- outgroup: group to which a person does not belong
- social brain hypothesis: the hypothesis that the human brain has
evolved, so that humans can maintain larger ingroups
- linguistic intergroup bias: a tendency for people to characterize
positive things about their ingroup using more abstract expressions, but
negative things about their outgroups using more abstract expressions.
● Understand how the use of language develops
- phoneme: basic sound unit of a given language
- morpheme: smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning
- Semantics refers to the process by which we derive meaning from
morphemes and words
- Syntax refers to the way words are organized into sentences
- grammar: set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use
of a lexicon
- language: communication system that involves using words to transmit
information from one individual to another
- lexicon: the words of a given language
- overgeneralization: extension of a rule that exists in a given language
to an exception to the rule
Explain the relationship between language and thinking
- relationship: extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an
exception to the rule

Intelligence and Creativity

● Explain the triarchic theory of intelligence
- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: intelligence results from
information processing components being applied to experience for the
purposes of adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of environments
● Explain the multiple intelligences theory
- multiple intelligences theory: Multiple intelligences theory states that
everyone has all eight intelligences at varying degrees of proficiency
 and an individual’s learning style is unrelated to the areas in which
they are the most intelligent.
● · Describe the development of IQ tests, their purposes, and benefits
- IQ stands for intelligence quotient and describes a score earned on a
test designed to measure intelligence.
- Purpose:IQ tests begin to assess a person's intelligence quotient by
measuring their short-term and long-term memory. It also
measures how well individuals can solve puzzles or recall information they
have heard, as well as how quickly they can complete these activities
- benefits: it can provide unique and important information about a young
child's intellectual development that family or professionals may not have
picked up on or been able to explain.
● · Explain the bell curve, and how IQ is measured

- Bell Curve: When IQ scores are plotted on a graph, they typically follow a
bell-shaped curve.1The peak of the "bell" occurs where the majority of the
scores lie. The bell then slopes down to each side; one side represents
lower than average scores and the other side represents scores that are
above the average
- How is I.Q measured : IQ, or intelligence quotient A number representing
a person's reasoning ability. It's determined by dividing a person's
score on a special test by his or her age, then multiplying by 100.
● · Describe how genetics and the environment affect intelligence
- A child may be born with genes for high intelligence, but if that child
grows up in a deprived environment where he/she is malnourished or
lacks access to mental stimulation, the child may not score well on
measures of IQ.

States of Consciousness
Consciousness and Rhythms
● Explain disruptions in biological rhythms, including sleep debt
- circadian disruption is a disturbance of biological timing, which can
occur at different organizational levels and/or between different
organizational levels, ranging from molecular rhythms in individual cells
to misalignment of behavioral cycles with environmental changes”
- Insufficient Sleep. When people have difficulty getting sleep due
to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they
accumulate a sleep debt. A person with a sleep debt does not get
 sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. The consequences of sleep debt include
decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency.

Sleep and Dreams

● Describe areas of the brain and hormone secretions involved in sleep
- Parts of the brain: Hypothalamus, thalamus,pineal gland,
superchiasmatic, pituitary gland, and pond
- Hormone secretions:a number of hormones from several endocrine
glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),
luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone
● Describe several theories (adaptive and cognitive) aimed at explaining the
function of sleep
- Adaptive: sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during
the day. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce,
perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures.
- Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns
evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in
darkness. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm
- Cognitive:Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleep’s
importance for cognitive function and memory formation. sleep
deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits
(Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain
attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Moreover,
these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep
deprivation increases
● Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep
- rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: period of sleep characterized by
brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting
movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
- non-REM (NREM): period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep
● Describe the stages of sleep
- Stage 1 sleep is a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and
sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. During this time,
there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat.
- stage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves
still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief
bursts of activity known as sleep spindles
- Stage 3 of sleep is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep
because these stages are characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz),
 high amplitude delta waves (Figure 4). During this time, an individual’s
heart rate and respiration slow dramatically.
- Stage 4 REM, known as paradoxical sleep, is when the body's
immobilized and dreams occur.
● Describe the symptoms and treatments for insomnia, sleep apnea, and
narcolepsy
Insommia:
- Difficulty falling asleep at night.
- Waking up during the night.
- Waking up too early.
- Not feeling well-rested after a night's sleep.
- Daytime tiredness or sleepiness.
- Irritability, depression or anxiety.
- Difficulty paying attention, focusing on tasks or remembering.
- Increased errors or accidents.

Treatments :
- Stimulus control therapy. This method helps remove factors that
condition your mind to resist sleep. ...
- Relaxation techniques. Progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback and
breathing exercises are ways to reduce anxiety at bedtime. ...
- Sleep restriction. ...
- Remaining passively awake. ...
- Light therapy.

Sleep anea
Symptoms
- Loud snoring.
- Episodes in which you stop breathing during sleep — which would be
reported by another person.
- Gasping for air during sleep.
- Awakening with a dry mouth.
- Morning headache.
- Difficulty staying asleep (insomnia)
- Excessive daytime sleepiness (hypersomnia)
- Difficulty paying attention while awake.
Treatment
 - A continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device includes a
mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a
pump that pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain
ope
- Other airway pressure devices. ...
- Oral appliances. ...
- Treatment for associated medical problems. ...
- Supplemental oxygen. ...
- Adaptive servo-ventilation (ASV).
Narcolepsy
Symptoms
- Excessive daytime sleepiness. People with narcolepsy fall asleep without
warning, anywhere, anytime. ...
- Sudden loss of muscle tone. ...
- Sleep paralysis. ...
- Changes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. ...
- Hallucinations.
Treatments
- Stimulants. Drugs that stimulate the central nervous system are the
primary treatment to help people with narcolepsy stay awake during the
day. ...
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or serotonin and
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). ...
- Tricyclic antidepressants. ...
- Sodium oxybate (Xyrem).

