International Research On Education For Sustainable Development of Early Childhood

International Perspectives on
Early Childhood Education and Development 14
John Siraj-Blatchford
Cathy Mogharreban
Eunhye Park Editors
International
Research on Education
for Sustainable
Development in Early
Childhood
International Perspectives on Early Childhood
Education and Development
Volume 14
Series Editors
Professor Marilyn Fleer, Monash University, Australia
Professor Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson, Gothenburg University, Sweden
Editorial Board
Professor Jane Bone, University of Auckland, Australia
Professor Yukiko Matsukawa, Chubu University, Japan
Professor Rebeca Mejía Arauz, ITESO, Mexico
Professor Nirmala Rao, University of Hong Kong, China
Professor Collette Tayler, University of Melbourne, Australia
Associate Professor Eva Johansson, University of Stavanger, Norway
Professor Lilian G. Katz, Ph.D. Professor Emerita of Early Childhood Education,
University of Illinois, USA
Early childhood education in many countries has been built upon a strong tradition
of a materially rich and active play-based pedagogy and environment. Yet what has
become visible within the profession, is, essentially a Western view of childhood,
preschool education and school education.
It is timely that a series of books be published which present a broader view of
early childhood education. This series seeks to provide an international perspective
on early childhood education. In particular, the books published in this series will:
• Examine how learning is organized across a range of cultures, particularly
indigenous communities
• Make visible a range of ways in which early childhood pedagogy is framed and
enacted across countries, including the majority poor countries
• Critique how particular forms of knowledge are constructed in curriculum within
and across countries
• Explore policy imperatives which shape and have shaped how early childhood
education is enacted across countries
• Examine how early childhood education is researched locally and globally
• Examine the theoretical informants driving pedagogy and practice, and seek to
find alternative perspectives from those that dominate many Western heritage
countries
• Critique assessment practices and consider a broader set of ways of measuring
children’s learning
• Examine concept formation from within the context of country-specific
pedagogy and learning outcomes
The series covers theoretical works, evidence-based pedagogical research, and
international research studies. The series also covers a broad range of countries,
including majority poor countries. Classical areas of interest, such as play, the
images of childhood, and family studies, will also be examined. However, the focus
is critical and international (not Western-centric).
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7601

John Siraj-Blatchford • Cathy Mogharreban
Eunhye Park
Editors
International Research on
Education for Sustainable
Development in Early
Childhood
Editors
John Siraj-Blatchford Cathy Mogharreban
Institute of Education Department of Curriculum and Instruction
University of Plymouth Southern Illinois University
Plymouth, UK Carbondale, Illinois, USA
Eunhye Park
Department of Early Childhood Education
Ewha Womans University
Seoul, KR - Korea (Republic of)
International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education and Development

ISBN 978-3-319-42206-0 ISBN 978-3-319-42208-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-42208-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953490
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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Preface
Sustainable development was first defined in 1987 by the Brundtland World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987) as “development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future gen-
erations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987, p. 43).
On 25 September 2015, the United Nations General Assembly adopted 17 new
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and a total of 169 targets that establish the
Development Agenda for United Nations member states until 2030. The SDGs aim
to eliminate extreme poverty and hunger and provide quality lifelong education for
every child, and they also aim to promote peaceful, inclusive and sustainable societ-
ies. They build upon the prior commitments reflected in the UN Millennium
Development Goals but go well beyond these and have been framed to apply to all
the nations of the world and not just those in most urgent need. In terms of early
childhood, the SDGs include very significant goals and targets related to child pro-
tection, early childhood education and the reduction of inequality.
SDG 4 specifically refers to the need to “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. SDG target 4.2 is to
“By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary
education”. But as we shall argue further in the following pages, it is important to
recognise the relevance of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) to the
achievement of many of the other SDGs:
Goal 1: Eradicate poverty – research shows that ECCE provides one of the most
cost-effective strategies for breaking out of vicious cycles in the intergenera-
tional reproduction of poverty.
Goal 2: End hunger and improve nutrition – young children are the first and worse
victims, and integrated education and care approaches have been found most
effective.
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives – early interventions set a trajectory for good lifelong
health and well-being.
v
vi Preface
Goal 4: Ensure lifelong learning – robust cost-benefit evidence shows that invest-
ments in ECCE provide the most positive long-term benefits and economic
returns to society.
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality – greater investment in high-quality and affordable
childcare is directly linked to greater opportunities for women.
Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all – established Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene (WASH) projects currently focused on schools urgently need to be
extended to preschools.1 By 2050, it is projected that at least one in four people
is likely to be affected by recurring water shortages.
Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy – one in five people lack access to electricity
and this contributes significantly to the reproduction of global inequality. Most
preschools in rural areas around the world have no access to electricity or to the
direct and indirect educational and care technologies that it may support.
Goal 8: Promote decent work for all – investments in the professionalisation of the
early childhood workforce contribute to full and productive employment.
Goal 9: Industry and innovation – creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship are
being fostered in many preschools around the world, and these initiatives require
further support and encouragement by industry and government.
Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries – ECCE has a proven
record in reducing the intergenerational reproduction of inequality.
Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustain-
able – ECCE provides a popular primary focus and an effective entry point for
development planning.
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption – these attitudes are formed at an early
age and appropriate patterns of behaviour towards consumption and attitudes
towards conservation may be set to last a lifetime.
Goal 13: Climate action – young children are the primary stakeholders and the first
and the greatest victims of climate change. Their active participation in the pro-
motion of public awareness and the political action may be crucial.
Goal 14: Life below water – young children have a strong affinity with the seaside
and a fascination with marine life. Pollution and the threats to marine biodiver-
sity have reached alarming proportions.
Goal 15: Life on land – in the minority world, the early childhood forest school
movement has already made a significant contribution to raising public aware-
ness of the issues. These successes need to be supported further and built upon.
Goal 16: Promote peaceful societies – intergenerational ECCE interventions con-
tribute by promoting fundamental values and behaviours that reduce violence
and promote peace.
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation – the measurement of early child-
hood development and outcomes can serve as a powerful tool for global
partnerships.
As Britto (2015) has suggested:
1
http://www.worldomep.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Wash-from-the-Start-Rationale.pdf
Preface vii
Investments in ECD are fiscally smart, given the multiplier effect of ECD across several
goals. But, they are also scientifically credible and morally correct. Let us affirm our com-
mitment to the Global Goals by giving every child a fair chance in life from the start. (p. 1)
Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) convened in

Johannesburg in 2002, it has been widely recognised that education has a major role
to play in the realisation of a “vision of sustainability that links economic well-
being with respect for cultural diversity, the Earth and its resources” (UNESCO
2007, p. 6). Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has also been recog-
nised as an integral part of quality Education for All (EFA) as defined in the 2000
Dakar Framework for Action (WEF 2000), and it must begin in the early childhood
years and continue through lifelong learning in adulthood (Feine 2012; United
Nations Economic and Social Council 2005; Wals 2009). The United Nations 2005
World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually rein-
forcing pillars” of sustainable development as “social development”, “economic
development” and “environmental protection”. The key challenges for educators are
to develop educational systems, curriculum and pedagogic practices that provide
foundations for the development of each of these pillars and to encourage emergent
understandings of sustainable development.
Early childhood education has been contributing to some of these areas of con-
cern for many years. Yet the work has often been fragmented and ill defined, and we
are currently in a situation where only a small proportion of the international com-
munity of early childhood educators are fully aware of the overall objectives and
scope of ESD or are adopting an integrated approach to the subject. In this text, we
review the “state of play” in terms of ESD in the early childhood educational con-
texts of 10 countries: Chile, China, Kenya, Korea, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,
Turkey, the UK and the USA. We also report upon the efforts that have been made
by the individual research teams in each country and through an international col-
laboration in developing a new research and development tool that we believe has
significant potential to support our efforts in promoting an Education for Sustainable
Development in Early Childhood settings around the world. All of the work reported
in this book has been supported over the past 3 years by the World Organisation for
Early Childhood Education (OMEP). The work has not been funded, and the scale
of the voluntary work involved itself bears testament to the massive commitment of
all of those involved in this project.
The work is especially well targeted and timely. Resolution 57/254 of the United
Nations General Assembly declared the period 2005–2014 as the Decade for
Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) with an overall goal to:
…integrate values, activities and principles that are inherently linked to sustainable devel-
opment into all forms of education and learning and help usher in a change in attitudes,
behaviours and values to ensure a more sustainable future in social environmental and eco-
nomic terms. (UNESCO 2007, p. 5)
viii Preface
The UNESCO objectives of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) have

been to:
• Facilitate networking, linkages, exchange and interaction among stakeholders in
ESD
• Foster an increased quality of teaching and learning in education for sustainable
development
• Help countries make progress towards and attain the Millennium Development
Goals through ESD efforts
• Provide countries with new opportunities to incorporate ESD into education
reform efforts (UNESCO 2007)
The work that is reported in this text was thus developed as a contribution to
these initiatives and was carried out in collaboration with initiatives by the Swedish
International Centre of Education for Sustainable Development (SWEDESD), the
European Panel on Sustainable Development (EPSD) 2 and UNESCO.3 It has also
drawn upon a perspective strongly informed by the latest research, discussions and
developments in the wider field of Education for Sustainable Development. It is
crucially important that policy makers recognise that early childhood education pro-
vides the foundations for lifelong learning within education for sustainability. While
policy makers now recognise that children have the right to be educated,4 there
needs to be a clearer understanding that it is in the early years that children have the
greatest capacity to learn. It is also in early childhood that the foundations of many
of our fundamental attitudes and values are first put into place. From a human rights
perspective, young children must be recognised as the citizen group with the great-
est stake, and at stake in terms of sustainability, and they should also be recognised
as potential agents for change. Young children have an influence upon their families
and on their communities, and their interests provide a major motivation for changes
towards more sustainable thinking and behaviours throughout societies.
Our primary intention in writing this book has therefore been to report upon a
major international research collaboration carried out through the OMEP between
2010 and 2013, which has sought to define and support the establishment of an
international research and development programme for Education for Sustainable
Development in Early Childhood (ESDEC). The volume has also been produced to
provide practical support and stimulus for professional researchers, research stu-
dents and practitioners carrying out their own studies and development work in this
crucial area of educational concern.
The Organisation Mondiale Pour L´Éducation Préscolaire (OMEP) (World
Association for Early Childhood Education) has already provided significant lead-
ership in the area of ESD in ECCE (Wals 2009). OMEP was founded in 1948 in
Prague as an international, non-governmental and non-profit organisation concerned
2
http://www.ufn.gu.se/digitalAssets/1324/1324488_epsd_report4.pdf
3
Samuelsson and Yoshie (2008)
4
Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1950). Article 28 of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child (1989)
Preface ix
with all aspects of ECCE. The organisation has a long history in the defence and in
the promotion of the rights of the child to education and care worldwide. OMEP has
membership represented by 73 national committees, from all five regions, Europe,
Asia/Pacific, Africa, Latin America, North America and Caribbean. In 2007,
UNESCO established a Chair in Early Childhood Education and Sustainable
Development at Gothenburg University with the purpose of promoting Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD). The SWEDESD (2008) “Gothenburg
Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development” were produced by
an expert panel of early childhood educators strongly represented by OMEP in col-
laboration with experts from across the educational life course. They identified an
urgent need for capacity building in Early Childhood Education for Sustainable
Development. The report argued that:
As an emerging field of practice, early childhood education for sustainability is seriously
under-researched. This must be remedied in order to build the field on an evidence-base of
critique, reflection and creativity. (SWEDESD 2008, p. 31)
The SWEDESD recommendations also included the need to:

• Increase the allocation of resources for research
• Initiate research studies that are participatory and action centred, through trans-
disciplinary collaboration with professionals from all sectors and discipline
• Enable structures and processes that support practitioners to conduct their own
research studies
• Provide greater research mentoring and capacity building
A special issue of OMEP’s International Journal of Early Childhood published
in 2009 focused upon Sustainable Development in Early Childhood, and OMEP has
been working on various international development projects in ESD since 2008.
Their work began with an interview study based on a logo (Fig. 1) where children
Fig. 1 The child’s voice

x Preface
were portrayed cleaning the planet: In this Children’s Voices About the State of the
Earth and Sustainable Development Project, 9,142 children between 2 and 8 years
of age were interviewed by 641 OMEP interviewers in 28 countries and 385 pre-
schools around the world. A report on the project provided a focus for the OMEP
World Assembly and World Congress in Gothenburg in 2010 (Engdahl and
Rabušicová 2010), and ESD has featured as a dedicated strand of each annual con-
ference since then.
This dirty planet was ugly. When it is dirty we can be ill. When water is dirty the fish will
die. The children want health and happiness for everybody (Engdahl and Rabušicová 2010).
Further OMEP world projects have involved children engaged in preschool prac-
tices based upon the 7Rs (to Respect, Reflect, Rethink, Reuse, Reduce, Recycle and
Redistribute) and in encouraging intergenerational dialogues, where three genera-
tions were involved in looking at how food can be grown at home and in the pre-
school. Another project, developed in collaboration with UNESCO and WASH in
Schools, has been the WASH from the Start initiative, which addresses the need for
all children to be provided with Water, Sanitation and Hygiene facilities and educa-
tion. The 2013–2014 OMEP world project was also concerned with supporting
international projects concerned with Equality for Sustainability and the Rights of
the Child.
It has often been noted that the methodological choices applied in educational
research are subject to pendulum swings of fashion (McIntyre and McIntyre 2000).
In the UK, for example, the quantitative correlation studies that dominated the
1970s were heavily criticised, and this led to the increased use of qualitative meth-
ods in the 1980s. These methods were widely considered unfit for purpose by policy
makers in the decades that followed (Tooley 1998). And this has led to increased
emphasis upon quantitative research. Yet, as McIntyre and McIntyre (2000) sug-
gested, within the academic research community, an ideal pattern of research has
always been recognised and accepted, where individual qualitative studies should
be carried out to establish the most relevant variables, followed by correlation stud-
ies that isolate the strongest of these variables, and finally by randomised controlled
experiments to identify the strength of their effects. As in every other scientific
endeavour, “knowledge” is developed in the process of long-term collaborative and
cumulative research programmes, where individual research studies are subjected to
peer review, and the relevance of their findings established only after they have been
replicated in other contexts. In supporting the research and development of ESDEC,
we felt the need to recognise the implications of these processes and that we needed
to rise above them to consider the subject at the level of the overall programme of
ESDEC research rather than simply at the level of individual studies. This has inevi-
tably led us into discussions of epistemology that are ongoing. Our approach in
developing the international collaboration from the start has been to focus most
especially upon two elements, the identification of a baseline of practice in ESD in
Preface xi
global early childhood and developing a research programme for ESDEC. In devel-
oping the evidence baseline, we have produced an instrument, the Environmental
Rating Scale for Education for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (ERS-
SDEC), that can be used to evaluate the impact of practice in ESD in a range of
contexts. Any attempt at an international comparative pilot study using this tool
would have been beyond our resources due to the costs of providing research train-
ing across all of the sites and in the provision of inter-rater reliability trials (more
information on this is provided in the guidance in Appendix). There were also epis-
temological objections. With such a large and diverse collaboration, final conclu-
sions in this were not to be expected (or required) in the short term. Our common
commitment has been to the dialogue, and while Chap. 2 identifies many principle
areas of contention, we have not sought to resolve them all but rather to learn from
the discussion in the spirit of respectful international collaboration and in the inter-
ests of professional self-development.
The development of the evidence baseline has been iterative in the process of
engaging with practitioners and preschool practice in the development of the instru-
ment and has involved more than 60 preschools located in 11 countries with partici-
pating preschools located in Europe, North America, South America, Australia,
Africa and the Middle and Far East. We intend that these processes of revision
should continue in the future. Our conclusions draw upon this review alongside the
evidence baseline to make practical recommendations for short-, medium- and
long-term projects that will support research and development in this crucial area of
concern. Appendices are also included identifying other relevant and established
research instruments, online resources and search tools.
Plymouth, UK John Siraj-Blatchford
References
Britto, P. (2015). Why early childhood development is the foundation for sustainable development.
UNICEF, Connect: https://blogs.unicef.org/blog/why-early-childhood-development-is-the-
foundation-for-sustainable-development/
Engdahl, I., & Rabušicová, M. (2010). Children’s voice about the state of the earth and sustainable
development. In A. K. Engberg (Ed.), A report for the OMEP world assembly and conference
on the OMEP world project on education for sustainable development 2009–2010 (pp. 1–29).
Gothenburg: OMEP.
Feine, J. (2012). Learning for a sustainable future maximizing the synergies between quality edu-
cation learning and sustainable human development. A paper prepared on behalf of the inter-
agency committee for the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable development. Paris:
UNESCO.
McIntyre, D., & McIntyre, A. (2000). Capacity for research into teaching and learning. Retrieved
from http://www.tlrp.org/acadpub/McIntyre,%201999.pdf
Samuelsson, I. P., & Yoshie, K. (Eds.). (2008). The contribution of early childhood education to a
sustainable society. Paris: UNESCO.
xii Preface
SWEDESD. (2008). The Gothenburg recommendations on education for sustainable development.

Retrieved from http://www.unesco.se/Bazment/Unesco/sv/Education-for-Sustainable-
Development.aspx
Tooley, J. (1998). Educational research: A review. London: OFSTED.
UNESCO. (2007). The UN decade of education for sustainable development (DESD 2005–2014):
The first two years. Paris: UNESCO.
United Nations Economic and Social Council. (2005). UNECE strategy for education for sustain-
able development. Retrieved from http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2005/
cep/ac.13/cep.ac.13.2005.3.rev.1.e.pdf
Wals, A. (2009). A mid-decade review of the decade of Education for Sustainable Development.
Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 3(2), 195–204.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our common future.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
World Education Forum (WEF). (2000). Dakar framework for action: Education for all, meeting
our collective commitments. Paris: UNESCO.
Contents
1 Education for Sustainable Development in Early

Childhood Care and Education: An Introduction ............................... 1
John Siraj-Blatchford and Ingrid Pramling-Samuelsson
2 The OMEP ESD Research and Development Project ......................... 17
3 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development
in Chile ..................................................................................................... 29
Selma Simonstein
4 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable
Development in China ............................................................................ 43
Xin Zhou, Zhanlan Liu, Chunhong Han, and Guangheng Wang
in Kenya ................................................................................................... 59
Mercy Macharia and Njeri Kimani
6 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable
Development in Korea ............................................................................ 77
Eunhye Park, Eunsoo Shin, and Seenyoung Park
7 Education for Sustainable Development in Norway ............................ 91
Marianne Presthus Heggen
8 Education for Sustainable Development in Portugal ........................... 103
Assunção Folque and Vitor Oliveira
in Sweden ................................................................................................. 123
Anne Kultti, Jonna Larsson, Eva Ärlemalm-Hagsér,
and Ingrid Pramling-Samuelsson
xiii
xiv Contents
10 Education for Sustainable Development in Turkey ............................. 139

Gelengül Haktanır, Tülin Güler, and Deniz Kahriman Öztürk
in the UK .................................................................................................. 155
in the USA ................................................................................................ 173
Cathy Mogharreban and Shannon Green
13 Towards a Research Programme for Early Childhood
Education for Sustainable Development ............................................... 193
Appendix: The Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable

Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC) ........................................... 211
Chapter 1
Education for Sustainable Development
in Early Childhood Care and Education:
An Introduction
John Siraj-Blatchford and Ingrid Pramling-Samuelsson
Sustainable development was first defined in 1987 by the Brundtland World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987), which argued for a
development strategy that
…meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. (WCED 1987, p. 43)
From a citizenship perspective, it is therefore clear that the citizen group with the
greatest stake in achieving sustainability are children. In fact the younger the child,
the greater their stake in the future is. As Little and Green (2009) point out, more
recent and complete definitions of sustainable development drawn from the 1987
Commission report contain two additional key concepts:
The concept of ‘need’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which over-
riding priority should be given, and;
The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on
the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. (WCED 1987, p. 43)
Agenda 21, adopted by most of the world’s governments at the Rio de Janeiro
‘Earth Summit’ (UNCED 1992), also introduced the notion of sustainable con-
sumption and the idea that people in rich countries needed to change their consump-
tion patterns if sustainable development was to be achieved. The work of Amartya
Sen has also been influential. Sen argued that while the WCED (1987) need-centred
view of development was illuminating, it was incomplete (Sen 2000, p. 2). He
argued that individuals should be seen as agents who can think and act and not like
J. Siraj-Blatchford (*)
Institute of Education, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
e-mail: john.sirajblatchford@plymouth.ac.uk
I. Pramling-Samuelsson
University of Goteborg, Gothenburg, Sweden
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

J. Siraj-Blatchford et al. (eds.), International Research on Education
for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood, International Perspectives on Early
Childhood Education and Development 14, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-42208-4_1
2 J. Siraj-Blatchford and I. Pramling-Samuelsson
patients whose needs had to be catered for (ibid, p. 2). If we are to support the public
to “think, assess, evaluate, resolve, inspire, agitate, and through these means,
reshape the world” (ibid, p. 1), then we must begin by recognising that the public
are at all times actively engaged in the continuous production and reproduction of
their social and cultural practices. Yet the freedom and capability that different indi-
viduals and groups have in these processes are often limited by political and institu-
tional structures, and aspirations and expectations are often unduly limited:
Sen therefore redefined sustainable development as “development that promotes the capa-
bilities of present people without compromising capabilities of future generations” (Sen
2000, p. 5). Sen’s ‘capability’ centered approach to sustainable development aims to “inte-
grate the idea of sustainability with the perspective of freedom, so that we see human beings
not merely as creatures who have needs but primarily as people whose freedoms really
matter”. (ibid, p. 6)
This more educational perspective resonates strongly with the position taken by
Schumacher (1999) where he argued,
Development does not start with goods; it starts with people and their education, organiza-
tion, and discipline. Without these three, all resources remain latent, untapped, potential.
(ibid, p. 139)
1.1 Preprimary Curriculum Practice
As Feine (2012) suggests: “…to be truly sustainable, development processes have

to take account of, and balance, the mutually interacting and dependent social, eco-
nomic, environmental and cultural pillars of sustainable development” (see Fig. 1.1
below). In terms of the preprimary curriculum, environmental education has a long
history and may be considered fundamental to the established principles of early
childhood education identified in the educational writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Fig. 1.1 The three pillars

of Education for
Sustainable Development
Social
Bearable Equitable
Sustainable
Environment Economic
Viable
1 Education for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood Care and Education… 3
(McCrea 2006), Robert Owen (Siraj-Blatchford 1996) and John Dewey (McCrea
2006). For example, in 1826 Friedrich Frobel wrote:
The pupil will get the clearest insight into the character of things, of nature and surround-
ings, if he sees and studies them in their natural connection… (Froebel 1826)
At the start of the UNESCO decade for Education for Sustainable Development,
environmental education was therefore well developed in early childhood education
in many countries. Some significant social and cultural concerns of ESD were also
being addressed in early childhood curriculum initiatives concerned with social jus-
tice, racial equality and bias (Derman-Sparkes and Olsen Edwards 2010), multicul-
tural and multilingual (Banks and McGee 2009; Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke 2000)
and gender education (MacNaugton 2000). The area least developed has been eco-
nomics. For example, while ‘thrift’ may have been considered an important virtue
to be encouraged in children a century ago, in the Western world at least (Tucker
1991), it would seem to have rarely featured in the aims of early childhood educa-
tion until reintroduced as an aspect of ESD (Siraj-Blatchford et al. 2010).
Yet any awareness of ESD as a distinct area of concern at the start of the decade
was extremely limited in ECCE, and now even after 10 years, the subject remains
fragmented within and between countries around the world. However there are
signs that the subject is building momentum, and we expect the institution of the
new UN Sustainable Development Goals will accelerate this process.
Following the Education for Sustainable Development World Conference 2009,
the Bonn Declaration, and its elaborated strategy for the second half of the decade,
UNESCO has focused its work on three key sustainable development issues to be
addressed through education: biodiversity, climate change and disaster risk reduc-
tion. Each of these areas is already being addressed in some ECCE settings around
the world. The Early Childhood Australia Sustainability Interest Group (Young and
Moore 2010) have shared their experience of preprimary ESD practice and recom-
mend a wide range of biodiversity concepts to explore. These include:
• Decay, scavenging, conservation, protection, hibernation, habitats
• Making compost, worm farms and vegetable patches
• Life and food cycles
• Prey, predators and camouflage
• Conducting biodiversity audits of their playspace
• Planting a diverse range of plants
• Discussing plant and animal conservation
• Sponsorship of an endangered or local species
• The creation of frog bogs, bird baths and feeders
• Playspace design discussions (Young and Moore 2010)
1.2 ESD Exemplars
In 2012 UNESCO published a report directly focused upon Education for

Sustainable Development Good Practices in Early Childhood. This was published
in response to numerous requests for case studies and descriptions of good
practices in ESD (UNESCO 2012, p. 4). The document provides details of 12 pro-
grammes promoting ESD in early childhood settings. Four of these projects pre-
sented as exemplars were very-large-scale national or regional initiatives: Leuchtpol
(Lighthouse), Ecological Blue Flag, Leben gestalten lernen – Werte leben (Learning
to shape life – living values), and Sustainable Human Development in Rio Santiago.
The first three of these are most significantly concerned with environmental issues
and the fourth with social and cultural. The selection of exemplars clearly illustrates
the emphasis upon environmental education and the relative underdevelopment of
projects focused upon the social and cultural and economic dimensions of ESD. Only
three of the exemplars offer more combined and integrated ESD approaches.
A 28 million EURO (2008–2012) German ESD project for 3–6-year-olds, the
Leuchtpol (Lighthouse) project, was a project focused on Energy and the
Environment developed by Arbeitsgemeinschaft Natur- und Umweltbildung
Bundesverband (National Working Group for Nature and Environmental Education),
an NGO, and the E.ON energy company. The project is also supported by Leuphana
University Lüneburg. The project provided 5-day further training events for pre-
school teachers aimed to involve 4000 preschools (about 10 % of national provi-
sion) by the end of 2012. The project also provides a kit of materials, brochures
providing examples of good practice and quality standards as well as conferences
and exhibitions.
The Ecological Blue Flag Programme for Educational Centres was also included
in the UNESCO (2012) exemplars of good practice. This exemplar was developed
by the Ministry of Public Education, Health and the Environment Education
Department in Costa Rica in 2004. The project involved preschools, primary and
high schools as well as special education institutions, teacher education and univer-
sities. The Programme currently involves 600 educational centres out of a total of
4518 in Costa Rica. A specific goal has been to ‘highlight the importance of protect-
ing natural resources and of promoting healthy practices such as the use of toilets in
schools’. The project provides a teacher training programme covering issues con-
cerned with climate change, the Earth Charter, waste management and energy and
water resources saving. Preschools are evaluated in order to gain the Blue Flag
certification.
A project developed by the Landesbund für Vogelschutz in Bayern, Germany, in
association with the Bavarian Ministry for Environment and Health, Leben gestalten
lernen – Werte leben (Learning to shape life – living values) has provided ESD
materials (DVD and ring binder) to more than 3000 kindergartens in Germany and
has certified the practices of 280. The overall aims of the project have been to
involve families together with their children, educators and foster values appropriate
to ESD such as a sense of responsibility, openness, trust and confidence and respect
for the environment.
Sustainable Human Development in Rio Santiago is a project that has been
developed in Peru and Ecuador to ensure that the human rights of indigenous chil-
dren are protected throughout the Amazon region. The project addresses children’s
right to a good start in life, to a name and a nationality, to health and to quality basic
education. More than 1200 children under the age of six and their families benefit
from the project, which provides support for child-mother health services and provi-
sions that include the training of teachers for community-based family and chil-
dren’s education.
As previously suggested, there are various other Green School initiatives around
the world that provide curriculum support for ESD as well as structural support for
the development of sustainable school buildings, etc. Many of these initiatives
involve young children and are funded partly by industrial sponsors. In the
Philippines, for example, the Green Schools programme is a partnership programme
with the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education and private
sector partners such as Smart Communications, Inc., Nestle Philippines, Inc., Petron
Foundation, Inc., One Meralco Foundation, Inc. and Unilever Philippines. In the
UNESCO Asia-pacific Regional Consultation on a Post-DESD Framework, Shaeffer
(2013, p. 3) also recommends the Indonesian Green schools (or ecofriendly and safe
schools) initiative as worthy of scaling up. Eco-Schools1 are part of an international
programme for environmental management, certification and sustainable develop-
ment education for schools. The focus is on early years of education, and it is free
for settings to join up and apply for a reward. The organisation provides a range of
case studies of good practice, resources to support teaching and a range of advice on
writing eco-policies and carrying out an environmental review. In Australia the
Environmental Education in Early Childhood (EEEC) project aims to promote a
holistic approach to environmental education and sustainable practices in early
childhood and the early years of primary school. The approach involves policy
development, housekeeping practices, play and learning experiences and strategies
for working with children, staff and parents. There are also many other national and
regional early childhood environmental education networks.
Green Kindergartens was an 18-month pilot project that was also identified as an
exemplar by UNESCO (2012). The project is run in four kindergartens in Vanuatu.
This project was supported by Live and Learn Environmental Education2 and the
Vanuatu Early Childhood Association. Workshops were provided to train 26 teach-
ers to provide environmental education for young children in close collaboration
with the parents of the children. Activities in the pilot were concerned with waste
and gardening and a handbook and posters were produced to support integrated
project work.
The UNESCO (2012) examples also include the exemplary case of the South
African Raglan Road Community Centre established in 2004 as an integrated
community service centre. This is the third integrated ESD ECCE project identified.
The centre creates socio-environmental safety nets for early childhood addressing
issues including child abuse, HIV/AIDS, poverty and nutrition in addition to educa-
tion. Activities are targeted at both children and their primary and secondary care-
givers as well as at the broader social network surrounding them. Math, computer
and literacy classes have been established so that caregivers can assist learners to
develop reading and math skills and to enable the adults to access a broader spec-
1
http://www.eco-schools.org.uk
2
http://www.livelearn.org
trum of employment opportunities. To help the physical development of the chil-

dren, meals are provided as part of the school day and to enable a sustainable
nutritious and healthy diet (beyond the limited bread allowance allocated by the
Department of Education), a food garden has also been established on the school
grounds. The food garden was then used as a learning resource for the learners and
to provide a ‘resource income’ to members of the community, who worked in the
garden in exchange for a portion of the yield. With financial resources being a chal-
lenge in the local health clinic, the centre has drawn upon indigenous community
knowledge in developing a herb garden producing traditional medicines.
A project from an Ecole maternelle in Paris involved three-classroom groups of
88, 4–6-year-olds in the production of short animated films using webcams in asso-
ciation with the Playmobil toy company. The project Comment ça va … la Terre?
(How are you Earth?) involved both the children and their parents in learning about
sustainable development and campaigning for ‘eco-citizenship’.
The Eco-Patrulha project involved a class of 3- and 4-year-olds and their parents
in Porto in Portugal focused on the education of socially active citizens. The chil-
dren participated in a variety of ESD activities associated with the care of plants,
recycling, the reduction of waste, water and energy consumption and the offsetting
of CO2 emissions. The children also collaborated in the development of lists of
environmentally appropriate and inappropriate behaviours – and ‘patrolled’ the pre-
school (and local community) to ensure that they were adhered to “…the children
feel like “superheroes” with a big responsibility, that of helping “to save the planet”,
as they themselves put it” (UNESCO 2012, p.33). This led to the development of
recycling activities, energy savings and the implementation of an organic garden.
A kindergarten project, Pupeñi, is located in La Pintana, Chile, and aims to con-
tribute to minimising global warming through an efficient use of energy, promoting
water and electricity consumption reduction in the households. The Project was
developed jointly by the teachers’ council and the Centre of Parents and
Representatives of the Pupeñi kindergarten. The project has provided participatory
workshops and awareness raising campaigns on the appropriate use of energy and
energy efficiency. They provided training programmes to promote the use of ollas
brujas (a kind of thermos or pot made of expanded polystyrene) as an alternative to
gas cookers.
In a survey of 212 stakeholders in 33 European countries, the GHK in associa-
tion with Danish Technology Institute and Technopolis (2008) identified one out of
30 ‘innovative’ projects, involving children under the age of 8. This was an Austrian
national network (OKOLOG) project for schools involving 6–25-year-olds. It is
significant that the future of many of the exemplary projects and programmes
identified in UNESCO (2012) is dependent on continuation of targeted ESD fund-
ing and in many countries around the world recession has resulted in reduced expen-
diture for ESD (UNESCO 2010).
1.3 Looking at ESD Curriculum Globally
An opportunity sample survey of provisions for ESD in ECCE was carried out by
Siraj-Blatchford and Samuelsson (2013) with expert respondents from 14 countries,
China, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Slovakia, France, Ireland, Australia,
Brazil, Bulgaria, Sweden, the UK and Kenya.
Various kinds of ‘environmental’ preschool programmes were found to be com-
mon in all these countries apart from Kenya, and in most countries associated, semi-
nars, workshops and material have been provided for some years. In some of the
countries, aspects of ESD are also incorporated into the national curriculum for
early childhood. Respondents were asked about the relative contributions made to
the development of ESD in ECCE by national government, the early childhood
profession and the local community since 2005. In Finland much has been achieved.
The Finnish National Board of Education has Strategy for Education and Training
for Sustainable Development and Implementation Plan 2006–2014. The strategy
contains plans for increasing cooperation and promoting networking at the local,
regional and national level. The French and Slovakian governments had also been
influential. But most of our expert informants felt that little had been initiated by
their relevant government ministries. By far the greatest influence has come from
the profession itself who were inspired and supported in this work by international
professional initiatives by OMEP and UNESCO. In many countries this work was
also significantly supported by ECCE specialists in the University sector.
In Singapore ‘environmental awareness’ was introduced into the national cur-
riculum for preschools in 2006 and was changed to ‘Discovery of the World’ in
2012. These aspects include some environmental activities and activities to under-
stand the social and physical world. In Russia new standards have been introduced,
and there has been greater recognition of the need to ensure equality of access to
ECCE and of the importance of increasing quality of education as a national priority
in preschool education. There has also been a project, Nature and Us, which has
been dedicated to the Decade of ESD, as a follow-up of the UNESCO world confer-
ence on ECCE in 2011. Ecological education has also been introduced into the cur-
riculum for students and teachers in some universities and colleges. The progress
being made in Russia is confirmed in a response to the second DESD survey of
Member States, Key Stakeholders and UN Agencies carried out by UNESCO (2014,
p. 30).
An article by Ärlemalm-Hagsér and Davis (2014) identifies the different ways
that young children are described and supported as active participants for change
within the Australian and Swedish national steering documents for early childhood
education. In both countries environmental education is strongly emphasised in the
early years. Concepts concerned with ‘critical thinking’, and of ‘children as active
participants for change’, were used as specific dimensions of curriculum interpreta-
tion in the study. The analyses show that, while both the Australian and Swedish
curricula deal with content connected to the environmental, social inclusion and
critical thinking dimensions, there is limited or no discussion in the Australian cur-
riculum of the ‘political’ dimensions of human development, such as children being

active citizens with political agency.
In Finland there is a coordinated strategy and plans for increasing cooperation
and promoting networking at the local, regional, national and international level.
Also projects about urban living for sustainability exist and a practical guide has
been developed to provide a step-by-step model in creating sustainable develop-
ment programmes in a school or kindergarten. In Bulgaria 100 % of children receiv-
ing preprimary education are considered to be involved in environmental education
as all the kindergartens and preparatory groups at school observe the educational
requirements for preschool education. And Korea and Norway also have an ECCE
curriculum that gives strong support to ESD.
By way of contrast, we might consider the case of Kenya where the national cur-
riculum guidance includes some activities related to water, health, hygiene and the
environment, and these are applied in most of the schools where there are trained
teachers. But the majority of the current preprimary teaching workforce have not
been trained and will not have been influenced significantly by this. Preprimary
teacher salaries in Kenya are typically between £16 and £30 a month (2000–4000
Ksh), and the staff turnover in preprimary sector has been estimated as 40 % annu-
ally. In any event, 65 % of Kenyan children aged 3–6 years have no access to prep-
rimary ECCE services, and in arid and semiarid areas, only 9 % have access. It is
also significant from a sustainability perspective that as many as 122,000 under
5-year-olds die each year, mostly due to lack of water, sanitation and hygiene facili-
ties. It has been estimated that as many as 75 % of children are unable to wash their
hands with soap or ash after visiting the latrine and before eating.
The most highly regarded ECCE ESD work being carried out around the world
involves thematic and holistic project activities that aim to find balanced solutions
to problems that consider each of the relevant economic, environmental and socio-
cultural dimensions. But there are clearly specific foundational attitudes, skills and
knowledge that are associated with each of the pillars (e.g. thrift, care for the envi-
ronment, empathy), and for the purposes of evaluation (or auditing) current practice,
it is useful to consider the extent to which each of these pillars is addressed. In our
opportunity survey we found that the number of preschools incorporating
Environmental education as one aspect of ESD varied in the different countries
from 25 to 100 %. In terms of social education, the variation was considered to be
from 25 to 75 % and perceived coverage of economic issues even lower. We also
asked our experts about the degree to which children were currently participating in
the development of their ESD curriculum activities, and we were told the variation
was between 25 and 50 % of preprimary schools in each of the countries.
Research (Chawla 2006; Ewert et al. 2005) shows that the single most important
influence in promoting environmental awareness and concern is identified as
childhood experience ‘outdoors’, and early years practitioners have long recognised
the learning potential of the outdoor learning environment. Outdoor education in
Scandinavia has a particularly high status, with the aim of improving physical
development and the child’s connection with nature. Many of the Scandinavian pre-
schools are built and run in secluded woodland, and the idea of developing ‘Forest
Schools’ activities has become popular in many other European, North and South
American and Asia-Pacific contexts (Bruce 2012; Davis 2009).
The social and cultural strand of sustainability is concerned with all of those
social, cultural and political issues that affect the quality and continuity of people’s
lives, within and between nations. To achieve social sustainability, equality and fair-
ness are required between individuals and groups within and beyond national bor-
ders and between generations. Sustainable development requires, therefore, an
ethos of compassion, respect for difference, equality and fairness. Adults can con-
tribute a great deal in supporting children in their development of positive percep-
tions of themselves and of others and a great deal of early years curriculum
development along these lines has been carried out around the world. In the UK, for
example, the Department for Children, Schools and Families (2008) for England
suggested that preprimary school teachers Work with staff, parents and children
to promote an anti-discriminatory and anti-bias approach to care and education
(p. 38).
As previously suggested, activities supporting children’s emerging awareness
and understanding of economic sustainability are the least developed in ECCE. Yet
for most early childhood practitioners, parents and children, the day-to-day activi-
ties most significantly influencing sustainable development are at the level of con-
sumption. Sustainable consumption is therefore a particularly important area upon
which we should focus in the future.
Our opportunity sample (Siraj-Blatchford and Samuelsson 2013) of 14 countries
was, of course, not at all representative of the global situation and as Wals (2009)
suggests, in his progress report on the UNESCO Decade for Education Sustainable
Development (DESD), as a clearly defined subject ESD in the preprimary education
sector remains marginal even if attention to it is on the rise and better articulated
than it was earlier on in the decade (p. 34):
Whereas early in the DESD, the necessity of ESD for society’s youngest members was in
question (‘they are too young for such complex and heavy issues, let them be children and
not bother with this’), there now is a realization that ESD in ECCE has a role to play. (Wals
2009, p. 37)
Wals (2009) cites respondents from Myanmar and Lesotho to illustrate the vari-
ety of commitments to ESD in ECCE from around the world:
SD has become an integral component of ECCE: As ECD is one of the key factors to meet
the EFA goals and MDG goals, trainings for ECD interventions held everywhere covers
ESD
There has not really been any conscious effort to integrate ESD into this stage of educa-
tion, nor have there been any type of training geared towards trainers at this level in
Lesotho
As Siraj-Blatchford et al. (2010), Davies (2010), Feine (2012) and many others
have argued, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) must begin in the early
childhood years and requires ‘transformative learning’…‘within the common and
global constraints of climate change, dwindling ecosystem services and environ-
mental degradation’. But to fully appreciate the implications of ESD for ECCE, we
need to look beyond this to the more direct effects that climate change, the ecosys-
tem and environmental degradation are having upon young children. The fact is that
today’s children already bear a disproportionate share of the impact of climate
change, and they are the primary victims both in the immediate and longer term
(Oxfam 2009; Stone and Loft 2009):
From long standing hazards to emerging ones, environmental factors are estimated to con-
tribute up to 25 % of death and disease globally reaching nearly 35 % in some African
regions. Children are most vulnerable to the impact of harmful conditions and account for
66 % of the victims of environment-induced illnesses. (UNEP 2014)
1.4 Resilience and Risk Reduction
Children between the ages of 0–8 represent the highest percentage of affected popu-
lations in today’s global emergencies (Plan 2005; UNICEF 2008). Emergencies and
disasters also have the greatest impact on young children because of their vulnera-
bility and physical and psychological dependency (UNICEF 2010). Disaster risk
reduction (DRR) aims at reducing risks and strengthening supports in order to miti-
gate the impact of these disasters. In the context of ECCE, this involves ensuring
that the preschools, ECD centres, health services, orphanages and homes of young
children are hazard resistant. Provisions for Education for Sustainable Development
in early childhood must provide support for young children in developing resil-
ience, and DRR research has shown that they also have a role ‘as risk communica-
tors supporting the behavioural changes required of other people in their
communities’ (Tanner 2010).
Although disasters can affect anybody at any time, in most cases it is the poorest
and most vulnerable people, including children, that are affected first and hit the
hardest. It is for this reason that most DRR projects have so far been developed in
the poorer communities. But in considering DRR as a significant component of
ESD in ECCE, it is important to recognise that this is not an issue of relevance only
in countries that have previously been considered especially prone to ‘natural’
disasters. In an analysis of data from 27 sites in 22 countries provided by more than
1200 families with children from infancy to age 12, the International Resilience
Research Project (IRRP) has highlighted the common concerns of society for help-
ing children address experiences of adversity (Grotberg 1996, 1997). A major aim
of every DRR programme involving young children is to support them in develop-
ing resilience – both the capacity to adapt and thrive under stress.
Back et al. (2009) published a review of child-focused and child-led disaster risk
reduction approaches and techniques, many of which involved children as young as
five. The review argues that there are significant advantages in engaging children
directly in the design and delivery of DRR activities and that more needs to be done
to involve children in such work. The review draws attention to the fact that the
costs of delivering DRR with children are lower and the benefits much higher (using
a lifetime analysis and taking into account intergenerational benefits). The review
also found that most projects involved children in expanding and transferring
knowledge and in giving children a voice. The report recommends that efforts
should now shift to focus more on supporting children engaged in action themselves
to influence and to transform practices.
Tanner (2010) cites a wide range of research evidence to argue that children from
the age of three onwards are able to develop capacities to reduce risk based not just
on the physical aspects of risk but also (and perhaps even more significantly) upon
the culturally constructed aspects of risk requiring behavioural change:
The focus of attention therefore needs to shift from one that considers children’s agency not
only in terms of their ability to enact direct, autonomous risk management practices, to one
that considers children as risk communicators to create behavioural change in other people
in their communities. Such risk communication processes at household, school and com-
munity level remain poorly understood in different cultural contexts. (Lindell and Perry
2004)
During emergency and high-stress situations, the risk of abuse and violence
towards children is also increased (UNHCR 2008). According to a study by
Alderman et al. (2006), children exposed to drought and civil strife in Zimbabwe
during their early years suffered an average height loss of 3.4 cm; they lost a year of
schooling and significant reductions in lifetime earnings. These are all issues of
considerable significance in the context of the UN Convention on the Rights of the
Child; they are also significant concerns for ESD in Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE). It has been estimated that 200 million children under age five in
low- and middle-income countries fail to reach their developmental potential
(Grantham-McGregor et al. 2007; Sherr et al. 2009; Walker et al. 2011). Most
importantly, the extant research demonstrates that the risk factors and adverse expe-
riences of these young children can be counteracted using evidence-based early
interventions (Engle et al. 2007, 2011). In fact all of the extant research evidence
from neuroscience, psychology and economic studies of human capital develop-
ment support the importance of public investments in ECCE, particularly for chil-
dren from economically disadvantaged families (Barnett et al. 2007; Heckman et al.
2006; Rolnick and Grunewald 2006).
Robust research shows that many of the most successful interventions that have
been developed around the world to support ECCE beyond the preprimary curricu-
lum context have adopted a two-generational approach, and these have been shown
capable of long-term impact for future generations. A Jamaican study 1986–1987
involved a randomised controlled trial with 127 children who were recruited to the
study at 3 months. It included an intervention that involved support for 1-h weekly
home-based play sessions with mothers and children over a 2-year period. This
intervention aimed to improve the quality of maternal-child interaction through
play, and this has now been shown to have provided large cognitive effects when
compared to a control group into adulthood. A 20-year follow-up found that these
early childhood experiences continued to influence child development in these fam-
ilies for the next generation (Grantham-McGregor et al. 1994, 2007). Another robust
and large-scale evaluation of an intervention involving home visits has been carried
out in Colombia (Attanasio et al. 2013). Familias en Acción was inspired by the
Jamaican design and began in 2002. It is now the largest welfare programme in
Colombia. Within this 18-month intervention, home visits are made by locally
trained Madre Lideres to support mothers in providing psychosocial stimulation. As
in the Jamaican intervention, one of the strategies applied to reduce the costs was to
encourage the mothers and children to make their own toys. The evaluation found
very significant benefits in terms of cognition and respective language at a cost of
only $491 USD per child per year, which the research team notably compared with
the Colombian government ECD budget for children birth to age five of $1,300
USD per child per year.
1.5 Wash from the Start
In the second DESD survey of Member States, Key Stakeholders and UN Agencies
carried out by UNESCO (2014), “Health, Water and Sanitation was considered the
very highest area of concern for all respondents at the ECCE phase” (UNESCO
2014, pp. 40–44).
As the example of Kenya illustrates so clearly above, the sustainable develop-
ment of many countries is most significantly concerned with more immediate sur-
vival issues than those addressed in wealthier nations. UNICEF’s established WASH
in Schools (WinS) programme saves children’s lives by promoting water, sanitation
and hygiene in primary and secondary schools throughout the world. Yet there has
been an urgent need to provide improved clean water supplies and hygiene educa-
tion for younger children. Preprimary school children suffer the most from diar-
rhoea and enteric diseases, with every episode reducing their calorie and nutrient
uptake and, thus, limiting their growth and development. In fact children under five
are reported to be the victims of 90 % of all diarrheal deaths, more than 1.5 million
deaths annually. So the earlier we act, the better. But the challenges are substantial.
The fourth Millennium Development Goal (MDG) adopted by world leaders in
2000 was to reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five by the
year 2015. According to the World Health Organization and UNICEF (2010), of the
68 countries that account for 90% of the deaths, only 19 were projected to achieve
MDG 4. As many as 200 million children under five are also currently at risk of
impaired cognitive and social and emotional development (ibid).
Integrated approaches have been found to be most effective, and the major role to
be played by Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) educational initiatives sup-
porting disease prevention and nutritional outcomes has been recognised. Young
children are the greatest victims of poor hygiene, and it is also significant that, as
they are also are highly mobile, they serve as very efficient ‘spreaders’ of enteric
organisms. Children often get their hands dirty, but they are not born with any inher-
ited instincts to wash their hands before they eat or even after they go to the toilet.
Handwashing is a routine that needs to be well taught from an early age to make sure
it is done properly. Efforts to improve early childhood hygiene education also have
the bonus effect of alerting older siblings, parents and communities to the dangers.
A successful pilot project carried out in Colombia provides a good example of

what can be achieved in ECCE (Landaeta and Cardenas 2013). The first stage of the
‘Program for the prevention of infectious diseases in children of Colombia’ aimed
to identify and understand the problem with 4- and 5-year-old children and then to
develop workshops for teachers, aides and administrative staff and community
mothers. It is intended that the project also supports the development of a wider
education strategy for use with children of child development centres, caregivers
and parents. Another smaller-scale Wash from the Start project carried out in a part-
nership between OMEP Kenya and OMEP UK in 2012 focused on celebrations for
Global Handwashing Day (see Chap. 5).
Many programmes and initiatives are taking root globally. Global conversations
and coordinated efforts are necessary to bring ESD curriculum and programming
into the lives of all of our youngest global citizens.
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Chapter 2
The OMEP ESD Research and Development
Project
In the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Consultation on a post-DESD framework, it

was suggested that four indicators be applied in measuring progress in the post-
2014 ESD framework:
• The percentage of local ESD content in the school curriculum;
• The percentage of teachers who can speak and teach in their learner’s mother tongue;
• The percentage of time dedicated to activities taught by community members and linked
to local content; and
• The percentage of a government’s total budget devoted to ESD activities. (Shaeffer
2013, p. 9)
As our introductory chapter suggests, in the context of Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE), a much wider range of indicators for sustainable development
should be applied including early childhood health and survival, preschool atten-
dance and learning outcomes. In seeking a more systematic means of reviewing
preschool ESD practices, OMEP was impressed by work carried out by Siraj-
Blatchford’s (2002a, b) and Mathers et al. (2007) applying the UK extension to the
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-E) in preschool practice
development projects carried out by practitioners and local government authorities
(Sylva et al. 2004). Prior to these initiatives, most of the work carried out in apply-
ing ‘quality’ evaluation scales outside of the USA had been entirely for formal
research purposes. Yet instruments of this kind have also been used as curriculum
self-assessment or auditing tools to be applied in one classroom, across classrooms
in large institutions or even across whole local authorities and school districts. Most
significantly they have provided a means by which practitioners could identify areas
of the ECCE curriculum that they wished to develop further and a means by which
these developments could be recorded and reported to show progress. Amongst the

18 J. Siraj-Blatchford
praise reported by the preschool practitioners that Mather et al. (2007) were work-
ing with were comments such as:
Very useful to give a standardised and objective overall view, and as a self-evaluation and
improvement tool.
A clear, concise document which….will help all the [centres] to see where they are, and
what the next steps are for them individually – without putting undue stress on them.
(Mather et al. 2007)
The perceived benefits of using the scales in this way have thus included:
• Bringing teams of early years professionals together and providing a common language
for discussion and development.
• Monitoring of change and accountability.
• Transparency in terms of the criteria by which early years centres are being asked to
improve.
• Minimal paperwork. (ibid)
The OMEP Educational Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early

Childhood (ERS-SDEC) (Appendix A) that was developed for this project therefore
applied the same rating procedures as the Early Childhood Environment Rating
Scale-Revised (ECERS-R) (Harms et al. 1998) and Early Childhood Environment
Rating Scale-Extension (ECERS-E) (Sylva et al. 2006)1 instruments. The items are
scored on a 7-point scale, from 1 (inadequate) to 7 (excellent). In all research and
development contexts, there is a trade-off that has to be made between the depth of
the analysis offered and the ease of application. It was decided that for the ERS-
SDEC at this time, we required a very simple instrument with the absolute mini-
mum of items to be scored. We needed to prioritise ease of use in a scale that could
be distributed widely, and we required brevity to reduce the burden of translation.
The OMEP team were keen to develop a tool that might be used in combination
with the ECERS, but felt the need to create something easier for practitioners to
apply in the classroom with minimal training. The applications of ECERS reported
by Mathers et al. (2007), for the purposes of curriculum auditing and the setting of
development targets, required a 5-day training course for teachers. Clearly a com-
promise was called for between empirical reliability and the possibility of applica-
tion in robust research and ease of application with the potential of low-cost wider
distribution and mass application. The ECERS-E runs 4–6 pages for each subscale,
and it was decided to keep the ESD instrument that was created down to just three
pages covering each of the key ESD ‘pillars’: environmental, economics and social/
cultural education. While this meant compromising on the analytic detail, it was felt
that in many research contexts, the ERS-SDEC could still be applied conveniently
alongside a selection of subscales drawn from the more elaborate and comprehen-
sive quality rating scales already available. This way the ERS-SDEC might also be
applied conveniently by individual or groups of practitioners to audit their educa-
tion for sustainable development curriculum and to help practitioners and preschool
centre managers in setting curriculum development priorities. As in other environ-
mental rating scales, the ERS-SDEC identifies both curriculum and pedagogic
1
http://www.327matters.org/Docs/RR356.pdf
2 The OMEP ESD Research and Development Project 19
provisions, and it requires the rater/evaluator to make their own observations. Where
it is applied by an outside researcher, they will be required to ask practitioners for
information about their practices and to seek evidence that confirms these
practices.
Some design assumptions are:
• The ERS-SDEC would be suitable for use in settings catering for children aged
2 ½ through 7 years of age and should be applied in one room or for the provi-
sions being made for one group of children at a time.
• The scale was initially designed so that a rating of level 3 would be applied to the
most common current preschool practice in environmental education around the
world as this was our strongest area of ESD practice. This was the area that most
of those involved felt most confident in defining, and environmental education
therefore set the standards for progression in pedagogy and expectations regard-
ing parental involvement and children’s agency across the scale.
• A level 5 rating was set to identify practices that we all agreed would be consid-
ered ‘good’ in terms of ESD in early childhood in any context.
• Levels 6 + were defined to show how preschools could (and sometimes do) take
the subject further to demonstrate ‘excellence’ and curriculum leadership.
• The rating scale was also designed to identify what we considered to be ‘inade-
quate’ preschool practices in each dimension of ESD. In this we recognised from
the start that inadequate practice might often be due to structural barriers (e.g.
funding, training or government policy). It was intended that the OMEP ERS-
SDEC evidence could be used to support those requesting resources to overcome
these barriers.
It was recognised that given the relatively new development of the education for
sustainable development in early childhood, it would be unlikely that many of our
preschools will currently achieve more than level 3 in many areas. We hope that the
publication of these results will help us in mobilising the resources that would be
needed to improve things. Some of our preschools (including many in sub-Saharan
Africa) might also score an ‘inadequate’ level 1 in some areas, as many didn’t cur-
rently have even the most basic water and hygiene facilities to adequately sustain
the healthy lives of all of the children in their care. These nutritional and WASH
provisions were to be seen as a necessary prerequisite to sustainable education in
preschools, and they were intended to identify the highest priority for OMEP’s col-
laborative international development efforts.
Each of the subscales was written collaboratively, trialled and revised in several
iterations to incorporate practitioner feedback. The complete scale was first launched
in July 2013 at the OMEP World Assembly in Shanghai. Systematic research efforts
will be made in the future to demonstrate construct and predictive validity when
applied with subscales drawn from the more general quality rating scales and to
develop further resources to support inter-rater reliability. One of the dangers in
creating any form of assessment tool in education is that it may be considered a
definitive definition of quality or excellence. At such an early stage of development
of the ESD curriculum, this would be a serious mistake, and OMEP is therefore
committed to the further development, refinement and revision of this instrument in

the future in collaboration with practitioners. A research trial, such as the one
reported in this book, is meant to assist with further development and refinement for
utilisation in international contexts. Guidance provided to accompany the scale will
also include some warnings about the dangers of reification. Wherever any form of
comparison is involved between settings, there will be a need to ensure inter-rater
reliability. It is important that users recognise the need for external or collective
validation and that their ratings may need to be collaboratively moderated. This
should be achieved through:
• Training to understand the use and the role of the scale.
• Training to ensure common understandings of the quality criteria (definitions
and cultural variations).
• In many cases a ‘critical friend’ should also be involved to provide support and
validation (this may be a local authority adviser or an academic who has applied
the instrument in other contexts).
Mathers et al. (2007) drew attention to the question of whether such scales ever
really define ‘quality’. They cite Douglas (2004) who argued that:
…rating scales such as ECERS are generally validated by reference to the values of one
particular group in one country. In the case of ECERS, most of the experts were drawn from
the field of child development in North America.
While Mathers et al. draw attention to the regular revisions of the ECERS instru-
ments and argue that where the rating scales are not perceived as going far enough,
they should be used in conjunction with other tools. They also suggest that training
should be licensed to ensure their ‘reliable and consistent use’.
Clearly the ERS-SDEC has never been considered for use in the monitoring and
regulation of ‘quality’ in general, and it may be that its brevity in itself will ensure
that it is never abused in this way. But there is another issue here as there are some
writers who would reject the very principle of applying any such an instrument in
an international context. This is an issue that will be explored further in the final
chapter, but at this point, it is worth noting that even if the team developing the tool
were drawn from a wide range of national contexts, it might be argued that, given
its association with the US and UK ECERS, a Western model of ECCE was being
applied and that the ERS-SDEC was therefore in some way ‘culturally
imperialist’.
In fact throughout the OMEP ERS-ESD project, we have found it important to
consider cultural comparative issues. Concerns were expressed, especially by pre-
school teachers in the USA, that rating scale statements associated with teaching
children about the commonality of experience of different ethnic groups might
encourage teacher-initiated activities when the dominant pedagogic practice empha-
sised the importance of child-initiated activities and conversations. Following
extended discussion, it was agreed that it was often quite difficult, in settings exhib-
iting good co-constructive practice and dialogue, to differentiate between teacher
and child initiation. The extant research suggests that in the most effective
preschools, a balance is struck between child-initiated and teacher-extended and

teacher-initiated activities (Sylva et al. 2004). It was also noted that even in the most
extreme ‘free play’ preschool contexts, these principles of child initiation were rou-
tinely compromised in the case of educational provisions related to personal hygiene
and behaviour and often in the context of teaching children to be ‘tidy’ and to exhibit
‘good manners’. Curriculum development always involves a review of priorities,
and the perceived priorities are often culturally specific.
Sheridan and Samuelsson (2001) and Einarsdottir (2005) have studied children’s
opportunities for decision-making in preschool, and we know that in many coun-
tries, children’s decision-making is limited to specified ‘free choice times’; a study
carried out in Canada by Rachel Rosen (2010) went further to look at preschool
children’s perceptions of their role in curriculum development. The children, who
were attending a preschool influenced strongly by Reggio Emilia, felt that while
they did play an active role, even if the teachers made the final decisions, they would
like to have more influence.
Rosen (2010) cites Moss (2008) to argue that preschools need to create an every-
day culture of democracy. Sheridan and Samuelsson’s study (2001) showed that
most children’s understanding of decision-making is restricted to being able ‘to do
what you want to do’ as individuals, but as Rosen argues in the case of children’s
involvement in curriculum development, we should be more concerned with how
they perceive the collective goals for children attending the preschool and not just
their individual interests. A study by Devine (2003) found that primary school chil-
dren believe their views on the curriculum should have equal weight to the teachers.
It seems reasonable to expect that preschool children would take the same view. In
referring to the involvement of 4- and 5-year-olds in school council meetings in the
mid-1990s, Helen, aged 5 years at that time, gave her reasons for valuing their coun-
cil meetings: ‘I think you should have the school council because it would make less
wars and when people grow up they could make more votes’ (Siraj-Blatchford
1995). In the same paper, a cartoon showing a teacher and a child is referred to, both
highly stereotyped, with the teacher wearing a gown and mortarboard, and the child
with their tie askew, scruffy despite their school uniform. The child is sarcastically
asking the teacher: ‘If education is so important then why aren’t we learning about
it in school’. The child had a valid point. If we don’t share with children what our
curriculum aims are, then how can they ever be meaningfully involved in develop-
ing them further.
To take another example of the intercultural discussions that took place, it
involved a comparison between preschool education in the UK and Sweden. In the
UK, much has been made of the apparent superiority of Swedish preschool prac-
tices. It has sometimes been suggested that as Swedish preschools place less empha-
sis on literacy than in the UK, and Swedish children only begin formal education at
age 7, children in the UK could achieve similar educational standards/outcomes
with the same provisions (Palmer 2009). What this account has left out, however, is
the fact that for 300 years Sweden has been recognised as the country where chil-
dren have access to more books at home than most other countries and the country
with the highest literacy rates and reading standards in Europe. As Harris and
Hatano (2006) suggest:
Long before school entrance some children may have had thousands of hours of fruitful
meetings with written language. (p. 167)
Nearly 200 years before a compulsory school system was established in Sweden
(which included Finland in those days), a royal decree in 1684 announced that the
head of every household in Sweden was required to teach all inhabitants to read
(including servants) (Lundberg 1999). Instruction materials were produced for
every household for this literacy campaign, and illiteracy was punished by the loss
of civil rights. Non-readers were not permitted to marry or to act as witnesses in
court. While there are many children in UK homes who enjoy similar home educa-
tional benefits, for the majority in the UK and for a minority of children at least in
every other nation in the world, reading instruction is considered by parents to be
the primary responsibility of the school and not the home. The ERS-ESD therefore
includes provisions that refer to the need for ‘good’ preschool practice to include
encouraging emergent literacy activities and reading to the children. As noted in the
introduction, poverty and educational disadvantage have been recognised as sus-
tainability issues in themselves, and the ERS-SDEC is intended to identify those
areas of the curriculum that we collectively need to develop around the world.
What these examples illustrate is that cultural comparisons help us draw atten-
tion to cultural differences and to features of our cultural and educational practices
that we might otherwise take for granted. Such comparisons may be carried out in a
non-judgemental and respectful dialogue that is beneficial to all of those involved.
Those concerned that the cultural differences between countries are so great that all
attempts to develop a common set of statements of quality or qualities are mistaken
might consider ESD a ‘limit case’. The fact is that the problems of sustainability
that we face, in terms of climate change, natural resource depletion, biodiversity,
etc., are international problems and cannot be solved by national policies alone.
Their solution requires common efforts and shared understandings. If Sweden or
Finland or, by some swipe of Harry Potter’s wand, the UK and every other European
country were suddenly to become ‘sustainable’ societies, the world would still be
set on an inevitable path of ecological destruction. These countries, and many more,
need to set a good example, but around the world, we are all in this together, and we
need to collaborate and communicate more effectively than ever before if we are to
face the challenge.
2.1 Pedagogic Progression in the ERS-SDEC
One of the primary objectives of the OMEP research collaboration has been to
define progression in the development of curriculum and pedagogy of ESD in
ECCE. We found that many of the most highly regarded exemplars of good practice
that are reported above and in the country case studies that follow in Chaps. 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 involve young children being supported in developing their

own solutions to real problems in their local community. This may be considered
especially significant given the fact young children are increasingly recognised to
have the right to be consulted ‘in all matters that affect’ them (Article 12 of the
United Nations Charter on the Rights of the Child2). As previously emphasised,
sustainable development is essentially concerned with the future, and it is the young
children who have the greatest stake as citizens in that future. Climate change, eco-
logical and environmental protection issues affect them profoundly, and education
for sustainable development should therefore be considered a fundamental right. As
Hart (1997) suggested and Davis (2005) and others have also shown above, young
children in the pre-primary phase are already competent, active agents in their own
lives, and they are affected by and both capable and often required by circumstance
to engage with complex environmental and social issues. Despite the high regard for
this principle and a widespread awareness amongst early childhood educators of the
desirability of encouraging child participation in curriculum development, the evi-
dence suggest that so far this aspect remains relatively underemployed around the
world. As UNICEF (2012) has suggested in a different context, there is a need for
coordinated training of teachers to design methodologies rooted in children’s rights.
In ECCE pre-primary practice activities encourage children to engage in co-
operative play supported through the provision of progressively more challenging
scaffolding props and playful environments. Early learning in terms of ESD is
achieved in the same way as the child’s early learning of science and technology. It
is an ‘emergent’ phenomenon (Siraj-Blatchford 2001). Teachers who teach ‘emer-
gent literacy’ in early childhood (Hall 1987) provide positive role models to chil-
dren by reading to them and showing children the value they place in their own use
of print. In emergent ESD we can do the same by talking about sustainable develop-
ment and by involving children in our own collaborative investigations of the kind
of sustainability issues identified by Young and Moore (2010) above. In an emergent
ESD education, teachers tell the children about the significant achievements of sus-
tainable development, as well as the ongoing struggles and heroic efforts of indi-
viduals like the Kenyan Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai. In doing so we will
encourage children to develop an emergent awareness of the nature and value of
sustainable development and a positive disposition towards the subject. Teachers
who teach emergent literacy encourage ‘mark making’ as a natural prelude to writ-
ing. This is precisely the way Froebel and many other early educational pioneers
saw the importance of learning through ‘making’ things. In emergent ESD pre-
primary teachers also encourage exploration and problem-solving, and they support
the child in sustaining these explorations over time. While early childhood educa-
tors a few decades ago may have considered a child’s mind to be an empty space to
be filled with information, or had simplistic notions of children learning all they
needed through natural ‘discovery’, modern ECCE teacher education courses are
informed by the work of Vygotsky and the example of the Reggio Emilia model of
education. Increasingly early childhood learning and development has been recog-
2
http://www.unicef.org/crc/
nised in sociocultural terms as a learning and developmental ‘construction zone’

involving the educator(s) and the child working and playing together (Rinaldi 2012;
Siraj-Blatchford and MacLeod-Brudenell 1999).
In many of the most celebrated and successful pre-primary settings around the
world, the transition from this early years play-based education to the more formal
educational model of the school is often supported through the development of
small group project work. The children are at first encouraged to record and report
upon their extended playful learning activities (Van Oers 1999) and then to develop
collaborative and investigative cross curriculum project reports, displays or ‘docu-
mentation’ (Rinaldi 2012) (see also reference to the Modern Education Movement
model).
Topic or ‘project’ work has generally been considered important in the early
years because it is recognised that it is often through making connections between
classroom experience and the ‘real world’ outside that metacognitive links are
developed that allow the ‘transfer’ of learning that is essential if children are ever to
apply what they have learned to other contexts. While many teachers may have
assumed in the past that such connections were somehow made ‘naturally’, we now
know that this is often far from the case (Nunes and Bryant 1996), and a thematic
topic work approach has been emphasised in many early childhood teacher educa-
tion courses. Arguably, the most sophisticated of these approaches involve children
working together with the teacher in a collaborative enquiry. The roots of project
and enquiry-based approaches to early childhood education lie in the works of
Dewey (1916), Kilpatrick’s (1918), Bruner (1961) and Thelen (1960). As Hartman
and Eckerty (1992) observed, interest in the project approach has increased in recent
years as educators have rediscovered children’s receptiveness to holistic learning
approaches. As Katz and Chard (2000) have argued:
…project work can strengthen children’s dispositions to be empirical, that is, to seek and to
examine available evidence and facts, to check their predictions and hypotheses, and to
learn to be open to alternative ways of interpreting facts and findings.
Project work can also provide a context for the two-generational approaches
referred to in Chap. 1. Many of the most impressive ESD in ECCE practices may be
considered to provide contexts for a collaborative form of praxis where the children
and their parents and communities are encouraged to reflect and take action upon
the world in order to transform it (Freire 1974).
For the past 5 years, OMEP has provided annual travel awards to ECCE educa-
tors who provide the best exemplars of ESD practice. In one project 75 children (4
and 6 years) of the third and fourth preschools of Lykovrysi in Greece were engaged
in an ESD project supported by a community environmental group that included a
campaign to save part of a local forest from development. The project was devel-
oped with the full participation of the children. They made up songs for recycling
based on music themes of popular songs. They created leaflets, placards, posters,
interview schedules and songs about recycling. They also adapted the dramatic
myth of Erysichthon to give it a more optimistic ending and created a play; they did
the choreography, and the set, and presented it with the help of a mother narrator.
They prepared and wrote the questions they asked the mayor of the day of a special
event in the town centre. They also made suggestions for the solution to the prob-
lems related to recycling and the protection of the local forest:
…making everybody sensitive to the protection of the environment is the ultimate duty of
the people of the 21st century. Today, our preschoolers show the way. They deserve our
congratulations, our attention and love because they are the architects of the building of a
new world of dreams, hope and imagination! (From the Mayor’s speech)
The Modern School Movement (Movimento da Escola Moderna (MEM)) has

also been developing a pedagogy over the past 40 years, which guides their educa-
tional practices, and may be particularly conducive to ESD in ECCE. The MEM
philosophy was notably informed by the work of Frinet, and the aim has been to
develop schools that are deeply integrated into the cultural background of the soci-
eties they serve:
Learning is seen as an empowering process, which provides tools for autonomous and
responsible citizens to actively engage and act on the world. In this sense schools should be
places where children learn how to learn and how to act in a democratic society. (Folque
and Siraj-Blatchford 2011)
The UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Consultation on a post-DESD framework

identified eight pedagogic strategies particularly supportive of ESD and supporting
creative thinking and hands-on learning designed to create ‘passionate learners’.
The case study evidence cited above and throughout this text shows that all of these
apply equally to pre-primary educational contexts:
• more collaborative, experiential, self-autonomous, action- and learner-centred teaching
and learning
• peer learning and hands-on, action/service learning
• stronger community involvement and initiatives linked to the school; e.g., “learning
from the bottom” through community-based learning and localised curriculum
development
• the greater use of media and ICT in promoting ESD
• teacher and student exchanges around ESD and DRR, both within and across countries
• accreditation schemes for schools which achieve a certain level of adherence to the
principles and practices of ESD
• awards for ESD implementation (e.g., SEAMEO awards for best DESD practices and
recognition of the most sustainable townships, the best DRR school plans, and the best
ESD websites)
• ASPnet schools as a catalyst for ESD through useful for experimentation with, and the
sharing of, good practice (e.g. through videos) (Shaeffer 2013, p. 4)
In the second DESD survey of member states, key stakeholders and UN agencies
carried out by UNESCO (2014), respondents (from all sectors of education) were
asked to choose from a list whether they see trends in learning favoured in the
implementation of ESD or not. The most favoured forms of learning used in ESD
were reported as participatory/collaborative learning, critical thinking and problem-
based learning (UNESCO 2014, p. 37). Each of these may be considered equally
relevant to ESD in the pre-primary phase. In a series of international meetings held
in Gothenburg in 2008, a set of specific recommendations (SWEDESD 2008) for
ESD in ECCE were developed. In terms of specific preschool pedagogy, the guid-
ance highlighted the need for:
• Building upon the everyday experience of children
• Curriculum integration and creativity
• Intergenerational problem-solving and solution seeking
• Promotion of intercultural understanding and recognition of interdependency
• Involvement of the wider community
• Active citizenship in the early years
• The creation of cultures of sustainability
It is notable that these are also very similar to the conclusions reached in the
Partnership for Education and Research about Responsible Living initiative (PERL
2011) where they identify the core life skills needed for all ages which include the
ability to:
• reflect on the purpose of life and on our personal and collective needs and actions
• take responsibility for one’s own betterment and for the advancement of society as a
whole
• consult in the public and private discourse on the nature, purpose and choices involved
in human development
• be creative in envisioning and constructing alternative solutions to challenges
• collaborate with others through continual questioning, learning and taking action
• commit to both short and long-term goals. (PERL 2011)
ESD curriculum and pedagogy must be based on the principals of best practice
in early education. The ERS-SDEC is a beginning tool to look for evidence of the
three pillars of ESD in the classroom; it is not a tool to determine the quality of care
and education. What follows is an accounting of ten countries that participated in
the first global study using the ERS-SDEC. Each author outlines the state of ESD in
their home country, provides contextual information related to early education and
care and provides a description of the research trial as it was carried out in early
childhood settings in our various locations.
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Chapter 3
Early Childhood Education for Sustainable
Development in Chile
Selma Simonstein
3.1 Introduction
Chile is located in the south of South America and has a total population of
16,634,603, of which 8,101,890 are men and 8,532,713 are women.1 The country is
divided into 15 regions; the capital is Santiago and is located in the Metropolitan
Region. Chile is a Republic and has a presidential form of government where lead-
ers are democratically elected. Spanish is the predominant language. Early educa-
tion in Chile has existed for over 100 years with the first preschools developed at the
end of the nineteenth century by the private sector. In 1900, Chile had its first expe-
riences with governmental financing, and in 1906 the first public day care center
was created next to the Normal School N°1, the teacher-training site in Santiago. In
Chile, early education includes the age span from 6 months until the child starts
basic elementary school education, which is typically at 6 years of age; none of its
educational levels are compulsory. In administrative terms, the levels are divided as
follows:
Day care: from 6 months to 1 year old
Nursery: from 1 to 2 years old
Lower middle: from 2 to 3 years old
Upper middle: from 3 to 4 years old
Transitional 1: from 4 to 5 years old
Transitional 2: from 5 to 6 years old
1
Chile Ministry of Economy, National Institute of Statistics, census 2012 (Documento de apoyo
para el personal de las comunidades educativas 2012).
S. Simonstein (*)
Universidad Central de Chile, Santiago, Chile
e-mail: ssimonstein@ucentral.cl

30 S. Simonstein
The three main institutions that look after the most vulnerable children in the
country are the National Day Care Association (JUNJI), the Integra Foundation, and
the Department of Education (MINEDUC). These institutions are public. JUNJI
was founded in 1970 and provides services for children from 6 months to 6 years.
Integra was founded during the military government in 1973 as a social organization
and also serves children from 6 months to 6 years and now is an educational founda-
tion. The Ministry of Education provides education to children ages 4–6 years.
3.1.1 Chile’s Present Situation
Chile has 6600 day care centers and nursery schools. There are approximately 438
under the direction of JUNJI; 1700 are networked with JUNJI; 987 are networked
with Integra foundations; and 3475 are private without public subsidies. None of
these have official recognition (OR) by the state since the OR requirements are
geared for elementary educational establishments and not for this level. There is no
other difference between the agencies.
The requirements of physical space for early education are not in tune with our
geographical reality; as a result, there are towns and neighborhoods that cannot
offer day care programs of any type. On the other hand, there are more than 7509
subsidized schools with official recognition in the transitional levels (Pre-K and K)
that are authorized and approved by the superintendent of education. There are cer-
tifications for this level that are voluntary or that have specific purposes. For exam-
ple, official recognition by the state, given by the Department of Education and
required for getting subsidies in Pre-K and K, is obligatory, the same as it is in the
elementary school system. In addition, according to article 203 of The Working
Code, registration that is given by JUNJI is required for institutions that take in
children of working mothers. However, supervision is not well established or con-
trolled. JUNJI is allowed to supervise but has very little means to sanction nurseries
that do not comply with regulations, and the superintendent of education can only
regulate establishments that have official recognition from the state.
3.2 Context of ECEC
3.2.1 National Policy of an Education for a Sustainable

Development2
In 2002, the United Nations organized the World Summit on Sustainable

Development that took place in Johannesburg, South Africa. At this meeting, the
participating countries and organizations agreed that education is fundamental to
2
Chile Ministry of Environment (Ministerio del medioambiente 2009).
3 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in Chile 31
achieve sustainable development, and the government pledged to improve and

strengthen the incorporation of the environmental dimension into education, into
the economy, and in the general society. The Chilean government was challenged
with creating and defining a National Policy for Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD). They sought input from public and private institutions, as well
as from diverse representatives of the Chilean citizenry. ESD is now a general policy
that has both social participation and acceptance from its citizens. There are clear
legal regulations that require Chileans to take up this task and meet the challenges
presented by ESD. The Chilean Constitution guarantees that every person has the
right to live in an environment free of pollution. The state is responsible to make
sure that this right is being upheld and to work hard to preserve the natural environ-
ment. In addition, the General Law on the Environment defines sustainable progress
as “the process of sustained and fair improvement of the quality of life for people,
based on appropriate measures to preserve and protect the environment, so that the
expectations of future generations are not jeopardized” (p. 7). This law defines envi-
ronmental education as “an interdisciplinary process designed to form an active citi-
zenry that recognizes, values, clarifies concepts and develops the skills necessary to
promote coexistence among all, their culture and their physical surroundings”
(p. 7). The same law looks at education as an instrument of environmental action.
Even with laws in place, it requires a determined commitment to address these
challenges through a National Policy of Education for Sustainable Development. In
addition to the formal environmental education developed through the school, there
are several activities carried out by the majority of civil society that are committed
to the care of Chile’s natural surroundings and the improvement of our basic quality
of life. These activities involve the world of arts, culture, trade unions, and nongov-
ernmental organizations (NGOs). Although these multiple experiences have been
intermittent and have had various degrees of impact, they have been fundamental to
the concept of education for sustainable development (ESD) and constitute a basis
for the elaboration of a national policy on ESD.
3.2.2 Experiences of Environmental Education in Early

Childhood Education from the Private Sector Perspective
In Chile, environmental education, as such, doesn’t appear in the official curriculum

of early childhood education. Instead, environmental education appears in several
curriculum areas. From that perspective, it can be said that there is fertile space to
approach environmental education at the level of early childhood education within
the formal education system. There are many examples of specific communities that
have achieved excellence in this area. Some of those experiences are the ones lived
by early childhood educators in the O’Higgins Region, in the project financed by
CODELCO-EL Teniente (Copper Corporation mine – El Teniente). In this project,
a group of early childhood educators from urban and rural areas participated in
workshops to gather information about environmental education needs, propose and
32 S. Simonstein
validate specific educational materials, and create a guide for the adequate use of
those materials. This project, beginning in 2010 and ending in 2012, resulted in 60
nursery schools working on environmental issues through the use of “My First
Green Book-Case,” which was the outcome of the first year of the project.
Another example of successful collaboration was with educators and collabora-
tive staff in the rural community of Panquehue located in the Valparaiso Region in
the San Felipe Province. This project was funded by the Anglo-American Chile
Chagres Company as part of a program of social responsibility. During the second
half of 2010, a needs assessment on environmental education was conducted, and a
set of specific educational materials and a support guide for educators were created.
The educational material is being used in 17 early childhood centers and 10 schools
in three municipalities of the province.
Starting in late 2010, the Water Andinas Company began funding a participative
project with early childhood centers in Santiago. As a result of this project, a set of
specific educational materials was developed to address “the efficient use of water.”
Nineteen early childhood centers are using this material, and its application at the
centers has resulted in a better use of water resources. The educational community
took up the management of the resources and has implemented small beautification
projects, informative workshops for parents, and the installation of signage to pro-
mote the conservation of water. Recently, ten additional centers joined the project.
In 2011, the Chilean Agency for Energy Efficiency (a public-private entity) bids
for the design and execution of an educational program of energy efficiency for
early childhood education. This program included the design and development of
specific educational material for this purpose. Currently, the program is running in
more than 30 early childhood centers in the O’Higgins, Valparaiso, and Metropolitan
Regions and has proven to be successful.
Educators and technicians, as well as students, are always ready to explore envi-
ronmental issues and incorporate them as part of the educational institution project.
This action anchors ESD in the goals of the institution and instills in children, from
a very early age, self-awareness and generates in them behaviors that promote a
systematic balance and continued development of a more sustainable and just
society.
3.2.3 Intercultural Skills
More than half a century ago, Levi Strauss (1962) declared that social diversity is an
intrinsic characteristic of culture. In Chile, this is more current than ever and has
achieved unexpected visibility in our country, which, in turn, influenced the devel-
opment of public policies focused on the various aspects of civil life. This recogni-
tion of responsibility has been reflected in the creation of the Law 19.253, the
Indigenous Peoples Act, the ratification of the ILO Convention 169 of the
International Labour Organization, Law 19.284 on the Social Integration of the