Drugs and Other States of Consciousness

● Identify opioids and describe how they impact the brain and behavior
- Opioids: A substance used to treat moderate to severe pain.
- Impact on the brain: Opioids trigger the release of endorphins, your
brain's feel-good neurotransmitters. Endorphins muffle your perception
of pain and boost feelings of pleasure, creating a temporary but powerful
sense of well-being.
● Compare and contrast between depressants, stimulants, opioids, and
hallucinogens
- depressant: drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity
- stimulant: drug that tends to increase overall levels of neural activity;
includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine
- Opioids: A substance used to treat moderate to severe pain.
 - hallucinogen: one of a class of drugs that results in profound
alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences, often with vivid
hallucinations
● Describe hypnosis and meditation
- Hypnosis is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which
minimal attention is given to external stimuli.
- meditation: clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed
awareness and focus

Personality
Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality
● Define personality and describe early theories about personality
development
- personality: long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals
to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways
- Theories: Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human
behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four
fluids (“humors”) of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the
liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine
temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperamen.

- In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that the distances

between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s personality traits, character,
and mental abilities (Figure 2). According to Gall, measuring these
distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing
information that could be used to determine whether a person was
friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on

- Wundt suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved

using two major axes: emotional/nonemotional and
changeable/unchangeable. The first axis separated strong from weak
emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the
phlegmatic and sanguine). The second axis divided the changeable
temperaments (choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones
(melancholic and phlegmatic) .
 - Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first
comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both
normal and abnormal behaviors. According to Freud, unconscious drives
influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the
forces that influence our personality. Freud attracted many followers who
modified his ideas to create new theories about personality

● Describe the assumptions of the psychodynamic perspective on personality

development, including the id, ego, and superego
- here are several key assumptions in psychodynamic theory: All behavior
has an underlying cause. The causes of a person's behavior
originate in their unconscious. Different aspects of a person's
unconscious struggle against each other.
● Define and describe the defense mechanisms
- believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective
measures known as defense mechanisms
- rationalization: ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted
with anxiety makes excuses to justify behavior
- reaction formation: ego defense mechanism in which a person
confronted with anxiety swaps unacceptable urges or behaviors for their
opposites
- regression: ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with
anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral state
- repression: ego defense mechanism in which anxiety-related thoughts
and memories are kept in the unconscious
- sublimation: ego defense mechanism in which unacceptable urges are
channeled into more appropriate activities
- superego: aspect of the personality that serves as one’s moral compass,
or conscience
- unconscious: mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to
access
● Define and describe the psychosexual stages of personality
development
 - The five psychosexual stages are the oral, the anal, the phallic,
the latent, and the genital.
- anal stage: psychosexual stage in which children experience pleasure in
their bowel and bladder movements
- genital stage: psychosexual stage in which the focus is on mature sexual
interests
- oral stage: psychosexual stage in which an infant’s pleasure is focused on
the mouth
- phallic stage: psychosexual stage in which the focus is on the genitals

● Summarize the contributions of Neo-Freudians to personality theory, including

Adler’s inferiority complex, Erikson’s psychosocial stages, Jung’s ideas of the
collective unconscious and archetypes, and Horney’s coping styles
- The neo-Freudians were psychologists whose work followed from Freud's.
They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but
they decreased the emphasis on sex as a source of energy and
conflict while focusing more on the social environment and
effects of culture on personality.
- Adler's theory suggested that every person has a sense of inferiority. From childhood,
people work toward overcoming this inferiority by "striving for superiority."
Adler believed that this drive was the motivating force behind human behaviors,
emotions, and thought

- A major contribution of psychosocial theory is the identification of

adolescence as the period of life when a person formulates a personal
identity, a framework of values and commitments that guide major life
choices in the transition to adulthood.
- The collective unconscious was expressed through 'archetypes', universal
thought-forms or mental images that influenced an individual's
feelings and action. The experience of archetypes often paid little heed
to tradition or cultural rules, which suggests that they are innate
projections.

- Psychoanalytic theorist Karen Horney developed one of the best-known

theories of neurosis. She believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety
caused by interpersonal relationships. Horney's theory proposed that
strategies used to cope with anxiety can be overused, causing
them to take on the appearance of needs
Explaining Personality
● Describe the learning perspective on personality, including the
concepts of reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, locus of control,
and the person-situation debate.
- Behavioral perspective: They view personality as significantly shaped
by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism.
- social-cognitive perspective: of personality that emphasizes both
learning and cognition as sources of individual differences in personality.
- reciprocal determinism: proposed the concept of reciprocal
determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all
interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by the others
simultaneously
- locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our
lives. In
- the person-situation debate: refers to the controversy concerning
whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a
person's behavior.

● Explain the contributions of humanists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to

personality development.
- They believed that people strive to become self-actualized. Both Rogers's
and Maslow's theories greatly contributed to our understanding of the self.
They emphasized free will and self-determination, with each
individual desiring to become the best person they can become

● Explain biological approaches to understanding personality, including the

findings of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, heritability, and
temperament
- The biological perspective on personality emphasizes the internal
physiological and genetic factors that influence personality. It focuses on
why or how personality traits manifest through biology and investigates
the links between personality, DNA, and processes in the brain.