Disabled, and recently the Anti-Discrimination Act 20.609
The implementation of inclusive education resulted in a large investment in
terms of specialists in the country and in buying learning materials that represent
and value each one of the cultural groups represented in Chile. It has required the
generation of training materials and ongoing professional development activities for
personnel involved in education. Inclusive education is not only a commitment to
the future and the development of a deeper community feeling, but it also means a
sweeping change in the establishment of relationships that are now socially enriched
in the first years of the child’s life.
3.2.4 Intercultural Early Childhood Education
In Chile, the foundations for intercultural early childhood education have been in
place since the 1990s, when the first early childhood centers in indigenous commu-
nities were established. At that time, the necessity to recognize original cultures and
include them in educational policy was a priority. Located in areas of high geo-
graphic dispersion, the goal of these centers was to provide preschool education to
boys and girls from different ethnic groups without losing family and community
traditions. The balance between both worldviews was observed as an expression of
cultural responsiveness that encouraged the development of culturally relevant cur-
riculum. This was an important step for the installation of the intercultural perspec-
tive at JUNJI because it opened the way to mainstream intercultural early childhood
education.
A second milestone was achieved in 2007 when 30 intercultural early childhood
centers were launched in several regions of the country. This process added more
professionals with expertise in intercultural counseling to support and strengthen
technical teams and educational units. In addition, reference books with intercul-
tural theoretical and practical information became available.
Starting in 2012, JUNJI’s charge was to address intercultural and bilingual fea-
tures as a fundamental element that should be supported in research-based educa-
tional practices. In the National Association of Early Education, the department of
intercultural early childhood education is viewed as an educational process in which
not only the selection of cultural content such as language and indigenous culture is
important but the values of sociable living as well.
34 S. Simonstein
3.2.5 Access for All
Chile is working for better quality in preschool education with foci on four points –
family participation, healthy coexistence, promoting the well-being of all children,
and improving pedagogical management. The following tables provide representa-
tive data that reflect the current situation of early childhood education nationally
(Table 3.1).
There is no information about the assistance provided to early education for 22 %
of the population between 0 and 5 years (312,395), estimated by National Institute
of Statistics (INE), and there is no information in the FPS (the Social Protection
Card) either. The lack of information is due to the difficulty in accessing statistics
from rural areas (Table 3.2).
The National Institute of Statistics estimated that 31 % (445.551) of the popula-
tion between 0 and 5 years of age do not have a Social Protection Card; of these
139,917 (27 %) would be in the educational system (Table 3.3).
Sixty percent (431,418) of the total enrollment in early education is in the T1 and
T2 levels; 94 % of these placements are administered by the Ministry of Education.
The coverage in this age range is almost at 100 % since the approval of “kinder
compulsory” or making kindergarten compulsory.
3.2.6 Early Childhood Education and the Care

of the Environment
Early childhood education in Chile incorporates the care of the environment into the
classroom and includes all the people involved in the educational community to
develop a culture that respects the environment and promotes healthy spaces free of
contamination (Fajardin 2013). The curricula of early childhood education, 2005,
Table 3.1 Population between 0 and 5 years old, according to enrollment figures of the Ministry
of Education
National Not Population
Institute of Enrolled (MINEDUC/JUNJI/ enrolled without
Level Statistics Integra) (MDS) information
Day care 236.093 25.938 92.124 118.031
Nursery 239.430 52.047 104.663 82.720
Lower middle 242.083 73.164 100.394 68.525
Upper middle 245.956 139.260 74.025 32.671
Transitional 1 241.282 206.111 24.723 10.448
Transitional 2 228.520 225.307 9.974 –
Total 1.433.364 721.827 405.903 312.395
Chile Ministry of Education, executive secretary preschool education, 2012–2013 (Ministerio de
educación 2013a, b, c)
Table 3.2 Total population between 0 and 5 years old according to vulnerability status
Under
1 year 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years
old old old old old old Total
Total 236.093 239.430 242.083 245.956 241.282 228.520 1.433.364
population,
National
Institute of
Statistics
Population 110.748 147.504 162.067 188.225 186.730 192.539 987.813
with Social
Protection
Card
Population 125.345 91.926 80.016 57.731 54.552 35.981 445.551
without
Social
Protection
Card
Source: Chile Ministry of Education, executive secretary of preschool education, 2012–2013
Table 3.3 Total enrollment in early education (2012) by local office, municipal, private subsidized,
private, JUNJI, Integra
Day Lower Upper
Local office care Nursery middle middle T1a T2a Total
Municipal 27 119 101 936 50.535 72.722 124.440
Private 98 376 1.299 52.992 119.336 132.940 307.041
subsidized
Private 56 398 2.227 5.694 14.329 16.518 39.222
Total 181 893 3.627 59.622 184.200 222.180 470.703
MINEDUC
JUNJI 20.547 40.094 49.008 55.664 13.027 2.176 180.516
Integra 5.210 11.060 20.529 23.974 8.884 951 70.608
Total 25.938 52.047 73.164 139.260 206.111 225.307 721.827
Source: Chile Ministry of Education, executive secretary of preschool education, information cov-
erage 2012–2013
a
T1 and T2: Transitional 1 and Transitional 2
declares in its guide of values the importance of the learning process of children and
the knowledge about the natural environment as an essential factor for a better qual-
ity of life. The objectives of the curricula of early childhood education are organized
in three general areas considered necessary for learning:
• Personal and social development
• Communication
• Relationship with the natural and cultural environments
36 S. Simonstein
The three areas are interrelated, and specific objectives are designed to maximize
the capacity of children to discover and actively know the natural environment; to
develop attitudes of curiosity, respect, and permanent interest in learning; and to
acquire skills that will allow them to expand their knowledge and comprehension
about living beings and the dynamic relationships with their surroundings through
different techniques and tools.
The importance of valuing and protecting the environment is explained in the
specific educational project of each early childhood center where policies are made
according to the relevant local geography, interests of the educational community,
and other variables. Preschools also have the opportunity to join the National
System of Certification of Preschool Establishments (SNCAE) under the Department
of the Environment, which develops strategies to strengthen environmental educa-
tion, the care and protection of the environment, and the generation of associative
networks for local environmental management. Early childhood centers and pro-
grams that develop systematic actions for the care of the environment can apply for
a certification of quality, indicating that they have met various levels of compliance
with SNCAE requirements. The SNCAE establishes environmental standards in
three areas of education (curriculum, management, and environmental relations)
and defines three levels of environmental certification (basic, medium, and excel-
lent). This initiative required the development of assessment and evaluation tools
that were made available to nursery schools during 2011 and has already produced
positive results. JUNJI reports that 53 establishments are now certified by the
Department of the Environment. The importance of recovering spaces with green
areas for children to play; recycling; responsible use of water, electric energy, and
fuel; and the planting of native species have all been highlighted as a consequence
of this initiative.
3.2.7 The Gender Approach
Since 1990, government policy placed special emphasis on taking measures to

address nondiscrimination and equal opportunities regardless of gender. This is in
response to national and international commitments contracted by the government.
In this context, the “gender approach” system started as part of the State Management
Improvement Program (PMG) whose objective is to implement this approach in the
services that are offered by different public institutions. From its beginning, the
process was led by the National Service for Women (SERNAM). The PMG improves
social, economic, and cultural processes by using specific indicators to identify
practices used by public institutions needing to be modified or changed so that they
offer equal opportunities to men and women and are generally more equitable. The
implementation of PMG also increases the efficiency of public policies in both gov-
ernment and private institutions by showcasing women’s contributions to the coun-
try. JUNJI has employed the PMG since 2002, by placing the gender perspective
primarily in its main document, “Comprehensive Early Childhood Education,” and
by incorporating this perspective in the curriculum and teaching practices in its

educational units. The incorporation of a gender equity perspective builds an educa-
tion based on the idea that diversity and equity are the norm in terms of gender,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status, etc.
The operational management of PMG is under the Pedagogical Technical
Department whose main strategy is the specific training of the personnel in educa-
tional units and to be integrated with employees at different levels. The objective is
the deepening of the content on the topic and to raise awareness among personnel to
achieve a solid understanding of the significance of the equity perspective on the
educational mission of the institution. Also, the Office of Communications has gen-
erated a global proposal that is included in the language of their communications,
bulletins, and publications. The Planning and Computer Engineering Department
cautions that this approach be reflected in the strategic planning of each
institution.
From its inception, actions were planned and implemented to support the incor-
poration of the gender approach in educational management. Some examples are:
• Incorporation of gender equity elements in standard didactic materials.
• Development and publication of documents.
• Incorporation of the gender approach in the communications system of the
institution.
• Incorporation of the gender approach in the analysis of the reports containing
recommendations to improve institutional management: social focus, nutrition,
evaluation of learning outcomes, accident rates, coverage, enrolment, and reten-
tion of early childhood students.
• Implementation of the “Grow and Develop in the Way of Daily Affection” proj-
ect (in use since 1999) in collaboration with National Service for Women to
prevent child abuse. It holds workshops that address issues such as human rights,
rights of boys and girls, family and society, child rearing, and communication
within family relationships.
• Implementation of the Daily Affection project, enforced since 2004, which pro-
vides three workshops addressing gender, sexuality, and affectivity, comprehen-
sive development of boys and girls, and constructive formation and information.
In addition, it includes the proposal of three units for curriculum in early child-
hood care – discovering my body and my emotions, boys and girls: we are the
same, we are different, and the best love is the most important care.
It should be noted that the inclusion of the gender perspective into education is a
process whereby many factors come into play – material, psychological, and sym-
bolic – that question the established social order in a patriarchal culture like Chile’s.
In this regard, one of the greatest barriers to progress on gender equity is the cultural
prevalence of a patriarchal society. Because this perspective is deeply embedded in
cultural and social practices, it has direct bearing on instructional practices.
Overcoming these cultural boundaries requires a lengthy review of current practice
and a comparison of these with new approaches to gender equity. The development
of training strategies is necessary to build competence in teachers and other educa-
38 S. Simonstein
tion personnel, increasing the possibility of incorporating initiatives with an appro-

priate gender perspective at various levels of management.
3.2.8 Observation Classroom Sites
The five centers where the observations were performed were chosen according to
the requirements made to Integra; they are located in La Florida, Macul, Puente
Alto y San José de Maipo; all are situated south of Santiago, the capital of Chile.
The study ran from March 25, 2013 until April 10, 2013. It should be noted that the
centers were chosen randomly from centers located southwest of Santiago making
the observation visits feasible. Each center observed had more than 30 children
enrolled. The centers are located in urban areas, each has an outdoor playground,
and children stay at the centers 8 h each day. The groups are ethnically diverse.
3.3 ESD Rating Scale Trials
3.3.1 The OMEP ERS-SDEC Trials in Chile: Using

the Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable
Development in Early Childhood
The study was conducted at the centers of the Integra Foundation. The Integra
Foundation is one of the main supporters of early childhood education in Chile. It is
a private nonprofit organization, whose president is the first lady, Mrs. Cecilia Morel
M. With 20 years of experience, more than 850,000 boys and girls have attended
their nursery schools and playgroup centers which provide free quality education,
protection, and food to children living in socially vulnerable situations. It currently
has 1000 centers where every day more than 70,000 boys and girls attend. From the
Chilean high plateau to Tierra del Fuego, Integra Foundation is present to build
along with families a more inclusive country, where boys and girls can reach their
dreams through high-quality early childhood education.
3.3.2 Observation Classroom Sites
The five centers where the observations were performed were chosen according to
the requirements made to Integra; they are located in La Florida, Macul, Puente
Alto y San José de Maipo; all are situated south of Santiago, the capital of Chile.
The study ran from March 25, 2013 until April 10, 2013. It should be noted that the
centers were chosen randomly from centers located southwest of Santiago making
the observation visits feasible. Each center observed had more than 30 children
enrolled. The centers are located in urban areas, each has an outdoor playground,
and children stay at the centers 8 h each day. The groups are ethnically diverse.
3.3.3 Results
The scores for all of the centers in all areas of the scale were 1; this is the lowest
score that can be obtained. A score of 1 is assigned because there is more than one
indicator in the section marked Yes; therefore, the measurement using this scale
must mark it as inadequate. No differences were found between social and cultural
sustainability, economic sustainability, and environmental sustainability. It appears
that in the centers observed, teachers, teaching assistants, and children are not
familiar with the concept of education for sustainable development. Much work is
still needed to advance in both understanding and practicing sustainable develop-
ment. However, the majority of these centers have adequate sanitation facilities as
well as library resources, although there is no access in individual activity rooms.
The daily program periods appear to be identical in all centers. There is a period
for hygiene and toilet habits, for eating, and for recess, time to read, and play; how-
ever, activities do not seem to center on social or cultural activities. The order of
activities from center to center may vary, but the types of activities are consistent.
Integra’s purpose is to reach a stage in which each center and staff is capable of
developing their own center-based educational routines and program where chil-
dren’s interests and abilities inform the curriculum. However, the observations done
on five mornings at the five different sites showed that while the children are at the
center, they participated in activities organized by adults. In general, the personnel
are affectionate with the children. The directed activities are always initiated by the
teaching assistant who should be supporting the teacher’s direction but actually
leads the teaching and curriculum content. Such activities might include holidays
that we celebrate at home, learning and playing in focused activities such as science
and sociodramatics, playing card games, writing names, etc. During the morning,
the children use the bathroom two or three times and wash their hands afterward.
This procedure was the same in all five centers observed: the teaching assistant
placed a few drops of liquid soap on their palms, and the children wash their hands
under running water and then dry their hands with paper towels that had been previ-
ously cut and discard it into a trash can. Sometimes the faucet is left running, and
there is no specific mention about conserving water. The paper towel is thrown away
and is not placed in a special container for recycled paper, and there is no specific
mention regarding conservation of paper. At the centers, there are more wasted than
recycled materials.
In an interview, the director explained the institutional policies such as the use of
the book It Is My Turn, which has large text that allows for exploring the feelings
and the cultural stereotypes that exist, like boys that play with dolls, a boy that cries
because he spilled his milk, etc. All the centers have these resources as well as the
40 S. Simonstein
book “100 Experiences of Learning” in which actions are promoted for sustainable
development. Though the institutions have wonderful books, even large books with
topics in line with sustainable development, they were not directly accessible to the
children or staff as they resided in the center director’s office.
In their messages during the morning, the adults emphasize values and respect of
the rules for living together. Usually, groups are divided into two and each group has
an adult in charge. While the children are outdoors during recess, the adults encour-
age them to do activities like play with a ball. Not all activities are a challenge to
critical thinking and the development of original thought, and children are limited
to answer concrete questions related to what they see or what they can do. It is nec-
essary to design activities that relate more closely and specifically to their world of
experiences. For example, during the activity, “playing I learn to read and count,”
the children have to count how many syllables there are on picture cards. At the
centers, the children are diagnosed using an institutional document as a guide to
determine their needs and select the learning modes according to what best suits
them. The institution communicates with the families using a notebook. The neces-
sity to enhance family participation is recognized and valued.
The library resources that every center owns are kept in the director’s office, but
can be taken out and brought home by the children. There are books that deal with
subjects such as indigenous peoples favoring intercultural themes, others that stress
identity (being who I am), several that favor social sustainability, resources that
focus on gender, and books about Araucania and about national parks as a contribu-
tion to environmental sustainability.
3.4 Discussion
Throughout the observations, it was found that the application of institutional

polices is executed with great care and there is a desire that each establishment and
the staff who works in it will be capable of developing their own educational pro-
gram. This will allow the institution and each center to grow closer to sustainable
development in educational practice in the future. The results obtained in the five
centers are similar. It was felt that the use of the scale, as a self-evaluation tool, will
allow centers to improve their sustainability practices and provide opportunities for
discussion about sustainability issues, curriculum, and the place of early childhood
in ESD.
Upon reflection, it would be useful to explore what is understood for each one of
the items represented on the scale by the teachers and to get a clearer picture of their
understanding of the terminology and the concepts related to the three areas of sus-
tainability. A more in-depth discussion with the personnel, allowing for clarification
of meaning and sharing of understandings, would likely improve the educational
program. The concept of education for sustainable development is still new for the
staff of the centers visited, and there is much work to be done.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to the following people and foundations:

• to educator Mariluz Cano Reveco, Director of the Technical Department, Junta Nacional de
Jardines Infantiles, Chile, for providing the information mentioned in this document.
• to Integra Foundation, Chile, in the person of Director Sergio Dominguez, and the facility
given for the purpose to apply in the centers the ERS-SDEC scale.
• to Guillermina Waller for the translation of the text from Spanish to English.
• to the directors of the centers and the professional who helped in this research.
References
Documento de apoyo para el personal de las comunidades educativas. (2012). Enfoque de género
en las prácticas pedagógicas. Chile: Departamento técnico, Junta Nacional de Jardines
Infantiles.
Fajardín, N. (2013). La educación parvularia y el cuidado del medioambiente. Chile: Departamento
técnico, Junta Nacional de Jardines Infantiles.
Ministerio de educación. (2013a). Educación inclusiva. Chile: Departamento técnico, Junta
Nacional de Jardines Infantiles.
Ministerio de educación. (2013b). Experiencias de educación ambiental en educación parvularia
desde el ámbito privado. Chile: Ministerio de educación.
Ministerio de Educación. (2013c). Información cobertura primera infancia, 2012, 2013. Chile:
Ministerio de Educación.
Ministerio del medioambiente. (2009). Política nacional para el desarrollo sustentable. Retrieved
from http://www.mma.gob.cl
Levi-Strauss, C. (1962). The savage mind. Paris: Plon.
Chapter 4
Development in China
Xin Zhou, Zhanlan Liu, Chunhong Han, and Guangheng Wang
4.1 Introduction
Located in East Asia, the People’s Republic of China is the most populous country
in the world, with a population of 1.3 billion. There are 56 ethnic groups in China,
with the Han making up approximately 92 % of the population and other ethnic
groups including the Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol,
Buyi, and Korean making up the remainder. Regional ethnic languages as well as
the official language of Mandarin are spoken in ethnic areas. In the last few decades,
the nation has made great progress in economic development, especially since 1978
when the country began its market-oriented campaign. As a result, the economy has
been developing quickly and living standards have improved dramatically in the
past 10 years. However, in 2012, about 13.4 % of the population was still below the
poverty line (Index Mundi 2012), and the economic gap between urban and rural
areas was great. The number of children aged 0–6 is estimated at 98.65 million
(UNICEF 2011), about 7–8 % of the total population. Among the child population,
about 50 % are less than 3 years of age. About 61 % of these children live in rural
areas.
After the Communist Party took over Mainland China in 1949, gender equity
was on the government’s working agenda. Mothers were encouraged by the govern-
ment to join the workforce, leading to the care of the children being seen as a social
issue. The Ministry of Education issued the first program regulation, titled
X. Zhou (*) • Z. Liu • C. Han • G. Wang

Eastern China Normal University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: xzhou@pie.ecnu.edu.cn

44 X. Zhou et al.
Kindergarten Provisional Operation Regulation, in 1952 (Ministry of Education

1952). It specified that:
The purpose of the early childhood program is to ensure that children have healthy physical
and mental development upon entering the elementary school; meanwhile the program is to
relieve the burden of child care from mothers, so mothers are able to have the time to par-
ticipate in political, productive and educational activities. (Ministry of Education 1952,
p. 49)
Though the dual purposes of early childhood education have not changed in the
past five decades, the fostering of child development has been expanded to include
physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and aesthetic education. In order to provide
optimal conditions for children’s learning and development, important policies have
been set in place. In two versions of the same government document, China Children
Development Guideline (China State Council 1992, 2001), the purpose given for
early childhood development is related to the nation’s economic and social progress
and is tied to the improvement of the quality of human resources. Although many
specific goals for the improvement of children’s survival in rural areas were set forth
in this document, the specific goal for providing equal education and universal
access to all children is not mentioned. In recent years, the idea of equal education
has been discussed first in the sector of compulsory education and presently in early
childhood education.
At the age of three, the majority of Chinese children in urban areas attend early
childhood programs for 3 years. Most of these programs provide full-day services.
The children in early childhood programs are usually divided into three age groups:
junior class is for 3–4-year-olds, middle class is for 4–5-year-olds, and senior class
is for 5–6-year-olds, although mixed-age grouping does exist in a few early child-
hood centers. The government policy requires that two teachers and one assistant
teacher work with a class of children, 25 in the junior class, 30 in the middle class,
and 35 in the senior class. Teachers who work in early childhood programs are
required to have at least 3 years of professional training; however, some teachers in
rural areas cannot meet this requirement. Each province has an early childhood
center quality ranking system, and early education centers are assessed every
3–5 years.
In 2001, the Ministry of Education issued a new version of the national curricu-
lum guideline, Kindergarten Education Guideline, and in 2012, it issued Early
Learning and Development Guidelines for Children Aged 3–6. The expectation for
children’s development was outlined in five content areas – health, language, social
and emotional, science, and art – and eight pedagogical principles were specified.
Curriculum Content and Structure
1. Health: includes health, hygiene and living habits; basic skills of self-care; basic
safety and health knowledge; physical activities, etc.
2. Language: includes listening and expressing language, listening and responding
to stories and books, and understanding and speaking Mandarin.
3. Science includes using different senses to explore, experiment, and question;
using a variety of ways to communicate the processes and outcomes of the
4 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in China 45
exploration; understanding of objects and natural phenomena, plants, and ani-

mals; understanding of number, quantity, mathematical relationships, spatial
relationships, classification, time, etc.; and understanding of surrounding natural
environments, the importance of natural resources and environmental protection,
etc.
4. Society: includes participating in a range of activities; interacting with people;
learning to share, collaborate, help others, and show empathy; understanding and
following basic social, behavioral rules; completing of tasks, persistence, and
assuming basic responsibilities; respecting parents, the elderly, and teachers and
caring for peers; understanding and loving of the local community, the culture,
and the country; understanding of the multiplicity and difference of the cultures;
and respecting of the equity of all cultures.
5. Arts: includes appreciating the beauty of the environment, life, and artworks;
enjoying participation in artistic activities and expressing one’s feelings and
experiences such as drawing, singing, and dancing; engaging in artistic expres-
sion activities using one’s preferred materials and techniques; etc.
Pedagogical Ideology and Principles
1. Promoting the development of young children in all respects.
2. Integrated care and education.
3. Making connections between education and children’s life experience and inte-
grating education into children’s daily routine.
4. Play is children’s primary activities.
5. Promoting children’s autonomy and active learning.
6. Developmentally appropriate practice is promoted.
7. Teachers work with children as a supporter, a coworker, and a guide for chil-
dren’s learning activities.
8. Promoting children’s development as a unique individual and children’s indi-
vidual differences are respected.
4.1.1 The History of Education for Environmental Protection

in China
In the past four decades, China’s State Council held seven national environmental
protection meetings at which a series of important policy decisions were made
regarding environmental problems in the country. These meetings have escalated in
scale as well as commitment over the years. The first meeting, held in 1973, opened
the beginning of the movement of environmental protection in China. In 1983, it
was decided that environmental protection should be treated as a national priority.
The third meeting held in 1989 proposed that, as a nation, China should establish a
management system that would focus on environmental monitoring, declare war on
environmental pollution, and improve the harmonious development between the
economy and the environment. Meeting four was held in 1996 and marked a new
46 X. Zhou et al.
era, an era of action, where plans were made for pollution protection. A Plan for
Pollutant Cap Control (Ministry of Environment Protection 1996a) and China’s
over Century Green Project (Ministry of Environment Protection 1996b) were
developed, and ecological construction for big cities, rivers, areas, and waterways
got underway. For example, from 1996 to 2000, the water pollution in several rivers
and big lakes such as the Huai River, Hai River, Liao River, Tai Lake, and Dianchi
Lake was reduced. In addition, among 46 targeted environmental protection key
cities in the country, 25 cities were rated as good condition in air quality, 36 cities
were rated as good condition in earth surface water quality, and 19 cities were iden-
tified as national environmental protection models (Ministry of Environmental
Protection 2002). In 2002 it was proposed that environmental protection was one of
the government’s primary functions and that the whole nation should participate in
the effort. The theme of the meeting was how to implement a “Five-Year Plan for
National Environmental Protection,” which was approved by the China State
Council. The State Council called for the adjustment of the economic structure to
meet the goals of environmental protection and to strictly implement the control
plan for national total emissions. The sixth meeting held in 2006 announced that
China should fully realize the seriousness and complexity of the nation’s environ-
mental issues and that China should make environmental protection an even more
important priority. It was declared that China’s government and citizenry have the
obligation for the environmental safety of the country and are responsible to our
younger generations. The seventh and most recent meeting in 2013 proposed that
environmental protection was a main battlefield for ecological civilization. The
main focus in this meeting reflected the new world position on the value of sustain-
able “green” activities, recycling, and low-carbon emissions.
Simultaneously, in 2013, the Ministry of Education issued a document calling
for “thrift education” in schools including preschool (Ministry of Education 2013).
Thrift education calls for reducing food, paper, and water waste and using energy-
saving lighting and heating equipment. The implementation of thrift education is
tied to the evaluation of principals, teachers, and students.
4.1.2 Environmental Education in Early Childhood
As early as 1952, a kindergarten regulation issued by the Ministry of Education

recommended that “recognizing the natural environment” be added to curriculum
content and pedagogical guidelines. This recommendation included developing
children’s interests in the environment, helping children understand the origin of
nature, nurturing children’s interests and responsibility in taking care of animals
and plants, and nurturing children’s good character and habits by appreciating both
nature and science. These guidelines were only the “germination” of environmental
protection; the real education for environmental protection in early childhood edu-
cation in China developed after 1980.
On March 5, 1980, Beijing joined with other countries to publish “International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources” (original IUCN,
established by UNESCO and France in 1948) (China Knowledge Resource
Integrated Database 2006). On the same day, the United Nations Environment
Programme and the World Wildlife Fund jointly issued a “World Conservation
Strategy.” China discussed environmental education in the first meeting of the
Environment Education Committee of 1979, where it was proposed that it was nec-
essary to implement environmental education in order to protect the environment.
Therefore, it seemed prudent that environmental education content should be added
to the school curriculum, from preschools to universities. The slogan for that time
was, “Environmental protection should be practiced from the very young and from
myself” (Xu 2012). This was the real starting point for education for environmental
protection for young children in China.
From the1980s to 1990s, early childhood education for environmental protection
in China was in its primary stage, the basic goal being to nurture children’s interests
and appreciation for nature through interacting with it. Educational activities at the
time were aimed at nature awareness and appreciation, enriching children’s experi-
ence in observation and in activities such as taking care of plants and animals while
promoting children’s active learning. Teachers were encouraged to be good models
by showing respect for nature and adopting gentle actions when interacting with
baby animals or plants, etc. In this way adults were expected to help young children
learn how to treat living creatures in appropriate ways.
As people began to pay more attention to environmental issues, more content
regarding environmental protection appeared in early childhood curriculum and
practice. The issues evolving were helping children to understand the various
sources of sewage and understand its toxicity to human health and air quality, help-
ing children understand the importance of preventing air pollution, and educating
children about the harmful effects of noise pollution and learn ways to protect them-
selves from it (Wang 1990).
As environmental education curriculum developed throughout China, we saw a
move toward teaching about the importance of the interdependence of the human
and natural worlds. The Kindergarten Education Guidelines (2001) indicate that we
need to encourage children to love animals and plants, take care of the surrounding
environments, be close to nature, and treasure natural resources while developing a
primary awareness for environmental protection. More specifically, it proposes that
teachers help children understand the relationship between nature, the environment,
and human beings based on children’s own life experiences. The guidelines started
a new era for environmental education for young children where attention was not
only focused on awareness and attitude but also on action.
We see the interdependence theme played out in a document issued by the
Ministry of Education in 2012. The Learning and Development Guidelines for
Children Aged 3–6 (Ministry of Education 2012) indicate that young children
should understand the close relationship between nature and human life, and they
48 X. Zhou et al.
should know the importance of respecting and treasuring living creatures and
protecting the environment. As such adults should provide opportunities for chil-
dren to experience the interdependent relationship between humans, animals, and
plants, which is impacted by such things as seasonal change and weather disasters
or pollution brought on by transportation usage.
In Chinese classroom practices in early childhood today, we’re likely to see the
following content, approach, and methods applied. Children may be brought to
nearby factories, construction sites, or local streets to observe noise pollution
through car honking or industrial machinery. They might be encouraged to look at
the rolling smoke coming from industrial smokestacks and notice how the blue sky
changed into a dusky gray. Children’s attention might be drawn to the emission of
industrial sewage and how it pollutes water resources, to see how the cutting down
of trees causes the loss of water and soil which runs into the river making it dirty or
to notice how the “white garbage” is covering our green mountains and clear water.
These very real and common experiences help children make connections between
the serious and harmful impact of environmental pollution and to develop aware-
ness of the human role in environmental protection.
In recent years, a variety of environmental protection themes have been con-
ducted in early childhood programs (e.g., “Environment Protection Day,”
“Environment Protection Week,” “Environment Protection Month,” etc.). Teachers
and parents work with children to find environmental problems in their communi-
ties and work with local groups to distribute information and take action. They work
together to make good use of old materials and/or recycle them. Teachers and par-
ents may turn to children’s television programming, picture in books and maga-
zines, posters, and children’s literature to implement education for environment
protection.
In early childhood the practice of incorporating parents in education is widely
accepted. The main activity ideas typically stem from the center, extend to the
home, and again tick back to the center. The role of modeling in adults is empha-
sized (e.g., picking up papers, cleaning flower pots, sweeping the floor, etc.).
Teachers and parents work with children to weed the flower beds; care for class-
room plants; reduce the use of plastic bags, paper cups, and disposable chopsticks;
reuse old materials; classify garbage; and send harmful garbage to appropriately
identified places, etc. In this way, adults and children, from both center and home,
work together to nurture children’s awareness and responsibility for environmental
protection. In addition, some centers have been making efforts through a variety of
projects in becoming a government identified Environment Protection Demonstration
School or Green Center, having children become immersed in environmental pro-
tection practices from a very young age.
4.2 Context of ECEC
4.2.1 Access for All
Despite rapid economic development in China in the recent past, the provision of
early childhood education in the nation remains a challenge. The children in some
rural areas may not have access to early childhood centers because of a limited
number of programs. According to China Education Law (China State Council
1995), education, including early childhood education, had been identified as the
responsibility of local governments. However, in the past years, local governments
might not have taken this responsibility seriously. For decades the financial invest-
ment for early childhood was minimal. In the past 10 years, only 1.24–1.44 % of the
total annual educational budget was put into early childhood education (Liu 2010).
In addition, a gap has existed between urban and rural areas. The enrollment in
urban areas has been as high as 99 %, while the enrollment in rural areas is less than
10 % (Zhou 2009). Moreover, early childhood teachers, particularly in rural areas,
have been poorly paid. Teacher qualifications, teacher-child ratio, and facilities in
rural areas were worse than that in urban area (Zhou 2008).
In 2008, the government set out to develop a national plan for medium- and long-
term educational reform and development, hereinafter referred to as the Plan. In
July 2010, China announced the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium- and
Long-Term Education Reform and Development (China State Council 2010a). It
presented a blueprint for achieving the modernization of education in the next
10 years. The Plan sets forth a series of concrete goals, including universalizing
preschool education. The Plan pledged a substantial increase in education funding,
promising to raise the proportion of the national fiscal education expenditure to 4 %
of the total GDP by 2012 and to ensure the steady growth of this proportion in the
future (Xu et al. 2010). 2010 is thought of as a milestone year in the history of early
childhood education in China.
The Plan proposes the goal for better access to early childhood programs by
2020. It also delineates the main tasks and important strategies for the development
of early childhood education over the next 10 years. Table 4.1 identifies the goals
for the percentage of accessibility for 1-, 2- and 3-year programs by the target year.
Table 4.1 Goals for the development of early childhood programs in China by 2020
Indicators Unit 2009 2015 2020
Preschool enrollment in ECE programs 10,000 2658 3400 4000
Gross preschool enrollment in one-year program % 74.0 85.0 95.0
Gross preschool enrollment in two-year program % 65.0 70.0 80.0
Gross preschool enrollment in three-year program % 50.9 60.0 70.0
50 X. Zhou et al.
Table 4.2 Number of ECE program and enrollment rate for age of 3–6 (2009–2012)
Program Enrollment 3–6 enrollment rate Increased
Year (10,000) (10,000) % %
2010 15.04 2976.67 56.6 5.7
2011 16.68 3424.45 62.3 5.7
2012 18.13 3685.76 64.5 2.2
Source: Feng, X. X. (2013, July). Early childhood education in China: Development in reform.
Keynote speech presented at 65th OMEP conference, Shanghai
Several of the documents’ articles are worth mentioning. Article 6 clarifies the
government’s responsibility for the provision of early education service. It indicates
that governments need to include early education service into their city or town
development plan. It specifies that the government takes the leadership on provi-
sion, but social participation is also encouraged. Both public and private funding
can be combined to support the provision of early education. Article 7 calls for the
strengthening of early education service in rural areas. It proposes that efforts should
be made to increase access to early education in rural areas, especially for those
children whose parents left for urban jobs.
In order to better implement the Plan, the China State Council issued a document
titled, Issues Regarding Current Development of Early Childhood Education, in
November of 2010 (China State Council 2010b). The document has created a com-
plete system design for early childhood education and developed a series of impor-
tant strategies for implementation. As such, it is considered highly important as, for
the first time in the history, early childhood education development was treated as
an important measure for quality of life. This document finally requires every
county in the nation to develop a 3-year initiative plan for the development of early
childhood services. Provincial governments have taken immediate actions to imple-
ment the new policy through coordination and cross-sector cooperation. Many pro-
vincial governors have taken the lead to organize relevant meetings to develop local
policy and action strategies (Zhou 2011). As a result, the enrollment in the country
in the past 3 years has been increasing quickly. As Table 4.2 indicates, by the year
of 2011, the national rate for ECE enrollment had increased to 62.3 %, which was
already higher than the expected rate of 60 % in 2015. So it seems that the current
rate of growth is ahead of the national plan. Currently the national enrollment for
children aged 3–6 is higher than 64.5 %, and it is more than 13 % higher than that of
the year of 2009.
4.2.2 Gender Equity
Perhaps all cultures treat males and females differently; it is particularly true in
Chinese culture. For thousands of years, there has been a strong sense of male domi-
nance and superiority in Chinese culture. Historically, girls were treated less
favorably in terms of receiving food, clothing, and education. Today, in remote and
rural areas in China, girls are still treated differently in terms of educational oppor-
tunity (Zhou et al. 1997). Since the movement of equity for men and women pro-
posed by Mao in the1950s, the Chinese government has established laws and
policies to make sure that women have the same rights as men in many aspects of
social life. “Women hold up half of the sky” is a popular slogan in China. Even so,
people’s attitude toward gender has been changing gradually, though the change is
somewhat faster in urban areas (Zhou 2002). In fact there is no gender difference in
early childhood enrollment numbers in urban areas in China. In 2009, the overall
percentage for enrolled girls for 3–6-year-olds was 45.08 % and 54.92 % for boys
(Ministry of Education and Development and Plan Section 2010). There is no reli-
able data for the gender ratio for rural areas.
In China, the majority of early childhood teachers are female, 98.12 % in 2009
(Ministry of Education and Development and Plan Section 2010). In Chinese tradi-
tion, females are thought to be better caregivers of young children than males. Few
males choose early childhood education as their profession. There are several rea-
sons for this. First, it is still considered a traditional gender-stereotyped profession.
Second, the low-income levels reflected in early childhood put pressure on male
teachers to support their families. The third reason is related to the low social status
given to these jobs. There is no national policy in China for recruiting male teachers.
However, there are local policies working toward that end. For example, the govern-
ment in Jiangsu province has made a 5-year plan to enroll male students in early
childhood education programs in vocational colleges, and free tuition for college
study is offered for these students (Peng 2012). In this way, the government hopes
that each early childhood program in the province would have at least one male
teacher in the coming 3–5 years.
4.3 Practice
4.3.1 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

in Practice
UNESCO started the EPD (Environment Population and Sustainable Development)

project in the 1990s. China joined the project in 1998, when the national committee
for the project was established. Since 1998, the project on EPD has been responsible
for many significant achievements (Shi 2008). In fact, more than 1000 primary
schools, middle schools, and a few preschools in 14 provinces participated in the
project. In 2005, UNESCO issued a new plan, the United Nations Decade of
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (2005–2014). The plan indicates
that education should have a role in economic, social, and cultural sustainable
development and should nurture the values, behaviors, and lifestyle practices for a
52 X. Zhou et al.
sustainable future. In 2005, China’s UNESCO committee formally renamed the

EPD project to ESD.
In order to implement the ESD project, an effective organizational mechanism
was set up at the national, local, and school levels. Some ESD model schools were
identified and rewarded. The ESD curriculum included society, specifically, a focus
on the responsibility and rights of citizens, elements for harmonious society, gender
equity, heritage of traditional and world culture, ethnic ethos, and international
understanding, and economy, specifically, recycling, energy saving and emission
reduction, controlled urban development, green consumption, business accountabil-
ity, resources and energy and environment, pollution and its prevention, weather
change, eco-diversity, and disaster prevention and relief. Cooperation for the imple-
mentation of the ESD curriculum between schools, government, society, and enter-
prises is currently being explored.
4.3.2 ESD Practice in Early Childhood Education
Although some preschool programs participated in the UNESCO ESD project, the
project has not treated early childhood education as its main target. Therefore, the
ESD curriculum development for the primary and middle school systems has not
had substantial impact on early childhood education curriculum or practice. Early
childhood curriculum continues to have the component of environment protection;
however, it does not include the other two components in the ESD frame. That is
why many teachers in early childhood are still not familiar with the other two impor-
tant concepts in ESD, sustainability of society and economy. However, in our pilot
study (described below), we found that some early childhood programs were
actively participating in ESD practice. At least 3 out of 6 preschools in the study
were implementing ESD ideology.
4.3.3 Research in ESD
Research in ESD in early childhood in China has been limited. Liu and Liu (2007)
introduced education for sustainable development in an early childhood research
journal. They talked about the background, the significance of ESD, the goals, con-
tent, and methods in ESD practice, as well as policy development to ensure the
implementation of ESD. Two projects organized by the World Organization for
Early Childhood (OMEP) China have been carried out: one in 2009 on children’s
understanding of sustainability issues (OMEP China 2010) and one in 2012 when
World OMEP organized a second ESD research project looking at early childhood
classroom practices and ESD.
4.4.1 The OMEP ERS-SDEC Pilot Study in China

4.4.1.1 The Sample
Six early childhood centers were selected as sample centers, four were from
Shanghai and two were from Beijing. The government financially supports each
center. In China, each province has an early childhood center quality ranking sys-
tem, and centers are typically evaluated every 3–5 years. As a result, a ranking cat-
egory is given to each center.
The centers participating in this study were selected because the authors had
various connections with them and knew that they had made some efforts in the
education for environmental protection in the last few years. One class of children
aged 5–6 from each early childhood center was observed for 2–3 h in the morning.
A teacher interview was conducted after lunch, while the children napped. The
ERS-SDEC was scored using both observation and teacher interview. During the
teacher interview, some brief questions were posed in addition to those asked for the
purpose of evaluating the ERS-SDEC. The questions mainly focused on teachers’
understanding of the key concepts such as sustainable development, education for
sustainable development, social and cultural sustainability, economical sustainabil-
ity, and environmental sustainability.
The first author rated the four centers in Shanghai and the second author rated the
two centers in Beijing. The other two authors participated in the class observation in
Shanghai and the discussion for the recommendations for the modification of the
scale indictors. The following information is a brief description for the context of
each early childhood center:
Center X is located in Pudong district, Shanghai, and was built in 1997 and is ranked
as Class I. There were 410 children in 14 classes and 55 staff at this center. The
teacher had a bachelor degree in early childhood education and had worked in
early childhood classrooms for 25 years.
Center H is located in Changning district, Shanghai, was established in 2007 and is
ranked as Class I. There were approximately 200 children in seven classes and
29 staff. The teacher had a bachelor degree in Customs Declaration and had early
childhood teacher training for 9 months before starting her teaching career. She
had worked in early childhood classrooms for 9.5 years.
Center Y located in Putuo district, Shanghai, was established in 1958 and is ranked
as Class I. Center Y has a long history in the education of environmental protec-
tion. The center was rewarded the title “Green School” by the UNESCO Beijing
Office in 2004 and was recently identified as one of the international Eco-Schools
by the China Ministry of Environment Protection in 2012. There were 225 chil-
dren in seven classes and 32 staff. The teacher was trained in early childhood
education with an associate degree and had worked in the classroom for 8 years.
Center W is located in Xuhui district, Shanghai, was established in 1949 and is
ranked as a demonstration program. Center W enrolled 240 children in 11
54 X. Zhou et al.
Table 4.3 Descriptive data for the rating of the scale in 6 centers
Center Social & cultural Economical Environmental Total Mean
1 1 2 6 9 3.00
2 1 2 4 7 2.33
3 1 2 4 7 2.33
4 1 2 4 7 2.33
5 1 4 4 9 3.00
6 4 4 3 11 3.67
classes, with 45 staff. This center is well known for its special attention to the
issue of multiple cultures, since there is a large group of international attendees.
The teacher observed was a male teacher. He was trained in animation design in
college and received a bachelor degree in early childhood education. He had
worked in the early childhood classroom for 7 years.
Center M, located in West City district, Beijing, was established in 1957 and is a
boarding school. The quality is ranked as Class I. There were 368 children in 13
classes and about 60 staff. The teacher observed has an associate degree in early
childhood education and had worked in the class for 15 years.
Center J, located in West City district, Beijing, was established in 1903 and was
ranked as Class I. The program enrolled 210 children in seven classes with
approximately 38 staff. The teacher observed has an associate degree in early
childhood education and had worked in the class for 5 years.
4.4.1.2 The Results
The descriptive data for the rating of the scale can be found in Table 4.3. The mean
score for all the centers ranged from 2.33 to 3.67, with three of them scoring lower
than the minimum score of 3. The scores were generally low because most of the
centers had a very low score in social and cultural sustainability, although they all
had average scores in environmental sustainability. It seems that the score for Center
J in Beijing is higher than that of the other centers. Particularly, the scores in social
and cultural sustainability and economic sustainability were very impressive when
compared to the scores of other centers.
The idea of social and cultural sustainability, as we had expected, is a new con-
cept for most of the ECE staff in our study. Even when teachers thought they under-
stood the concept, it turned out they had only a vague awareness or a basic
misunderstanding. Specifically they only treated it as cultural understanding, not the
more important issues of equity and social justice. On the other hand, the low score
on this subscale may also be due to some context issues such as the characteristics
of Chinese society, policy issues, and/or the autonomy of the center. This will be
explained in the following section.
Although the idea of economic sustainability has been practiced in Chinese early
childhood centers for a long time, the concept of economic sustainability is new for
most of the teachers in our study. The teachers had heard the term but could not
specifically explain it and were not able to relate it to their practice. In our context,
economic sustainability has been integrated with environmental protection.
Recycling and thrifty use of resources have been the normal practices in many ECE
centers. The low score on this subscale may also relate to some contextual issues.
For example, since early childhood centers in China are usually quite large, one
staff person is responsible for all the shopping for the center. As such, teachers in
the class do not have the time to be involved in this task, although they may some-
times be consulted on what to buy. So children’s participation in making the shop-
ping decisions is rare.
It seemed that all the ECE centers, teachers, and children were mostly familiar
with environmental protection and they had done much in their classroom practice
to support it. However, the term environmental sustainability was new and it was
treated as environmental protection only.
4.5 Discussion
In brief, education for sustainable development in early childhood programs in

China started from the education for environmental protection in the 1990s. Since
then early childhood education programs have been making efforts in the education
of environmental protection. However, the concept of education for sustainable
development (ESD) is still a new concept of the teachers in our study. Particularly
the concept of social and cultural sustainability is something that many Chinese
early childhood staff are not aware of or practice. Since the early childhood centers
we observed in this pilot study might be more sophisticated than many other centers
in China in terms of education for sustainable development, we may assume that
ESD in early childhood education in China still has a long way to go. We believe the
introduction of such a scale could have a positive impact on ESD in early childhood
education in China. Its usefulness as a teaching tool when used as self-assessment
and classroom audit has a great promise for opening the discussion about ESD in
early childhood environments. In addition, information on ESD should be dissemi-
nated and distributed in the nation with great efforts. ESD should be added into
early childhood curriculum and teacher training program as part of the best
practice.
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ᒯ㾯ইᆱ: ᒯ㾯ᮉ㛢ࠪ⡸⽮.
Chapter 5
Development in Kenya
Mercy Macharia and Njeri Kimani
5.1 Introduction
Itunze arthi vyema; hukupewa na wazazi; bali umekopeshwa na wazao wako

Translation from Swahili:
You must treat the earth well. It was not given to you by your parents. It is loaned to
you by your children.
Kenya has a total population of 36.6 million, of which 20 % are under the age of
5. The gross enrolment ratio (GER) in pre-primary education in 2009 was 51.8, but
there is great inequality with poor children from semi-arid, arid and urban slum
areas much less likely to enrol than the children of more advantaged parents. Almost
40 % of all enrolment is private, and parents always pay fees even where the pre-
schools are publicly provided. As a study by Murungi (2013) has shown, the main
reason for low enrolment is financial as parents are unable to pay the fees, and they
don’t have money to provide books, uniforms, pencils, etc. There is a high level of
inequality at all levels of the Kenyan education system. It is notable that less than
1 % of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is spent per child in primary educa-
tion, while 256.7 % of GDP per capita is spent on tertiary education (UNESCO
2005).
This can be compared with, for example, Sweden where 28 % of GDP per capita
is spent on primary education and 42 % on tertiary. Preschool and primary educa-
tional provisions have been developed primarily to serve the needs of the tertiary
M. Macharia (*) • N. Kimani

OMEP Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
e-mail: mercyomepkenya@gmail.com

60 M. Macharia and N. Kimani
sector where, as Boit and Kipkoech (2012) have suggested, there is a high degree of
social bias with:
… children from upper class backgrounds highly over-represented in comparison with their
proportion in the population. (ibid, p. 79)
Preschool enrolment actually became worse after the free primary education
policy was introduced in 2003, as many parents kept their children at home until the
age of 6 when they entered primary school. By 2005 UNESCO was reporting that
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) was on the verge of collapse in Kenya.
The decreased enrolments also meant reduced salaries for ECD teachers and the
loss of ECCE premises (Kaga 2006; Nganga 2009).
Kenya has a strong tradition of community self-help, and in 1963, Jomo Kenyatta,
the first Prime Minister and President of Kenya, promoted ‘Harambee’ (Swahili for
‘all pulling together’), as a concept for building a new nation. What this has often
meant in practice is that when a community defines a need, it often takes direct local
action to meet that need rather than expecting government departments to take
action. Many preschools have been created this way where the parents found a loca-
tion and someone to care for children. The preschool teacher’s salary is then cov-
ered by parental fees. This is the case even when they are working alongside primary
teachers who are paid by the government on an official salary scale and in a class-
room that is attached to a public primary school. Preschool teacher salaries have
changed little in recent years and are below the minimum wage recommended by
the Ministry of Labour.1 A typical pre-primary teacher salary is between $20–$40 a
month (2000–4000 Ksh), and the staff turnover in the pre-primary sector has been
estimated at 40 % annually (ILO 2012). There is also a variation between rural and
urban areas, and salaries vary month by month according to how much the parents
are able to pay (Hein and Cassirer 2010).
As many as 122,000 under 5-year-olds die each year, mostly as a result of poor
water supplies, inadequate sanitation and hygiene. It has been estimated that as
many as 75 % of preschool children are unable to wash their hands with soap or ash
after visiting the latrine and before eating. Unfortunately UN and other international
support was withdrawn from Kenya in September 2009, after serious misuse of
programme funds was reported.2 As Otieno-Koee (2010) has suggested, a major
economic challenge for Kenya is the fact that 56 % of the Kenyan population is liv-
ing below the poverty line, earning less than US $1.00 per day. Otieno-Koee also
suggests that the gap between the rich and the poor in Kenya continues to widen and
that the countries’ social problems include:
…poor governance, corruption, bigotry towards cultural diversity, ethnic animosity, gender
inequality, HIV/AIDS, incidence of malaria, tuberculosis (TB) and other communicable
and non-communicable diseases, human rights abuse, all forms of violence and increased
insecurity, degraded lifestyles and behaviour, drug and substance abuse, and erosion of
cultural values and morals, among others. (Otieno-Koee 2010)
1
http://www.wageindicator.org/main/salary/minimum-wage/kenya
2
http://www.washinschoolsmapping.com/projects/Kenya.html
5 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in Kenya 61
The environmental challenges are also considerable:

The country has experienced severe environmental challenges including droughts, natural
disasters, acute water shortage, climate change and variability, loss of biodiversity and
poor waste management systems. This has resulted in land degradation and loss of forest
cover which currently stands at a mere 1.7 per cent of the total territorial surface area
against the globally recommended 10 per cent minimum cover. Moreover, about 88 per cent
of the country’s total surface area is comprised of Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASALs)3 while
desertification is on the rise as a result of fragility of the ecosystems (ibid)
Some of the effects of climate change on human health are complex. For exam-
ple, in northern Kenya, the Samburu are having to cope with changing patterns of
rainfall and reductions in rainfall, and malaria has recently appeared in Nairobi and
in the highlands of Kenya, brought about by the expanding range of mosquitoes that
is the result of warmer temperatures (WaterAid 2007).
Kenya has also suffered from serious ethnic conflicts and political violence most
notably in 2007–2008. The historical roots of this are complicated and involve
grievances over land issues and political power that go back to colonial times. Yet
Gallup Poll4 findings show that most Kenyans share a collective national identity
and a commitment to the modern state. Most Kenyans are committed to a peaceful
coexistence with members of other ethnic groups (Rheault and Tortora 2008), but it
will take time to rebuild public confidence.
In 2010 Kenya adopted a new constitution which has a strong commitment to
equality, and President Kibaki referred again to the spirit of Harambee calling upon
all Kenyans to:
…embrace a new national spirit; a spirit of national inclusiveness, tolerance, harmony and
unity (…) to build a nation that will be socially and economically inclusive and cohesive
where all have equal access and opportunities to realize their full potential (The Equal
Rights Trust 2012)
A recent report by the Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring
Education Quality (SACMEQ 2011) has noted the persistence of gender inequali-
ties in the education system, even several years after implementation of the free
primary education programme. Article 81(b) of Kenya’s new constitution states that
no more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies should be of the
same gender. This rule was specifically introduced to increase women’s participa-
tion in politics, but so far males still strongly dominate.5 The Kenyan government
policy within the context of United Nations Education for All and the Millennium
Development Goals has also been to improve gender equity. However, ‘this remains
elusive at all levels of education and training’ and ‘in some cases, affirmative action
is needed’ (RKMOE 2012, p. 57). The need for special attention being given to the
underachievement of girls in mathematics and the sciences has been especially
highlighted (Githua and Mwangi 2003).
3
Arid and semi-arid lands
4
http://www.gallup.com/poll/113035/kenyans-put-national-identity-before-ethnicity.aspx
5
http://www.the-star.co.ke/news/article-112042/kenya-has-only-five-cent-women-house#sthash.
By12DQoJ.dpuf
According to the Global Gender Gap Index 2013 rankings, Kenya moved from
96th place to 78th place between 2010 and 2013, although in the specific area of
education in 2013, it still ranked 107 (out of 136) (Hausmann et al. 2013).
Educational enrolment in tertiary education is particularly problematic, and with a
female-to-male ratio of 0.7, Kenya ranks 110 in the index (WEF 2013). Girls under-
achieve at every level and they make up only 38 % of university enrolments. It is in
the early years that children’s attitudes are first formed, and, in many rural African
contexts, it is often only in the preschool that many girls come into contact with
educated women. ‘Research participants told us that the lack of gender balance in
teaching staff at secondary schools and in secondary grades…and in management
positions across primary and secondary levels means that girls have few female role
models’ (PFTH/VSO 2013).
As Ngesu et al. (2012) have written, underachievement in KCSE has often been
the result of:
a long historical chain of events that include the growing up experiences of individuals,
from pre-school years within the context of the family to the social and psychological ethos
of school life. (p. 5)
As the authors suggest, community partnership is fundamental in the process of

transforming schools in these terms, but compensatory ‘protective’ classroom activ-
ities may also be effective (see social case study below).
The Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) and Kenya Certificate of
Secondary Education (KCSE) are the main national tests that evaluate student
achievement. The number of girls entering the KCSE examination in 2012 was
nearly 6 % lower than the number of boys. In the 2011 KCPE examinations, only
51.6 % were boys, but the top positions nationally were dominated by boys, with
nine of the top 14 candidates being male. According to the results released by
Education Minister Professor Sam Ongeri in the 2011 KCSE examination, boys
took seven out of the top ten positions.
In the 2012 KCSE exams, the candidates were 55.26 % male and 44.74 % female,
and there were more male candidates than female candidates in all the counties with
the exception of Meru and Tharaka Nithi counties where more female than male
candidates sat for the examination. Yet these figures conceal major differences
between subjects with girls significantly underrepresented in mathematics and the
sciences. If we look at the university enrolments by gender, boys make up 62 % of
admissions (ROFFKMOE 2012, p. 57).
Preschool teachers are predominantly female, but they are themselves the vic-
tims of inequality and suffer from discrimination. While primary school teachers
are paid by the government, even where preschool classes are attached to primary
schools in Kenya, they are funded by parent fees. These salaries are below the basic
minimum wage recommended by the Ministry of Labour and depend on the total
number of children enrolled and parents’ ability to pay (Hein and Cassirer 2010).
5.2 Context of ECEC
5.2.1 ESD in the Kenyan National Curriculum
There is currently no clear commitment to ESD goals, principles and practices in

the Kenyan national curriculum guidance for Early Childhood Development and
Education (ECDE), even if they do include some activities related to water, health,
hygiene and the environment (Otieno-Koee 2010). Even more significantly, these
are only likely to be applied in schools where there are trained teachers, and only
77.3 % (ILO 2012; Said 1997) of the current pre-primary teaching workforce in
Kenya have been trained.
In 2003, Wangari Mwai provided a graphic description of the situation in many
rural preschools, and for too many, little has changed since then:
The classroom is one half of a timber building with corrugated iron roof and no ceiling… It
is July. Kenya’s most wet month. When the heavy rains fall, it is extremely difficult to hear
a person speaking. There are spaces between the timber and the chill flows in unabated.
There are no shelves or flat working surfaces. There is one round table and unmatching
small chairs crowded around it. There are about thirty scantily dressed children, ranging
from three years to five. One of them is loudly reading the alphabetical charts as the rest
follow…There are a few other illustration charts with poorly done drawings. Some illus-
trates the numerals, others names of animals and a few, names of people. There is no chil-
dren’s work on display. The teacher is a young woman who recently completed her four-year
secondary school course. She hopes to join the private sponsored Early Childhood Teacher
training through her church that runs this centre. Her pay is roughly Kshs.800 per month.
But all this depends on how fast the parents pay fees for the children. The fee is Kshs.100
per child per month but it is rarely paid. She lives in one room behind her classroom. As she
sits at her table, she knits a sweater for her forthcoming baby…. Some of the children are
malnourished and they have retarded growth. Many have had no breakfast and/or may go
without lunch. They are hungry. Sometimes the teacher is also hungry and needs a meal or
a snack. The water they have brought with them from home is polluted. There is no clean
water supply in the preschool. Some bring infections into the classroom and spread them to
the other children. The toilet facilities provided for the children are dirty and dangerous.
(Mwai 2003)
Unsurprisingly, preschool teacher morale is low in many areas of Kenya. A study

by Ndani and Kimani (2010) found that many preschool teachers were demotivated
by the poor working conditions, their low salary, heavy workload, poor or inexistent
terms of service and poor interpersonal relationships:
In summary, both aspects of the preschool microsystems investigated were found to be inad-
equate to support children’s development. In 55 % of the preschools, the physical environ-
ment was below average in suitability, and 52.2 % of the teachers had below average levels
of motivation. (ibid)
OMEP preschool members have been engaged in ESD projects encouraging

intergenerational dialogue and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH from the
Start). Both of these projects involved a high degree of parent involvement. The
community and children have worked together in planting trees and learning about
the environment. Teachers have reported that their teacher education courses do not
equip them with any knowledge or skills on parent involvement (Mukuna and
Indoshi 2012). Kenyan teachers and parents have a generally positive view towards
parental involvement in early childhood curriculum development, even though
many parents believe that the teachers have a negative view (op cit). Another signifi-
cant project focused on the UN day for social justice and addressed the issue of
girls’ attitudes and aspirations towards a career in science. Each of these projects
has helped develop a greater awareness of the social, economic and environment
issues concerned with ESD and were carried out in collaboration with OMEP part-
ner preschools in the UK (see Chap. 11).
5.3 Practice
5.3.1 Global Handwashing Day in Kenya and the UK
This project involved a collaboration between OMEP Kenya and the Kenyan Rural
School Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) project funded by the Salvation
Army (SA). In addition to providing improved water supplies and sanitation facili-
ties, a major aim of the SA project has been to build the capacity of the school com-
munity to promote hygiene through hygiene education. From its first inception, the
project has focused attention upon the importance of children as agents of change
and upon hygiene promotion and outreach to the wider community. The SA project
provides:
• Rainwater-harvesting tanks and related accessories
• In a limited number of high priority cases a borehole
• Improved classroom roofs where rusting contaminates rainwater
• Communities with support in constructing ventilated improved (VIP) latrines
• Handwashing facilities and related hygiene education and training
• Clean water containers for drinking water storage
• Training to pupils, teachers and parents on the maintenance of all these
facilities
In October 2012, one of the Kenyan SA WASH project preschool classes shared
their celebration of Global Handwashing Day with their OMEP partner preschool in
Dorchester in the UK. The activities were coordinated between Kangoro preschool
in Meru in the Eastern Province of Kenya and the Grove preschool in Dorchester,
England. Photographs and videos were taken and exchanged between the partners
during these activities, and they stimulated communications between the children,
their families and teachers (Fig. 5.1).
At Kangoro preschool and at the Grove preschool, the children learnt about a
princess who didn’t want to wash her hands…until she saw just how horrible germs
were. The children all drew their own pictures of ‘horrible germs’, and they drew
posters to show the difference between clean and dirty hands. In the UK and Kenya,
Fig. 5.1 Celebrating the

Global Handwashing Day
at Kangoro Preschool
the children also learnt ‘Wash your hands’ songs, and the teachers at Grove pre-
school used puppets to sing and tell a story about the King of Hearts who wanted
jam tarts and the Queen who said that she would make some. The Queen had to
wash her hands before cooking, and the King washed his hands before eating the
tart. The children then acted out the story independently in their sociodramatic play.
5.3.2 Growing Maize at Everbest and Lytchett Matravers
Another OMEP UK-Kenya partnership project encouraged intergenerational dia-

logues about food production. The children at Lytchett Matravers had sent the
Kenyan children a cuddly dog called Widget with lots of information about their
preschool in the UK. One of the first things Widget experienced when he arrived
was a visit to the preschool ‘shamba’ (garden or local plot) with the children.
Grandmother Wanjiku was visiting the preschool to tell the children about how she
had been growing some of her own food since she was their age.
Many families in rural Kenya continue to supplement their incomes by growing
food in their ‘shamba’. The project began with grandmother Wanjiku telling the
children about the old iron jembes (hoes) that were used before they had the mass-
produced steel ones and then she showed them how to dig. This method of cultiva-
tion is appropriate and was simple to duplicate in the European preschool context.
Typically the ‘jembe’ (hoe) is the only tool used. Hoe cultivation is more suitable
Fig. 5.2 Learning to use a ‘jembe’ at Everbest Preschool in Kenya
than ploughing wherever the soil is shallow or at risk of erosion. We smelted iron
for making hoes and axes in Africa long before mass production, and basket weav-
ing, textiles and pottery also have long histories in East Africa. The hoe is an ancient
technology, which predates the plough. It is a tool mentioned in the Book of Isaiah
(c. eighth century BC).
Wanjiku taught the children how plants needed water, light and soil if they were
to thrive, and she showed them how they could grow maize at home. One of the
children asked if the tool could hurt them, and Wanjiku said that it could if they
didn’t handle it very carefully. She showed them a big scar that showed where she
had been cut when she was a young girl so the children were very careful with the
tools (Fig. 5.2).
The children found that the jembe became very heavy when it was loaded with
mud, and Wanjiku showed them how the mud had to be scraped off.
The children were then shown how they could remove seeds from the maize
cobs, and Wanjiku showed them how to plant them (Fig. 5.3).
The children asked if they could eat the seeds, and Wanjiku told them that they
couldn’t because they were not cooked. Then the children asked if they could take
some seeds home to grow and they were told that they could. Wanjiku showed the
children how to identify and remove the weeds that would grow around their maize.
An account of this work was sent to the UK with photographs, and Njeri visited
Lytchett Matravers preschool to show the photographs and to explain what the
Fig. 5.3 Removing seeds

from the Maize
(Corn cobs)
Fig. 5.4 Njeri’s visit to Lytchett Maltravers preschool
children in Kenya had learnt. She took some maize (corn in the UK) so that the
children could plant it in their vegetable garden, and she showed the children an
inspirational video made by Wangari Maathai about ‘Doing the best we can’ for
ESD. This video is available on YouTube called ‘Be a Hummingbird’6 (Fig. 5.4).
6
http://youtu.be/IGMW6YWjMxw
Fig. 5.5 Learning how to

grow food
The children’s grandparents were then invited to visit the preschool to talk about
growing food and the changes that they had seen between now and when they were
children. All of this work was recorded and posted on the OMEP partnership blog
so that the children in Kenya could be shown what had happened (Fig. 5.5).
5.3.3 The 2014 UN World Day for Social Justice
20 February 2014 was the United Nations Day of Social Justice, and the OMEP
Kenya/UK partnership supported a project between Cranborne preschool in Dorset,
UK, and Ng’ondu preschool in Njoro, Kenya, that was especially focused on raising
the educational aspirations of girls through the promotion of positive female role
models.7 Throughout the projects, boys were encouraged to take pride in the contri-
bution that they were making to achieve social justice. The children in the UK and
Kenya were taught about the work and achievements of Wangari Maathai and other
female success stories. They were shown the inspirational video referred to above
and learnt about Wangari’s work and her life. The children in Kenya saw the video
of Wangari on a tablet PC supplied for the project by OMEP UK. Wangari Maathai
provided an exceptionally good role model as a female scientist and also a strong
advocate for sustainable development and women’s rights; she was the chairperson
7
https://327sustainability.wordpress.com/2014/06/03/matarajio-project-gender-equality-in-kenya
of the National Council of Women of Kenya (1976–1987). On receiving the Nobel

Peace Prize in 2004, she argued:
I always felt that our work was not simply about planting trees. It was about inspiring
people to take charge of their environment, the system that governed them, their lives, and
their future.
The children in both preschools learnt of Wangari’s accomplishments including

that she was the first woman to win a Nobel Peace Prize in Africa and that her good
deeds live on to inspire many people. Her efforts encouraged women to plant trees,
and over 30 million trees were eventually planted in Kenya. Wangari was later
elected as a member of parliament, and she served as assistant minister for environ-
ment and natural resources. She contributed highly to sustainable development until
she died of cancer on 26 September 2011 at age 71. Indoor and outdoor activities
were developed to encourage the children to become more aware of the connections
between themselves, wildlife and the environment. A forest school educator also
visited the children at Cranborne and focused the children’s attention on the impor-
tance of trees, how long they took to grow and how quickly they could be destroyed.
At the end of the project, many of the children were highly motivated to follow in
Wangari’s footsteps (Fig. 5.6).
In addition to the education for sustainable development and social justice objec-
tives of the project, the opportunity was taken to introduce the Kenyan preschool to
the use of sociodramatic play and to some of the emergent literacy practices that are
used in most UK preschools. This form of play was routine at Cranborne, and their
classroom included a ‘Hospital corner’ where the children shared their experiences
and learn in their play all about the caring roles of hospital staff.
Cranborne preschool in the UK sent some dressing up clothes that would support
the girls in their partner preschool develop positive dispositions towards science and
towards strong adult roles for women. Before they parcelled the clothes, they tried
them out. One of the girls took the role of a builder who had been injured on her
worksite, and another girl acted out the role of a doctor. When the clothes arrived in
Fig. 5.6 Nobel Prize

Winner Dr Wangari Muta
Maathai (1940–2011)
Kenya, the children were shown photographs of the UK children playing in the
clothes and three of the girls immediately dressed up and played out the same socio-
drama for themselves. The clothes were later taken to a local college, and OMEP
Kenya paid the students there to produce ten more sets of dressing up clothes to
share with other local preschools. Many of the other activities that the children in
Cranborne enjoyed were also repeated in Ng’ondu, and the children in Kenya were
also involved in tree planting activities.
5.4.1 The Kenyan Trials of the ERS-SDEC
The ERS-SDEC was trialled in preschools in Kenya mostly located in the rift valley
near Nakuru and resembled the preschool described by Mwai (2003) above. Our
opportunity sample did not include the preschools involved in the partnership proj-
ects reported above. Two of the preschools were in Kibera which is a slum only 5
kms from the centre of the Kenyan capital of Nairobi that houses almost one million
people. Kibera occupies just 6 % of the land of Nairobi but has 60 % of the city
population. The average size of a home in Kibera is 12 ft × 12 ft, built with mud
walls, screened with concrete, a corrugated tin roof, dirt or concrete floor.8
5.4.2 The ERS-SDEC Ratings
Of course there are preschools serving middle class Kenyan families in the cities
that would have given us higher scores. But we believe these results may be consid-
ered more typical of the most common preschool practice in Kenya. The ESD cur-
riculum in Kenyan preschools is extremely limited with its strengths, and in many
cases the preschools that we visited were not, in themselves, sustainable as the
children had inadequate access to clean drinking water (Environmental Sustainability
Item 1.4). The World Health Organisation (WHO) advises that a 10 kg child should
consume a total of 1 l of water from drinks each day and a 5 kg infant 0.75 l per day
under average conditions, but this should be increased depending on the conditions
with up to 4.5 l, for example, if the child is very active in high temperatures. Only
one of the sample preschools had its own water supply, and the children brought
water with them from home in recycled soda bottles. It was noted that the water was
often of doubtful quality, discoloured and almost certainly contaminated. We saw
no evidence of any water treatment, although we are aware of isolated cases where
water is filtered in preschools for the children, and in Kibera the solar disinfectant
8
http://www.kibera.org.uk/Facts.html
(SODIS) method of cleaning water is often practiced. SODIS involves shaking the
plastic soda bottles of water to oxygenate the contents and then placing the bottles
on the roof or a rack outside (for 6 h in the sun or 2 days if cloudy). The intention is
for the ultraviolet light (UV) and heat to kill most of the disease-causing organisms
(Fig. 5.7).
Where there was limited water for drinking, the staff were unable to wash their
hands before eating and/or after toileting (Item 1.5). In one of the preschools, there
were no toilet facilities at all, and the only option for the children (and teacher) was
to relieve themselves in the bush. One positive observation is that several of our
sample preschools would be considered by most people to have been located in
areas of natural beauty. Item 1.3 on the environmental sustainability subscale refers
to the importance of children visiting such areas, although we are unable to com-
ment on the degree to which this is fully appreciated by the teachers and children
themselves.
In terms of economic sustainability, the preschools showed many examples of
recycling and the reuse of materials and resources (Item 1.3), and the children were
often explicitly involved in recycling and conservation activities (Items 1.1 and 3.3).
Pretend money was available in one of the settings and the children sometimes
talked with the teacher about its relevance to their lives (Item 1.2).
The weakest area of the ESD curriculum identified in the trial is related to social
and cultural sustainability. Despite the clear need for these issues to be addressed in
the Kenyan context (as identified above), no evidence of any provision for discuss-
ing social justice, countering prejudiced attitudes or limited expectations, was
observed or identified in our visits to the sample preschools.
There are also major challenges to be addressed in resourcing preschools in
Kenya. In our visits to the rural preschools, we didn’t see even one picture story-
book so that the question of whether any books addressed issues of environmental
sustainability (Item 3.1) or social and cultural sustainability (Items 3.1, 5.1, 5.2) was
4 Soc Cult
Econ
3
Environ
0
A B C D E F G H Σ
Fig. 5.7 ERS-SDEC ratings for eight preschools in Kenya

irrelevant. This is a crucially important issue as it is hard to imagine how any

effective emergent literacy education could take place without books. As Siraj-
Blatchford and Pramling-Samuelsson argue in Chap. 1, along with Businge et al.
(2012), wherever there is educational inequality, high quality preschool provisions
for basic literacy and numeracy are themselves important ESD objectives.
Resourcing is therefore a major challenge to be addressed especially in rural
preschools in Kenya. One potential solution may be for the smaller rural preschools
to share resources, and OMEP Kenya is currently investigating the possibility of
piloting the provision of a mobile toy and book library that could serve a group of
preschools. The use of information and communications technology (ICT) also has
potential (Sung and Siraj-Blatchford 2013). Mobile phones are widely available and
applied in Kenya and the country has relatively good 3G connectivity. Mobile phone
apps providing reading materials are already available and offer the important
advantage of local translation into home and mother tongue languages.9 When table
computers are available at lower cost, they will probably be a more economic
method of distributing a large collection of picture storybooks than through print.
A major limitation in the current Kenyan practice is also pedagogic. We are
unaware of any preschool practice in Kenya at this time that would satisfy (Item
5.3), engaging the children in real-life investigative project work. As Rotumoi and
Too (2012) have argued, there is an urgent need to develop more child-centred expe-
riential teaching and play-based learning in Kenyan preschools.10 The barriers to
this often include class size, shortage of space and inadequate funding, but there is
also often a lack of commitment particularly where ECDE settings are managed by
primary school teachers. Rotumoi and Too also argue that the government should
urgently initiate systems to employ trained ECDE teachers and fund in-service
training courses to refine and update teacher’s skills. OMEP Kenya is currently
developing curriculum activities that may be used as exemplars of good practice in
such training.11
One other issue worth mentioning in the Kenyan context relates to Item 7.4 in the
economic sustainability subscale suggesting that a setting that fully supports sus-
tainable development would not exclude families on the basis of their inability to
pay the fees/tuition. In Kenya, some bursaries are already provided free or at reduced
rates to serve the poorest of the poor in many private unaided schools. While it may
often be considered out of necessity rather than intention, the inclusion of children
in classes when parents are unable to pay is a common and very regular feature of
preschool practice.
9
E.gs. https://vimeo.com/27865194 and http://youtu.be/Z76jcP-np60
10
See also UNESCO 2012.
11
See https://www.facebook.com/omep.kenya.page
5.5 Discussion
The key messages (3) drawn from the IRC, UNICEF and WASH in Schools Partners,
workshop convened in the Hague in 2011,12 included:
• Recognising that in addition to WASH in primary schools, adequate WASH is
critically important for children below the primary school age. The challenge of
how to take into account preschool children (between 0–5, WASH from the Start)
deserves attention at national and international levels.
• Continuing to encourage the potential involvement of the private sector, the early
childhood development sector (preschool, kindergartens), faith-based organisa-
tions and other development sectors in the areas of nutrition, health and educa-
tion works in the linkage with WASH in Schools.
Four years later, very little has been accomplished in these terms, and the water,
sanitation and hygiene conditions for the majority of preschool children in Kenya
and in other countries across the sub-Saharan region remain seriously inadequate.
We hope that our involvement in this ERS-SDEC project will contribute towards
developing greater awareness of the problems that we face in Kenya and encourage
greater international collaboration and support in solving them.
As suggested above an important variable in the widespread availability of pre-
schools is the Harambee or the self-help spirit which has been fostered in Kenya.
This has positive impacts but may also at times distract attention from the need for
government to make regional and national efforts to improve the situation for all
social, economic, cultural and geographic groups within society. If overall educa-
tional achievements are to be improved to serve the needs of a growing economy,
then improvements are required in preschool resourcing and in the training and sala-
ries of preschool teachers that cannot be adequately addressed by poor local
communities.
Mukuna and Indoshi’s (2012) study recommends that adult literacy and early
childhood education parental awareness programmes should be introduced for par-
ents. The influence of the home learning environment from birth to preschool is
extremely important, and this sort of ‘joined-up thinking’ and integrated provision
for families is increasingly being used in supporting disadvantaged communities in
Europe and America. It would undoubtedly be of value in Kenya. Many of the sug-
gestions made by Said (1997) in his analysis of transition between pre- and primary
schooling in Kenya have still not been implemented. They include the desirability
of:
1. Child-to-child programmes in which senior children can come to the preschools
and help preschool children in their activities and then introduce them to the
primary school.
12
IRC, UNICEF and WASH in Schools Partners, The Hague, Netherlands, 24–25 May 2011,
Meeting Report: http://www.washinschools.info/page/1085
2. Efforts made to educate the masses on current education attitudes, e.g. partici-
patory methods. The prevailing belief in Kenya is that learning only takes place
in a classroom when learners are seated in rows facing a blackboard and
instructed by teachers. The few teachers who practice child-centred methods are
pressured by parents to change.
3. Teacher training institutions keeping up with current thinking in education and
instilling new beliefs so that they become integrated into the fields.
4. A preschool curriculum being developed with specific objectives, activities and
methods to help teachers interpret the curriculum developmentally
appropriately.
5. The government introducing a policy that presents a reasonable salary scheme
for preschool teachers.
6. Primary schools establishing a system where the Standard 1 school teachers
work with the transit teachers of the preschool. At present the transit teachers are
preparing children for Standard 1 interviews by drilling them to prepare for the
test for entrance to primary school.
Mwai’s (2003) suggestions are also as relevant today as when they were first
written in 2003; she wrote that our government should:
• Endorse and disseminate learning comfort norms and learning environmental health
standards for all ECD centres.
• Ensure a focus on the holistic development of the child. The interventions by NGOs are
often entitled ECD Health and Nutrition. Due to this, it is quite possible to focus on
health related interventions and forget the cognitive aspects of child development. On
the other hand, government driven interventions are geared towards cognitive achieve-
ments and may easily overlook the health and nutrition aspects.
• Identify, promote and disseminate the best package of health, nutrition and education
interventions from among practises known to improve the lives of children, and which
can be delivered at the ECD centres.
• Examine the possibility of instituting an ECD equipment scheme.
• Search for durable approaches for providing relevant instructional materials.
• Facilitate the raising of awareness of local communities about teachers’ needs.
• Determine and review ECD teachers’ salaries and conditions of services.
• Ensure provision of basic needs and services to ECD teachers in disadvantaged areas
and communities. (Mwai 2003)
To these lists we would add the need to develop more experiential hands-on and
integrated project work in preschools and for a revision of the preschool curriculum
to emphasise education for sustainable development. Kenya is a world leader in the
conservation of animals and can provide significant leadership in educating children
around the world about the importance of water and forestry. We should build upon
these strengths. Despite the fact that the Kenyan education system has found it dif-
ficult to implement computer technology in schools (Otunga and Nyandusi 2009), it
is important to note that mobile technologies are popular and widely available and
should be exploited more fully. It is in early childhood that we develop the funda-
mental values and habits of sustainability, and as Namunga and Otunga (2012) have
said, we need to remember that:
…teacher education is an important driver for sustainable development since literally

every knowledgeable and skilled individual in micro and macro productive activity has
been shaped in some ways by the contribution of a teacher. (p. 228)
Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the support of Rosslyne Kiragu and Jane
Mwangi in OMEP Kenya and John Siraj-Blatchford in the UK. Special thanks are due to all the
teachers involved in the partnership projects especially to those contributing at Kangoro, Everbest
and Ng’ondu preschools in Kenya and at Grove, Lytchett Matravers and Cranborne preschools in
the UK.
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Chapter 6
Development in Korea
Eunhye Park, Eunsoo Shin, and Seenyoung Park
6.1 Introduction
In Korea, concepts of sustainable development (SD) were adopted as the Korean

government established the Presidential Committee on Sustainable Development in
2000 and the Korean National Strategy and Action Plan Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development (DESD) in 2005. Since the government’s declaration of
an environmental mandate called “Green Growth” in 2008, ESD in Korea has been
driven by the Activation Strategy of Green Growth Education. In 2009 a revised
national curriculum for primary and secondary education and the NURI curriculum
for 3–5-year-olds were developed under the perspective of green growth education
so that there are efforts to educate students to foster transformative and systemic
thinking for sustainable development.
In early childhood education, ever since concepts and practices were introduced
by OMEP Korea (L’Organisation Mondiale pour L’Education Prescholaire) in 2011,
there have been continuous efforts to spread ESD in practice, research, and teacher
training. One of the inspiring achievements of these efforts is that several projects in
early childhood institutes won honors as a “Korean UNESCO ESD Official Project”
by Korea National Commissions for UNESCO. However, studies to implement
ESD with young children are more limited than those for primary and upper level of
education; moreover, these implementations are undertaken only in some institutes
for early childhood education, typically those attached to departments of early
childhood education in universities and colleges.
E. Park (*)
Department of Early Childhood Education,
Ewha Womans University, Seoul, KR - Korea (Republic of)
e-mail: ehparkh@ewha.ac.kr
E. Shin • S. Park
Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea

78 E. Park et al.
6.2 Context of ECEC
6.2.1 Policy Context for ESD
South Korea’s economic development since the 1960s has been marked by rapid
industrialization and urbanization, moving from an impoverished country torn apart
by the Korean War to a highly competitive economic powerhouse. However, one
disadvantage of this phenomenal growth has been the negative impact on the envi-
ronment. The government has met the sustainable growth challenge by committing
to a number of legislative and social initiatives to attain more sustainable develop-
ment strategies and to gradually shift the national consciousness on the importance
of achieving sustainable growth.
Korea established its national policy direction on sustainable development in
2000 with the inauguration of the Presidential Committee on Sustainable
Development (PCSD). Following the declaration of the UN Decade of Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD) initiative in 2005, the Korean National Strategy
and Action Plan for ESD was developed and enacted in 2006 in cooperation with
the Ministry of Education and Human Resources and the Ministry of Environment.
The 2nd Sustainable Development Basic Plan for 2011–2015 was announced in
2011.
At the start of the presidential administration in 2008, former President Lee
Myung-bak declared an environmental mandate named Green Growth and officially
launched a special Committee on Green Growth. Green Growth was meant to be the
nation’s new guiding economic development philosophy promoting environmental
stewardship to be one of the key engines for further economic growth. Subsequently,
the foundations of ESD in Korea were established based on the Activation Strategy
of Green Growth Education with the Committee on Green Growth, providing the
blueprint for all educational initiatives concerning ESD. The central tenet of the
Activation Strategy of Green Growth Education, enacted in 2009, was to strengthen
and include Green Growth Education in early childhood, primary, secondary, and
higher education. Its main goals were the development and institutionalization of
the Green Growth Education curriculum. Based on this mandate, in 2009 and again
in 2011–2012, the national level curriculum for 3–5-year-olds was revised to reflect
these changes.
While ESD and Green Growth Education are part of the same sustainable devel-
opment philosophy, the two terms can denote somewhat different meanings. While
ESD encompasses social, environmental, and economic areas, Green Growth
focuses on reaching a balance between economic growth and environmental sus-
tainability. This confusion has somewhat limited the scope of ESD in Korea, result-
ing in less than ideal opportunities for students to develop a more comprehensive
and critical understanding of sustainable development. Thus, it is vital for various
ESD stakeholders in Korea to redefine the meaning and goals of ESD to include all
three pillars and to ensure that teachers and students understand the concepts of
6 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in Korea 79
Education for Sustainable Development and that they are streamlined into the
school curriculum (Yoo et al. 2013a).
6.2.2 Access for All to a Process of Lifelong Learning
In Korea, early childhood education and early childhood care are split into two sys-
tems managed by two separate government auspices. One is kindergarten, which
serves children ages of 3–5 and is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The other
is childcare center, which serves children from birth to age 5 and is overseen by the
Ministry of Health and Welfare. In 2012, the Korean government integrated the
finances and curriculum of these two systems into the NURI system for the univer-
sal public education for all 3–5-year-olds (Park and Shin 2012a). Enrollment rates
in early childhood education and care for 0–5-year-olds have been continuously
increased and are 72.3 % as of 2012. 62.8 % of children under the age of three are
enrolled in childcare facilities, and 87.2 % of children at age three to five are enrolled
in kindergarten and childcare facilities (Ministry of Health and Welfare 2012)
(Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 Korean early childhood education and care system

Year 2011 ⇨ 2012 (NURI system)
Institute Kindergarten Childcare center ⇨ Kindergarten Childcare
center
Age 3–5 years 0–5 years 3–5 years
Curriculum Kindergarten Standard NURI curriculum (half day)
curriculum childcare
curriculum
Finance Education budget Central Education budget (4 billion
(allocated by government dollars)
internal taxes for budget + local
education) government
matching
Supervision Office of education None Office of None
education
Teachers Kindergarten Childcare Kindergarten Childcare
teachers teachers teachers teachers
Laws Early Childhood Infant Care Act Early Childhood Infant Care
Education Act Education Act Act
Delivery Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of
system Education, Health and Education, Health and
Science, and Welfare Science, and Welfare
Technology Technology
Source: Park and Shin (2012b)
80 E. Park et al.
6.2.3 Gender
Enrollment rates of boys and girls in early childhood education and care institutes
are almost the same in 2012. Among all children under the age of three, 62.9 % of
boys and 62.7 % of girls are enrolled in childcare centers. An enrollment rate gap of
children at age three to 5 based upon gender is slightly wider, with 87.4 % enroll-
ment rates for boys compared to 87.0 % among all girls.1
As with most countries, the majority of kindergarten teachers and childcare staff
in Korea are women. However, while there have been no significant efforts put into
recruiting male teachers into the early childhood education and care sector, the
number of male kindergarten teachers has consistently risen over the years. The
number of male principals in private kindergartens has declined by fifty percent
between 1995 and 2000, affecting the total number of male educational staff in
kindergartens during the same period. However, since 1995, the number of male
teachers in kindergartens has steadily increased, especially in the private sector.
Despite this steady increase, the total percentage of male kindergarten teachers as a
whole has been less than 1 %.2
6.2.4 ESD in Early Childhood Education and Care

Curriculum
The national curriculum for 3–5-year-olds consists of five sub-domains as follows:

physical health, communication, social relationships, art experience, and nature
inquiry. It is worth analyzing the current curriculum to examine how ESD subjects
are currently incorporated. Based on the analysis, the physical health domain and
social relationship domain of the curriculum do include some of the basic themes
and contents related to the social and cultural pillars of ESD, which are mainly
about being safe and healthy, about food, and learning about various cultures (Yoo
et al. 2013b). However, when we consider that ESD’s most fundamental goals are to
change children’s values, thinking, and action for sustainable development, the cur-
riculum must develop to include more enhanced themes and content such as social
justice, citizen participation, and international responsibility.
As discussed previously, ESD has been overshadowed by a more narrowly
defined perspective of Green Growth which has resulted in a weak educational
foundation for teaching the environmental and economic pillars of ESD. According
to our analysis, the nature inquiry domain of the curriculum includes themes and
contents related to the environmental pillar of ESD, mainly focusing on exploring
natural recourses, on biodiversity, and slightly on environmental issues. As for the
economic aspect of ESD, some contents related to the “market economy” are
1
Ministry of Health and Welfare (2012).
2
Ministry of Health and Welfare (2012).
weakly dealt with in social relationship domain of the curriculum (Yoo et al. 2013b).
It seems that the scope of the current curriculum emphasizes limited concepts
related to the environment and economy.
To conclude, the current national curriculum for 3–5-year-olds does not show
themes and concepts related to ESD in any holistic and interdisciplinary way. The
themes of ESD are mostly covered in the physical health, social relationship, and
nature inquiry domains and have a one-to-one correspondence where one theme of
ESD is covered in only one domain, which means themes and concepts related to
ESD are not included evenly in all domains. For any adequate approach to “environ-
mental literacy” to be successful, it would be necessary to build habits to save mate-
rials, to reduce waste, and to share resources spatially and temporally. These habits
can be nurtured through educational activities related to the social relationship
domain, as well as nature inquiry domain. Therefore, in order for Korea to move
forward and gain further momentum in ESD, it is of utmost importance to clarify
and streamline educators’ understanding of ESD and to restructure the current early
childhood curriculum to include all the pillars of ESD using a more balanced and
integrated approach.
6.2.5 Learning for Change
The following section provides an overview of a holistic and interdisciplinary

approach to ESD which was integrated into the real-life contexts of young children
at the Ewha Institute of Childhood Education and Care which is a research institute
located in Ewha Womans University, one of the oldest and most established wom-
en’s universities in Korea. It runs full-day education and care programs for 1–5-year-
old children. In March of 2011 when news of the devastating earthquake in Japan
and the deadly tsunami dominated the airwaves, the 5-year-old children at the insti-
tute took notice. ESD began in two 5-year-old classrooms and has now been
expanded to all ages. An ESD project developed a “book hospital” that actively
involved the children empowering them to be active agents into making a difference
in creating a more sustainable society.
6.3 Practice
6.3.1 A Sustainable “Book Hospital”
In Korea a typical school year begins in March. The 5-year-old children of 2013
could not conceal their excitement of having just moved up to be in the most “senior”
class in the institute. They were looking forward to engaging in activities that they
had seen the previous class of 5-year-olds engaged in, including special
82 E. Park et al.
performances, various earth sustainability campaigns, and helping the younger chil-
dren in their daily life activities. Among many of the activities that the children
remembered was being part of a “book hospital.” They expressed a strong interest
in continuing this tradition of the “book hospital.”
It’s too hard to run the book hospital exactly the same way as our predecessors!
When the new 5-year-old class children first attempted to run the book hospital,
they seemed to mimic their predecessors’ behaviors exactly. The children launched
a “take care of our books” campaign, communicated these messages to other chil-
dren, demonstrated proper ways to place books neatly back on bookshelves, and
showed the younger children how to gently handle the books so as not to tear the
pages. Most importantly, they proudly announced that they had the ability to fix torn
books if the books were brought to their book hospital (Fig. 6.1).
However, as the children tried to replicate exactly how their predecessors ran the
book hospital, a few problems emerged. The children realized that due to the differ-
ent times at which the younger children brought “sick books,” they could not always
be ready to receive them. As they are not sitting idle at the book hospital all day,
they often miss the opportunity to greet the new “patients,” especially if they happen
to be playing outdoors. In addition, they came to the realization that due to the vary-
ing numbers of “sick books” that came in each time, it was not possible to predict
the amount of time required to provide a timely service to repair the books. In order
to address these issues, they realized that they needed a new way of managing and
running the book hospital. To provide a solution, the children decided to move the
location of the book hospital. After some discussion, the children physically moved
Fig. 6.1 Posters announcing the opening of “book hospital” made by 5-year-olds
the book hospital from a classroom to the hallway in front of the classroom, and
they placed an empty box that can hold the books that younger children brought to
the hospital until they are ready to be attended to.
The second problem, which was the inability to predict the amount of torn books
that required fixing each time, was solved when the children came up with an inge-
nious way to hand deliver the books back to where they came from after each book
was repaired. In order to make this delivery process more efficient, the children
made a poster that recorded the names of the books and the children who brought in
the book so that prompt delivery of the repaired books could be performed.
Why do we even need a book hospital?
The initial motivation for creating and maintaining a book hospital began from a
social and economic perspective, in an attempt to encourage longer-term use of
materials at the institute and to promote a culture of sustainability, starting from
objects that the children come in contact with on a daily basis. This initiative resulted
in the children feeling a great sense of pride for continuing the work of their prede-
cessors but more importantly, being active participants of a school-wide culture of
sustainability. Subsequently, the children often expressed thoughts of how these
activities and traditions can be passed down to younger children after they have
graduated.
Through running the “book hospital,” the children also took economic and envi-
ronmental perspectives of ESD. Through the book hospital activities, children natu-
rally gained an understanding that if the books were kept in good condition, there
was less of a need to purchase new books, which could be costly and wasteful. The
children gradually became more mindful of handling the books more carefully in
order to keep them in prime condition. The book hospital provided an opportunity
for the children to take ownership and be responsible and, as an added advantage,
lifted the burden from the teachers’ time, which resulted in an economic benefit to
the school. Furthermore, noting that even if only one page of a book is missing, the
book becomes unusable; children tried to reuse or recycle damaged pages as materi-
als for other activities such as arts and crafts by carefully observing teachers who
modeled these types of behaviors.
Beyond the book hospital, a culture of institutionalizing various other sustain-
able activities such as taking good care of plants within the institute became more
common practice by the children. In 2012, the plant project began with the children
placing visual markers on the plants that required watering. In 2013, children
improved this system by designating specific rules on which days to water which
plants and noting the frequency with which the plants required watering, thereby
making the system more efficient and sustainable and easily handed down to future
students. Learning to create and transmit a more sustainable culture became part of
their daily lives at the institute and provided the children with a great sense of pride
and accomplishment. Furthermore, it encouraged a sense of sharing and developing
a concern for future generations (students), which are vital values in ESD.
84 E. Park et al.
6.4 ESD-Rating Scale Trials
6.4.1 Environmental Condition of ECEC Institutes

for Sustainable Development
We surveyed the environments of 37 kindergartens and childcare centers, using the

“Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood
(pilot version), and found that the social and cultural sustainability domain is the
weakest with a mean score of 1.81 (SD = 1.73, max = 7.00, min = 1.00). Specifically,
it appeared that awareness of fundamental concepts about social and cultural sus-
tainability and providing related educational environments are still insufficient,
whereas educational activities related to social and cultural sustainability are
actively provided.
When it comes to the economic sustainability domain, the mean score was 3.11
(SD = 1.20, max = 5.00, min = 1.00) and the unique characteristics of the Korean cul-
ture were reflected in practice. There are two items that warrant special attention in
this domain. Whereas only 18.9 % of respondents answered that the children were
regularly and routinely involved in purchasing decisions in the setting (item 5.1),
94.6 % of those answered that the children were encouraged to suggest ways in
which materials and resources such as paper, water, and electricity may be con-
served and/or recycled in the setting and at home (item 5.2). This reveals that while
awareness of economic sustainability is highly recognized in these early childhood
settings, opportunities for young children to consciously participate in real eco-
nomic decision making in their real lives are limited. It is a common belief that
children are too young to be recognized as independent agents of economic activi-
ties. The recognition is deeply embedded in Korean society so that it is rarely
allowed for children to deal with or manage “money,” even though a national early
childhood education curriculum includes a goal to learn about the basic concepts of
money. The role of ECEC institutes is to teach basic concepts of economy and pro-
vide environments for children to learn concepts of exchanging money and goods
through play. There are limited real chances to participate in decision making to
purchase what children need, which is mostly left to the role of families.
In the environmental sustainability domain, the mean score was 3.30 (SD = 2.01,
Max = 7.00, min = 1.00). Due to the emphasis of “Green Growth” education in
Korean education policy, it appeared that children and teachers were well aware of
the importance of environmental issues. However, it is still necessary to pay more
attention to and develop awareness of local environmental issues in their daily lives.
A breakdown of participants by type of early childhood education and care insti-
tute shows that there were 7 public kindergartens (18.9 %), 18 private kindergartens
(48.6 %), 3 public childcare centers (8.1 %), and 9 private childcare centers (24.3 %)
examined (Table 6.2).
Table 6.3 shows means, standard deviation, minimum score, and maximum score
of each sub-domain of Environment for Sustainable Development in Early
Childhood, and Table 6.4 presents response ratio of each item of Environmental
Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood by sub-domain.
Table 6.2 Participants by Frequency

type of early childhood (percentage)
education and care institute
Type of institute N (%)
Public kindergarten 7 (18.9)
Private kindergarten 18 (48.6)
Public childcare center 3 (8.1)
Private childcare center 9 (24.3)
Total 37 (100.0)
Table 6.3 Means, standard deviation, minimum score, and maximum score
M (SD) Min Max
Social and cultural 1.81 (1.73) 1.00 7.00
Economic 3.11 (1.20) 1.00 5.00
Environmental 3.30 (2.01) 1.00 7.00
Table 6.4 Response ratio of items by sub-domain

Social and cultural Economic Environmental
Items Yes No Yes No Yes No
Inadequate 1.1 9 (24.3) 28 (75.7) 2 (5.4) 35 (94.6) 3 (8.1) 34 (91.9)
1.2 6 (16.2) 31 (83.8) 3 (8.1) 34 (91.9) 7 (18.9) 30 (81.1)
1.3 1 (2.7) 36 (97.3) 2 (5.4) 35 (94.6) 0 (0.0) 37 (100.0)
1.4 16 (43.2) 21 (56.8) – – 0 (0.0) 37 (100.0)
1.5 – – – – 0 (0.0) 37 (100.0)
Minimal 3.1 22 (59.5) 15 (40.5) 31 (83.8) 6 (16.2) 36 (97.3) 1 (2.7)
3.2 19 (51.4) 18 (48.6) 37 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 23 (62.2) 14 (37.8)
3.3 23 (62.2) 14 (37.8) 35 (94.6) 2 (5.4) 35 (94.6) 2 (5.4)
Good 5.1 32 (86.5) 5 (13.6) 7 (18.9) 30 (81.1) 31 (83.8) 6 (16.2)
5.2 22 (59.5) 15 (40.5) 35 (94.6) 2 (5.4) 21 (56.8) 16 (43.2)
5.3 33 (89.2) 4 (10.8) 15 (40.5) 22 (59.5) 15 (40.5) 22 (59.5)
5.4 – – 16 (43.2) 21 (56.8) – –
Excellence 7.1 35 (94.6) 2 (5.4) 10 (27.0) 27 (73.0) 19 (51.4) 18 (48.6)
7.2 19 (51.4) 18 (48.6) 18 (48.6) 19 (51.4) 23 (62.2) 14 (37.8)
7.3 14 (37.8) 23 (62.2) 13 (35.1) 24 (64.9) 31 (83.8) 6 (16.2)
7.4 35 (94.6) 2 (5.4) 15 (40.5) 20 (54.1) – –
7.5 21 (56.8) 16 (43.2) – – – –
The mean score for the social and cultural sustainability domain was 1.81
(SD = 1.73), which appeared the lowest score among the three domains. The mean
score of the economic sustainability domain was 3.11 (SD = 1.20), while the mean
score of the environmental sustainability domain was 3.30 (SD = 2.01), which
appeared the highest score among three domains. It is interesting to note that
whereas the maximum score of social and cultural sustainability and environmental
sustainability domains was 7.00, the maximum score of economic sustainability
domain was 5.00.
86 E. Park et al.
The response ratio of each item of Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable
Development in Early Childhood by sub-domain is as followed.
According to the response ratio of items in social and cultural sustainability, it
appeared that the proportion of those items that were rated at the inadequate and
minimal levels in social and cultural sustainability domain were low. For further
analysis it seems appropriate to examine items 1.4, 5.1, 5.3, 7.1, and 7.4 in this
domain. It appeared that 43.2 % of institutes participating in this pilot study
answered “yes” on item 1.4, which had a decisive effect on lowering the total score
on social and cultural sustainability. Considering that 86.5 % and 89.2 % of insti-
tutes were rated “good” on items 5.1 and 5.3 and 94.6 % of institutes were rated
“excellent” on items 7.1 and 7.4, it could be interpreted that awareness of funda-
mental concepts about social and cultural sustainability and providing related edu-
cational environments are insufficient but educational activities related to social and
cultural sustainability are actively performed in these classrooms. It seems that a
total score will be increased if an environment related to item 1.4 is improved.
According to response ratios of items in economic sustainability, it appeared that
most institutes responded that they met the requirement of items at inadequate and
minimal levels in this domain. Most of the early childhood education institutes that
participated in this pilot study reached minimal levels in economic sustainability
regarding the two items rated good; the lowest number of institutes answered “yes”
for item 5.1 and the highest number did answer yes on item 5.2, revealing unique
characteristics of Korean culture. That is, awareness of economic sustainability is
included in early childhood education in Korea; however, opportunities for young
children to consciously participate in real economic decision making and other
activities in their real lives are limited.
According to the response ratio of items in environmental sustainability, it
appeared that most institutes earned ratings at inadequate and minimal levels. The
proportion of those who were rated as good and excellent levels was much smaller,
but it was higher than those in economic sustainability domain.
6.5 Support System
6.5.1 Professional Development for ESD in ECEC
Ever since ESD in early childhood education was first introduced at an OMEP
Korea Committee seminar for teachers and parents in 2011, Korea has undertaken
various initiatives at various levels. OMEP Korea, The Korean Society for Early
Childhood Teacher Education and Korean Association for Learner-centered
Curriculum and Instruction, Seoul Gangnam District Office of Education, Ewha
Institute for Childhood Education and Care, Seoul Early Childhood Education and
Development Institute, and Study Group on Inquiry Area held education programs
for in-service teachers in the forms of seminars, conference, workshops, and
training in 2011 and 2012. These initiatives aimed to promote ESD within the early
childhood sector, to enhance early childhood educators’ knowledge and understand-
ing of ESD, and finally to promote active use of ESD practices in the classrooms.
Efforts to improve professional competencies of teachers on ESD knowledge
and understanding have also been pursued at the higher education level. The
Department of Early Childhood Education in Ewha Woman’s University3 created
graduate level courses on Early Childhood Education and Education for Sustainable
Development for graduate school students in 2012 and 2013. Through these courses,
students are able to acquire information about major theories of ESD as well as gain
insight into related research and policies in domestic and international spheres.
6.5.2 Research on ESD in ECEC
In Korea, research activities related to ESD have been centered on the Korea
National Committee for UNESCO. For primary and secondary education, much of
the ESD is focused on environmental education. Starting with research studies on
the implementation strategy for early childhood education for sustainable develop-
ment by Kwon in 2009, studies on ESD in Early Childhood Education in Korea
have gradually increased. Research analyzing early childhood national curriculum
for 0–5-year-olds (Shin and Park 2012; Yoo et al. 2013a, b) also reveals the extent
which Korean interpretation of ESD concepts has been integrated into the
curriculum.
One of the more specific research studies that investigated specific themes of
ESD is a study that analyzed sustainable development related to water conservation
practices in early childhood classroom and in teacher education programs (Ji et al.
2012). Another study deals with developing an early childhood model for coexis-
tence with sustainable development (Park and Kim 2012). Furthermore, perception
of ESD by early childhood teachers has also been explored (Jung 2010). There is
also an ongoing study that analyzes the current Korean educational policy and its
related ESD curriculum content (Yoo et al. 2013a, b).
Active integration and practice of ESD in early childhood education in Korea
began at various early childhood centers run by university research centers, includ-
ing Ewha Institute of Childhood Education and Care attached to Ewha Womans
University, Myongji Kindergarten attached to Myongji College, and Duksung
Kindergarten attached to Duksung Women’s University. The ESD projects and
related activities of these leading institutions were organized by OMEP Korea
Committee (Park 2011; Park et al. 2011; Park and Im 2011a, b) and presented at a
seminar titled “Natural Ecology and Human Ecology for Sustainable Development”
targeting teachers and parents. A project named ”Keeper of the Green Earth” at
Ewha Institute of Childhood Education and Care won the 2011 OMEP Award on
Learning for Sustainable Development with Young Children. Since then, a diverse
3
http://home.ewha.ac.kr/~eece2624/
88 E. Park et al.
array of topics related to ESD has become the subject of numerous research studies
and graduate dissertations (Lee 2013; Moon 2012; Park 2013).
Furthermore, Korea National Commission for UNESCO has been an active sup-
porter of ESD. It launched a certification project for institutes, including early child-
hood education and care institutes, named “Korean UNESCO ESD Official Project,”
and has supported a diverse range of activities related to ESD. In the first half of
2011, the project “Keeper of the Green Earth” of Ewha Institute of Childhood
Education and Care was selected and certified as the Korea UNESCO ESD Official
Project, followed by “Duksung Project: Saver of the Environment in Earth” of
Duksung Women’s University Kindergarten in the latter half of 2011. In 2012,
“Chungbuk Nature Loving Association of early childhood education” was honored
with the same certification.
6.6 Discussion
In Korea, overall governmental and public interest in ESD in early childhood educa-
tion has steadily risen in recent years. Although an overarching national curriculum
for Education for Sustainable Development has yet to be developed, case studies of
ESD such as preservice and in-service teacher education, prerequisite research, and
program feasibility studies have been conducted and are starting to surface. As evi-
denced by certification of three early childhood education institutes as Korean
UNESCO ESD Official Projects by the Korean National Commission for UNESCO,
the possibilities of ESD in early childhood education in Korea are gradually becom-
ing manifest. The recently published book Education for Sustainable Development
for Early Childhood Education which provides case studies of successful interna-
tional and domestic ESD will also serve as a practical hands-on guide for those
involved in ESD in early childhood education.
However, the fact that the most dynamic ESD activities and programs in early
childhood education in Korea are still limited to those early childhood education
institutes run by universities and colleges reveals that more effort is needed in order
to extend the scalability of such programs. In conclusion, through this review, the
need to establish a more streamlined early childhood curriculum that includes
reconstructing knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values related to the social and
cultural, environmental, and economic pillars of ESD has become apparent in order
to move onto the next stage of ESD in Korea.
Acknowledgments The authors of this chapter are sincerely grateful to teachers and directors of
37 kindergartens and childcare centers who participate in pilot study of building Environmental
Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood. In a process of collecting data from
those institutes, Yung-Eui Yoo (Soon Chun Hyang University), Won-kyung Sung (Woosong
University), Eun-Jung Kim (Jeju International University), and Gyoung-Suk Ahn (Howon
University) gave us great help. We deeply appreciate efforts of those professors for us. We spe-
cially thank the teachers and children of Ewha Institute of Childhood Education and Care, Ewha
Womans University, who share their cases and pictures related to ESD with us for inclusion in this
chapter.
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cations for the development of early childhood public education. The Journal of Korean
Education, 39(2), 55–78.
Park, E. J., Kim, N. Y., Lee, S. Y., & Cho, H. J. (2011, June). The project ‘Keeper of the Green
Earth. Paper presented at the seminar of OMEP Korea committee for teachers and parents:
Nature ecology and human ecology for sustainable development. Kyunggi-do, KR.
Shin, E. S., & Park, E. H. (2012). Reorienting the curriculum of early childhood education for
sustainable development: Contents and pedagogy for young children. Early Childhood
Education & Care, 71(1), 27–50.
Yoo, Y. E., Kim, E. J., Shin, E. S., & Park, E. H. (2013a). Analysis of the Korea educational policy
and current curriculum based on the education for sustainable development. Early Childhood
Education Research & Review, 17(3), 319–341.
Yoo, Y. E., Kim, E. J., Shin, E. S., & Park, E. H. (2013b). Content analysis of 0- to 1-year olds’
child care curriculum, 2-year-old child care curriculum and 3- to 5-year-olds’ NURI curricu-
lum based on the education for sustainable development. Early Childhood Education Research
& Review, 17(2), 171–195.
Chapter 7
in Norway
Marianne Presthus Heggen
7.1 Introduction
Norwegian kindergartens have a dual tradition from the early beginnings in the
eighteenth century which include caretaking practices and pedagogical practices
inspired by Friedrich Fröbel (Kunnskapsdepartementet 2008–2009). Today, they
offer a unified service in the Nordic tradition, including both care and education
(Broström 2006). They are the frame of everyday life of over 90 % of Norwegian
children (Statistics Norway 2012). Organised as a united service for all children
from 1 to 6 years old, the term kindergarten covers the pedagogical offerings for
early childhood education.
A child-centred pedagogy has generally been considered central in early child-
hood education in the Nordic countries (Wagner and Einarsdottir 2006), and it is
stated in the Norwegian framework that childhood is a phase of life with intrinsic
value (Ministry of Education and Research 2006). This affects the role of the kin-
dergartens, as children’s right to free play is pivotal, and the everyday life in the
kindergartens revolves around three themes: care, play and learning (Ministry of
Education and Research 2006).
A socio-pedagogical basis is hence prominent for the Norwegian kindergartens
where teachers support the individual development of children as opposed to the
‘school-preparing’ traditions in central parts of Europe (OECD 2006). However,
lately, the focus on learning in kindergartens has increased and thus become a con-
cern that these fundamental considerations for the individual child will be lost (e.g.
Moser and Pettersvold 2008). A recent study on science-based activities in a kinder-
garten shows that the teachers are unwilling to use the term ‘teaching’ when refer-
ring to their role in the children’s learning (Hammer 2012). Rather, they characterise
M.P. Heggen (*)

University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
e-mail: Marianne.Presthus.Heggen@hib.no

92 M.P. Heggen
their actions as supporting the children, with the purpose of developing ‘the good
childhood’.
These thoughts on children’s learning also affect education for sustainable devel-
opment (ESD) in Norway. Work with ecological sustainability in young children in
Norway has been based on a notion that we should let children learn to love nature
which will initiate an environmental connectedness. This is in line with the work of
Rachel Carson (1956), among others. Louise Chawla (2006) studied the motivation
of American and Norwegian environmentalists and found a relationship between
their current engagement and nature experiences as children and youths as well as
having had good role models. Beery (2013) connected Nordic ‘friluftsliv’, consist-
ing of elements of outdoor recreation, nature experience, philosophy and lifestyle,
directly with a development of environmental connectedness.
There is a strong emphasis on outdoor play and activities in the recent Norwegian
educational framework as noted by this quote ‘Outdoor play and activities are an
important part of child culture that must be retained, regardless of the geographic
and climatic conditions. Children should be influenced and inspired in their play by
local experiences’ (Ministry of Education and Research 2006, p. 16). Outdoor activ-
ities are hence important in all kindergartens. Many have an even more increased
focus on these, with special emphasis on outdoor, nature or farm activities. Their
content varies, so there are no statistics on their numbers, but these kindergartens
are becoming increasingly more common. Although their popularity is largely
based on a view that this is what’s best for the children, ecological sustainability and
environmental connectedness are often among the primary aims of these kindergar-
tens. The kindergarten act regulates the purpose of Norwegian kindergartens.
The Kindergarten shall, in collaboration and close understanding with the home, safeguard
the children’s need for care and play, and promote learning and formation as a basis for an
all-round development. The Kindergarten shall be based on fundamental values in the
Christian and humanist heritage and tradition, such as respect for human dignity and nature,
on intellectual freedom, charity, forgiveness, equality and solidarity, values that also appear
in different religions and beliefs and are rooted in human rights. (Barnehageloven (2005),
Section 3, Children’s right to participate)
These values correspond well with education for sustainable development; how-
ever, other aspects of the legislation are important for ESD as well, particularly
children’s right to participate: ‘Children in kindergartens shall have the right to
express their views on the day-to-day activities of the kindergarten. Children shall
regularly be given the opportunity to take active part in planning and assessing the
activities of the kindergarten. The children’s views shall be given due weight accord-
ing to their age and maturity’ (Barnehageloven (2005), Section 3, Children’s right to
participate).
Education for sustainable development is further elaborated in the national cur-
riculum which is considered the ‘Framework plan for the content and tasks of kin-
dergartens’ (Ministry of Education and Research 2006). This framework is divided
in two parts, the social mandate and the content of kindergartens. In the mandate,
sustainable development is only mentioned once as ‘An understanding of sustain-
7 Education for Sustainable Development in Norway 93
able development shall be promoted in everyday life’ (Ministry of Education and

Research 2006, p. 7). However, in the content part, a further elaboration is stated
under the theme Nature, Environment and Technology: ‘The aim is for children to
begin to understand the significance of sustainable development. This includes love
of nature, and an understanding of the interactions within nature and between
humans and nature’ (Ministry of Education and Research 2006, p. 24). This is quite
characteristic of the focus on sustainable development as environmental issues.
Other parts of the framework reflect social, cultural and economic aspects, but they
are not noted in the framework as issues of ESD.
7.2 Context of ECEC

and Learning for Change
Since 2009, all children in Norway received legal rights to attend publicly certified
kindergarten that offers all children a stimulating and challenging pedagogical envi-
ronment, regardless of age, gender, level of function or social and cultural back-
ground (Ministry of Education and Research 2006; Det Kongelige
Kunnskapsdepartement 2008). The inclusion of Samí, Norway’s indigenous people,
and other national and cultural minorities are particularly underlined (ibid.).
In 2012, over 90 % of Norwegian children were enrolled in kindergartens
(Statistics Norway 2012). A one-year full-paid maternity/paternity leave ensures
that few children start before the age of 1. There is a maximum limit to the fee struc-
ture, which covers 30 % of the costs of running the kindergarten; the rest is covered
by the government and municipalities. Many municipalities have additionally
reduced fees for children from low-income families.
However, access for all to a process of lifelong learning is also linked with learn-
ing for change, as they both are affected by the pedagogical values of kindergartens.
The framework plan for kindergartens in Norway explicitly focuses on supporting
children’s curiosity, thirst for knowledge and desire to learn as the basis for lifelong
learning (Ministry of Education and Research 2006). The focus should be on sup-
porting individual children to wonder, ask questions and increase their opportunities
for active participation in their peer group (Ministry of Education and Research
2006). To achieve this, the staff should encourage the children to express their
thoughts and opinions and acknowledge such actions. This process also functions as
a basis for children’s future participation in a democratic society.
94 M.P. Heggen
7.2.2 Gender
Central to the kindergarten is a respect for the values of individual children. Through
a focus on children’s participation and the formation of an inclusive community,
individuality is highly valued; there should be room for gender equality. However,
the kindergartens in Norway have traditionally been based on the role of women as
the caregiver, and although the number of men is increasing, the kindergarten staff
is still only approximately 10 % male (Statistics Norway 2012). The lack of male
role models in kindergarten is identified as one of the major challenges for reaching
gender equality and equity in Norwegian kindergartens (Barne- og familiedeparte-
mentet 2004).
7.2.3 ESD in Curriculum
As presented in the introduction, education for sustainable development is discussed

in the general part of the framework (Ministry of Education and Research 2006).
However, in the section on learning, the framework specifies five learning areas, and
sustainable development is mentioned in one of these – nature, environment and
technology. It states that the kindergartens should ‘promote an understanding of
sustainable development through words and actions, and select literature and activi-
ties that promote such an understanding’ (Ministry of Education and Research
2006). Implicit in this is the concept of education for sustainable development as a
pedagogical aim as well as a focus on how the kindergartens are organised. They
should themselves be sustainable.
Education for sustainable development underlies many other areas in the frame-
work, even where it is not mentioned specifically. Most importantly is within the
learning area local community and society, where the importance of children’s par-
ticipation is underlined: ‘Children’s participation in the internal life of kindergar-
tens may be their first step towards gaining an understanding and experience of
participation in a democratic society’ (Ministry of Education and Research 2006).
7.3 Practice
7.3.1 Sustainable Development in Practice
The ambitious curriculum on ESD is, however, not necessarily reflected on a daily
basis in Norwegian kindergartens. In the trial of the Environmental Rating Scale for
Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC), five kindergartens
were selected primarily to cover the variety of Norwegian kindergartens (Tables 7.1,
7.2 and 7.3). These kindergartens should reflect the variation of the time the chil-
dren spend outside, the local environment and focus on ESD. They are all situated
Table 7.1 The Norwegian kindergartens in the trial. The names are aliases for this trial. The
number of children in the group gives the number of children in the department of the kindergarten
in question. The age range of the children concerns the children in the investigated part of the
kindergarten
The The
The Manor Fields Valley The Fence Blue Skies
No. of children in the 26 15 15 15 13
group
No. of children in the 54 65 60 62 89
kindergarten
Age of the children in 1–6 3–6 3–6 3–6 4–6
the group
Staff, total (male) 15 (5) 16 16 (6) 13 (1) 17 (1)
Number of hours spent 4–8 4–6 3–4 3–4 8
outdoor daily
Environmental Eco- FEE None Eco- Eco-lighthouse
certifications lighthouse lighthouse
Table 7.2 The scores of the different kindergartens. The scores are divided by the themes (pillars)
of sustainability
The The The The
Manor Fields Valley Fence Blue Skies
Environmental sustainability 6 6 1 3 7
Economic sustainability 1 1 2 3 6
Social and cultural sustainability 4 7 4 4 4
Table 7.3 Summary table of the results from the tests

Social and
Environmental Economic cultural
sustainability sustainability sustainability
Comments on the scores +/− +/− +/−
they received, were they Better on pedagogy Too high emphasis on
accurate? than the way the point 1.2, economising,
kindergartens are run and 7.3 (family
projects)
Did the tool find and − − +/−
reveal the good Should better detect Should have more
practices of Norwegian regular nature emphasis on ‘true’
kindergartens? activities outside of values rather than
the premises monetary values
Did the tool find and + + +/−
reveal the poor practices Except, perhaps, the
of Norwegian overemphasis on 7.3
kindergartens?
96 M.P. Heggen
Fig. 7.1 Who lives here? A boy investigates a hole in the ground while he holds a rock he has
found earlier
in and around the town of Bergen on the western coast. Many of these kindergartens
either have or try to get an environmental certification (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2).
7.4.1 Participants
The names listed here are aliases given for this trial.
The Manor is based in an old villa close to the city centre, where they have tried
to keep many of the qualities of the original apartments in the house, providing a
homelike feeling and rhythm to the kindergarten day. The pedagogical focus is on
the ‘here and now’, and the interests of the children are the basis of their activities.
They are currently working towards a certification as an eco-lighthouse kindergar-
ten. The parents of the kindergarten are employed at the university, and many of the
children come from areas outside of Bergen or Norway, quite a few are bicultural
and bilingual.
The Fields was established in 2008, as the children attained legal rights to kinder-
garten. It is situated in a well-established residential area, the families are primarily
what the kindergarten teacher calls ‘upper middle class’ and all are of Norwegian
origin. The kindergarten is the only one in this study which is certified by FEE with
the green flag.
Fig. 7.2 Through touching, smelling and tasting the sea water, the distilled water, and the salt, the
children begin to learn about the natural water cycle
The Valley is owned by the parents. It is situated in a rural housing area, with a
farm closer than the nearest bus or store. They use the natural environment around
the kindergarten frequently.
The Fence is situated in a residential area close to the city centre. Of the 62 chil-
dren attending, 47 are from minority cultures. Eighteen different nationalities are
represented and the parent’s councils are translated into 6–7 languages. This affects
the pedagogical culture in the kindergarten, and an increased focus on cooperation
with the parents has become necessary since they find cultural differences problem-
atic in their execution of outdoor activities.
Blue Skies is the only kindergarten that is primarily based on outdoor activities in
natural areas. They travel to a farming area/forest where they have a lavvo 3 days a
week. Only 1 day a week is spent on the premises of the kindergarten, i.e. with some
hours indoors.
All the kindergartens were visited by the author. The first stage was an observa-
tion of the children, their environment and the equipment on the premises. This first
observation led to an initial score on the ERS-SDEC. The next stage was to inter-
view the pedagogical leader of this specific children’s group. Through this inter-
view, the scores from the initial observations were adjusted, and parts of the tool
that were not observable during the observation stage were scored. During the
interview, the kindergarten teachers were asked to read through a translated version
of the tool and give direct comments about its contents. After the visit, some addi-
tional information has been collected where necessary, primarily through emails.
98 M.P. Heggen
7.4.2 Social and Cultural Sustainability
A social and cultural focus is important in the framework plan, and charity and soli-
darity are underlined as cornerstones of our culture (Ministry of Education and
Research 2006). It is hence not surprising that the scores are relatively high in this
domain. Four of the kindergartens scored 4 and The Fields scored 7 on social and
cultural sustainability. The Fence and Blue Skies were restricted by not fulfilling
point 5.2: ‘Many books, pictures and displays show images of men and women that
do not conform to social and cultural stereotypes (gender, ethnic, tribal, racial,
etc.)’. However, this point fits poorly with the typical structure of Norwegian kin-
dergartens as they are normally furnished in a homey fashion. Some of the furniture
is child sized, but displays on the walls are primarily art reproductions or art decora-
tions the children have made themselves. There is also often only a selection of
books present for the children to choose among at any given time (although these
are regularly changed). Norwegian kindergarten teachers struggle to avoid a school-
like setting which might restrict the fulfilment of this item.
Another interesting aspect was raised during the discussions with the staff at The
Valley. Here, one of the teachers had a special focus on gender equality and had sur-
veyed the gender ratio in the children books. Although each book shows a reasonable
pattern of equality, 70 % of the characters in the books in the kindergarten were boys
or men (or ‘male’ animals, being described as he/him). This shows how difficult even
point 1.4 may be to fulfil and how hard it may be to discover this: this pattern is prob-
ably the same in the other settings, but it was only commented by one teacher.
7.4.3 Economic Sustainability
Based on Norwegian tradition, the ideal of equality and equity is strong, and a dis-
cussion of economic issues with the children is often considered to be problematic
as it draws attention to the differences of the economic situation of the children. It
was hence not surprising that the poorest scores in this tool were in economic sus-
tainability. Four kindergartens scored between 1 and 3. The two kindergartens that
scored 1 failed to fulfil 1.2: ‘The children are rarely or are never given the opportu-
nity to talk about money, saving and/or the need for economising’. The kindergarten
teacher of The Fields states directly that this should be covered by the parents and
that he did not find it natural to work with this in a kindergarten setting. Interestingly,
this kindergarten has the most homogenous group of parents in the study, and they
are probably the ones which are best off economically.
Several kindergartens drew attention to work they do to increase the focus on the
value of the things they already have rather than on attaining new (and more) things.
They focus on the utility value of the toys and discuss the consideration of resources
as expendable. It was suggested that the tool more often should emphasise utility
values, rather than economic values.
Blue Skies works with the true value of things by showing the children the
amount of work and consideration behind production processes. When the children
start in this part of the kindergarten, they make their own personalised treasure bag.
This is in use on all of their later hikes, as a place to collect small natural ‘treasures’
they find. These may be beautiful rocks, nice cones, nuts, small sticks, etc. Blue
Skies also have another, larger project, the last year before the children start school:
manufacturing their own sheath knives. The children start with choosing material
for the handle. This is based on previous experiences they have made on which tree
species may dry well without cracks. They cut the material in the forest and take it
with them back to the kindergarten to dry, after which the children cut the handle to
the right size (to fit their own hands), remove the bark and whittle it into the right
form. They then polish it to a nice and smooth finish, make the sheath out of leather,
burn their signature into the handle, connect the blade (the only piece of the knife
that is bought ready-made) and make their own fully functioning knife. It was sug-
gested that the section on economic sustainability would benefit from including
parts where the manufacturing of ‘real’ products like these is valued.
7.4.4 Environmental Sustainability
The scores on environmental sustainability seem to represent the observations in the

kindergartens. Blue Skies, with their outdoor activities and environmental aware-
ness, rated a top score of 7, while The Manor and The Fields scored 6. Since many
of the items on this subsection of the tool are related to getting to know and feeling
responsible for nature, it is natural that these kindergartens would achieve high
scores in this area.
The low score of The Valley reflects the low awareness of the staff to environ-
mental practices as waste recycling, although they are quite often outdoors in nature
with the children. The kindergarten teacher at The Valley found it hard to work on
environmental issues, as many of the staff did not share her environmental aware-
ness. The kindergarten teacher stated she was more aware of these issues after work-
ing through the ERS-SDEC.
As noted earlier, there are two eco-certifications for kindergartens in Norway,
FEE green flag and eco-lighthouse, reflecting different parts of sustainability. While
FEE is mainly concerned with the pedagogy of the kindergarten, eco-lighthouse
primarily focuses on the operation of the kindergartens. The ERS-SDEC aims to
reflect both these aspects. However, the FEE certified kindergarten scored higher
than the eco-lighthouse kindergarten.
There were some particularly good practices among these kindergartens. One of
these examples is The Manor. Although this kindergarten is situated in the city cen-
tre, it has its own forest playground close by at the base of a nearby mountain. The
classes normally use approximately 1 h to walk there from the kindergarten and
spend the rest of the day in the mountain forest. This place gives the children experi-
ence with nature, building, being outside and being able to cope without electricity,
100 M.P. Heggen
toilets and other modern conveniences. The peace and quiet these excursions pro-
vide to both children and adults allow the staff time to focus on the tasks and ideas
at hand, primarily determined by the children’s interest. They also find that the wide
expanses of outdoor activities in nature lead to fewer conflicts among the children,
the sound level decreases and the work environment for the adults improves (Vedum
et al. 2005; Langholm et al. 2011; Lundhaug and Neegaard 2013).
7.5 Support Systems
7.5.1 Professional Development to Strengthen ESD Across All

Sectors
Norwegian kindergarten teacher education consists of 3 years at university level.

According to regulations there must be one pedagogical leader (normally a trained
kindergarten teacher) per 7–9 children under the age of 3 and per 14–18 children
over the age of 3. However, these teachers represent only 30 % of the staff in the
kindergarten, so there is normally one adult per three children under 3 and one per
six children from 3 to 5 years. All kindergartens shall also have a head teacher who
is typically pedagogically trained in early childhood best practices. It is the respon-
sibility of the head teacher and the pedagogical leaders to plan, implement, assess
and develop the content of the kindergartens.
The framework additionally states that the staff shall be capable of learning to
face new requirements and underlines that in order to improve the quality of kinder-
garten, staff skills and competencies must constantly develop (Ministry of Education
and Research 2006).
7.5.2 Networks, Arenas and Partnerships
For kindergarten children, the most important partnership in their kindergarten

experience is their parents which is reflected in the framework. It is stated that par-
ents should be included in day-to-day events and activities as well as in coordinating
committees and parents’ councils (Ministry of Education and Research 2006).
Other networks and partnerships of the kindergarten may largely be divided in
two groups: public and non-governmental organisations and ownerships. Many kin-
dergartens use public offers as free cultural events, libraries, cheap public transport,
etc. In addition, many kindergartens are associated with the Norwegian Trekking
Association, providing access to cabins and outdoor activities in nature areas (see
http://english.turistforeningen.no/).
Half of Norwegian kindergartens are privately owned (Statistics Norway 2012),

and many of these are part of professional networks. Irrespective of ownership, all
kindergartens follow the framework.
7.6 Discussion
7.6.1 Conclusions
The most important finding in this trial is that the ERS-SDEC seems to reflect the
sustainability focus in the Norwegian kindergarten, as the general patterns of the
scores are consistent with the observations. It is interesting to note that economic
sustainability was the least apparent. The trial helped to clarify some of the details
in the tool, and it was clear that in the Norwegian trials, interviewing teachers about
the ERS-SDEC items allowed for better insight into items that were not immedi-
ately observable.
It is this researcher’s opinion that children’s right to participate should be more
prominent as it is important for training in democratic values. The ability to choose,
having your voice heard, and realising that your opinion matters are all points that
should be highlighted. From this, the children would learn first-hand how a democ-
racy works.
And finally, some of the kindergarten teachers found the tool sometimes hard to
understand, even when it was translated into Norwegian. Measures should be taken
to provide nonacademic language in the translations. The teachers were helped by
the provision of many examples, such as provided throughout this book. These
should also be included in later national translations.
References
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Chapter 8
in Portugal
Assunção Folque and Vitor Oliveira
8.1 Introduction
This chapter reports on the Portuguese trial of the Environmental Rating Scale for
Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC) which was carried out
in the context of the initial training of pre-school teachers at the University of Évora
during their practicum in local pre-schools. The context of this trial in initial teacher
education provides a particular focus on the professional development of the stu-
dents and the cooperating teachers provided by their engagement in a collaborative
action-research project that was focused on Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD).
After providing some Portuguese contextual elements related with ESD, we will
report on the trial of the scale in Évora and its results in terms of improving the qual-
ity of classroom practices and students’ and teachers’ professional development pro-
vided by their participation in the project. Finally we will share some reflections on
the project, the format and use of the scale and issues that we learned to be critical
in terms of ESD in early childhood.
A. Folque (*) • V. Oliveira

University of Évora, Évora, Portugal
e-mail: mafm@uevora.pt

104 A. Folque and V. Oliveira
8.2 Context of ECEC
The last 10 years have seen major educational developments in Portugal; however,
the country still has a poorly educated population. Portugal has one of the lowest
rates for upper-secondary education among 25–34-year-olds (52 % compared with
the OECD average of 82 %). The expenditure per student has increased since 2000
at all levels of education. Yet Portugal still spends less per student than the OECD
average (OECD 2013). In 2010, OECD countries spent an average of 6.3 % of their
GDP in education. Portugal spent 5.8 % of its GDP in education that year, up from
5.2 % in 2000. The economic crisis has severely affected Portugal, with a significant
impact on the resources available for education and other public services, and the
level of unemployment now stands at 17 % (Education at Glance 2013).
The educational system in Portugal starts officially at the age of 3 in non-
compulsory pre-schools that children attend from 3 to 6 years of age. The under
threes Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services, either crèches (usu-
ally associated with pre-school) or childminders, are the responsibility of the
Ministry of Solidarity and Social Security and are all privately run (either by non-
profit organisations or by for-profit ones). Pre-school children attend different types
of services: state pre-schools (51 %) usually integrated in a basic education school,
private state-funded pre-schools (30.9 %) usually with a crèche integrated and pri-
vate for-profit (17.9 %) pre-schools which can be integrated with either a crèche or
a basic education school. Compulsory education begins at age 6. In 2011, the pre-
school total enrolment rates were 85.6 % for 3–5-year-old children. The 3-year-olds’
enrolment rates were 73 %, where 52 % were boys and 48 % were girls.
8.2.2 Gender
As in most countries, in Portugal, the great majority of ECE staff members are
female. Only 5 % of pre-school (3–6) teachers are male (Conselho Nacional
Educação 2010). This number refers only to qualified teachers working with chil-
dren from 3 to 6 years old. While there are no official data on gender in relation to
other ECE employees, the rate of male staff members in ECE institutions is believed
to be dramatically lower.
In Portugal, equity in relation to gender is not yet considered a major concern
among most professionals. In 2009, the Comissão para a Igualdade de Género e
Cidadania – CIG – (Commission for Gender Equality and Citizenship), in partner-
ship with the Ministry of Education, started to produce four educational guidelines
(pre-school, primary school, 2nd and 3rd cycle of basic education) named Gender
and Citizenship, aiming to introduce gender issues into the educational system. The
educational guidelines for pre-school (Cardona 2013) have two parts: a theoretical
8 Education for Sustainable Development in Portugal 105
framework and practice guidelines. Teachers can use these guidelines autono-
mously, although the CIG, together with the universities, are developing a country-
wide training network.
8.2.3 ESD in Curriculum and Pedagogy
Education for Sustainable Development is explicitly present, all along the compul-
sory education continuum, in the natural and physical sciences’ domain. The con-
cept ‘To live better on Earth’, which implies the sustainability of the whole Earth
system, permeates the entire curriculum and may provide the foundations for any
initiative in the realm of pre-schooling education. According to the Curriculum
Guidelines for Basic Education, its definition is as follows:
“Live better on Earth” requires critical and reflective human intervention, aiming at a
sustainable development, taking into account the interaction of Science, Technology,
Society and Environment. This aim is based on social and ethical values and on scientific
knowledge about the dynamics of systemic relations featuring the natural world and the
influence of these relationships on individual and community health. (Ministério da
Educação 2001, pp. 133–134)
This definition emphasises human responsibility in upholding the balance of the

Earth system and proposes strategies based on science, technology, society, and
environment education (STSE education). This formulation shows, moreover, the
complex relationships between natural and social components of the environment
and their interaction with individual and community health, in its broadest sense.
The Portuguese Curricular Guidelines for pre-school (Ministério da Educação
1997, 2013) is the main curricular document, which all pre-school contexts (private
and state) must follow. This document is based on four assumptions: the interdepen-
dence of learning and development, the agency of the child in the learning process
which must take on board the children’s knowledge, the holistic view of learning
which requires a global and an integrated approach to knowledge areas and the
requirement to respond to every child with a differentiated and inclusive pedagogy.
Although we cannot find in that document any explicit reference relating to ESD,
there are many references to principles, aims and practices which are consistent
with ESD principles. For instance, the pedagogical aims as set out in the Pre-school
Education Law include: (a) promoting the child’s personal and social development
based on experiences of democratic life within a perspective of education for citi-
zenship; (b) fostering the child’s integration in different social groups, teaching
respect for different cultures and encouraging growing awareness of his/her role as
a member of society; …. (f) arousing curiosity and critical thought; (g) ensuring
each child’s welfare and safety, especially in terms of individual and collective
health; … and (i) encouraging family participation in the educational process and
establish real cooperation with the community.
The section of educational intervention starts by considering the teachers’ inter-
vention in the educational environment from a systemic and integrated (or
ecological) perspective. This perspective highlights the deep interrelationship of the

educational process with the environment with their constant and mutual influences.
From this perspective, we can draw three main direct links with ESD. First is that
children’s (or human) learning and development occurs integrated in a system of
interconnected authors, institutions, resources and relationships. This requires us to
think systemically and to intervene with a sense or network. The second link is in
the need to pay attention to particular contextual conditions where education (and
life) takes place and to think of our interventions with ‘the notion of best fit’
(Woodhead 1996), avoiding standardised solutions. Thirdly, it highlights the sense
of agency and empowerment of children and communities, which are influenced but
also transform the environmental conditions where development takes place at dif-
ferent levels (from micro to macro or from local to global).
The first aim of the Portuguese pre-school education (see above) places the focus
on developing the citizen and providing opportunities for learning to live in a demo-
cratic society which interconnects nicely with the ideas shared by authors who put
citizenship at the core of Education for Sustainable Development (Siraj-Blatchford
2009; Hägglund and Pramling-Samuelsson 2009). Folque (2008) identified some
fundamental abilities and dispositions critical to the democratic citizen: agency,
active participation and decision making, critical thinking and critical participation,
personal and social development and responsibility. When we reflect on the contexts
where such abilities and dispositions can flourish, we must look to the classroom
pedagogy. The increasing interest in classrooms as learning communities provides
a framework for discussing specific learning processes and classroom characteris-
tics such as inclusivity, an ethos of respect and support, shared responsibilities,
power and control, as well as dialogue, all important to ESD.
In Portugal, quality ECEC has been associated since 1998 with the project approach
either developed at the institution level or integrated into classroom practices (M. E.
1998). The project approach is an epistemic framework deeply associated with the
dispositions identified in the previous section. Children who participate in projects
in their classrooms display the disposition to face problems and to collectively pur-
sue solutions to them. In Portugal learning through projects is a practice require-
ment of most teacher training programmes, and this is the case for the students at
Évora University. They are asked to develop a project with children during their
practicum.
The Modern Education Movement (MEM) pedagogy, a very well-known
Portuguese pedagogy, is characterised by the use of projects as one of the main
learning strategies. The theoretical and philosophical foundations of the MEM
apply to all levels of education.
Two of the main aims that have been guiding this cultural pedagogic movement
are first, the exercise of cooperation and solidarity in a democratic community, which
challenges both adults and children to construct themselves as democratic citizens

by adopting democratic practices, and second, the cooperative reconstruction of cul-
ture. This implies a view of learning as a sociocultural process and a participatory
process where groups not only get access to the cultural knowledge of society but
also are active in reconstructing it in the dialogic process of meaning making.
Projects in MEM classes are of different kinds: solving an identified problem in
the community (intervention), getting to know about a particular topic or answering
a question (inquiry) or the concrete realisation of a wish (production) (Folque 2012).
The initial stimulation of such project work is often provided by visitors to the class-
room, parents, community representatives and special interest groups. The problems
that are tackled in the classrooms are real problems and not conjectured ones (as in
some educational programmes – i.e. philosophy for children or citizen education).
One of the characteristics of the MEM pedagogy is that instead of trying to
develop specific teaching techniques, it aims to incorporate in schools the process
by which knowledge is produced in real life. In this perspective teaching and learn-
ing processes should be based on the methods used by the scientific or cultural areas
throughout history. This is what in MEM is called epistemological analogy between
teaching-learning and sociocultural development (Science, Techniques, Arts and
everyday life) (Niza 1996). The MEM model rejects ‘didactic tricks’ and simula-
tions, which in Niza’s opinion reveals that schools are losing their social meaning
and are disrespecting students (Folque 1998).
Another feature of this pedagogical model is that the children have regular coun-
cil meetings where they plan and evaluate together and they share and discuss within
the group aspects of their lives (Folque and Siraj-Blatchford 2011) (see section on
solving problems together). These council meetings construct an ethos of commu-
nity where they jointly face the problems of their everyday life. It is in this respect
that MEM offers especially valuable model for the development of ESD practice.
In the Portuguese ESD project described below, three of the five students were in
classrooms where this pedagogy was implemented. We argue that it is of major
importance to consider the pedagogical background of the classroom in setting up
the classroom community where the attitudes and dispositions related to citizenship
are promoted daily.
8.3 Practice
8.3.1 Examples of Pre-school Practices for Sustainable