- the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart: In studying 350 pairs of

twins, including pairs of identical and fraternal twins reared together and
apart, researchers found that identical twins, wether raised together or
apart, have very similar personalities.
 - Heritability: heritability: proportion of difference among people that is
attributed to genetics
- temperament: how a person reacts to the world, including their activity
level, starting when they are very young
● Discuss the early trait theories of Cattell and Eysenck
- Using a statistical process known as factor analysis, Raymond Cattell
generated sixteen dimensions of human personality traits, known as the
16PF. Eysenck's theory of personality is based on three dimensions:
introversion vs. extroversion, neuroticism vs. stability, and
psychoticism vs.
● · Describe the Big Five factors and categorize someone who is high and low on
each of the five traits
- The Five Factor Model breaks personality down into five components:
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Openness, and
Stress Tolerance. Personality tests that are based on this model
measure where an individual lies on the spectrum of each of the five traits.
Agreablenss
- High on agreableness: soft-hearted, trusting, and well-liked.
- Low on agreabbleness: Less empathy and put their own concerns
ahead of others.
- High extraversion: assertive, sociable, fun-loving, and outgoing.
- Low extraversion: more reserved and quiet
- High conscietiousness: organized, disciplined, detail-oriented,
thoughtful, and careful.
- Low consciotiousness: prefer a setting without structure.
- High on stress tolerance:
-
-
- people high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and
readily connect with others,
- people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone,
engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others.
- people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an
overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their
bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction.
- people high onbig tend to need more stimulation to activate their
flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable.
 - Those high in agreeableness can be described as soft-hearted, trusting,
and well-liked.
- you tend hold grudges. You might also be less sympathetic with others.

● Discuss personality differences of people from collectivist and individualist

cultures and compare the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous
approach, and the combined approach to studying personality

- People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence,

competition, and personal achievement are important.
- People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony,
respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs.
- the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about
personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be
generalized and if they have cultural validity
- the combined approach: serves as a bridge between Western and
indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and
cultural variations in personality.

Measuring Personality
● Describe different types of personality tests, including the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory and common projective tests
- Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. …
the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is an introspective self-report questionnaire
indicating differing psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and
make decisions.
- Caliper Profile. …
The Caliper Profile is an objective assessment that accurately
measures an individual's personality characteristics and
individual motivations in order to predict on-the-job behaviors
and potential.
- 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire. ...
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire is a self-report personality test
developed over several decades of empirical research b
- SHL Occupational Personality Questionnaire. …
is a trait based personality measure which assesses an
individual's personality preferences in the workplace
- HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised. ...
 an instrument that assesses the six major dimensions of
personality: Honesty-Humility. Emotionality. eXtraversion.
Agreeableness (versus Anger)
- Revised NEO Personality Inventory. …
is a personality inventory that assesses an individual on five
dimensions of personality, the so-called Big Five personality
traits.
- Eysenck Personality Inventory. ...
the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) measures two pervasive,
independent dimensions of personality,
Extraversion-Introversion and Neuroticism-Stability, which
account for most of the variance in the personality domain.
- DISC personality test.
to help people understand their leadership styles and improve
workplace teamwork.
- The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a
psychological test that assesses personality traits and
psychopathology.
- Perhaps the most commonly used projective techniques are the
Rorschach, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), figure
drawings, and sentence completion tests.
● Describe the complications of developing personality assessments, including
the importance of reliability and validity
Complications of making a personality assessment
- It may screen out qualified candidates. For many jobs, there isn't a
mainstream personality that fits the job type. ...
- It may cause flawed results. ...
- The purpose of the test may not fit into your hiring process. ...
- There may be legal risks.
- Reliability often refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same
persons when retested.
- Validity provides a check on how well the test fulfills its function.

Social Psychology
Social Psychology and Self-Presentation
● Describe situational versus dispositional influences on behavior
 - Situationism is the view that our behavior and actions are determined
by our immediate environment and surroundings.
- dispositionism holds that our behavior is determined by internal factors
● Give examples of the fundamental attribution error and other biases, including
the actor-observer bias and the self-serving bias
- fundamental attribution error: tendency to overemphasize internal
factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the
situation
- Example: if you've ever chastised a "lazy employee" for being late
to a meeting and then proceeded to make an excuse for being
late yourself that same day, you've made the fundamental attribution
error. The fundamental attribution error exists because of how people
perceive the world.
- actor-observer bias: phenomenon of explaining other people’s
behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to
situational forces
- The self-serving bias is the tendency people have to seek out
information and use it in ways that advance their self-interest.
● Explain the just-world phenomenon
- The just-world hypothesis refers to our belief that the world is fair,
and consequently, that the moral standings of our actions will
determine our outcomes.
● · Describe social roles, social norms, and scripts and how they influence
behavior
- script: person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific
setting
- social norm: group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and
acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members
- social role: socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a
person in a given setting or group
How do these influence your behavior?
- Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly
everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person in
a given role.
- Social scripts: For example, at a restaurant in the United States, if we
want the server’s attention, we try to make eye contact. In Brazil, you
would make the sound “psst” to get the server’s attention. You can see the
cultural differences in scripts.
- Social norms:How are we expected to act? What are we expected to talk
about? What are we expected to wear? In our discussion of social roles we
 noted that colleges have social norms for students’ behavior in the role of
student and workplaces have social norms for employees’ behaviors in the
role of employee. Social norms are everywhere including in families,
gangs, and on social media outlets.
● Explain the process and the findings of Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
- Prisoners were “arrested” by actual police and handed over to the
experimenters in a mock prison in the basement of a campus building.
Prisoners were then subjected to indignities that were intended to
simulate the environment of a real-life prison.
- Zimbardo concluded that people quickly conform to social roles,
even when the role goes against their moral principles.