Development
In this section we will present some exemplars of the work developed in three pre-
schools by five teachers and students during their practicum. Despite the fact that
there is some interconnection between sustainability domains and some practices
from more than one domain (i.e. the vegetable garden can be related both to envi-
ronmental and to economic sustainability), we decided to organise the practice
exemplars according to the three domains or pillars associated with ESD.
8.3.2.1 Strengthening Community Interdependency and Common Use

of Resources
One important feature in ESD is the idea of building community in which a view of
an open school/classroom rather than an enclosed one is promoted. We can only
understand the sustainability of a subsystem in its relations with the other subsys-
tems. In this way we looked at the networking each institution was part of or built
with the local communities. Such networks provide the sharing of resources, social
connections and interdependence in problem solving.
The CAIE pre-school is a non-profit institution located at the centre of Évora. As
its premises and resources are not very large, they regularly use spaces and services
in the local community. During the student’s practicum, the children used local
parks for outdoor PE activities and used a sporting club’s swimming pool. They
visited the Évora Library for borrowing books, which would then be available in the
small classroom libraries. They were also assigned a patch of land by the municipal-
ity in order to grow their vegetable garden. Every week the children had to go and
take care of their vegetables. Sometimes, when for some reason the children could
not go enough times to water the vegetables, some families would volunteer to col-
laborate in doing so.
CIIL CA:
In this term we enhanced the contacts with the community either by going out or inviting
some members of the community to collaborate in our projects. Such contacts provided
sharing of cultural and social experiences and knowledge, as well as collaboration in each
other’s projects. Within the project “how does our body look inside?” we went to the School
of Nursing, to the Évora Library, to the Fitness Trail, to the butcher to buy a pig’s heart and
we received a visit from Dr. António, a dental hygienist (student’s practicum final report,
September 2013).
CIIL is frequently involved in campaigns to help in solving the problems of other

institutions or groups of people, involving the children and the families.
We develop with our children in the community intervention projects, such as a project to
help the Animals’ Corner (for abandoned animals), the fire-fighters of Évora, we collect
toys donated by local shops and gave them to Évora Hospital paediatric emergency and the
Vaccination Center, and collect school supplies and material to send to Mozambique
schools (CIIL teacher in the project meeting).
8.3.3 Knowledge of Different Cultures and Realities
Two students in the project (CAIE CI; EBIMFP IR) identified the children’s lack of
experiences of different cultures and the inadequate number of materials such as
books, pictures and displays including images that did not conform to social and
cultural stereotypes as a major weakness in the classroom. To overcome this prob-

lem, they developed projects that helped the children to know and discuss other
cultures.
EBIMFP IR:
on the 8th of March, Women’s Day, we were commenting on some images of women in dif-
ferent cultures who were undertaking different activities. When looking at some pictures of
Indian women the children spoke about their beauty but when they saw one woman whose
skin was darker some children expressed their dislike, “Uhh!” and Pedro (5 years,
11 months) said “I don’t like”. The teacher asked “But, why you don’t like?” he answered
“Because they are black and I am afraid of black people”. Another child questioned Pedro
“So, if a white person would enter our classroom with a pistol, would you also be afraid?”
and Pedro responded “No!” At that time the discussion was directed to people’s skin colour
and the group seemed to accept that this feature was not related to people’s behaviours or
“goodness”. This situation made me reflect about the reasons behind Pedro’s view and fear.
Perhaps Pedro had no previous contact with black people – you fear what you do not know;
or perhaps he had experienced in his family some suspicion about people from different
ethnic backgrounds…. (student’s field notes, March).
The student’s intervention after this event included: a project called ‘children
from around the world’ developed by two small groups of children, exploring the
world map and the globe, reading stories dealing with the issue of differences and
planning and presenting a puppet theatre (see Fig. 8.1) from one of the stories
‘Meninos de todas as cores (children of all colours)’ by Luísa Ducla Soares to the
school community. Other activities, such as board games with images of people
with different characteristics (‘who is who?’), contact with music from different
cultural origins, inclusion of images and books representing people from different
Fig. 8.1 Materials from ‘children from around the world’ project (puppets and globe)
cultures and undertaking nonstereotyped activities, helped to nurture the dialogues

within the whole group.
8.3.4 Discussing About Life Events, Community Issues

and Problems in the Classroom or in Our World
Despite Évora having a rather homogeneous cultural population in terms of ethnic

minorities, all the children and families are different and have different experiences.
This factor, when valued by the classroom community, has great potential for learn-
ing about differences and about other realities different from the ones each child
experiences in their family. As previously stated, in the classrooms using the MEM
pedagogical model, the children have daily and weekly council meetings where
they have particular times to talk about their lives outside the school (every morning
council meeting in the ‘I want to show, tell or write’ section) or to discuss problems
that arose in the classroom and registered in the classroom diary (every Friday coun-
cil meeting) (Folque and Siraj-Blatchford 2011). When children share their life
experiences in the morning, they become aware of shared experiences as well as of
different life conditions such as families’ configurations, activities, resources and
problems. In such conversations they express their views of the world, confront their
own experiences and points of view with others and jointly create meanings with the
teacher and peers (Folque 2012).
At the Friday council meeting, children read the classroom diary columns ‘we
didn’t like’ and ‘we liked’ where they have registered positive and negative events
during the week. Despite most problems starting off as a two-child conflict, the
group was always invited to participate in the discussions, help find a solution or an
agreement and act as a supporting community for the children involved. The group
also learns about the difficulties and challenges of living together; problems are
explored through different perspectives such as intentions, lack of resources, quality
of support, attention, effort, and raising issues of justice and responsibility, which
the children came to understand. They collaboratively construct the classroom rules,
find ways to overcome the problems and learn to trust the community.
These two routine times in the MEM classrooms, where the students and the
children identified some of the problems that gave rise to projects and other activi-
ties, helped children to think about social and cultural sustainability as well as other
ESD dimensions. ‘We set up the News’ board, where we displayed news from news-
papers or magazines and the registration of TV news which children often brought
to the classroom. We debated the issues in large group or in small groups, depending
on the children interests’ (student’s project report, June, CIIL CA).
8.3.5.1 Shopping and the Use of Money in Symbolic Play
Two of the students (CIIL CA; EBIMFP AA) introduced new materials in the area
of symbolic play in order to provoke conversations and symbolic activities that
involved shopping and the use of money.
We made pretend notes and coins and we borrowed a cash-register that was not being used
in another classroom and put it at the drama play area. The children suggested to price the
food and other items so that children could go and shopping. In order to do this, we observed
and discussed the prices from a supermarket leaflet and assigned prices to each of the
objects, tagging them (CIIL CA student’s project report).
Children were involved in conversations involving purchase decision making in

the nursery on some occasions: when they went to the local market to buy fruit or to
book fairs and had to decide how many books and which ones to buy with the
money available. It was common in these three pre-schools to see the children and
staff selling products produced by the children or collected with the contribution of
the families. Such sales were usually done with a purpose that the children under-
stood, and they were also involved in the decisions about what to buy with the
money raised. EBIMFP IR and AA produced materials to sell at ‘the inclusion fair’,
and they had to decide later what materials for their classroom they would buy with
that money.
8.3.6 Reflecting on Saving Resources and Recycling
The recycling practices undertaken in every school (see next section) provided the
groups frequent opportunities to talk about saving resources. Finding ways to save
water in the WC (while brushing their teeth or flushing the toilet) as well as electric-
ity by choosing the use of natural light against electric was part of everyday conver-
sations. It is evident that those basic practices, although important in terms of setting
up a culture of avoiding waste, could be too ambitious (i.e. using the rain water and
the solar energy).
A culture of responsibility in using the classroom materials was also fostered.
‘We appeal to the importance of using the materials with responsibility, always top-
ing the felt pens, saving paper leftovers, using the felt pen charges when they stop
drawing or writing in order to make watercolours’ (CIIL teacher in the project
meeting).
8.3.7 Supporting Families’ Economic Problems
The three institutions have different practices in supporting families with economic
problems, some of which are dependent on the status of the setting. While EBIMFP
is a state school and families do not pay any fee, both CAIE and CIIL are private
non-profit charities, and the children’s fees are set according to family income.
In recent years, with the economic crisis, CAIE and CIIL had some cases of
families who could not temporarily pay the fees, and they were able to accommo-
date these situations.
We had children attending the CIIL without paying and now we allow families a phased
payment of fees. What we also do is to review the fees constantly, adapting them to the real
needs of families. Some family members have small businesses (i.e. cakes, jewelry) which
we help to publicize with leaflets and offering a space in the school where they can sell the
products. We also promote families’ exchange of products (i.e. clothes, babies supplies) or
knowledge by setting up free workshops during lunch time or in the evenings (i.e. yoga,
traditional dance, origami) (CIIL teacher in the project meeting).
8.3.8.1 Recycling Resource Centres and the Use of Recycling Materials
In all the classrooms, children were involved in using recycled materials in their
everyday activities (i.e. art, displays, musical instruments, mathematics and science
materials, blocks for constructions area, material for the vegetable gardens). Both
CAIE and CIIL have a recycling resource centre where they collect and organise
many materials the families bring in order to be easily used. In this way they encour-
age families to adopt recycling practices.
Children were also involved in separating garbage in special containers and
developed a sense of environmental sustainability. In CAIE older children were
involved in environmental audit activities in the setting/classroom (e.g. using check-
lists). They collected objective information about the use of resources, recycling
practices, outdoor conditions and biodiversity, biological agriculture, etc. This
practice was encouraged by the eco-schools project and supported the children in
gaining conscience of the effective practices and needs for improvement.
8.3.9 Vegetable Gardens
Four of the five students were involved with their groups in developing (CIIL CA,
CIIL SV and EBIMFP AA) and one in taking care of (CAIE CI) the vegetable
gardens.
The educational project of CIIL included the aim of being self-sustaining in

terms of vegetables and herbs for school consumption. ‘We understand that through
an environmental approach the children come to discuss views, attitudes, experi-
ences and feelings, as well as undertake small inquiries acquiring knowledge and
skills that they can use throughout life, acting locally in preserving the environment,
and becoming more sensitive and conscientious’(CIIL educational project)
(Fig. 8.2).
Vera wrote in her field notes how she started to work with the children in the
vegetable garden:
“Today we had the visit of ‘Paulinhas das hortas’ (an expert hired through the employment
centre) to talk with us about the work that we could develop in the garden. Initially she told
us about the seeds/plants that can sow/plant this time of year, and how we should prepare
the soil to receive the seeds/plants. We went then to see the garden and start to plan what we
wanted to do”… two days later we spent the morning preparing the soil. Such contact with
the nature was very much appreciated by the children, they look very enthusiastic and
proud, as they know that they are contributing for the production, of fundamental ingredi-
ents for their own diet and for all the school community. (student field notes, March)
This was an example of a cooperative project where children contributed with

their own ideas (what to plant or sow, how to identify the vegetables and herbs using
recycled materials, how to develop a system that would keep germs, rodents and/or
Fig. 8.2 The CIIL vegetable garden

birds away from the vegetable garden) for a common purpose, interrelating the
social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability.
The children’s regular contact with natural environments appears to be exces-
sively dependant on the weather conditions. Although Portugal benefits from excel-
lent weather, the temperatures in the Alentejo may sometimes be very high, and
families tend to protect their children keeping them indoors. This is a major problem
in terms of health but also presents a challenge when we consider the opportunities
for learning about the natural phenomena, for developing a positive relationship
with natural environments and for consequently developing caring attitudes towards
the nature.
8.4.1 Evaluation Results Using ERS-SDEC
The process of evaluating pre-school contexts with the Environmental Rating Scale
for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC) was a rich and for-
mative process which was highly valued by the teachers and students involved. The
goal to provide objective quantitative results for each dimension turned out to be
much more complicated. The first problem was the lack of training for the use of the
tool by the students and the teachers. As we were using the project in a formative
manner, supported by the university staff, we worked with the students throughout
the project in order to improve their ability to evaluate with objectivity. In this sense
we were not able to use the first evaluation as a base line in order to compare it with
a final evaluation. What we want to stress from this first evaluation process was the
valuable opportunity that it provided the students and teachers to understand each
other’s views and to develop specific dialogues with a focus on ESD. It was from
these dialogues that specific target areas for development were negotiated. The deci-
sions about which areas the students would work to promote features of ESD and
the practices they implemented during their practicum were based not only on the
identification of the weaker areas in the first evaluation but also on the students and
teachers’ considerations about the feasibility and opportunity for particular changes
(see next section).
In this first evaluation, there were some items where there was no agreement
between the teachers and the students’ ratings. These disagreements were mainly
due to the students’ lack of knowledge about some institutional practices, relying
only on what they had seen during the first part of their practicum. The ERS-SDEC
ratings tended to take on board past practices, while the outside observers tended to
rate only what was evident when the observations were undertaken. Because of the
aims of our project, we were not too concerned about this problem, but we were
aware of the need to clearly define the rules for evaluation.
Table 8.1 Scores applying the rating criteria for each setting in the three ESD dimensions
CIIL CIIL CAIE AEMFP
SV CA CI IR AEMFP AA
Scale level – number of yes/total of items
Social and cultural sustainability 3 2 4 2 4
Economic sustainability 2 2 2 2 2
Environmental sustainability 2 2 2 2 1
Another difficulty in rating each of the ESD dimensions was due to the structure
of the scale. We found that the numbering created some difficulties in maintaining
focus, as there was no consistent progression in the different components of each
domain, something that was afforded by the numbering (i.e. 1.7 indicator could be
related with a different focus from 1.1 or 1.3). This factor also impacted on another
problem: The teachers and students felt it difficult to apply the instructions given for
rating the settings in the three domains. In several evaluations, students and teachers
evaluated some indicators at level 3 and other indicators at level 5 and 7 within the
same domain. For instance, in the domain of environmental sustainability at CIIL
SV, despite meeting 2 out of 3 items at level 5 (good) and also 2 out of 3 items at
level 7 (excellent), because they met only 3 out of 4 at level 3, they would have to
score at a level 2 in this domain (inadequate and minimal levels) (see Table 8.1).
This was the main criticism highlighted by the researchers, teachers and the stu-
dents, which made it difficult to evaluate (quantitatively) and appropriately attribute
a specific level to a particular domain.
For the reasons presented, we decided to reveal the settings’ results by identify-
ing how many indicators were present at each level of the scale (see Table 8.2).
Reference is not made to level 1 as none of the settings presented indications of
level 1 (inadequate practice).
8.4.2 Methodology
The research methodology was action-research focused on the professional devel-

opment and quality development of ESD contexts for children between 3 and
6 years of age. Following an initial phase of development, the ERS-SDEC was
translated into Portuguese and presented to five pre-school teachers for analysis and
comment. An interview with the teachers in each pre-school provided some addi-
tional critical material and suggestions for improvement that were discussed and
incorporated at the process of ‘fine-tuning’ the research instrument among research-
ers from ten countries, in November 2012 at Gothenburg University. After the final
version of the scale (included in the Appendix) was drafted and translated, students
and teachers started to use it systematically during the student’s practicum. Early in
March 2013, the students and the teachers carried out, independently, the first
assessment with the ERS-SDEC in each classroom. One of the university teachers
Table 8.2 Final evaluation of the ESD quality for each setting in the three ESD dimensions
CIIL CAIE
CIIL SV CA CI EBIMFP IR EBIMFP AA
Scale level – number of yes/total of items
Social and cultural sustainability 3 3/3 3 2/3 3 3/3 3 2/3 3 3/3
5 1/4 5 3/4 5 2/4 5 2/4 5 2/3
7 1/4 7 1/4 7 2/4 7 4/4 7 2/3
Economic sustainability 3 3/4 3 3/4 3 2/4 3 2/4 3 3/4
5 2/5 5 2/5 5 1/5 5 2/5 5 2/5
7 3/4 7 3/4 7 3/4 7 0/4 7 0/4
Environmental sustainability 3 3/4 3 3/4 3 2/4 3 3/4 3 1/4
5 2/3 5 1/3 5 2/3 5 1/3 5 2/3
7 2/3 7 1/3 7 2/3 7 1/3 7 1/3
involved in the project who was also the practicum supervisor for the students
served as a consultant. The teachers and students met after the first evaluation to
analyse the data, to reflect about the issues raised by the diagnostic and to plan the
students’ interventions in the areas that were considered weak and in need of imme-
diate intervention.
A final evaluation was carried out at the end of the students’ practicum (end of
May).
The students met together with the two university staff members three times dur-
ing the project for support in understanding the scale and its use and for sharing
ideas and collaborative regulation of the project. The data included both the stu-
dents’ field notes and written reflections, comments by the cooperating pre-school
teachers as well as the university practicum supervisor and students’ plans, photo-
graphs of activities and products.
8.4.3 Évora Environment and the Three Portuguese

Pre-school Settings
Évora is a southern city in Portugal with 70,000 inhabitants. Évora town centre is a
UNESCO World Heritage city with monuments going back to megalithic and
Roman origins and is surrounded by a rich Mediterranean well-preserved ecosys-
tem. These characteristics allow for easy proximity and communication between its
inhabitants, as well as a frequent close contact with the natural and social/cultural
environment. The Évora population is not very diverse in terms of ethnic origins. As
in many cities of Portugal, particularly southern cities, Évora faces economic chal-
lenges. It is in this rather balanced environment that cultural, social, economic and
environmental sustainability has to be understood.
Centro Infantil Irene Lisboa (CIIL) This charity is a state-funded pre-school and
crèche-providing education and care for 130 children from 0 to 6 years old. It was
started after the 1974 revolution by the Women’s Democratic Movement (MDM) in
order to provide care for children whose parents worked. The democratic ethos of
the setting is still very present in its collegial and participative management, in the
families’ participation and in the main pedagogies adopted by the teachers: either
the Modern School Movement (Folque 2012; Folque and Siraj-Blatchford 2011) or
work inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach. CIIL is located at the heart of Évora’s
historical centre. It is open from 7:30 am to 7 pm. Since 2012 this institution has
strengthened its relationships with the community in several areas (social, cultural)
and is investing in environmental and economical sustainability through a recycling
centre and a vegetable garden aiming to reduce the need to buy these products for
meals. The pre-school premises were adapted from a traditional house with several
patios, and the staff makes the most out of these conditions, transforming and revit-
alising every space.
Centro de Actividade Infantil de Évora (CAIE) This charity is a private state-funded

crèche, pre-school and after-school day care providing education and care services
for 120 children. It is open from 8 am to 7 pm. This setting was launched in 1987 by
a group of five pre-school teachers, after they finalised their training, who wanted to
create their jobs and a particular professional project. The spirit of entrepreneurship
of the staff is still very present in the way they face problems and seek solutions to
them. As CIIL, CAIE is also located at the heart of Évora’s historical centre and is
characterised by a constant contact with the community. CAIE has been a member
of the eco-schools since 2005. Because of its minute outdoor spaces (two small
patios), children use the local parks on a regular base. Teachers in CAIE use the
High-Scope Curriculum in combination with the Portuguese Curricular Guidelines.
Escola Básica Integrada Manuel Ferreira Patrício (EBIMFP) This pre-school is

integrated in a state school cluster that opened in 2004 and is part of a basic educa-
tion school with a total of 586 children from 3 to 15 years of age, 76 of whom are in
the pre-school. It is open from 8 am to 6 pm. The school population is very diverse
both in cultural and economic terms. Twenty-five percent of the pre-school children
benefit from school social services – SASE. It serves 94 children with special edu-
cation needs (eight in pre-school), mostly integrated in regular classrooms and some
in special units (i.e. deaf children, severe spectrum of autism and children with
multiple disabilities). The school cluster educational project emphasises a focus on
learning and success for all, respecting different learning styles, inclusion and
respect for differences, active and participatory citizenship and collaboration. The
school benefits from new and purpose-built premises with spacious classrooms and
polyvalent spaces as well as a large playground with some materials but which lacks
trees and shade.
8.5 Results
The results of the Portuguese project will be presented in terms of the three focus
areas: First, we will present a brief summary of the quality evaluation at the five
classroom sections using the ERS-SDEC scale; secondly we will present a reflexive
analysis of some of the most significant practices developed in the five contexts in
Évora; finally we will account for the students and the cooperating teachers’ views
of their professional development provided by their participation in the action-
research project (registered in students’ field notes or e-mails and notes from
meetings).
8.5.1 The ERS-SDEC for Quality Improvement in ESD

in Portugal
The general views of the ERS-SDEC scale were very positive in terms of its poten-
tial for the development of good practices in the three dimensions of ESD. Despite
some critical comments in terms of the difficulties in evaluating coherently the dif-
ferent features, all students and teachers were able to develop some interventions.
The scale was also considered adequate for the Portuguese ECE context, showing
no contradictions with legislation or quality ECE concepts in Portugal.
As one of the aims of this project was to develop an instrument that could be used
by practitioners, researchers and policy makers, we want to share our critical com-
ments on the scale, based on our experience and the students’ and the practitioners’
points of view.
As mentioned earlier, the scale structure and the numbering system of the
descriptors posed some difficulties for teachers and students. We would recommend
that in future revisions of the scale, the numbering system be reorganised so that
there is a clear identification of the different components of each domain, as well as
a clear progression in the level of quality (when appropriate). If we look at other
similar scales such as ITERS or ECERS, we found that each domain has explicit
components written at the left side of the scale, which help to focus the specific
assessment.
Another problem that we faced was trying to attribute a score to one specific
level using the instructions provided. As can be observed in the results presented
above, almost every dimension in every classroom had indicators at level 3, 5 and 7.
This was not a problem to our use of the instrument as our main aim was to help
students and practitioners improve and develop good practices in terms of sustain-
ability. In this respect the instrument proved to be very rich and gave rise to many
reflections and learning which then translated into enriched practices. With no doubt
the instrument promoted the adoption of a wider understanding of ESD with great
potential for questioning and inquiry by the teachers. In our view though, the com-
plexity of this systemic concept deserves to be promoted rather than simplified. We
are aware of the contradictions that this idea might raise when we want to produce
an easy and ‘efficient’ tool that can be used both in comparative research and in
practice development by practitioners. The way in which we might overcome this
problem would be to develop a guide to quality reflection and improvement in ESD
organised in different foci areas where a set of questions could support the reflexive
process; this document could also be complemented by examples of good practices
from different contexts.
One of the issues that we stressed in the Learning for Change section was the
importance of considering the pedagogical context of the classroom in promoting
ESD, particularly in terms of learning dispositions and attitudes. The ERS-SDEC
scale values particular pedagogical features such as opening the classroom life to
the community life, listening to children and involving them in decision making and
using the project approach to face problems and a dialogical pedagogy, all impor-
tant processes in promoting ESD.
8.6 Support System
8.6.1 Education for Sustainable Development in Childhood

During Initial Pre-school Teachers’ Training
at the University of Évora
The Portuguese project was developed in the context of the initial pre-school teach-
ers’ training at the University of Évora during the academic year of 2012/2013.
Besides the main aims of the global project, namely, the trial of the ERS-SDEC
scale, the work developed in Évora had two main objectives:
• To develop the inquiry professional dimension of the teachers, based in pro-
cesses of analysis, reflection and intervention supported by valid instruments
• To promote practice development and innovations in the area of education for
sustainable development
The participants involved five students during their practicum in the final year of
masters in pre-school and their cooperating teachers from three pre-schools in Évora
and two university teachers. As members of the faculty deeply involved in initial
teacher training, we decided to work with three ECE institutions that are collaborat-
ing closely with the University of Évora for two main reasons: First, these institutions
are recognised as high quality and had already developed some work in the area of
ESD. Two of these schools (CAIE and EBIMFP) are also part of the International
Eco-schools Programme (Foundation for Environmental Education). As the trial of
the ESD scale was one of the aims of the international project, we thought that we
could benefit from experienced and thoughtful professionals in this collaborative
project. Second, as one of our main concerns at the university is to be involved in
teacher training, we viewed this project as an opportunity to provide a focus for col-
laborative action-research with the students and the cooperating schools, enhancing
the quality of the training.
8.6.2 Students and Pre-school Teachers’ Professional

Development
One of the aims of the research project was formative in aiming to involve both
teachers and students at their final year of the pre-school masters. At the first set of
meetings with the pre-school teachers, it was clear that they envisaged this project
and particularly the ERS-SDEC scale as an opportunity for professional develop-
ment and for practising innovations. As we have already mentioned, these teachers
and pre-schools were already providing good quality learning, and some already
had a particular focus on sustainable development, either by explicitly including it
as one of the main areas of their educational project (CIIL and CAIE) or through the
school integration in the eco-schools project (CAIE and EBIMFP). When reflecting
about the scale, all the teachers mentioned that it helped them to elaborate their
concept of ESD, which until then was mainly associated with environmental sus-
tainability. In terms of the economic and the cultural and social sustainability
dimensions, the use of the scale helped the teachers to become conscious of some
practices in areas that they had not associated with ESD. At the same time, it gave
them a clear picture of the areas in need for development. It is important to note the
fact that these meetings with the teachers were also of great value to the researchers
to further understand many of the quality practices that could be implemented in
pre-schools. The teachers’ experiences and reflections contributed greatly to the
process of enriching and improving the scale that occurred at the international level
throughout this project.
From the students’ point of view, participation in the project was a positive for-
mative experience. They considered the most critical feature of the project to be
working on a research team supported by the university staff with a clear focus for
practice development. In addition, the instrument helped them to analyse and make
decisions for improvement. Despite their difficulties in deciding how to rate some
of the sustainability dimensions, as the process developed and the discussions
occurred, they showed an increasing ability to critically analyse the instrument and
their practices, developing research skills and becoming reflective professionals:
Since it’s not just me that is participating in this project, over the meetings between me, my
colleagues and our teachers (Assunção Folque and Vitor Oliveira), I progressively became
more and more aware of what is ESD and how this Scale can help us to develop our ESD
practices in our institutions after a careful analysis of the three dimensions: Cultural and
Social, Economic and Environmental Sustainability. (student’s project report, June, CAIE
SI)
I believe that the use of ERS-SDEC scale was an asset, as it supported and sustained my
educational actions. At the same time it helped to provide the conditions for children’s
learning and acquiring skills related with environmental and economic sustainable devel-
opment. (student’s field notes April, CIIL SV)
The analysis of ERS-SDEC scale allowed me to become more conscious of some fundamen-
tal aspects that are already in place and/or need to be developed in the classroom or at the
institution, in particular as regards the cultural and social, economic and environmental
sustainability. (student’s field notes May EBIMFP – IR)
When evaluating all these items I had the opportunity to reflect on the classroom space and
materials and I had the perception of the various forms that exist to contribute to the enrich-
ment of these, particularly strengthening the cultural and social sustainability as well as the
economic with the introduction of the grocery store. (student’s field notes May
EBIMFP – AA)
Thinking deeply, now that I find myself in an analysis and reflection posture, it is important
to note that teachers play a key role in this field; if we have in our hands the challenge of
education for citizenship through the development and promotion of good habits and values
acquisition, it becomes primordial and essential to develop educational projects in this
area, contributing to sustainability and to the acquisition of new ways of acting and think-
ing in and about the world around us. Following these points, I assume here the contract to
pursue these values throughout the Supervised Teaching Practice, planning and reflecting
in this area together with the group of children and the staff team. (student’s field notes
April, CIIL CA)
8.7 Discussion
8.7.1 ESD in Early Childhood Education
This international project, including countries from many continents, was an ambi-
tious project as cultural diversity posed many challenges to the aim of developing an
instrument that could be used in such different contexts. It was not always easy to
point out what should be considered good practice in different contexts and particu-
larly how to identify the level of quality where such practices belong. We know that
quality is a contextually bound concept and that what fits one reality might not fit
another. In this respect several illustrations of this difficulty were identified through-
out the project either in Portugal or in other countries. Further thinking and exchange
of research are needed to further our ideas.
We want to stress, however, that it was the fact that this project was developed by
researchers, teachers and children from different continents and cultural back-
grounds that ensured that our thinking about ESD expanded from a contextual one
towards one that takes a more global perspective. What could be considered sustain-
able practices in one country (for instance, a rich country or one with good natural
resources) may not be considered sustainable practices if we take on board those
resources which are global and therefore interconnected. When considering ESD in
ECE, we also had to deal with differences in terms of children’s cultures and how
children are expected to participate in society. We are convinced that the interna-
tional exchange of such views and concepts, as well as the sharing of possible prac-
tices developed in the countries that participated in this project, provided a much
deeper and sustained view about how ESD may be developed from an early age.
References
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Folque, M. A. (1998). The influence of Vygotsky in Movimento da Escola Moderna early child-
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Folque, M. A. (2008). Learning to live in a democratic society. (Unpublished report).
Folque, M. A. (2012). O aprender a aprender no Pré-escolar: o modelo pedagógico do Movimento
da Escola Moderna [Learning to learn in pre-school: The modern school movement peda-
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www.eco-schools.org/
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pre-school classrooms applying the Movimento da Escola Moderna (MEM) pedagogy.
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tainable development and citizenship. International Journal of Early Childhood, 41(2), 49–63.
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[Curricular guidelines for pre-school education]. Lisboa: DEB-GEDEPE.
Ministério da Educação. (1998). Qualidade e Projeto na Educação Pré-escolar [Quality and proj-
ect in pre-school education]. Lisboa: DEB-GEDEPE.
Ministério da Educação. (2001). Currículo Nacional do Ensino Básico [National curriculum for
basic education]. Lisboa: M.E.
Ministério da Educação. (2013). Orientações Curriculares para a Educação Pré-escolar. Lisboa:
Ministério da Educação.
Niza, S. (1996). O modelo curricular de educação pré-escolar da Escola Moderna Portuguesa [The
Portuguese Modern School pre-school curricular model]. In J. Oliveira-Formosinho (Ed.),
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for young disadvantaged children. Hague: Bernard van Leer Foundation.
Chapter 9
Development in Sweden
Anne Kultti, Jonna Larsson, Eva Ärlemalm-Hagsér,

and Ingrid Pramling-Samuelsson
9.1 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the promotion of education for sustainability devel-
opment (ESD) in the context of Swedish preschools. Our primary aim has been to
contribute towards developing and refining the instrument, OMEP Environmental
Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC),1
through experiences in the Swedish preschool context. The ERS-SDEC has been
taken as a starting point in our observations and discussions with teachers in the
Swedish preschool settings, and this study provides a contribution to knowledge
about the current work with ESD in this context. We have found that the strength of
the rating scale has been to provide a formative evaluation tool to assist research and
to measure and improve the quality of ESD in Swedish preschools. We found that
the discussions between practitioners and researchers that were mediated by the tool
were a very important part of how the tool should and could be used. Furthermore,
our analysis suggests that the major challenges for teachers concern developing (i)
transformative whole institution approaches and (ii) the interconnectedness of eco-
logical, social and economic sustainability. A final conclusion on the basis of the
Swedish case is that there is a long way to go before ESD is an aspect of each and
every preschool practice.
1
http://www.worldomep.org/en/esd-scale-for-teachers/
A. Kultti (*) • J. Larsson • E. Ärlemalm-Hagsér • I. Pramling-Samuelsson
University of Goteborg, Gothenburg, Sweden
e-mail: anne.kultti@ped.gu.se

124 A. Kultti et al.
9.1.1 A Brief Reflection on ESD in Swedish Preschools
Education for sustainable development (ESD) integrates environmental, social and

economic education to secure the well-being of the natural world in general and of
humanity, in particular, in the present as well as for the future. In the context of
Swedish preschools,2 democratic values and principles along with children’s rights
and relationship with nature are strongly emphasised. This idea has its historical
roots in the Enlightenment and in the seventeenth and eighteenth century thinking
of a free and modern human being, as well as in the public movements of the nine-
teenth and twentieth centuries, which demanded justice, equality and education for
all. Together with Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Friedrich Froebel’s philosophy of
education and child rearing and the notion of nature as a source for human develop-
ment (Halldén 2009; Fröbel 1995/1863), it has provided foundations for Swedish
early education. The Rousseauian heritage of self-governance and autonomy and
the Froebelian notion of a child-centred pedagogy based on real experiences and the
organisation of work in themes are still apparent in Swedish preschools today.
Another influence has been Ellen Key’s (1900), as formulated in terms of The
Century of the Child. Dahlbeck and Tallberg Broman (2011) describe the develop-
ment of Swedish preschool as an institution with the aim of social change, shaping
a better society and future. Such notions have formed preschool philosophy, cur-
riculum and pedagogy in relation to contemporary practice about sustainability
issues (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013a). During the twenty-first century, the view of chil-
dren and childhood has led to a widely accepted understanding of the child as an
individual with his or her own rights. This can be illustrated by the competent child
(Sommer 2006) as a metaphor for a child who is able to express himself or herself
and who creates meaning and values during their early years.
A significant aspect of the preschool is also its strong emphasis on public health
and recreation, strongly linked to nature and nature experiences (Sandell and Sörlin
2000). The economic dimension that was fundamental to establishing Swedish pre-
school in the middle of the twentieth century is not as visible as the social and
environmental dimension in contemporary practice. However, low economical
resources and an idea about creativity have evoked a culture of reusing materials for
aesthetic activities and have encouraged the use of the outdoor environments for
teaching children about the cycle of growth. Many similar topics are worked on in
preschool today, such as where the milk comes from and how bread is made.
2
In Sweden, the term preschool covers early childhood education for children between the ages 1
and 5.
9 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in Sweden 125
9.2 Context of ECEC
9.2.1 Access to a Process of Lifelong Learning
Preschool in Sweden is for children from the age of 1 to 5 years, but the term ‘pre-
school class’ is used to describe the education setting for 6-year-olds. Since the
1970s, Swedish preschools have expanded provisions to cover all children, and chil-
dren’s rights are a priority. The majority of young children (83 %) attend preschool,
with the number attending increasing by age (National Agency for Education 2012).
The Ministry of Education and Science is responsible for the education system
from preschool to university, and the education system is goal oriented with a high
degree of local government responsibility. The curriculum provides guidelines that
give direction to the work of the preschool (National Agency for Education 2011),
in such a way that the goal to strive for is emphasised rather than to the goal to
achieve. Swedish preschool education is unique in its combination of learning and
play, education, care and fostering fundamental values such as gender equality and
equity. Individual freedom and integrity, the equal value of people, equity between
genders and solidarity are values to be promoted in everyday learning. These edu-
cational principles are built into care and education with learning and development
going hand in hand. Children are described as individuals with competence – active
children with experiences, interests, knowledge and skills. This is stated as the start-
ing point for everyday activities in preschool. There are two staff categories in
Swedish preschools: preschool teachers with a university degree and preschool
attendants with a high school degree. The majority of the employees in Swedish
preschools are female.
9.2.2 Gender Issues in the Curriculum
The Swedish national curriculum states that:

The preschool should counteract traditional gender patterns and gender roles. Girls and
boys in the preschool should have the same opportunities to develop and explore their abili-
ties and interests without having limitations imposed by stereotyped gender roles (National
Agency for Education 2011 p. 4)
However, striving for gender equity in Swedish preschool is not unproblematic

as there is still a dominant discourse about boys and girls being fundamentally dif-
ferent from each other and, as such, having different needs (Hellman 2010; Hellman
and Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2011; Ärlemalm-Hagsér and Pramling-Samuelsson 2009).
9.2.3 Education for Sustainability in the Curriculum
Each and every person working in the preschool should promote respect for the intrinsic
value of each person as well as respect for our shared environment (National Agency for
Education 2011, p. 3).
In the national curriculum, education for sustainability as a concept is not spe-

cifically mentioned. Nevertheless, the curriculum states that preschool should put
great emphasis on issues concerning the child’s well-being, development and learn-
ing, democracy, citizenship, equality between genders and solidarity with the weak
and vulnerable. The preschool curriculum also stresses the need for an ecological
approach, nature conservation and outdoor play in natural environments. Further, it
contributes to ensuring that children develop a positive belief and hope in the future.
The curriculum also highlights the importance of children acquiring a caring atti-
tude towards nature and the environment and developing an understanding of their
role in nature’s recycling process.
According to the national curriculum (National Agency for Education 2011), each
child’s curiosity, initiative and interests should be encouraged in the activities in
preschool, and their will and desire to learn should be stimulated. Children are
viewed as co-constructors of experience in a child-oriented practice. The task of
preschool involves not only developing the child’s ability and creativity but also
passing on a cultural heritage, national values, traditions and history, language and
knowledge, from one generation to the next. The starting point for preschool is the
experience children have gained, their interests, their motivation and their drive to
acquire knowledge or a disposition for learning. Children search for knowledge and
develop it through play, social interaction, exploration and creativity, as well as
through observation, discussion and reflection. A theme-oriented approach can
broaden and enrich the child’s learning, and the curriculum states that the influence
of the child should shape the learning environment.
9.2.5 Education for Sustainability: A Research Overview
The discussion about early childhood education in relation to ESD was prioritised
on Swedish research agenda through the work of OMEP, beginning with a work-
shop in 2007, and later published by UNESCO under the title of The Role of Early
Childhood Education for a Sustainable Society (Pramling-Samuelsson and Kaga
2008). This workshop was one of four run by the University of Gothenburg, which
then resulted in The Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable
Development (Ottosson and Samuelsson 2008) where the need for ESD to begin in
early childhood education was first identified. Swedish OMEP has been working
since then together with many preschools in various international initiatives where
children have been involved in action projects about sustainability and in intergen-
erational dialogues about sustainability (see www.omep.org.gu.se).
While Swedish preschools have had a long tradition of addressing sustainability
issues (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013a; Dahlbeck and Tallberg Broman 2011), the research
field of early childhood education for sustainability is relatively new. Nevertheless,
some vibrant discussions within Swedish early childhood educational research cir-
cles are emerging. These discussions focus on the relevance of sustainability as a
research topic, on its relevance as content for preschool-aged children (Hägglund
2011; Hägglund and Pramling-Samuelsson 2009; Johansson 2009) and on norma-
tive and ethical dilemmas within the political project of sustainability and children
as ‘messenger’ for social and economic transformation (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013a;
Dahlbeck 2012; Dahlbeck and Tallberg Broman 2011). There is also some empiri-
cal research focusing on educational practices in relation to education for sustain-
ability (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2012; Ärlemalm-Hagsér and Sandberg 2011). Firstly, the
research literature has established that activities related to sustainability are impor-
tant parts of the preschool practice. Secondly, children are acknowledged as compe-
tent with rights to participate and influence everyday practice in relation to a
sustainable future. Thirdly, there is a strong democratic foundation in the practical
work which addresses fundamental values, such as respecting children’s views, sup-
porting positive social relations, gender equality and cultural diversity. Fourthly, the
practice is closely connected with ideas about the educational potential of children’s
encounters with nature. Finally, the importance of taking responsibility for the sur-
rounding environment through the sustainable management of materials and
resources (recycle and reuse) and nature protection has been established. However,
in preschool practice, there remain unreflected and taken-for-granted assumptions
in relation to learning objectives, children’s participation and agency and children’s
relationship to nature. At the same time, Swedish preschools provide strong founda-
tions of children’s competence and right to participate, and they provide a signifi-
cant transformative opportunity for education for sustainability to occur
(Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013a).
9.3 Practice
9.3.1 Sustainability in Practice
Sweden has a relatively long history of national policies and strategies in relation to
sustainability issues. The Swedish Parliament stresses that all policy decisions must
take account of the longer-term economic, social and environmental implications
(SOU 2004, p. 104). For example, families as well as preschools and schools are
often obligated to separate biodegradable items from combustible items, and munic-
ipalities provide recycle stations in neighbourhoods to support the recycling of
paper, glass and metal. According to policy, the education system, from preschool
to university, should take an active role to ensure that sustainability becomes a per-
spective that permeates all levels of education. The work of sustainability takes
different forms. For example, on the municipal level, decisions about ecological
sustainability can include constructional aspects when planning for new preschool
buildings. There are several examples of buildings being built with techniques that
ensure they will consume low amounts of energy by using thick insulated walls and
solar panels. Water conservation is secured by low-consuming taps. On the pre-
school level, children and teachers reuse paper (e.g. cardboard boxes, wrapping
paper, caps and strings) and materials from nature (pine cones, sticks, leaves and
stones) during play and aesthetic activities.
Outdoor play is another aspect of the curriculum. Planting and caring for the
local environment are important. It becomes visible by the number of municipali-
ties, preschools and schools engaged in, for example, ‘garbage pickup days’ (www.
skrapplockardagarna.se) where children and the local community take extended
responsibility for cleaning up the surrounding neighbourhood. The heritage of valu-
ing outdoor experiences is firmly rooted in the culture. A non-governmental organ-
isation, ‘Friluftsfrämjandet’, provides opportunities for people to experience nature
and to learn more about outdoor activities. They have arranged learning activities
for children based on play since 1950 under the name of ‘Skogsmulle’ (‘A forest
troll’) (www.friluftsframjandet.se). Similar activities can be found in, for example,
Finland and Germany.
This cultural interest for nature and environmental education in the Swedish pre-
school can also be seen in the Green Flag movement. There are approximately 1500
preschools that are certified with the Green Flag award for environmental education.
This accreditation is part of the international eco-school movement and the
Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) and is supported by the Keep
Sweden Tidy Foundation. Another award, the ‘Diploma of Excellence in Sustainable
Development’, is credited by the National Agency for Education. This award
focuses on social and economic awareness alongside environmental issues. In
Spring 2012, there were 206 preschools certified with the ‘Diploma of Excellence
in Sustainable Development’ (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013a). The tendency in pre-
schools is towards collaboration with science centres. As an example, in Gothenburg
such collaboration has extended arenas for learning about science and different eco-
systems, animals and plants for young children.
When focusing on sustainable cultural and social aspects, some preschools are
working with equity and equality, offering children opportunities to think and reflect
on questions related to their local community (Pramling-Samuelsson 2011). In such
settings, children participate in projects concerned with sustainability issues, using
children’s ideas and thoughts in developing understanding about how sustainability
issues are handled in the community (Ärlemalm-Hagsér and Pramling-Samuelsson
2013). In one ongoing action research project (Engdahl et al. 2013), ESD is imple-
mented together with the children, and information is collected in the process to
further understand young children’s ideas and actions within ESD. Six of the pre-
schools described their different projects in connection to education for sustainable
development. Three of the preschools were working with the fundamental values of
equity and democracy. Two were doing projects with a focus on garbage manage-
ment and the reuse of materials. One preschool deconstructed their outdoor area to
create meeting places and creativity. These six preschool projects have shown that
early childhood education for sustainability (ECEfS) can be understood and han-
dled in many different ways.3
Being in nature, as well as learning about nature and nature protection (in the
environmental education tradition), is still an important part of early educational
activities, in accordance with the outdoor tradition (Sandell and Öhman 2012).
Children spend about 1.5–3 h each day outdoors on the preschool playground and
go to parks and other nature areas in the neighbourhood on a weekly basis. In the
last decades, the causality between outdoor encounters and environmental friendly
behaviour has been supported. As Elliott (2010) puts it: ‘There is no single experi-
ence in nature that creates a sustainability frame of mind, but many over time, cru-
cially beginning in early childhood’ (p. 69). However, the opportunities for children’s
learning and agency for sustainability can be enhanced (Ärlemalm-Hagsér 2013b;
Pramling-Samuelsson 2011). Preschool must take on the task of adopting an eco-
logical approach to education and take nature conservation and outdoor play seri-
ously. In addition we must acknowledge children’s thoughts, ideas and initiatives to
create opportunities for shared critical thinking about important sustainability
issues.
9.3.2 Preschool Teacher Education
Preschool teacher education in Sweden takes place in universities and colleges.

Swedish teacher education, including preschool teacher education, was reformed in
2011. Today, preschool teacher education is 3.5 years and results in a bachelor’s
degree with the option for another half year to earn a master’s degree.
Sustainability is a key factor in teacher education. The integration of education
for sustainability is inscribed in the Higher Education Act [5§]. Teacher training
programmes have the task of ensuring that the students gain knowledge about edu-
cation for sustainable development. Such knowledge is provided across the different
modules as a ‘cross module feature’, where different aspects of sustainability are
highlighted depending on the central focus of the module. For example, in one mod-
ule social and cultural aspects are central, in another, ecological or economic aspects
are emphasised, and the three pillars of sustainability (Brundtland 1987) are dis-
cussed from a holistic perspective. Along with sustainability, human rights and gen-
der issues are also integrated (www.gu.se). Within the Gothenburg preschool teacher
3
This project was part of an OMEP (Organisation Mondiale pour l´Èducation Prescolare) project
on education for sustainability with preschool children (Engdahl et al. 2013).
programme, ESD is further elaborated in an optional module for those aiming

towards a master’s degree.
9.4 ESD Rating Scale
9.4.1 The Swedish ERS-SDEC Case Study
In this section we will describe the background for the Swedish case study. The
ERS-SDEC tool has been tested in five preschool settings [A–E] located in two cit-
ies in Sweden. Three of the settings [A, B and E] were located in a neighbourhood
with a multi-ethnical population and a large number of immigrants. Two of the set-
tings [C and D] were situated in neighbourhoods where the majority of the popula-
tion is native Swedes. In all settings visited, both teachers and leaders expressed an
interest in education for sustainability. Two of the preschool settings [D, E] had
worked with this issue for a long time. However, three of the settings [A, B and C]
just started the process. All participating preschools are surrounded by nature with
the preschool yard as well as parks and woods close by (Table 9.1).
Table 9.1 Overview of the preschool settings

Preschool
setting Unit Group of children Amount of time working with ESD issues
Setting A Unit 1 One group of Just started the work with ESD by applying for
4-year-olds; 19 membership in the Green Flag network
children
Unit 2 One group of Just started the work with ESD by applying for
5-year-olds; 23 membership in the Green Flag network
children
Setting B Unit 3 One group of Just started the work with ESD and collaborates
3–5-year-olds; 22 with a science centre
children
Setting C Unit 4 One group of Focus on social sustainability. Highlights
1–2-year-olds; 15 equality and gender issues
children
Unit 5 One group of Focus on social sustainability. Highlights
5-year-olds; 23 equality and gender issues
children
Setting D Unit The preschool has 3 Focus on the importance of play and learning.
6–9 units; 58 children Highlights the integration between a child-
aged 1–6 oriented practice and creative material
Setting E Unit The preschool has 6 In hold of a diploma of excellence regarding
10–16 units; 107 children environmental and sustainability issues
aged 1–6
9.4.2 A Multistep Process
The case study was conducted in several steps. First, the ERS-SDEC was translated
into Swedish and edited by the four researchers. The second step was the selection
of settings (preschools/units). Five settings were selected due to their ongoing work
with issues related to ESD. Some of the settings had been working with ESD for a
long time, and others had just started this work. The next step was the classroom
visits and observations. Two or three of the researchers visited the settings (2–3 h/
each). During the visits researchers documented the environment through photo-
graphs and discussed these with the staff in order to interpret them according to
pillars of ESD. The fifth and last step included evaluation of the findings which were
processed in the research group.
9.4.3 Findings
In this section we describe the findings of the evaluations of the five preschool set-
tings as documented with the instrument we used and the discussions we had with
the teachers. As Table 9.2 illustrates, the extent and quality of acting for sustain-
ability vary amongst the preschools observed. Issues concerning cultural sustain-
ability had the largest gap between the groups, from it being integrated throughout
the classroom to it being invisible. Issues concerning economic sustainability had
the lowest rating for all groups.
The overall ratings of social and cultural sustainability most widely varied between
the preschool units. The unit found to reflect the highest level had, amongst other
things, a large number of books in several different languages. The environment
displayed notes in different languages, as Tigrigna, Urdu and Turkish, in order to
make it possible to learn words in languages known by the children. There were
carpets, showing images of children from different countries, making it possible to
discuss, amongst other things, ethnic diversity and geography. Photographs and
Table 9.2 Variation in the key characters in the observed settings

Variation in the settings (min/
Key characters max score 1/7)
Social and cultural sustainability 2–7
Economic sustainability 3–4
Environmental sustainability 3–6
magazines showed different cultural ceremonies. The room also provided the
observers with information about the teachers’ explicit goals for language and cul-
tural support and the strong emphasis on supporting children to develop multiple
linguistic and cultural identities. The library provided books displaying cultural
diversity. Mother tongue teachers were supporting the children, for example,
through extended participation in thematic work.
Economic sustainability gained the lowest range of marks, only varying from 3 to 4
amongst the settings. The observers identified reuse and recycling activities and
signs supporting the process of conserving water and electricity in several of the
preschools. However, whether the reason for this was economic or environmental
was unclear. Furthermore, several play corners invited children to play shopkeepers
and provided cashiers and items functioning as money as means of payment as well
as items to purchase.
The preschools showed differing awareness of the environmental issues, ranging

from 3 to 6, that underline a sustainable way of living. Different themes were evi-
dent, such as working with water, both in terms of different phases from a natural
science perspective and living conditions in the oceans. This made it possible to
discuss the life of sharks and other fish and provided children with opportunities to
gain ethical knowledge and learn about the role of organic chains and the interde-
pendence between the different species. Several of the settings were enrolled in
different programmes providing support for environmental issues, such as Green
Flag. Outdoor play provided opportunities for gardening and observing ants, but-
terflies and birds. In addition, books providing information about the species and
sustainability issues were available.
9.4.7 The Use of the ERS-SDEC
An interesting thing to highlight is the discussion between the researchers and the
preschool teachers on the nature of our observations and use of the tool. Firstly, the
discussion was important in that it contributed to and supported our interpretation of
the observations and our understanding of what it might mean to work for ESD in
preschool in contemporary society. Secondly, the discussion was important for
teachers to visualise ESD in their own work, regardless of the progress. The
importance of these discussions of working towards ESD is characterised by the

following themes: accounting for the wholeness of the work, shifting the focus from
attitudes to actions and expanding attitudes and actions.
9.5 Discussion
9.5.1 Accounting for the Wholeness of the Work
The analyses of the discussions between the preschool teachers and researchers
indicate that accounting for the wholeness of the work for ESD in preschool should
not be taken for granted. For example, one of the preschools that took part in this
evaluation had been engaged in a water project for a long time. They had been build-
ing bridges over a small creek, playing with and using water in different ways.
During this project, parents were involved by providing their own memories and
experiences of water and by writing stories to the children in their mother tongue.
The narratives were displayed on the wall next to the photo documentation of the
project. During the discussion between teachers and researchers, the teachers
emphasised the importance of taking advantage of the parents’ experiences of water,
as this thematic work did. While the dimensions of environmental sustainability
were emphasised in the project, social and cultural sustainability were less devel-
oped. There were no pictures displayed, and no explicit oral references were made
towards economic sustainability in this particular water project. In another pre-
school, the work with ESD had been more recently initiated. The discussion between
the researchers and the teacher was an important tool for acknowledging the teach-
ers’ ongoing work but also supported them in reflecting upon the meaning of ESD,
especially how the different aspects of social and cultural, economic and environ-
mental sustainability can and should be included in the ongoing theme work. The
questions we posed to the teachers offered possibilities to reflect on the activities.
Questions about any encouragements made for children in order to be active and
represent their own and others’ efforts to solve environmental issues (environmental
sustainability item Sect. 7.2) led to the teachers explaining what had happened when
the children had discovered litter in the preschool environment. The following
excerpt gives an idea of how the teachers were reflecting on their work:
There were a lot of empty cans that littered the ground and the kids didn’t like how the yard
looked. They decided to pick up the cans and take them back to the shop for money. After a
while they had got quite a lot of money. Then a question of what would they do with the
money was raised. This lead to the sharing of different thoughts and ideas between the
children. Eventually they decided to vote. A proposal to buy a fish tank ‘won’.
The group visited a pet store and looked at the various options and the cost of them.
They counted their money to see if it was enough for the aquarium. But they wanted fish too.
Questions of if they should buy one thing at a time or all at once were raised. They then
discussed that fish that needed food to be able to live – more money was needed – they had
to decide what to do then?
When the teachers described this process to us, it became clear to them how dif-
ferent components contributed to the work on sustainability. For example, the chil-
dren learned about protecting their local environment when they decided not to litter
and to recycle. They also learned that fish would need food to survive and they
would have to provide it. There were social aspects as well, for example, democracy
(they decided to vote and to make a joint project). Additionally, there were eco-
nomic aspects such as understanding the value of money, saving for something and
thinking about lifestyle questions. The teachers told us that they gained new insights
about what it can mean to work with ESD and how they could now take further
steps, based on the children’s involvement and motivation, to develop opportunities
for sustainability activities.
9.5.2 Shifting the Focus from Attitudes to Action
In one preschool, aspects of ESD appeared through the attitude expressed by one of
the teachers. She said that ESD could be approached by focusing on critical think-
ing about reuse, composting, recycling, what is ‘good’ for generations to come and
caring for each other. The following excerpt illustrates this:
We recycle materials. Now that we’re moving [to another building], we will be careful to
reuse the materials. We have painted jigsaw pieces over several weeks. We have discs on the
wall. We also have a sea of paper, full of fishes. Gingerbread forms are hanging from the
ceiling. There are new ideas all the time. We sort out rubbish, of course. Composting is,
however, a little so - so. But it is all about developing critical thinking. Nothing is impos-
sible that does not cause harm to future generations. My opinion is that we should take care
of each other, and the coming generation.
It became obvious through the discussion and follow-up questions that prior to
using the ERS-SDEC tool, the ESD approach was not clear when it came to making
choices and taking action. For example, when we talked about planning purchases
for the upcoming move to a new preschool building, the relevance of ESD remained
somewhat unclear for the children and possibly for the teachers. Discussions based
on the ERS-SDEC tool allowed the relationship between attitudes and action to
educate for sustainability more visible.
9.5.3 Expanding Attitudes and Actions
A discussion in one of the preschools indicated that the work for ESD was actually
well thought out. There was a holistic approach in terms of content through the
units. This preschool setting displayed the teachers’ aspirations with their work in a
way that the researchers could clearly interpret the teachers’ intentions and actions
as well as the children’s agency in the ongoing work. The thematic work about
water was evident regardless of the children’s ages. The setting had an extended
environmental review that handled aspects such as chemicals used in the building
and what environmental effects these chemicals could have. Most of the products
were eco-labelled. Furthermore, reduction of noise, purchases of goods, social
responsibility and rational use of energy were evident in the document as well as in
the environment and aspects visible throughout the setting, such as signs reminding
to turn the light off when leaving the room, and explicit and present goals for devel-
oping children’s languages. The preschool provided an extended environmental
report. They also had a cultural strategy, comprising of aspects that children should
have access to during different periods. Local historical places were mentioned as
important places to visit and taking part of exhibitions and setting up their own
plays at the centre of the town. During the discussion, the teachers used examples
from practice that highlighted the holistic approach of their work. Examples con-
firmed the observations conducted by the researchers. ‘Our preschool’ and ‘our
children’ seemed to relate to the preschool as a whole including the units and the
children. However, the tool and the questions asked seemed also to support the
teachers. They often concluded that ‘it had been possible to do’ and ‘yes, we actu-
ally would have had really good opportunity for doing that’.
To summarise, the challenges for teachers concern developing (i) transformative
whole institution approaches and (ii) the interconnectedness of ecological, social
and economic sustainability. These challenges can be met if the everyday activities
in preschool are discussed and problem-solved. Therefore, the discussion between
practitioners and researchers mediated by the tool is a very important part of how
the tool should and could be used.
9.6 Conclusions
As a measuring tool, the strength of the OMEP Environmental Rating Scale for
Sustainable Development in Early Childhood is to provide a formative evaluation to
assist research and to measure and improve the quality of ESD in preschools. The
key characters of social and cultural, economic and environmental sustainability are
relevant for the preschool curriculum, and the majority of the items are relevant and
possible to use within the context. However, we identified some limitations in rela-
tion both to the construction of the tool and to the tool in relation to the preschool
context. We felt that there was a need to develop a more sensitive measuring tool to
cover the age range (of 1–5 years), including all the children attending preschool in
Sweden. Another limitation in the construction of the tool relates to the progression
within the rating scale. A more elaborate tool would identify progression more
clearly. There are also structural differences in governmental frameworks that com-
plicate the ratings. For example, the economic dimensions, acknowledging financial
support in making it possible for low-income families to gain access to the facilities,
are legislated by the Swedish government and therefore not culturally appropriate.
Admittedly, it can be a challenge to design a common international tool to work
with and develop ESD, due to cultural and contextual differences, such as
conditions for preschool, but we also see the benefits of such a common instrument.
Where criteria are included that are not relevant to the particular context, as in this
case, it has the advantage of providing more global knowledge of the learning con-
ditions for sustainable development and also identifies what is taken for granted. For
example, a tool with its familiar and unfamiliar aspects/criteria requires discussion
amongst the (team of) teachers in preschool, with management and/or with a third
party such as an external evaluator. It is in such discussions that aspects that are
taken for granted can be made visible and reflected upon from an ‘outside’ perspec-
tive. Although there are today several preschools in Sweden that work on topics
related to sustainability as an integration of economy, nature and social/cultural
aspects, there is a long way to go before it is an aspect of each and every preschool
practice.
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Chapter 10
in Turkey
Gelengül Haktanır, Tülin Güler, and Deniz Kahriman Öztürk
10.1 Context of ECEC
10.1.1 Education for Sustainability in Turkey
The initiatives began with the 1961 Turkish Constitutional concerns to protect
nature and take action toward a healthy life. The concept of environment was first
mentioned in this constitution in article 49, everyone’s physical and mental health
should be protected. On the other hand, it wasn’t until after the 1982 Turkish
Constitution that the concept of environment was introduced into the formal school
curriculum as a result of an emerging environmental awareness (Doğan 2007).
During the 1990s, some national projects were initiated which stressed education
for the environment in primary school. In 1994, the Seventh and Eighth Five-Year
Development Plan Environment Commission focused on educating future citizens
to prevent environmental problems by developing a consideration of environmental
issues. As far as Education for Sustainable Development, as understood here, there
has been no significant progress with regard to curriculum development in the three
integrated dimensions or “pillars” of sustainability. Efforts have been limited to the
environmental dimension; indeed, the contexts of economy, social life, and their
contributions to environmental protection have been neglected. When the report of
the Ninth Five-Year Development Plan was published, official government policy
documents began to show some influence by the 1987 Brundtland Report. At that
G. Haktanır (*)
Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: ghaktanir@ankara.edu.tr
T. Güler • D.K. Öztürk
Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

140 G. Haktanır et al.
point some stakeholders, including educators, made a shift to change their percep-
tions from environmental problems and environmental education to sustainable
development and education for sustainable development. Despite this initiation,
sustainable development as a whole with the three integrated pillars has not been
integrated into any level of formal or informal education. In the recent past, attempts
have been limited to the environmental dimension, but there remains neglect of
social-cultural and economic issues. Early learning for sustainable development has
a long way to go, but Turkey understands its importance.
In Turkey, the historical development of early childhood education (ECE) started

with the first kindergarten which was founded in 1915. The importance of ECE was
acknowledged at a national level in 1961 with a new education law. A General
Directorate for Early Childhood Education (GDECE) was founded in 1992 to
implement early childhood education programs to meet the growing interest in
ECE. The GDECE is responsible for editing, supervising, and conducting ECE ser-
vices (Aktan 2005). The ECE services are provided by a variety of institutions such
as the Ministry of National Education (MoNE), universities, and foundations (MEB
2012a). Although both public and private preschools differ in terms of organiza-
tional and administrative issues, education programs are designed with the guidance
of National Curriculum of Preschool Education.
Increasing awareness about ECE has resulted in the implementation of different
ECE approaches and projects in Turkey. Home-based ECE, institution-based ECE,
and mobile preschools are good examples of different ECE approaches. In addition,
UNICEF, Mother-Child Education Foundation, and OMEP Turkey have had a sig-
nificant role in strengthening ECE in Turkey with various projects. As a result of all
these developments, school attendance in ECE has significantly increased as
revealed in Table 10.1 and Fig. 10.1.
Table 10.1 Schooling rate in early childhood education between 2010–2011 and 2012–2013 in
Turkey (ERG 2013)
2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013
36–48 months 4.2 % 5.7 % 7.3 %
48–60 months 19.3 % 22.3 % 35.6 %
60–72 months 66.9 % 65.7 % 74.0 %
10 Education for Sustainable Development in Turkey 141
Fig. 10.1 Number of children and schooling rates according to years (1996–1997 and 2012–2013)
(ERG 2013)
10.1.3 Gender
As in many countries, Turkey has a very low number of male teachers employed in
ECE. The latest numbers say that in the ECE sector (for 3–6-year-olds), there are
59,313 female teachers and 3,620 male teachers out of 62,933 (MoNE 2013). Low
pay, low social status, and scrutiny are the main reasons why there are very few
male teachers in Turkish ECE settings. Current increases in wages and efforts to
educate society regarding the advantages of having male teachers in early childhood
settings may motivate men to enter the field and help retain the ones already in the
profession. In this sense, the numbers of male ECE teachers are expected to increase
in Turkey (Yılmaz and Güler 2007; Yılmaz and Şahin 2010).
10.1.4 ESD in Curriculum
The MoNE Early Childhood Education Curriculum (2012) has been developed for
36–72-month-old children and is based on a holistic approach. It includes achieve-
ments and indicators for each developmental domain (motor, cognitive, language,
socio-emotional, and self-care). Achievements and indicators related to the socio-
emotional domain include dimensions relevant to sustainable development, for
example, “vindicate own and others rights,” “respect differences,” “accept different
cultural characteristics,” “be responsible to his/her environment,” “obey the rules in

different settings,” “care for works of art,” “problem solve,” and “associate cause
and effect relationships.” Most of these relate to the socio-cultural pillar of sustain-
able development. Indicators like “preserve aesthetic values” and “observe living
and nonliving things” can be related to the environmental pillar of sustainable
development. Indicators such as “take precautions for one’s health” and “prevent
accidents and dangerous situations” can be considered examples of the economical
pillar of sustainability. Educational activities are planned around these indicators.
Similarly, special days and week-long projects provide opportunities for teachers to
plan activities around the three dimensions of sustainable development. To illus-
trate, schools hold “Saving Animal Day,” “Human Rights and Democracy Week,”
“Conserving Energy Week,” “Forest Week,” and “Saving the Environment Week.”
In addition, the curriculum encourages family participation which, in turn, contrib-
utes significantly to the educational success of these events (MEB 2012a).
Sustainable development issues should be integrated into developmentally appro-

priate early childhood education programs, and it should be rooted in children’s
daily life and play. Additionally, sustainability should be a part of children’s home
learning and involve parents, grandparents, neighbors, and teachers. It can’t be
understated how crucial the preschool teachers’ role is, however. They are respon-
sible for ensuring that children are involved and actively participate in daily routines
about sustainable development (UNESCO 2006c). They must consider the chil-
dren’s interests and needs and take into account their readiness about issues of sus-
tainability. That said, families should share in this responsibility with teachers.
Indeed, parents are the first educators, and their role in shaping young children’s
attitudes, values, behaviors, habits, and skills is unquestionable as the influence of
the family is greater when the children are younger (Haktanır 2010; MEB 2012a, b).
Learning for sustainability can therefore be effectively undertaken by parents, and
parent involvement in education for sustainable development should be a part of an
integrated curriculum (UNESCO 2006a, b). For example, in “TEMA Kids
Educational Program” which is developed by OMEP Turkey and TEMA (the
Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion, for Reforestation and the Protection
of Natural Habitats), there are 42 indoor and outdoor activities mostly concerned
with the environmental dimension of sustainability. Each activity has suggestions
for family involvement. For example, families are guided to make observations at
their home with their children on water consumption and then to discuss how to
save water and why that is important.
10.2 Practice
10.2.1 Sustainable Development in Practice
Photos from preschool settings (Figs. 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, and 10.7)
10.3.1 The Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable

Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC): Trials
from Turkey
For the first trials of the “Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable Development
in Early Childhood” (ERS-SDEC), extended observations were conducted in five
different preschool classrooms, and interviews were conducted with staff. The basic
characteristics of schools were described in Table 10.2.
The findings were summarized and are revealed in the table below (Tables 10.3,
10.4, and 10.5).
Fig. 10.2 An example for reuse: children are doing art activities in a public kindergarten (Ankara/
Turkey 2013)
Fig. 10.3 A book on

handwashing in a public
kindergarten: I Don’t Want
To Wash My Hands
(Ankara/Turkey 2013)
Fig. 10.4 An example

from a journal in a public
kindergarten: different
countries, different sports,
and different gender
(Ankara/Turkey 2013)
Fig. 10.5 (a) Exploring leaves in a public kindergarten (Ankara/Turkey, 2007). (b) An activity
from “TEMA Kids Educational Program” (Rize/Turkey 2010)
Fig. 10.6 Family participation in learning activities in a public kindergarten (Kars/Turkey 2008)
10.3.2 Social-Cultural Sustainability
Briefly, it can be concluded that in the Turkish preschool context, items in economic
sustainability and social-cultural sustainability revealed that selected schools could
not meet most of the criteria. For the economic dimension, many schools were
found to be performing at inadequate and minimal levels; however, for social and
cultural dimension, some schools met the requirements above “good.” As we would
expect, the highest scores were reported for the environmental dimension, with
many schools meeting the criteria above good and higher.
Fig. 10.7 News about

food safety training for
children by two NGOs: an
example for economic
dimension of sustainability
(Eskişehir/Turkey 2012)
Table 10.2 Basic characteristics of schools

Class Teacher
School type School name Code size Children’s age number
Public Abidin Paşa Elementary School A 18 72 months 1
Public Ahmet Vefik Paşa Elementary B 23 72 months 1
School
Private Tevfik Fikret Private Preschool C 18 60 months 2
University Hacettepe University Beytepe D 26 42–72 months 2
Laboratory Kindergarten
University Middle East Technical E 25 60 months 2
University Laboratory Preschool
10.4 Support Systems
10.4.1 Professional Development
As discussed above, the environmental dimension of education for sustainable

development is emphasized, but the other two, social-cultural and economic dimen-
sions, are still somewhat neglected in Turkey. In institutions of higher education,
there are many courses in environmental physics, environmental chemistry, envi-
ronmental biology, and environmental architecture found in Environmental Science
and Environmental Engineering Programs. Courses on environmental education are
opened to education faculty, and environmental issues are mentioned in the content
of the course named “Science Teaching in Preschool Education.”
Table 10.3 Total scores of economic sustainability

Total scores for Variation of
School type School name Code economic scores
Public Abidin Paşa Elementary School A 2 (except (1–1)
5.4/7.4)
Public Ahmet Vefik Paşa Elementary School B 2 (except (1–1)
5.4/7.4)
Private Tevfik Fikret Private Preschool C 7 (except (2–4)
5.4/7.4)
University Hacettepe University Beytepe D 10 (except (2–5)
Laboratory Kindergarten 5.4/7.4)
University Middle East Technical University E 3 (except (1–2)
Laboratory Preschool 5.4/7.4)
Table 10.4 Total scores of environmental sustainability

Total scores for
environmental Variation of
School type School name Code dimension scores
Public Abidin Paşa Elementary A 7 (except 1.4/1.5) (1–5)
School
Public Ahmet Vefik Paşa Elementary B 7 (except 1.4/1.5) (1–5)
School
Private Tevfik Fikret Private Preschool C 17 (except 1.4/1.5) (5–7)
University Hacettepe University Beytepe D 16 (except 1.4/1.5) (5–7)
Laboratory Kindergarten
University Middle East Technical E 13 (except 1.4/1.5) (3–5)
University Laboratory
Preschool
However, very recently, education for sustainable development courses has

been offered in education programs for faculty. Although most previous research
and master theses have focused on environmental awareness, environmental edu-
cation, and outdoor activities (Çabuk and Haktanır 2012; Güler 2009; Haktanır and
Çabuk 2000; Kılınç and Haktanır 2012; Öztürk-Kahriman et al. 2012), master and
doctoral theses about education for sustainable development are beginning to
emerge.
In fact, after the participation of OMEP Turkey in the workshop on “Learning to
Change Our World: International Consultation on Education For Sustainable
Development” (2004) in Sweden, the sustainability concept has gained importance
in the Turkish ECE context and has been included in universities with undergraduate
and graduate programs and in workshops and seminars (Haktanır 2004; TOÖEGD
2010; Haktanır and Öztürk 2012; Anonymous 2013).
Table 10.5 Total scores of social-cultural sustainability

Total scores for
social-cultural Variation of
School type School name Code dimension scores
Public Abidin Paşa Elementary School A 6 (except 7.5) (1–2)
Public Ahmet Vefik Paşa Elementary B 6 (except 7.5) (1–2)
School
Private Tevfik Fikret Private Preschool C 15 (except 7.5) (2–7)
University Hacettepe University Laboratory D 19 (except 7.5) (2–7)
Kindergarten
University Middle East Technical University E 9 (except 7.5) (1–4)
Laboratory Preschool
10.4.2 Research
Research has been conducted recently to investigate the phenomena of sustainabil-

ity in ECE in Turkey (Haktanır et al. 2010; Haktanır et al. 2011; Haktanır et al.
2012).
One study (Öztürk-Kahriman et al. 2012) set out to identify the ideas of pre-
school children about the three pillars of education for sustainable development
(ESD). In this study, researchers collected data from children and analyzed this
using an inductive approach based on the 7Rs of ESD (reduce, reuse, respect, reflect,
rethink, and redistribute). It was found that the children had limited understandings
of the issues surrounding reduce, reuse, respect, and recycle, while they did not
comment at all on reflect, rethink, and redistribute. The authors concluded that
sustainable practices should be integrated into the early childhood education cur-
riculum and supported by preschool teachers, parents, and society, in general.
Another study (Öztürk-Kahriman et al. 2012) investigated 5- and 6-year-olds
attitudes toward environmental issues and gender using The Children’s Attitudes
toward the Environment Scale. Researchers reported that most of the children ini-
tially appeared to have ecocentric attitudes toward environmental issues. However,
when the children explained their reasons for choosing one of the two pictures pre-
sented to them in the study, their responses were evaluated as emanating from
anthropocentric attitudes. The researchers recommended that the curriculum at the
preschool stage need to be broadened and improved, particularly in the provision of
outdoor study in natural settings for the children to develop a more ecocentric atti-
tude toward the environment in Turkey.
Batur Musaoğlu and Haktanır (2012) examined the Ministry of National
Education Preschool Program (2006) in terms of children’s rights. The Program
Book and Teacher Manual were analyzed through a document analysis using chil-
dren’s rights categories (survival, development, protection, participation). The
results of the study showed that only development and participation rights are fea-
tured in the program. Protection rights are merely mentioned. Very few phrases
conflict with the convention, but the program, in general, does not take the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) as its fundamental principle. The
authors concluded that a review is needed in order to raise individuals within a cul-
ture supporting human rights. For 2 years, MoNE has been performing a compre-
hensive project called “Strengthening Pre-School Education,” funded by the
European Union and UNICEF. In the project, the Preschool Program of MoNE
(2006) has already been revised and updated (Haktanır 2013).
The OMEP World Projects on Education for Sustainable Development has been
of crucial importance to extend ESD research in early childhood education in
Turkey. Haktanır et al. (2010) carried out the first step of the OMEP World Project.
The aim of this project was to find out Turkish children’s perceptions on sustainable
development. Through convenience sampling 250 children were interviewed. In
addition, an interview form was administered to teachers and parents of the partici-
pant children to learn about their awareness of SD. An interview form on SD was
also administered to undergraduate students (n = 700) studying in the Department of
Preschool Education in three major universities in Ankara. It was notable that for
the question “What do the children say about ‘Sustainable Development,’” we did
not receive any relevant and valuable answers.
As the second part of the OMEP World Project (Haktanır et al. 2011), research-
ers conducted a qualitative study to describe preschoolers’ ideas about the environ-
mental pillar of ESD. The researchers applied a short-term intervention through the
project approach and conducted pre- and postinterviews with 80 preschool children.
Their preinterview findings indicated that preschoolers were capable of understand-
ing “reducing” and “reusing” resource issues, and postinterviews revealed that the
preschool children’s ideas on sustainability improved after the intervention.
To summarize, this literature review shows that Turkey is at an early stage in
developing educational programs infusing all of the principles of sustainable devel-
opment. There has been no well-developed national strategy to educate future citi-
zens to take the necessary actions toward sustainability. Although research
conducted up to now builds a baseline for enhancing preschool children’s views,
attitudes, and behaviors about sustainability, the kind of educational activities about
environmental issues that should be implemented in preschool classrooms is still
controversial. For that reason, observational qualitative research studies should be
designed to gather data about the educational activities relevant to those sustain-
ability issues included in the daily routines of early childhood education settings. In
this regard, the role of the preschool teacher is also important to investigate. A pre-
school teacher’s attitudes can have an impact on her approach to curriculum, and,
therefore, preschool teachers should be included in further research studies, and
their role in bringing up individuals who have sustainable lifestyles explored. In this
regard, preschool teacher candidates and their educational background about sus-
tainable development are also worthy of investigation.
Although the EU has emphasized strongly that environmental education (EE)
should be changed to ESD, ESD has not yet become an integral part of the Turkish
education system. Considering all of the potential learning outcomes of EE, it must
be concluded that sustainability issues are not addressed in the educational curricu-
lum as much as it should be. Just as the term “education for sustainable develop-
ment” is not yet used widely in Turkey, little emphasis is put on “education for
sustainability” in primary and secondary education.
A multiple-perspective approach promotes interdisciplinary and intercultural
competencies as it addresses challenges to local or planetary sustainability.
Interdisciplinary thinking, in which concepts and knowledge from different aca-
demic traditions are used to analyze situations or solve problems, allows students to
use knowledge in new ways. “Intercultural dialogue contributes to sustainable
development by facilitating knowledge exchange - traditional, local, and scientific.
Through combining all these valuable forms of knowledge, more sustainable prac-
tices can be developed and better resolutions to current issues may be achieved”
(UNESCO 2006a, b).
10.4.3 Networks, Arenas, and Partnership
In Turkey, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have always sought to raise

public awareness of a variety of issues from political to economical as well as envi-
ronmental. Indeed, there are many NGOs working in the area of the environmental
dimension of sustainable development. The Turkish Environmental Education
Foundation, founded in 1993, has undersigned the work of environmental education
projects such as the “Eco-Schools” and “Young Reporters for the Environment.”
These projects aimed to enhance pupils’ environmental awareness, develop satisfac-
tory knowledge on environmental issues, and take an active role in creating environ-
mentally sensitive societies. The students are required to study and take action on
some basic environmental content such as garbage and contamination, energy and
recycling, and water and its subcomponents. The success of the schools participat-
ing in these projects has been evaluated by the national coordinators (TÜRÇEV
2013).
An extracurricular program supporting education for sustainable development,
the Green Pack Project, is carried out in association with the Regional Environmental
Center, Turkish Bird Research Society, Nature Society, Ministry of National
Education, Ministry of Environment and Forestry, and other related institutions.
This collaboration has prepared a multimedia kit which consists of syllabi for teach-
ers’ use, a “mutual game,” information documents for students, and a VCD/DVD
and CDROM. The primary aim of this project is to develop an understanding of
sustainable development in elementary schools while making the necessary contri-
bution to increasing knowledge, awareness, values, and behaviors toward sustain-
able lifestyles. Thus, the Green Pack Project is expected to transform sustainable
lifestyles for all people from Turkish youngsters to other members of the society
(REC Turkey 2013).
Another NGO the TEMA Foundation (the Turkish Foundation for Combating
Soil Erosion, for Reforestation and the Protection of Natural Habitats) and OMEP
Turkey developed an environmental education program (TEMA Kids Educational
Program) referring mostly to environmental issues of sustainability for 5–9-year-
olds. There are 42 indoor and outdoor activities in the program about a variety of
environmental issues. The education program has been conducted for 3 years in
different geological parts of Turkey with 68,000 children. Evaluation of the pro-
gram has been done based on the developmental goals of MoNE Curriculums (MEB
2012a; TEMA 2013).
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) is the
leading agency for funding research and development in Turkey. It was established
in 1963 with a mission to advance science and technology, conduct research, and
support Turkish researchers. TÜBİTAK also organizes science and society-
enhancing activities such as ecology-based environmental education programs,
nature school, and renewable energy sources programs. Many children and early
childhood education teachers have participated in these programs and have gained
in-depth knowledge about nature and the environment. The attendance of the teach-
ers and young children in the environmental education programs is crucial for
improving their awareness (Güler 2009; TÜBİTAK 2013). Besides, parents may
participate in some of these camps such as “Sky Observation Fest” with their chil-
dren (Tutkun and Haktanır 2013).
TÜBİTAK also publishes popular science magazines for children. One of them
is The Curious Puppy targeting children 3–6 years old. The other magazine is
Science for Children launched in 1998 and it is published for the 7–12 age group.
TÜBİTAK has also popular science books in different categories. These books,
especially the Early Childhood Series have been published for young children to
introduce basic science topics, for example, feelings, disability, animals, life cycles,
plants, the environment, recycling, seasons, etc. (TÜBİTAK 2013).
Turkey has made progress in education for sustainable development in areas of
research, educational, and social policies. However, the complexities of ESD with
its interconnected pillars require a more focused and intense approach if we are to
have a necessary impact on the next generation.
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Chapter 11
Development in the UK
11.1 Introduction
It is now widely accepted that – on the one hand – poverty should not be seen only as a lack
of income, but also as a deprivation of human rights: And - on the other hand - that unless
the problems of poverty are addressed, there can be no sustainable development. (UN High
Commissioner for Human Rights 2002)
In a recent UNESCO (2013) survey review of the UN Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (ESD), the Ministries of Education, Environment and
Sustainable Development in 97 UN Member States identified poverty as the highest
priority area to be addressed in achieving Sustainable Development. It is notable
that this ESD priority was rated above climate change and agricultural and food
security. When asked about the priorities for specific educational responses to
achieving sustainable development, the Ministries also rated Early Childhood Care
and Education (ECCE), and Teacher Education above other areas of concern such
as Public Awareness, and Higher Education (op cit).
As Picket et al. (2014) have argued, it is only by reducing the income gap between
the rich and the poor that we can ultimately be freed from the greed and avarice of
conspicuous consumption. Compared to other developed countries the UK has a
very unequal distribution of income. The UK is the most unequal country in Europe
and it is the fourth most unequal, out of 30 OECD countries in the Luxemburg
Income Study. It will only be when we have reduced inequality that we can improve
well-being and sustainability. Most significantly we need to break the vicious cycles
that reproduce family poverty across generations. Child poverty in the UK was
reduced dramatically between 1998/1999 and 2011/2012 when 1.1 million children
were lifted out of poverty. But since 2010 the number of children in absolute poverty

has increased by 0.5 million.1 Before 2010 the statutory provisions of Every Child
Matters and integrated early childhood programmes such as Sure Start were devel-
oped to deal with inequality. To understand the changes in government policy it is
useful to consider a little more deeply how policy makers have understood the
nature of social justice in early childhood.
Notions of equality of opportunity and individual freedom provide major prin-
ciples of contemporary philosophical and political consensus. The consensus view
of social justice in the western world is that it should be achieved through ‘fairness
and impartiality’ and through a ‘social contract’ where everyone agrees that indi-
viduals working together improve the chances of everyone individually achieving
their goals in life. Inequalities, according to this widely accepted model, are consid-
ered acceptable as long as they work out to everyone’s ultimate advantage and as
long as welfare priority is given to the interests of the worst-off. While there are
many problems and criticisms of this model of social justice, it continues to reflect
the democratic consensus. As its major architect John Rawls:
…has the unique distinction among contemporary political philosophers of being fre-
quently cited by the courts of law in the United States and referred to by practicing politi-
cians in the United States and United Kingdom.2
From the perspective of the social contract, the role of the State in education, and
in the social services, is therefore accepted as one that should provide a ‘level-
playing field’ which is designed not so much to achieve equality of outcomes but
rather an equality of opportunity for individuals to be successful. ‘Success’, whether
it be considered in material, economic and/or other terms of self realisation, is,
according to this consensus view, seen as the inevitable result of the free choices
that individuals make in their lives. In educational terms the most significant of
these choices may be considered to be the deferred gratification that individuals
accept in foregoing the short-term rewards of idle play or an early income to achieve
long-term educational achievements.
It is recognised that in their early years, individual children are not yet in any
position to make such a choice. Household poverty or other barriers in early child-
hood often act to exclude the very possibility of making such choices. The major
issue to be addressed in this context is that if we are to ensure children are in a posi-
tion to take advantage of a level-playing field provided in their subsequent school-
ing, then we must at first achieve an equality of outcome in the preschool period.
This was the declared aim of the previous UK educational policy where the Every
Child Matters outcomes framework set a target to halve child poverty by 2010 when
compared with 1997 and to eradicate it completely by 2020. The aim has been to
provide success for all but the most disabled children in school with at least 90 %
developing well across all the areas of the Early Years Foundation Stage Profile by
the age of five:
1
https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/households-below-average-income-19941995-to-
20132014
2
http://www.theyworkforyou.com/search/?s=%22john+rawls%22
11 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in the UK 157
The Early Years Foundation Stage will provide a level playing field so all children start
school with an equal chance of doing well (Department for Children, Schools and Families
2008)
The UK Prime Minister Tony Blair (2006) identified the structural and cultural
problems of social justice and exclusion that were to be addressed:
…poverty is not just about poverty of income, but poverty of aspiration, of opportunity, of
prospects of advancement. We must not in any way let up on the action we take to deal
directly with child poverty. But at the same time, we have to recognise that for some fami-
lies, their problems are more multiple, more deep and more pervasive than simply low
income. The barriers to opportunity are about their social and human capital as much as
financial. (Blair 2006)
Early in his government, the current UK Prime Minister, David Cameron, also
voiced his commitment to achieving social justice through early childhood educa-
tion. The following statements were cited as responses to Graham Allen’s Review
of Early Intervention that was commissioned by the government in June 2011:
This Government is strongly committed to improving the life chances of every child, but
especially those who come from troubled backgrounds. (Allen 2011)
As Allen wrote in his letter to the Prime Minister that introduces the commissioned
review:
The cross-party co-operation that has characterised this issue should continue and be
actively developed. All parties should publicly accept the core message of Early Intervention,
appended, acknowledge that the culture of late intervention is both expensive and ineffec-
tive, and ensure that Early Intervention plays a more central part in UK policy and prac-
tice. (Allen 2011)
As noted in Chap. 1 above, Leon Feinstein (2003) had shown investments in

early childhood programmes were justified by the returns provided to society as a
whole. Studies of disadvantaged children in the UK had shown that many children
were already up to a year behind their peers in terms of learning and development at
age three. Investment in the foundation stage of early childhood was seen to provide
a higher rate of return than investments later in life, as is shown in the graph below
(op cit).
Arguably, Feinstein (2003) provided one of the strongest empirical justifications
for the Every Child Matters policy agenda. His research, drew upon 2457 children
in the 1970 UK Birth Cohort Survey (BCS), was subsequently supported by the
EPPE (Sylva et al. 2010) evidence as well. It shows that the effects of poverty on
children’s long-term educational achievement are apparent before they reach the
nursery school. Feinstein showed that at the age of 22 months, children in the lowest
quartile of cognitive development from higher family income groups caught up with
and went on to overtake children who were performing much higher than they were
at 22 months from the lowest income groups (see Fig. 11.1). The analysis showed
that having a low cognitive test score at 22 months did not determine a child’s future
underachievement unless the child had low-income parents as well. It was also
found that children from poor families with top quartile cognitive scores at
22 months fell behind the children from higher income families who had low
100
90
Average position in distribution
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118
months
Fig. 11.1 Average rank of test scores at 22, 42, 60 and 120 months by SES of parents and early
rank positions
quartile cognitive scores at 22 months. While children from poor families are less
likely to have high cognitive scores, ‘… even if they do they are very likely to lose
this early advantage’.
Family background has been shown to play a major role in determining the con-
tinued development of children’s ability in many other studies. But Feinstein has
shown that children from low-income families who show promising early signs of
cognitive development typically fail to succeed in education due to an accident of
birth, simply because they have been born into a low-income, low-aspiration
family.
Despite the notable progress that had been made in the UK, and despite his role
as co-chair of the UN High-Level Panel on the Post-2015 Development Agenda,
when faced with an economic downturn, the Prime Minister, David Cameron, has
increasingly gone against the tide of academic opinion, and the available evidence,
to prioritise economic growth over combatting inequality.3 In the economic auster-
ity measures that have been introduced, of all age groups, the brunt has been carried
by young children. In fact, from the very start of their term in office, the 2010
Coalition Government instructed civil servants that the phrase; ‘Every Child
Matters’ should no longer be referred to (Puffet 2010). So that it was clear that some
children were now to be considered to matter more than others. Reductions have
been made in the direct financial support provided for children, and cuts have been
made in funding for childcare and early education despite a rising population of
3
http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2013/feb/05/david-cameron-
inequality-liberia-meeting
young children. As Stewart and Obolenskaya (2015) have shown, Sure Start-
combined children’s centres have taken the biggest hit, with a cut in funding of 33 %
between 2009–2010 and 2012–2013. Childcare subsidies have also been reduced
for low-income parents, and support for professional development for childcare
workers (the Graduate Leader Fund) has been abolished. Many local authorities and
Centre Management teams have made heroic efforts to keep services going, but it is
difficult to see how provisions can be maintained in the UK with a further series of
government ‘austerity’ cuts expected.
11.2.1 Sustainable Development in Early Childhood Care