Attitudes and Persuasion

● Define attitude and recognize how people’s attitudes are internally
changed through cognitive dissonance
- Attitude is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have
attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up
in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies.
- cognitive dissonance: psychological discomfort that arises from a
conflict in a person’s behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to
one’s positive self-perception.
- How people attitudes are changes: Cognitive dissonance theory
postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when an
individual's behavior is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs.
This underlying tension then motivates an individual to make an attitude
change that would produce consistency between thoughts and
behaviors.
● · Explain how people’s attitudes are externally changed through persuasion
- Speeches, seminars, written articles, and advertisement
(designed to influence people's attitude) carry a persuasive message to
convince people to change their attitude.
● · Compare the peripheral and central routes to persuasion
- The central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade
potential consumers.
- The peripheral route uses positive association with cues such as beauty,
fame, and positive emotions.
Group Behavior
● Describe the results of research on conformity, and distinguish between
normative and informational social influence
- The experiment concluded that people conform for two main
reasons: they want to fit in with the group (normative
influence) and because they believe the group is more informed
than they are (informational influence.
- Normative Influence is conformity based on one's desire to fulfill
others' expectations and gain acceptance
- Informational influence is conformity under acceptance of evidence
about reality which has been provided by others

● Describe Stanley Milgram’s experiment and its implications

- Participants were told by an experimenter to administer increasingly
powerful electric shocks to another individual. Unbeknownst to the
participants, shocks were fake and the individual being shocked was an
actor. The majority of participants obeyed, even when the individual
being shocked screamed in pain
- Milgram's research has had profound implications for the study of
individual behavior that results in harm to others, demonstrated by
events like the Holocaust and the My Lai massacre, showing that
obedience to authority figures stems from the construction of a situation
or context of authority, within which various.
● Illustrate when the presence of others is likely to result in groupthink, social
facilitation, or social loafing
- Groupthink is the modification of the opinions of members of a group to
align with what they believe is the group consensus
- Social loafing involves a reduction in individual output on tasks where
contributions are pooled.
- social facilitation: improved performance when an audience is
watching versus when the individual performs the behavior alone
Situations
- Social facilitation: increased arousal leads to stronger performance in
the presence of others; accelerating from a traffic signal.
- Social loafing: tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when
pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when
individually accountable; rope pulling.
 -Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group
situations that foster arousal and anonymity; riots.
● Explain the factors that influence human altruism, including reciprocal
altruism and diffusion of responsibility.
- Altruism refers to behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to
oneself.
- Reciprocal altruism is altruism that occurs between unrelated
individuals when there will be repayment (or at least the promise of
repayment) of the altruistic act in the future
- Diffusion of responsibility occurs when people who need to make a
decision wait for someone else to act instead.

● Describe attraction and the triangular theory of love

- The triangular theory of love holds that love can be understood in
terms of three components that together can be viewed as forming the
vertices of a triangle.

● · Explain the social exchange theory as it applies to relationships

- In social exchange theory, people tend to make comparisons, often
unconsciously. They compare their relationship to their expectations,
previous similar relationships, and alternative relationships.
● Examine the relationship between romantic ties and the experience of pain or
pleasure
- Studies have shown that merely touching the one we love can act
as a pain reliever.

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Aggression

● Define and provide examples of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination
- prejudice as: 'bias that devalues people because of their
perceived membership of a social group'.
- Stereotypes: beliefs about groups, prejudice as evaluation of or attitude
toward a group, and discrimination as behavior that systematically
advantages or disadvantages a group.
- Discrimination is the unfair or prejudicial treatment of people
and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age,
or sexual orientation.
Example
 - Example of prejudice: if we think that Hindi is the best language and
other languages are not important, we are judging these other languages
negatively.
- Example of stereotype: Girls should play with dolls and boys should
play with trucks.
- Example of diccrimination: A White employee is refused a
promotion because she has a close friendship with a Black employee.
● Explain why prejudice and discrimination exist and define scapegoat theory,
ingroups, and outgroups, and the self-fulfilling prophecy.
- Prejudice and discrimination persist in society due to social learning
and conformity to social norms. Children learn prejudiced attitudes and
beliefs from society: their parents, teachers, friends, the media, and other
sources of socialization, such as Facebook (O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson,
2011). If certain types of prejudice and discrimination are acceptable in a
society, there may be normative pressures to conform and share those
prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
- scapegoating: act of blaming an out-group when the in-group
experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
- self-fulfilling prophecy: treating stereotyped group members
according to our biased expectations only to have this treatment
influence the individual to act according to our stereotypic expectations,
thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs
- in-group: group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
- out-group: group that we don’t belong to—one that we view as
fundamentally different from us
● · Describe aggression and bullying
- behavior that is intended to harm another individual.
- seek to harm, intimidate, or coerce (someone perceived as vulnerable).

Psychological Disorders
Psychological Disorders
● Describe how psychological disorders are defined, as well as the inherent
difficulties in doing so
- A mental disorder is characterized by a clinically significant
disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation,
or behaviour.
 -Its difficult becuase there are no clear biological diagnoses,
psychological disorders are instead diagnosed on the basis of clinical
observations of the behaviours that the individual engages in.
● Describe the basic features of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and how it is used to classify disorders
- DSM contains descriptions, symptoms and other criteria for diagnosing
mental disorders. It provides a common language for clinicians to
communicate about their patients and establishes consistent
and reliable diagnoses that can be used in research on mental
disorders.

● Discuss historical and supernatural perspectives as well as modern and

biological perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders
- psychological disorders were viewed from a supernatural perspective:
attributed to a force beyond scientific understanding. Those afflicted
were thought to be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits
- Diathesis-Stress Model of Psychological Disorders: This
perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and
self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors
● Describe the diathesis-stress model and its importance to the study of
psychopathology
- The diathesis-stress model posits that psychological disorders
result from an interaction between inherent vulnerability and
environmental stressors.
- Its important becuase It is useful for the purposes of
understanding the interplay of nature and nurture in the
susceptibility to psychological disorders throughout the
lifespan.

Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD

● Distinguish normal anxiety from pathological anxiety

- Anxiety is a feeling of worry, unease, or nervousness that varies from
mild to severe.
- pathological anxiety occurs when a person experiences intense
anxiety, far beyond expected levels for the situation.
● Explain phobias and their acquisition through learning
- phobias are acquired through learning. Phobias are acquired
initially by classical conditioning (learning by association). If
an unpleasant emotion is paired with a stimulus, then the two become
associated with each other through conditioning.
- Phobia: an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something

● Describe the main features of social anxiety disorder

- Intense fear of interacting or talking with strangers.
- Fear that others will notice that you look anxious.
- Fear of physical symptoms that may cause you embarrassment, such as
blushing, sweating, trembling or having a shaky voice.
- Avoidance of doing things or speaking to people out of fear of
embarrassment.

● Explain panic disorder and panic attacks

- People with panic disorder have frequent and unexpected
panic attacks. These attacks are characterized by a sudden wave of
fear or discomfort or a sense of losing control even when there is no clear
danger or trigger.
- A panic attack is a sudden episode of intense fear that triggers
severe physical reactions when there is no real danger or
apparent cause.
● Describe the symptoms and prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder
- An estimated 5.7% of U.S. adults experience generalized anxiety disorder
at some time in their lives.
Symptoms
- Feeling restless, wound-up, or on-edge.
- Being easily fatigued.
- Having difficulty concentrating.
- Being irritable.
- Having headaches, muscle aches, stomachaches, or unexplained pains.
- Difficulty controlling feelings of worry.
- Having sleep problems, such as difficulty falling or staying asleep.
● Describe the main features, development, and prevalence of the
obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding
disorder
 - Features: OCD obsessions are repeated, persistent and unwanted
thoughts, urges or images that are intrusive and cause distress
or anxiety.

- Developmemnt OCD usually begins in the teen or young adult

years, but it can start in childhood. Symptoms usually begin
gradually and tend to vary in severity throughout life. If you've had a
painful childhood experience, or suffered trauma, abuse or bullying, you
might learn to use obsessions and compulsions to cope with anxiety.
- Prevelance: An estimated 1.2% of U.S. adults had OCD in the past year
Body dysmorphic disorder
- Body dysmorphic disorder: is a mental health condition in which you
can't stop thinking about one or more perceived defects or
flaws in your appearance — a flaw that appears minor or can't be
seen by others.

- Development: body dysmorphic disorder may result from a combination

of issues, such as a family history of the disorder, negative
evaluations or experiences about your body or self-image, and
abnormal brain function or abnormal levels of the brain
chemical called serotonin
- Prevelence: Body Dysmorphic Disorder affects 1.7% to 2.9% of the
general population — about 1 in 50 people. This means that more than 5
million people to nearly 10 million people in the United States alone have
BDD.

- Hoarding disorder: Hoarding disorder is a persistent difficulty

discarding or parting with possessions because of a perceived
need to save them.
- Development: Some people develop hoarding disorder after
experiencing a stressful life event that they had difficulty coping
with, such as the death of a loved one, divorce, eviction or losing
possessions in a fire.
- prevalence: of hoarding disorder is approximately 2.6%, with higher
rates for people over 60 years old and people with other psychiatric
diagnoses, especially anxiety and depression.
 ● · Describe the nature, development, symptoms, and risk factors associated with
posttraumatic stress disorder
- Development: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after a
very stressful, frightening or distressing event, or after a
prolonged traumatic experience. Types of events that can lead to
PTSD include: serious accidents. physical or sexual assault.
- Symptoms: Symptoms may include nightmares or unwanted memories of the
trauma, avoidance of situations that bring back memories of the trauma, heightened
reactions, anxiety, or depressed mood.
- Risk factors:
- Living through dangerous events and traumas.
- Getting hurt.
- Seeing another person hurt, or seeing a dead body.
- Childhood trauma.
- Feeling horror, helplessness, or extreme fear.
- Having little or no social support after the event.

Mood Disorders
● Describe the symptoms, results, and risk factors of major
depressive disorder
- Symptoms
- :Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness.
- Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, even over small matters.
- Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as sex, hobbies
or sports.
- Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much.

- Results: Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as

sex, hobbies or sports.

- Risk factors: Certain personality traits, such as low self-esteem and being
too dependent, self-critical or pessimistic.
● Understand the differences between major depressive disorder and persistent
depressive disorder, and identify two subtypes of depression
- major depressive disorder: commonly referred to as “depression” or
“major depression,” characterized by sadness or loss of pleasure in usual
activities, as well other symptoms
- persistent depressive disorder: depressive disorder characterized by
a chronically sad and melancholy mood
Two subtypes of depression
- Depressive Episode. A single depressive episode is the most common form
of depression. ...
- Recurrent Depression. ...
- Atypical Depression. ...
- Dysthymia. ...
- Bipolar Disorder. ...
- Psychotic Depression. ...
- Seasonal Affective Disorder. ...
- Postpartum Depression.

● Describe the symptoms and risk factors of bipolar disorder

- Symptoms:
- feeling sad, hopeless or irritable most of the time.
- lacking energy.
- difficulty concentrating and remembering things.
- loss of interest in everyday activities.
- feelings of emptiness or worthlessness.
- feelings of guilt and despair.
- feeling pessimistic about everything.
- self-doubt.
- Risk factors: Having a first-degree relative, such as a parent or sibling,
with bipolar disorder.
● · Describe genetic, biological, and psychological explanations of major
depressive disorder
- Genetic: The serotonin transporter gene and genes involved in the
serotonergic system are candidate genes for susceptibility to depression
given that many antidepressant medications act on these systems.
Several studies have implicated the serotonin transporter gene
 - biological : a decrease in the production of serotonin by these neurons
can cause depression in some people, and more specifically, a mood state
that can cause some people to feel suicidal.
- Psychological:Socially stressful and traumatic life events, limited
access to resources such as food, housing, and health care, and a lack of
social support
● Discuss the relationship between mood disorders and suicidal ideation, as
well as factors associated with suicide
- Among all completed suicides, one-half to two-thirds are by people
who have suffered from mood disorders. This means that
prevention of suicides by people suffering from mood disorders is central
for suicide prevention in general.

Schizophrenia and Dissociative Disorders

● Categorize and describe the major symptoms of schizophrenia
- Delusions. ...
- Hallucinations. ...
- Disorganized thinking (speech). ...
- Extremely disorganized or abnormal motor behavior. ...
- Negative symptoms.
- A hallucination is a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of
external stimulation.
- Delusions are beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even
in the face of contradictory evidence.
- paranoid delusions, which involve the (false) belief that other people
or agencies are plotting to harm the person.
- grandiose delusions, beliefs that one holds special power, unique
knowledge, or is extremely important.
- somatic delusion, which is the belief that something highly abnormal
is happening to one’s body
- Disorganized thinking refers to disjointed and incoherent thought
processes—usually detected by what a person says.
 - Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior refers to unusual
behaviors and movements: becoming unusually active, exhibiting silly
child-like behaviors (giggling and self-absorbed smiling), engaging in
repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying odd facial
expressions and gestures.
- Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are symptoms of commission,
meaning they are something that individuals do or think. Examples
include the hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre or disorganized
behavior describe above.
- Negative symptoms are those that reflect noticeable decreases and
absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or drives.

● Describe the interplay between genetic, biological, and environmental factors

that are associated with the development of schizophrenia
- Genetic: Deletions or duplications of genetic material in any of
several chromosomes, which can affect multiple genes, are
also thought to increase schizophrenia risk. In particular, a small
deletion (microdeletion) in a region of chromosome 22 called 22q11 may
be involved in a small percentage of cases of schizophrenia.

- Biological: schizophrenia may be caused by a change in the level of

2 neurotransmitters: dopamine and serotonin. Some studies
indicate an imbalance between the 2 may be the basis of the problem.
Others have found a change in the body's sensitivity to the
neurotransmitters is part of the cause of schizophrenia.

- Environmental factors: Environmental risk factors such as

pregnancy and birth complications, childhood trauma, migration, social
isolation, urbanicity, and substance abuse, alone and in combination,
acting at a number of levels over time, influence the individual's
likelihood to develop the disorder.
● Identify and differentiate the symptoms and potential causes of dissociative
amnesia, depersonalization/ derealization disorder, and dissociative identity
disorder
- depersonalization/derealization disorder: dissociative disorder in
which people feel detached from the self (depersonalization), and the
world feels artificial and unreal (derealization)
- Symptoms: Feeling like a robot or that you're not in control of
your speech or movements.
- dissociative amnesia: dissociative disorder characterized by an
inability to recall important personal information, usually following an
extremely stressful or traumatic experience
- Symptoms: Memory loss (amnesia) of certain time periods, events,
people and personal information.
- A sense of being detached from yourself and your emotions.
- A perception of the people and things around you as distorted and
unreal.
- A blurred sense of identity.
-
- dissociative fugue: symptom of dissociative amnesia in which a
person suddenly wanders away from one’s home and experiences
confusion about their identity
- Symptoms: Sudden and unplanned travel away from home.
- Inability to recall past events or important information from the person's
life.
- Confusion or loss of memory about their identity, possibly assuming a
new identity to make up for the loss.
-
- dissociative identity disorder: dissociative disorder (formerly
known as multiple personality disorder) in which a person exhibits two
 or more distinct, well-defined personalities or identities and experiences
memory gaps for the time during which another identity emerged
- Symptoms: Memory loss (amnesia) of certain time periods, events,
people and personal information.
- A sense of being detached from yourself and your emotions.
- A perception of the people and things around you as distorted and
unreal.
- A blurred sense of identity.

Personality Disorders
● Define personality disorders and distinguish between the three clusters of
personality disorders
- Personality disorder: a deeply ingrained pattern of behaviour of a
specified kind that deviates markedly from the norms of generally
accepted behavior, typically apparent by the time of adolescence, and
causing long-term difficulties in personal relationships or in functioning
in society.

The three clusters of personality

Cluster A: Eccentric, odd

- Paranoid Personality Disorder: People with this disorder

have difficulty trusting others, even without any reasonable
suspicion. They may hold grudges for long times, refuse to confide
in others, and perceive mundane remarks as slights against them.
- Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Patients with this disorder
often hear voices, believe everyday occurrences are really hidden
messages for them, and believe that their thoughts can influence
people and events in their lives. They may also feel uncomfortable
with close personal relationships.
 - Schizoid Personality Disorder: This disorder makes people
reluctant to be around others, making them seem cold and
unapproachable to others. People with schizoid personality
disorder cannot pick up on social cues, find happiness in everyday
activities, or express emotion.

Cluster B – Erratic, Dramatic

- Antisocial Personality Disorder: People with this disorder
have little to no regard for the needs and emotions of others. They
may also not think much about the safety of themselves or others.
- Borderline Personality Disorder: People with this Cluster B
personality disorder have fragile egos and believe that the people
they love will abandon them. This combination can lead to
unstable relationships, both with romantic partners and others
- Histrionic Personality Disorder: This disorder is marked by
a constant need for attention. People with histrionic personality
disorder will resort to things like dramatic outbursts and sexual
promiscuity to get the attention they need. They often speak in
hyperbole and experience quick, dramatic shifts in their emotions.
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder: People with this Cluster B
personality disorder believe their needs and feelings are more
important than others’. They may fantasize about power, lie about
their accomplishments, and expect lots of praise from others.

Cluster C – Fearful, Anxious

- Avoidant Personality Disorder: This disorder makes people
terrified of rejection or any criticism. Because of these fears, they
avoid contact with others at work and social events.
- Dependent Personality Disorder: People with this condition
are motivated by the fear of having to take care of themselves or
 make decisions. As such, they depend on others to take care of their
needs, make decisions, and give them constant approval.
- Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder: People with
this disorder take perfectionism to extreme levels. They may obsess
over rules, cleanliness, and order. They fear that if they do not
complete certain tasks, something terrible will happen.

● Identify the basic features of borderline personality disorder, and its

etiology
- Features: With borderline personality disorder, you have an
intense fear of abandonment or instability, and you may
have difficulty tolerating being alone. Yet inappropriate
anger, impulsiveness and frequent mood swings may push others
away,
- Etiology: being a victim of emotional, physical or sexual
abuse. being exposed to long-term fear or distress as a child.
being neglected by 1 or both parents. growing up with another
family member who had a serious mental health condition, such as
bipolar disorder or a drink or drug misuse problem

● Describe the basic features of antisocial personality disorder and its etiology
- Features: Repeatedly violating the rights of others through intimidation
and dishonesty. Impulsiveness or failure to plan ahead. Hostility,
significant irritability, agitation, aggression or violence. Lack of
empathy for others and lack of remorse about harming others.
- Etiology: The cause of antisocial personality disorder is unknown.
Genetic factors and environmental factors, such as child abuse, are
believed to contribute to the development of this condition. People with an
antisocial or alcoholic parent are at increased risk.

Childhood Disorders
● Describe the symptoms, prevalence, and contributing factors of attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder
- symptoms:being unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet
surroundings
 - constantly fidgeting
- being unable to concentrate on tasks
- excessive physical movement
- excessive talking
- being unable to wait their turn
- acting without thinking
- interrupting conversations
- little or no sense of danger
- Prevalance: More than 9.4 percent of children (6.1 million) between ages 2
to 17 in the U.S. have an ADHD diagnosis. ADHD is more prevalent in
children than adults, with about 9.4% of children having a current
diagnosis compared to 4.4% of adults.
Factors:
- Brain injury
- Exposure to environmental risks (e.g., lead) during pregnancy or at a
young age
- Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy
- Premature delivery
- Low birth weight

● Describe the symptoms and prevalence of autism spectrum disorder, as well as

the contributing factors that cause the disorder
- Symptoms: Delayed language skills.
- Delayed movement skills.
- Delayed cognitive or learning skills.
- Hyperactive, impulsive, and/or inattentive behavior.
- Epilepsy or seizure disorder.
- Unusual eating and sleeping habits.
- Gastrointestinal issues (for example, constipation)
- Unusual mood or emotional reactions.
Prevelance: About 1 in 44 children has been identified with autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) according to estimates from CDC’s. Characteristics may be detected
in early childhood, but autism is often not diagnosed until much later. The abilities and
needs of autistic people vary and can evolve over time.
Psychological Treatments
Mental Health
● Explain how people with psychological disorders
have been treated throughout the ages and discuss
deinstitutionalization
- Exorcisms, malnutrition, and inappropriate medications all appeared as
treatment methods for people with mental illnesses. The idea that people
with mental illness were “crazy” or “other-worldly” influenced the lack of
effective treatment methods.
- deinstitutionalization, in sociology, movement that advocates the
transfer of mentally disabled people from public or private institutions,
such as psychiatric hospitals, back to their families or into
community-based homes.

Types of Treatment
● Describe psychoanalysis as a treatment approach
- Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of in-depth talk therapy that aims to
bring unconscious or deeply buried thoughts and feelings to the conscious
mind so that repressed experiences and emotions, often from childhood,
can be brought to the surface and examined.

● Explain the basic process and uses of play and behavior therapy
- Play therapy is often used with children since they are not likely to sit on a
couch and recall their dreams or engage in traditional talk therapy. This
technique uses a therapeutic process of play to “help clients prevent or resolve
psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth”
- Play and behavior therapy process
- The first phase of play therapy is commonly referred to as the initiation
phase or exploratory stage. ...
- The next stage is referred to as the resistance phase, aggressive stage, or
negative reaction stage. ...
- The next stage is the growing phase or work phase. ...
- Lastly is the termination phase.
● Describe systematic desensitization
- Systematic desensitization is used to treat extreme aversions
through a combination of graded exposure and relaxation. I
● Describe how cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapy are used as treatment
methods
- Cognitive behavioral therapy: CBT treatment usually involves efforts to
change thinking patterns. These strategies might include: Learning to
recognize one's distortions in thinking that are creating problems, and
then to reevaluate them in light of reality. Gaining a better understanding
of the behavior and motivation of others.
- Cognitive therapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on how a
person’s thoughts lead to feelings of distress. The idea behind cognitive
therapy is that how you think determines how you feel and act.
● Explain the basic characteristics of humanistic therapy
- Humanistic therapy adopts a holistic approach that focuses on free will,
human potential, and self-discovery. It aims to help you develop a strong
and healthy sense of self, explore your feelings, find meaning, and focus on
your strengths
● Explain the basic characteristics of mindfulness, treatment for addiction, and
other emerging psychological treatments
- Chracteristics: Mindfulness is a type of meditation in which you focus
on being intensely aware of what you're sensing and feeling in
the moment, without interpretation or judgment. Practicing
mindfulness involves breathing methods, guided imagery, and other
practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.
- mindfulness therapy works to acknowledge and accept the thought,
understanding that the thought is spontaneous and not what the person
truly believes.
- There are two important components of mindfulness: (1) self-regulation of
attention, and (2) orientation toward the present moment (Bishop et al.,
2004). Mindfulness is thought to improve mental health because it draws
attention away from past and future stressors, encourages acceptance of
troubling thoughts and feelings, and promotes physical relaxation.
● Compare and evaluate various forms of psychotherapy
- eclectic psychotherapy: also called integrative psychotherapy, this
term refers to approaches combining multiple orientations
● · Explain and compare biomedical therapies
- biomedical therapy: treatment that involves medication and/or
medical procedures to treat psychological disorders
- electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): type of biomedical therapy that
involves using an electrical current to induce seizures in a person to help
alleviate the effects of severe depression
 ● · Explain how conditioning aids in therapy techniques, particularly through
memory reconsolidation
- consolidation: the neural processes that occur between an experience
and the stabilization of the memory
- reconsolidation: the process of replacing or disrupting a stored memory
with a new version of the memory
- One type of behavior therapy utilizes classical conditioning techniques.
Therapists using these techniques believe that dysfunctional behaviors
are conditioned responses. Applying the conditioning principles
developed by Ivan Pavlov, these therapists seek to recondition their clients
and thus change their behavior.

Treatment Modalities
● Define and give examples of individual therapy
- Individual counseling (sometimes called psychotherapy, talk therapy, or
treatment) is a process through which clients work one-on-one
with a trained mental health clinician in a safe, caring, and
confidential environment.
- Example: dividual counseling may encompass career counseling and
planning, grief after a loved one dies or dealing with problems
at a job before they become big.
● Describe the types and benefits of different types of group therapies
- Different types of group therapies:
- Psychoeducational groups: are designed to educate clients about
substance abuse, and related behaviors and consequences. This type of
group presents structured, group-specific content, often taught using
videotapes, audiocassette, or lectures.
- Benefits: It reduces stress and fear while simultaneously improving
motivation and feelings of self-worth.
- Skills development groups: Skills development groups focus on
introducing and improving the skills that members need to cope with
certain mental health conditions
- Benefits: skills development groups may provide you knowledge and
skills for building leadership to manage conflict, enhance
interactions, and take ownership of your actions and thoughts
which may be used later in your career or other relationships.
-
 - Cognitive behavioral groups: the therapist helps you within a group
system to alleviate the pressures of identifying negative thought patterns
that negatively impact your behaviors and emotions
- benefits:
- Increased support networks
- Ability to practice learned techniques in action within a group setting
- New life perspectives through improved self-worth and less negative
self-talk
- Increased feelings of fulfillment, progress, and recovery
- Improved interpersonal relationships, reducing interpersonal conflicts
- Opportunities for personal growth learning from other’s experiences
- It provides a safe space to be with others who offer empathy and
compassion
- Teaches you how to practice gratitude and structured conversations
-
-

- Support groups:a group of people with common experiences or concerns who

provide each other with encouragement, comfort, and advice.
- benefits:Feeling less lonely, isolated or judged
- Reducing distress, depression, anxiety or fatigue
- Talking openly and honestly about your feelings
- Improving skills to cope with challenges
- Staying motivated to manage chronic conditions or stick to treatment
plans
- Gaining a sense of empowerment, control or hope
- Improving understanding of a disease and your own experience with it
- Getting practical feedback about treatment options
- Learning about health, economic or social resources
- Interpersonal processes: the interplay of cognitive, motivational, and
behavioral activities in social interaction.
- Benefits: Peer Support. Group therapy helps each member to open up,
learn about each other, give support, and receive support.
- Better Communication Skills. ...
- Build Connections. ...
- Renewed Sense of Understanding. ...
- Being Vulnerable.

● · Explain why the sociocultural model is important in therapy and what type of
cultural barriers prevent some people from receiving mental health services.
- why the sociocultural model is important in therapy:It strives to
recognize client identities to include individual, group, and
universal dimensions, advocate the use of universal and
culture-specific strategies and roles in the healing process, and
balancs the importance of individualism and collectivism in the
assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of client and client systems

- Types of cultural barriers prevent some people from receiving

mental health services:
- Different understandings of illness or health.
- Lack of diversity in the mental health workforce.
- Mistrust or fear of treatment.
- Language barriers and ineffective communication.
- Transportation or childcare issues.
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