and Education (SDECCE) and Every Child Matters
Perspective
Robust research evidence has shown that high-quality early childhood education
provides an effective strategy (Sylva, et al. 2010), especially when combined with
family outreach and support for children’s home-learning environment for birth. Yet
there are radical UK theorists (Burke 2006; Gerwitz 2001) who have been critical of
such policies because they are perceived as presenting a ‘deficit’ view of disadvan-
taged families and/or as ‘blaming the victims’ for their educational underachieve-
ment. However, as Siraj‐Blatchford (2010) has argued, much of this kind of
deconstruction may be seen as idealistic. Resistance to social injustice and inequal-
ity provides a means of confronting and undermining the dominant structures of
inequality; they don’t support it. Another popular criticism often seen in the UK
media cites family and early childhood educational provisions as examples of an
overprotective ‘nanny state’ that interferes with personal choice. Yet failure to inter-
vene due to complacency might well be considered passive complicity in the face of
such social injustice.
One might imagine that the educational research community would be united in
its efforts to restore the Every Child Matters agenda, yet reference is made in Chap.
13 to the fact that some writers adopting post-structuralist or postmodern analysis
have argued against the provision of compensatory education on the paradoxical
grounds that some essential ‘truth’ of cultural relativity leaves any definition of
‘quality’ in early childhood education meaningless. The problem with this is that it
provides support for policy makers who wish to deny the legitimacy of compensa-
tory policy interventions for quite different reasons. In post-structuralist writings
the cultural respect and protectionism that are rightfully owed to sustained, and
sustainable indigenous world cultures are sometimes applied uncritically to funda-
mentally dysfunctional cultural contexts of poverty. Research has increasingly doc-
umented the fact that families that escape poverty are atypical of their neighbours in
terms of the expectations and aspirations they have for their children. Abject poverty
and low expectations are not a natural condition, and the social and cultural assump-
tions and behaviours of those coping in such circumstances must be engaged with
as a necessary part of the process of socioeconomic reconstruction. Within every
impoverished community, there are commonly held narrative assumptions that peo-
ple live by; while some of these lead to positive outcomes and should be nourished,
they shouldn’t all be romanticised as examples of a sustainable ‘working class’ cul-
ture. ‘Rose tinted’ romanticism and delusions about a self-sufficient and sustainable
past constitute a very real problem for the development of ESD. In adopting social
interventionist approaches such as Sure Start in the UK, Head Start in the USA, and
Australia or Ontario’s Early Years Plan, we shouldn’t fear being accused of ‘blam-
ing the victims’, we should recognise that the cultural dysfunctions that we are
engaging with are the direct consequence of our historical failures to address the
issue of poverty and disadvantage. Of course this is not to say that we shouldn’t be
conscious of the fact that there are other dangers, most significantly the danger that
intervention policies may be influenced unduly by the prejudices, attitudes and
beliefs, of cultural outsiders. Policy makers must be careful to ensure that the cul-
tural engagement is genuine and that families and communities are empowered by
the knowledge of those around them who have succeeded in breaking out of the
vicious intergenerational cycle of deprivation. Poverty eradication policies that fail
to address cultural issues will inevitably foster greater dependency.
It is instructive in this context to consider that despite their early beginnings over
a century ago in many countries as a family intervention, health visiting has become
established in these countries as an entirely acceptable universal provision.
According to Garrett (2006), in the UK, health visits were first introduced by volun-
teers from the Ladies’ Sanitary Reform Association of Manchester and Salford in
1862 and taken over by the Manchester Medical Officer of Health in 1890. Health
visiting is now accepted by the British public, and it seems reasonable to assume
that other family interventions that may appear questionable today might be consid-
ered entirely acceptable in the future. When we consider the aspirations of Every
Child Matters in this light then we might consider the possibility of a redefinition of
the ‘healthy’ child to include all of what Ramey and Ramey (2000) have referred to
as the ‘psychosocial developmental priming mechanisms’ of the home-learning
environment. Recent developments and perspectives in neuroscience may support
these processes in the development of wider public perceptions of the constitution
of children’s ‘health’.
11.2.2 The Current English Curriculum Context
The Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage (Department for
Education 2012a) prescribes what providers must do to promote learning and devel-
opment, and it is supported by national guidance provided by Development Matters
in the Early Years Foundation Stage (Early Education 2012). The Statutory
Framework also makes it clear that the day-to-day practical provisions for early
learning should be determined in partnership with parents and other carers and that
they should extend beyond the preschool setting to include the home learning envi-
ronment. In this respect it is required that every child must be assigned a ‘key per-
son’ who must ‘seek to engage and support parents and/or carers in guiding their
child’s development at home’ (Department for Education 2012a, b). These provi-
sions provide powerful structures within which an ESD curriculum might be devel-
oped. But as Gilbert et al. (2014) notes, the word ‘sustainability’ is not included at
any point in the EYFS curriculum, and even the term environment ‘reflects multiple
meanings rather being operationalised exclusively to represent ESD philosophy’
(p. 290). These limitations are significant even though the UK has a long tradition
of early childhood environmental education, and in recent years forest school initia-
tives have been very popular.
11.3 ESD-Rating Scale Trials
11.3.1 The UK ERS-SDEC Trials
The UK trials of the ERS-SDEC were carried out with eight preschool settings in
the South of England that had not been involved in developing the scale in the early
stages (see table below). The scores obtained were probably quite representative of
the practices to be found in many other settings in the region. The fairly good aver-
age environmental education provision score of 4.5 was as expected with three of
the settings achieving a score of 5 largely as a result of the greater awareness and
access to natural environmental resources. Setting H was strongly influenced by the
forest school movement and the children had daily access to a woodland environ-
ment and many focused environmental activities were supported by the parents.
All of the settings had developed practices to support social justice although two
of the settings had never addressed the issues explicitly with the children (Soc 3.3).
Three of the settings had made significant progress in developing their practices to
reflect the values and principles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (UNCRC). They had been awarded the UNICEF Rights Respecting
Setting Award in recognition of this work, and this was reflected directly in their
elevated scores on the sociocultural dimension. Setting A served a diverse ethnic
minority community and showed a greater awareness and concern for the social and
cultural issues.
The scores on the economics dimension showed minimal attention and were
being given to this area of the curriculum. Fifty years ago many pre- and primary
schools in the UK would have included thrift as a virtue to be encouraged in their
curriculum aims. In today’s consumer society this emphasis has been lost. While
public concerns are sometimes expressed about the need to teach children from an
early age more about the problems of getting into debt, this has yet to be applied
4 Soc Cult
3 Econ
2 Environ
0
A B C D E F G H Σ
Fig. 11.2 ERS-SDEC scores for the 8 UK preschools
significantly in practice. While the children in most settings will be involved or at

least be aware of the need to conserve energy and materials, few are engaged in
economic decision-making within their setting (Fig. 11.2).
11.4 Support Systems
11.4.1 The UK-Kenya Preschool Partnerships
Two of the trial preschools had recently become involved in an initiative promoted
through the World Organisation for Early Childhood Education (OMEP) in devel-
oping preschool partnerships with settings in Kenya. These partnerships were
already supporting the settings in developing greater social, cultural and economic
awareness in their ESD. In developing the partnerships, a series of photographs
were taken in each of the Kenyan preschools that showed the Kenyan children tak-
ing ‘Simba’ (a cuddly toy Lion) around their preschool and ‘telling him’ three things
that they really liked about their preschool and three things that were a problem.
‘Simba’ was then taken to their English partner preschool and reported (with a little
help) to the children, parents and teachers on what it was like in the Kenyan part-
ner’s preschool. This was supported by the photographs and some video. From the
modest beginnings of these early introductions a series of curriculum development
projects are now being developed and the partnership has also provided UK support
for the formation of a national chapter of OMEP in Kenya.
The partnerships were developed by OMEP from the start with a view to promot-
ing social, economic and environmental sustainability through ‘carbon partner-
ships’, where both preschools support each other in achieving convergence in their
environmental impact (measured through carbon emissions) to achieve their ‘fair
earth share’ within global limits. Such partnerships are relatively common and are
USA
CO2 Emissions
Per Person
EU
China
Rest of World
India
Time
Fig. 11.3 Carbon convergence
promoted by the British Council although few of these partnerships have extended
to the preschool. Unfortunately school fundraising activities can sometimes rein-
force negative stereotypes about Africans being ‘poor’, ‘helpless’ and ‘needy’. The
‘Carbon Partners’ model turns the idea of fundraising ‘out of kindness’ around by
showing that, based on carbon usage, the school in the Global North actually ‘owes’
their partner school a greater share (Siraj‐Blatchford and Huggins 2015). This idea
is borrowed from the more general notion of international carbon ‘contraction and
convergence’ popularised by the Global Commons Institute as a strategy for reduc-
ing global carbon emissions. The UN strategy recognises that in order to reduce
poverty, many developing countries must actually increase their industrial develop-
ment and associated carbon emissions just as other more developed countries are
forced to make drastic reductions. The agreed strategy is to aim for a point of con-
vergence between each country’s carbon emissions in the short term, while moving
on from there to overall contraction for all countries (see Fig. 11.3).
Many resources are now available to support schools and other institutions in
accounting for their carbon footprints. Preschools with carbon footprints that are
beyond recognised sustainable limits can look for ways to compensate their com-
paratively ‘carbon-poor’ preschool partners, and they also have a clear incentive to
reduce their own waste (Fig. 11.4).
The UK and Kenyan partners are therefore encouraged to provide mutual sup-
port to their partners by:
• Providing support in sustaining and developing the preschool provision
• Developing resources and curriculum
• Reducing (where appropriate) carbon footprints
• Sharing knowledge and ideas
• Listening and learning from each other
• Gaining strength from the knowledge shared concerns
• Fund raising (when appropriate) for JUSTICE rather than CHARITY
A significant contribution of the comparatively sustainable Kenyan preschools
(children, parents, educators) to the ‘carbon-unsustainable’ UK preschools has been
Fig. 11.4 Carbon

footprinting
providing examples of what it means in practice to live a more sustainable life. In

every Kenyan preschool examples of recycling, conservation of resources and
teacher innovation are apparent. Every Kenyan preschool classroom has wall dis-
plays and posters created by the teachers using recycled coffee sacks. The teachers
produce painted seed ‘counters’ and bottle tops for counting and in one preschool
even an improvised balance for weighing. The few toys that are evident are largely
made by the children’s parents. The teachers in the UK have been impressed, and in
many cases humbled by these efforts, and they have became motivated to do more
to recycle and reuse materials in their own preschools (see Chap. 5).
When photographs of the English children with Simba were sent back to Kenya,
some of the UK partner preschools followed this up by choosing another cuddly toy
of their own to send to Kenya with showing the three things in their preschool that
that they are proud of and those problems they considered needed to be solved.
Communication between the preschools was initially carried out using text mes-
saging and occasional email (where available). But each pair of preschools was also
provided with a secure (password-protected) web page, and the English preschools
were encouraged to provide some help to their partners in getting online. The OMEP
partnership project team in the UK and Kenya have provided all the preschools with
practical ideas on how they can support their partners and circulate information on
joint projects. One of these was concerned with water, sanitation and hygiene
(WASH).4
11.4.2 ‘Matarajio’ Project: Gender Equality in Kenya
This project took place in Cranborne Preschool in Dorset, UK and Ng’ondu

Preschool in Njoro, Kenya, and was associated with the UN World Day of Social
Justice on February 20th. The focus was gender equality and the promotion of
4
http://www.globalhandwashingday.org.uk
Fig. 11.5 Nobel Prize

Winner Dr Wangari Muta
Maathai (1940–2011)
positive female role models in the UK and Kenya. https://www.facebook.com/omep.

kenya
Girls are currently seriously underachieving in the Kenyan education system and
Kenya ranks 107th (of 136 countries) on the Global Gender Gap Index for access to
educational attainment (Hausmann 2013). Girls underachieve at every level and
they finally make up only 38 % of university enrolments. Preschool teachers are
predominantly female and they also suffer from discrimination. While primary
school teachers are paid by the government, even where preschool classes are
attached to primary schools in Kenya, they are funded by parents’ paying fees. The
salaries are below the basic minimum wage recommended by the Ministry of
Labour and depend on the total number of children enrolled and the parents’ ability
to pay on a weekly basis (Hein and Cassirer 2010). It is in the early years that chil-
dren’s attitudes are first formed, and in many rural African contexts, it is only in the
preschool that many girls come into contact with educated women (Fig. 11.5):
Girls lack positive role models within schools. Research participants told us that the lack of
gender balance in teaching staff at secondary schools and in secondary grades…and in
management positions across primary and secondary levels means that girls have few
female role models. (PFTH/VSO 2013).
The children in the UK and Kenya learnt about Wangari Maathai, a particularly
brilliant and successful Kenyan environmental scientist. This provided a positive
role model for the girls and challenged some stereotypes held by many of the boys.
The children in Kenya saw a video of Wangari Maathai on a tablet PC supplied for
the project by OMEP UK (see youtube) (Fig. 11.6).
In addition to the education for sustainable development and social justice objec-
tives of the project, the opportunity was also taken to introduce the Kenyan pre-
school to the use of sociodramatic play and to some of the emergent literacy
practices that are used in most UK preschools. Ng’ondu preschool is poorly
equipped with only a few learning materials, e.g. books, displays and writing mate-
rials for the children. There was no play apparatus, toys or props at all. The teacher
Fig. 11.6 Children in Kenya learning about socio-dramatic play in the UK
is responsible for the care and education of the ‘baby’, ‘middle’ and ‘top class’. She
also cooks for the children to supplement their poor diet; the children always take
porridge at break time and rice and cabbage at lunch time every day. There are not
enough desks for the children and no mattresses for children to sleep on. The chil-
dren are therefore forced to sleep directly on the floor and some spread their sweat-
ers to sleep on.
The most common form of socio-dramatic play in the UK is related to the family,
and many preschools around the world include a ‘Home Corner’ area with house-
hold props like toy kitchen equipment, washing machines, dining tables and chairs
that are set up to encourage this form of play. Through socio-dramatic play, children
learn how to make conversations, how to take turns, how to ask and answer ques-
tions and how to listen. The efforts they make to stay in role supports their develop-
ment of self-regulation as well. Young children enjoy socio-dramatic play, and as
they grow older and more capable some of the play scenarios that they act out can
be very sophisticated (Fig. 11.7).
Children playing in a pretend ‘shop’, for example, may learn a great deal about
the economic world, and teachers often maximise the opportunities in such play to
encourage emergent literacy and numeracy activities. Sociodramatic play also pro-
vides a context for children to develop and practice many important attitude, skills
and behaviours that contribute to their future success in school and life, and one way
that teachers have found they can encourage children to explore adult roles is to
provide dressing up clothes. This form of play is routine at Cranborne, and at the
time of the project their classroom included a ‘hospital corner’ where the children
could share their experiences and learn thorough their play all about the caring roles
of hospital staff. Cranborne Preschool in the UK donated some dressing up clothes
that would support the girls in their partner preschool develop positive dispositions
towards science and towards strong adult roles for women. Before they parcelled
Fig. 11.7 The ‘hospital

corner’ at Cranbourne
preschool in the UK
Fig. 11.8 Playing the

game of ‘being a doctor’
and ‘being a builder’ in the
UK
the clothes up, they tried them on. One of the girls took the role of a builder who had
been injured on her work site and another girl acted out the role of a doctor
(Fig. 11.8).
When the clothes arrived in Kenya, the children were shown the photographs of
the UK children playing in them and the girls dressed up and played out the same
sociodrama for themselves. Many of the other activities that the children in
Cranborne enjoyed were also repeated in Ng’ondu (Fig. 11.9).
The children in both preschools were told Wangari was born in 1940, that she
was the first woman to win a Nobel Peace Prize in Africa and that her good deeds
Fig. 11.9 Playing the

game of ‘being a doctor’ in
Kenya
will live on to inspire many people. They were told that she encouraged many poor
women to plant trees. They were able to plant over 30 million trees in Kenya. She
was later elected as a member of parliament and she served as assistant minister for
environment and natural resources. She contributed highly to sustainable develop-
ment. Wangari died of cancer on 26 September 2011 at the age of 71 years.
After the lesson many children were motivated and said they will be planting
trees and that they would work hard to be like Wangari in future. At Cranborne the
children also learnt about the importance of the world’s forests, the threats to their
existence and the heroic work of people like Wangari Maathai in protecting them.
The children were given practical activities identifying all the things around them
that are made from wood/card/paper, etc., and following Wangari’s example in the
video, their attention was constantly drawn to the fact that the animals, plants, trees
and people who work in the forest can only make things happen (or grow) very
slowly ‘a little bit at a time’. The children quickly came to predict and repeat the
answer to questions that they were asked, e.g. ‘What do you think they would say
(e.g. the tree, the forest ranger, etc.) if you asked them why they carried on even
though they are achieving so little each day?’ The answer was always that they
would say: ‘I’m doing the best I can’. So throughout the activities, the phrase ‘I’m
doing the best I can’ was often repeated, and the children were finally shown the
video example of Wangari Maathai where she uses the same words. It was empha-
sised that Wangari achieved so much even though it was only ‘by doing the best she
could’, and the children were asked what they thought they could ‘help make hap-
pen’ as they grown up by ‘doing the best they can’. The boys were also asked, ‘how
could they help their sisters do that?’ (Fig. 11.10).
Zoe Miles, a forest school educator from a local 20-acre seminatural woodland
resource (Woodlander Holbourne Bashley) visited the children at Cranborne. She
brought some of the woodlands indoors with her and helped the teachers focus the
children’s attention on the importance of trees, how long they took to grow and how
quickly they could be destroyed. The children made wood ‘cookies’ and ‘woodland
Fig. 11.10 Bringing the

woodlands to the children
crowns’. They also learnt about woodland management and about how Zoe and her
colleagues were ‘doing the very best they can’.
The children were able to touch and feel different wood rounds (logs) and bark
from Conifer, Oak, Birch, Hornbeam and Ash. The idea was for the children to
understand the different properties of wood using their senses of touch, sight and
smell. The children were encouraged to draw and personalise their wood cookies
with crayons and to create crowns using woodland materials (leaves, moss, lichen,
seeds, conifers, branches, bark, buds and cuttings from different trees). They also
had the option to make bracelets from woodland material. A Woodland Habitat dis-
play board with wildlife stickers helped to reiterate the importance of woodlands as
a habitat for wildlife. The purpose was to start to create an awareness and connec-
tion between themselves, wildlife and the environment with the aim to raise an
awareness of the importance that we all need to do the ‘best we can’ to protect the
worlds woodlands and forests.
See: http://www.omep.or.ke/; http://prepartners.wordpress.com/
11.5 Discussion
The UK-Kenya preschool partnerships provide one new way that preschools can
support the process of convergence and contraction and to involve the children in
taking direct action against climate change. As the UK government has emphasised,
‘Climate change is one of the biggest challenges that we will face in the twenty-first
century. There is no doubt over the science – the continued release of greenhouse
gases will lead to severe changes in the earth’s climate’ (UK Department for
Children Schools and Families (DCSF), 2010).
The UK government has recognised the importance and threat of climate change;
in introducing the ‘Carbon Reduction Delivery Plan’, they have said that climate
change ‘has the potential to significantly disrupt the delivery of children’s services,
with subsequent negative effects on children’s education and wider wellbeing’
(Department for Children, Schools and Families 2010). The Cambridge Primary
Review collected evidence that showed that children as young as 4 years of age were
increasingly aware and concerned about the issues, although they found they were
much less clear in their understanding of its impacts (and the local to global connec-
tions) and unsure of what they can do to combat them (see also DEFRA Surveys
2006 and 2008 in Lovell and O’Brien 2009). This remains an ongoing challenge.
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Chapter 12
Development in the USA
Cathy Mogharreban and Shannon Green
12.1 Introduction
Right now, in the second decade of the 21st century, preparing our students to be good
environmental citizens is some of the most important work that any of us can do. It’s for our
children, it’s for our children’s children, and it’s for generations to come. (Education
Secretary Arne Duncan at the Sustainability Education Summit, held in Washington D.C,
September 21, 2010)
This quote is taken from the transcripts derived from a 3-day summit mandated
by the US congress to bring the US Department of Education (2011) together with
leaders from higher education, business, labor, and NGOs to build a vision for edu-
cation’s role in sustainable development. Like other US initiatives, sustainability
was defined importantly, but narrowly, as green economic development, and the
educational partners identified were secondary educators and institutions of higher
education, i.e., universities and colleges. Important as this initiative might be, col-
laborators in Education for Sustainable Development know two things. The first is
that sustainability is more than “going green.” It is a complex and evolving topic
that must include the natural environment, human diversities and identities, and a
more balanced world economy. The second is that ESD must begin in the earliest
years as a way to lay the foundation for seeing and responding to the world through
a lens of fairness, acceptance, respect, and innovation. Early childhood education
has a particularly salient place in creating such a foundation. Early childhood edu-
cators work with the youngest citizens and their families, and there is no other time
throughout a child’s schooling that parents and families will be as connected to
school as when their children are young.
C. Mogharreban (*) • S. Green

Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
e-mail: cmogh@siu.edu

174 C. Mogharreban and S. Green
12.2.1 ESD’s Place in Early Childhood Education
Pramling-Samuelsson (2011), an international advocate for ESD in ECE, supports

the notion that early childhood is a critical time for the introduction of ESD, noting
that young children are susceptible to values transmission and are ready to internal-
ize the messages of ESD. The formation of value systems regarding our interaction
with the earth and its living creatures, including humans, is developing regardless of
whether we are intentionally implementing ESD or not (Bently and Reppucci 2013;
Boutte 2008). These fundamental values are being formed in early childhood con-
texts today and serve as the foundation in which the accepted social values of tomor-
row are built. No doubt, many of the issues that children are encountering in today’s
rapidly changing world are complex and difficult for anyone to understand.
Nonetheless, Boutte (2008) and others implore educators to see children as experts
about their social worlds and to continually challenge young children to explore the
complexities and moral dimensions of that world. Many advocates for ESD in ECE
support the principle that young children are complex thinkers and are able to pro-
cess complex subjects when presented in developmentally appropriate ways (Bently
and Reppucci 2013; Boutte 2008; Kahriman-Ozturk et al. 2012; Davis 2008; Davis
et al. 2009; Pramling-Samuelsson 2011; Reunamo 2007; Simonstein-Fuentes 2008;
Spearman and Eckoff 2012; Wensing and Torre 2009).
It is time we consider children’s participation in ESD not only as the preparation
of children for tomorrow but also as important stakeholders in these matters today.
Matters of sustainable development impact children every day. As stakeholders,
children have a right to participate in the understanding of and search for solutions
to the problems of their world. ECE professionals should safeguard this right to
participation and find the best ways possible to fulfill the hopes of ESD in ECE. As
Boutte (2008) describes, educators do not have to accept the responsibility “for all
that is good, bad, or indifferent in schools and society,” but they “certainly can take
a more active stance to fight for good” (p. 166). In so doing, we can support the
movement by creating a tool that researchers can use to better understand the com-
plexities of ESD that teachers can use to self-assess their knowledge, commitment,
and practices in ESD and that teacher educators can use to revise and reconstruct
curricula designed around ESD.
12.2.2 Access to Early Education in the USA
Early childhood education in the USA is both varied and uneven. We lag behind
many countries in terms of our societal commitment to equal access to quality care.
Children, 3 to 5 years old, needing out-of-home care spend part or all of their day in
private pay options such as day care centers, day care homes, and relative care or in
12 Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Development in the USA 175
funded options such as Head Start (federally funded since the 1960s) and state-
funded programs typically referred to as prekindergarten programs. Families whose
children attend Head Start must meet income levels of $23,050 for a family of four
(US Department of Health and Human Services 2012). Likewise, children who
attend state-funded prekindergarten (preK) programs must meet risk factors identi-
fied by the program to which they are applying. Risk factors may include income
level, developmental disability, unstable home life, teen mother, English language
learner, etc. Quality is also both varied and uneven. There are private centers that are
of very high quality, not satisfied with meeting only minimal state regulations such
as through the Department of Children and Families Services (DCFS); they strive to
meet national standards through accreditation from the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC). However, private centers are not regulated
to the extent that publicly funded facilities are and therefore may lack the oversight
necessary to ensure sustained high-quality care and education over time.
In a national movement to provide regulated, high-quality, and affordable or free
care to young children, many states have supported the preK movement by provid-
ing available monies for schools and programs in their state to offer prekindergarten
programs. In the state of Illinois, preK competitive block grants have been available
since 1985 (ISBE 2011). The program is referred to as Preschool for All (PFA) and
is centrally administered by the Illinois State Board of Education. What sets prekin-
dergarten programs apart is that they are often affiliated with or actually colocated
in public elementary schools allowing parents to start their children at the same
school where they will later attend kindergarten and primary grades. This allows for
family involvement early on and an opportunity for community building beginning
at age three. Because these programs are grant funded, accountability to the state is
paramount to continued funding. As such, preK programs in Illinois must meet the
highest standards for quality and have state-monitored site visits and annual account-
ability and assessment reports. Quality should be seen at every level in state-funded
preK programs – in classroom environments and materials, curriculum standards,
developmentally appropriate practices, adult/child ratios, gender and racial equity,
and teacher qualifications and credentials. While private centers must meet state
licensing requirements, these are often minimal standards when compared to
national accreditation standards or state boards of education. For comparison, DCFS
in Illinois requires that a lead teacher be 19 years old and have 2 years of college
experience (not necessarily in child development and education) or related experi-
ence. Whereas, the Illinois State Board requires that lead teachers in preK class-
rooms have a 4-year bachelor’s degree plus state teaching certification.
In many ways, state-funded preK programs have been a national education suc-
cess story. Many states offer easy access to children and families and offer family
support through parent and adult education classes. Illinois’ goal at one time was to
move “at-risk” eligibility to universal enrollment so that all Illinois children ages
3–5 would be eligible to attend. However, that has not yet come to fruition. Bad
politics and an unprecedented economic downturn resulted in fewer programs and
less access rather than more.
For a national overview of the state of preK programs in the USA, the National
Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) has been reporting on the trends of
preK programs since 2000. According to the NIEER 2012 report, 28 % of America’s
4-year-olds (more than double that of Head Start) were enrolled in such a program
in both 2011 and 2012, serving 1,332,663 children in 2012 alone, plus an additional
11,267 children in DC. Of course, enrollment varies by state and some states have
no preK programs at this time (10 of the 50 states of the USA offer no state-funded
programs). Illinois currently serves approximately 40 % of its 4-year-olds. As
important as preK programs are for equal access, NIEER laments the “stagnation”
in growth due to the staggering cut in funding ($500 million dollars nationally). Not
only has access been thwarted, quality is at risk. Current funding per child is down
to $3841.00/per child, a drop of $1000.00 since 2002 (Barnett et al. 2012). The
quality rating scale scores for preK programs range from 2 to 10 (10 being the high-
est) between states. Illinois received a rating of 8/10 in 2012.
With diminishing funds, US state-funded preschools are being asked to do more
with less. This creates stress for teachers who have to meet state curriculum stan-
dards. In Illinois the current early learning standards are being replaced by the
Illinois Early Learning and Development Standards (IELDS) and were officially
approved in September 2013 (Illinois State Board of Education 2013). These new
standards and their concomitant benchmarks are written to guide curriculum goals
in language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, physical development and
health, the arts, English language learner home language development, and social/
emotional development. The effort has been spearheaded by well-known early
childhood leaders who have worked to ensure that the benchmarks are prefaced by
guiding principles aligned with the best available empirical evidence about chil-
dren’s learning and development and principles of best practice. They have been
patterned after a national initiative referred to as the Common Core. Thus far 45
states, the District of Columbia, four territories, and the Department of Defense
Education Activity have adopted the Common Core State Standards. Where, how-
ever, do these standards fit with education for sustainable development (ESD)? In a
time of educational accountability and calls for reform in American education for
improved math, science, and technology achievement, does ESD have a place or
will the general curriculum simply subsume it?
12.3 Practice
12.3.1 The US Curriculum and ESD Practice
In the 1970s and 1980s, the USA was a leader in environmental sustainability edu-
cation. Researchers such as Harold Hungerford wrote prolifically about environ-
mental education in journals such as Environmental Education Research and Journal
of Environmental Education. Hungerford and others were very much aware of the
international scene and were instrumental in bringing environmental education to

public schools and teacher education programs. In 1986 he and a colleague revised
the 1980 UNESCO Strategies for Developing Education Curriculum so as to pro-
vide an “update” for curriculum developers (Hungerford and Peyton 1986), which
was published by UNESCO Press.
In the 1990s there occurred a shift in thinking about environmental education,
and it broadened to include notions of sustainability, and “environmental education”
became “environmental education for sustainability” (EEFS). As noted by Sitarz
“Education for sustainability is not a new course of study or new content, but rather
it involves an understanding of how each subject relates to environment, economic
and social issues” (p. 202 in Haury 1998). However, locating research about the
practice of ESD that is based on the three pillars of sustainability, particularly in
ECE, from a US perspective is challenging. In 2008, the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published “The Contribution of
Early Childhood Education to a Sustainable Society,” a volume of 20 articles writ-
ten by authors from 14 different nations. The articles serve as descriptions of prac-
tice in some contexts and build upon a theoretical approach in others. It is notable
that authors from every continent except for North America were represented within
this volume. Likewise, UNESCO in 2012 published Education for Sustainable
Good Practices in Early Childhood, a collection of examples of programs address-
ing ESD in practice. Again, the USA was not a contributor. Mckeown (2013) who
writes from a primary and secondary education perspective comments that ESD is
gaining momentum in many countries of the world, but is rarely mentioned in the
US context. Mckeown (2013) is a US-based researcher who is heading the call to
bring ESD to the forefront of the US educational discussion. Mckeown contends
that children in the USA are coming to school with a partial understanding of seri-
ous problems that exist within their environments (e.g., resource reduction, fiscal
inequity, homelessness, and increased violence), and they need to develop attitudes,
values, skills, and beliefs that will help to empower change in their lifetime. While
children’s understanding of the nature of these problems is sometimes vague, the
knowledge that problems do exist and that solutions are needed is well established
among children. By asking students to analyze current issues and problems at the
local and global levels, students are engaging in important and relevant critical
thinking and analysis.
However, there are glimpses of very exciting changes occurring in the US con-
text. For example, the Shelburne Farms Sustainable Schools Project (Cirillo and
Hoyler 2011) in Vermont has written and produced a Guide to Education for
Sustainability for teachers to use in revising curricula to meet sustainability goals.
This timely document lays the foundation for the three pillars, which they call the
big ideas of sustainability (economic prosperity, environmental integrity, and social
equity) and outlines strategies for curriculum scope and sequence for preK through
grade 12. It provides developmentally appropriate curricular examples so that teach-
ers are able to conceptualize the big ideas in their own classrooms. For example, the
focus in preK/kindergarten is community. In these young years, students study com-
munity by exploring the roles people play in the community and how community
members depend on each other. Students also explore their own role as “community
helpers through service projects” (pg. 38). Third and fourth graders might investi-
gate local food systems by tracing locally available selections back to their source
and evaluate the impact of food choices on the local and more global levels, whereas
9th and 10th grade students might study watersheds, management, natural limits,
and rights and equity issues locally, nationally, and globally. The Sustainable
Schools guide also ties ESD to teaching in the content areas (math, science, reading,
social studies, etc.) and provides examples for teachers on how to integrate ESD
principles into the curriculum. Reading in the primary grades might include picture
books on gardening and animal life cycles, which would also enhance social studies
and science concepts and standards. Secondary reading students might read Michael
Pollen’s The Omnivore’s Dilemma (young reader’s edition) and study the local and
national food systems. The Shelburne Farms Sustainable Schools Project is a prom-
ising example of how sustainability education can begin with our youngest students
and build as students enter the middle and then secondary years, incorporating
sound educational goals and standards and be pedagogically appropriate for stu-
dents of all ages.
12.4.1 The US Trial Study: Using the Environmental Rating

Scale for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood
In February and March of 2013, five preschool classrooms in a rural Midwestern

area of the USA were observed using the Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable
Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC). The purpose of the observations,
which were conducted by two researchers, was twofold: (1) to understand the
strengths, challenges, and efficacy of the ERS-SDEC as a tool for evaluating the
practice of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in early childhood class-
rooms and (2) to establish a sense of which elements of ESD are being integrated
into the curriculum and learning environment in the US context, albeit a small sub-
population in rural Illinois.
As each classroom was observed, we independently took notes about classroom
practices and materials using the ERS-SDEC to guide our observations. After each
observation, we shared notes regarding each of the criterion in the ERS-SDEC. This
process allowed us to consider the different ways the criterion might or might not be
supported within the different classroom contexts. This method also allowed us to
gain deeper understanding of how keywords and phrases used within the tool might
be interpreted and how these interpretations changed as we gained experience using
the tool.
12.4.2 The Setting
Classrooms were selected through the Preschool for All Program (PFA), a state
(Illinois)-supported initiative that provides funds for early childhood and family
education programs and services that help young children enter school [kindergar-
ten] ready to learn. The program provides educational programs for 3–5-year-olds
based on two priorities. The first is that it serves children who have been identified
as at risk for school failure and the second is children whose family’s income is less
than four times the state poverty guidelines (ISBE 2011). The preK classrooms in
this initiative are part of the public school sector and are funded by the Illinois State
Board of Education. The program is a large collaborative between 19 public school
districts in four Illinois counties and the local university. The PFA offers half-day
programming designed to support young children and their families through a com-
mitment to early childhood best practices, family involvement, family literacy, and
community collaboration. Information provided by the Program and classroom
teachers provides a partial picture of the specific classrooms we were observing.
Classroom A – 15 children, seven girls and eight boys, were present during the
time of our observations. All 15 children were identified as “at risk,” with two chil-
dren possessing Individualized Education Plans (IEP), eight children live at an
income level that qualifies them for free or reduced school lunch prices, and ten
meet PFA income guidelines. Eleven children in the class were identified as White/
non-Hispanic, two as being of two or more races, one as African-American, and one
as Asian. One child was identified as an English language learner (ELL).
Classroom B – 14 children, seven girls and seven boys, were present during the
time of our observations. All 14 children were identified as “at risk,” with one child
possessing an IEP. A majority of the children live at an income level that qualifies
them for free or reduced lunch prices and meet PFA income guidelines. Twelve
children were identified as White/non-Hispanic, one as Hispanic, and one as being
of two or more races. One child was identified as an English language learner.
Classroom C – 14 children, nine girls and five boys, were present during our
observations. All 14 of the children were identified as “at risk,” with six students
possessing IEPs. A majority of the children live at an income level that qualifies
them for free or reduced lunch prices and meet the PFA income requirements.
Thirteen of the students were identified as White/non-Hispanic, and one child was
identified as being of two or more races.
Classroom D – 12 children, four girls and eight boys, were present during the
time of our observation. All 12 of the children were identified as “at risk,” with five
children possessing IEPs. All of the children live at an income level that qualifies
them for free or reduced lunch prices and meet the income guidelines for PFA. Half
of the children were identified as White/non-Hispanic and half as Hispanic. Half of
the children were identified as English language learners with Spanish as their home
language.
Classroom E – 16 children, nine girls and seven boys, were present during the
time of our observation. A majority of children are identified as “at risk,” with five
children possessing IEPs.
Approximately half of the children live at an income level that qualifies them for
free or reduced lunch prices, and majorities meet the income guidelines for
PFA. Fifteen of the children were identified as White/non-Hispanic, and one was
identified as Asian. One child was identified as an English language learner with
Nepalese as the home language.
The teacher participants in this trial included five teachers currently possessing
valid teaching credentials (04 Teaching certificate issued by the state of Illinois). All
five teachers earned their bachelor’s degree in Early Childhood or Elementary
Education. One of the teachers initially earned an Elementary Education Teaching
certificate, but returned to school at a later time to complete the requirements to earn
her 04 Early Childhood Education teaching certificate. Total years of teaching expe-
rience among the five participants ranged from 13 years to 37 years’ experience.
The range of years of teaching experience was 10 years to 18 years.
Each classroom was visited once for a half-day session (2 1/2–3 h) by both
researchers who observed classroom activities, snack and lunch times, and play-
ground and group times. We had conducted a pre-pilot observation prior to starting
the formal research protocol to determine interrater reliability and effective obser-
vation strategies. We found through that pilot observation that certain criterion
might be present throughout the school year that was not evident during a single
classroom visit and decided to add a post-observation interview to the observation
protocol. The interviews proved to be very informative.
12.4.3 The Findings
The following sections describe our findings in each of the three areas of the ERS-
SDEC. Each section includes a brief introduction to our analysis, followed by a
discussion of how we achieved a global rating for each section.
12.4.3.1 The ERS-SDEC: Social and Cultural Sustainability
Global rating scores. The five classrooms ranged from 1 (Inadequate) to 5 (Good).
Three of the classrooms (A, B, and E) received an overall rating of 1 (Inadequate).
The mean rating for social and cultural sustainability was 2.2. The three classrooms
receiving a rating of 1 did so because of the presence of books, posters, and puzzles
that had gender-stereotyped images, even though they also had other images that
were intentionally not stereotypical and, independently, received a much higher rat-
ing (see later discussion) (Fig. 12.1).
Interdependence. All five classrooms demonstrated interdependence through
classroom community building. The children worked independently and together to
Fig. 12.1 Gender stereotypical puzzle alongside a culturally appropriate one
ensure a smooth classroom routine. Teachers in four of the classrooms emphasized

positive group dynamics and classroom community. One teacher said, “We are a
team and the children know that.” The teachers in these four classrooms implicitly
supported interdependence and classroom harmony by reminding children about
sharing materials, being careful of other’s work, including all children in their play,
and building empathy. For example, during story time in classroom E, a cry erupted
from one of the children who had gotten accidently kicked by another child. The
teacher stopped reading and a group discussion began about what happened and
how it could be avoided in the future. She modeled worry for the injured child and
support for the child who accidently caused the injury. The other teacher added,
“Look at all the people who are worried about Lisa,” emphasizing the importance
for having an ethic of care in the classroom. The teacher in classroom D had her
weekly curriculum plans posted, and they included several activities under a column
called cooperative play. Three of the classrooms received a yes rating to community
involvement though none received enough ratings at level seven to bump them up to
excellent. Although field trips had been severely reduced by the program adminis-
tration, teachers still utilized the community by taking walking trips to a local fire
station, post office, grocery store, etc.
Cultural and social diversity. We found that in all five classrooms though teach-
ers did not initiate conversations about children’s ethnic diversity, some of the class-
rooms had abundant and accessible diversity resources. When asked in the post
interview, teachers said that if conversations about diversity happen at all, “they
happen organically and naturally” with individual children on a one to one level, not
as a group discussion. We should point out that not all teachers appeared to under-
stand the importance of such conversations, whether teacher or child initiated. For
example, one teacher said “the children don’t see color and don’t ask questions
about race.” Her response and others like it raised questions about the teachers’
levels of comfort in intentionally planning for and discussing the children’s racial,
ethnic, and family lifestyle differences. In one example, a classroom had many
books about diversity and inclusion, such as “It’s O.K to be Different” and “Hands
Around the World,” but, when asked, the teacher said they did very little discussing
about differences with the exception of the “All About Me” project where children
share a story about themselves. Two of the children in that classroom were from
Nepal, and when asked if the teachers facilitated discussion pertaining to their
Nepalese heritage, they were reflective in sharing what they learned about the fami-
lies, but that they had shared only a little of that with the children in the class.
Same-sexed couples were not addressed in any of the classrooms, and when
asked during the interview about materials that we may have missed regarding gay
marriage, same-sexed parents, etc., the teachers indicated that in all of their years of
teaching, they had never had this type of family and therefore felt it needn’t be
brought into the classroom through materials or discussion. This, of course, raises
questions about community acceptance, disclosure by parents, and the possible
stigma that may be attached to same-sexed couples living in this region.
Equality. As mentioned above three of the classrooms received a rating of inad-
equate because of the presence of only gender stereotypical materials. For example,
Classroom E had a career puzzle on the shelf that included four male figures dressed
as a firefighter, police officer, construction worker, and a cowboy. Three females
were dressed as a ballerina, a nurse, and a mother holding a baby. Interestingly, this
shelf also had a culturally appropriate puzzle of a Middle Eastern open-air market
where both men and women were working. In classroom A a set of puzzles had
been placed on activity tables during free playtime. One puzzle was a girl with
blonde curly hair and peach-hued skin with rosy cheeks; the other was of a boy with
short blonde hair and peach-hued skin tones. Each was equipped with gender-
stereotyped costume changes. The girl had a pink dress and baby-like pajamas to be
dressed in and the boy a knight’s armor, a superhero costume, and a firefighter suit.
Classroom B had some books that addressed stereotypes but did not go as far as we
would expect regarding gender. For example, in a set of career books, both black
and white doctors were depicted, but they were all male. Females were depicted as
nurses. These three classrooms had shortcomings related to promoting gender
equity in their materials, though we see it positively reflected in the ratings in the
dramatic play activities. In all five classrooms we observed that children were
encouraged to explore gender roles through dramatic play clothes and props. No
gender-based limitations were set or implied; we observed boys in aprons baking
pies, a boy wearing a white dinner glove while wearing a police jacket, and girls
pretending to be the superhero, Batman, dressed as a doctor in white lab coat and
stethoscope and building a car garage. Gender restrictions did not guide or limit
participation in any of the dramatic play activities, but the presence of gender
stereotypical images in three of the classrooms required that we not “give credit” for
these materials/activities. The scoring guidelines require that a rating of 1 must be
given if any indicator in section 1 is scored yes regardless of high ratings received
on other criteria in this section. It was gender stereotyping, an issue of gender
inequality, that gave three classrooms a rating of inadequate even though we saw
plenty of examples of cross-gender play.
All five classrooms had some (2/3+) materials that depicted images that do not
conform to social and cultural stereotypes; most had many. The classrooms were
currently working on very tight budgets, but they had shelves and cupboards full of
books and other resources collected over time that included many culturally appro-
priate themes. All classrooms had books and materials depicting multicultural
images, though the researchers did not necessarily consider these materials to chal-
lenge social norms. This raised a question for us about context and perspective,
however. What is considered a social “norm” in rural Illinois where racial and eth-
nic diversity is not high would be quite different in more metropolitan areas in the
state and country; having multiple representations of people of color might in itself
be challenging stereotypes. Whereas in metropolitan areas such as Chicago, teach-
ers might feel a need to press harder to challenge social norms since the norm is
diversity.
12.4.3.2 The ERS-SDEC: Economic Sustainability
Global rating scores. There is a full range of scores across the settings. Classroom
B received a rating of 1, D and E a rating of 3, and A and C ratings of 4. The mean
rating scale for economic sustainability is 3.0. A single program oversees all of the
classrooms and teacher hiring, trainings, etc., but each classroom is placed in a
school separate from the other program classrooms. We saw school or site-based
influence more evident in economic sustainability than either cultural or environ-
mental sustainability. This is because schools determine recycling policies and dis-
tribute bins for that purpose. The school also determines lunch and snack time
materials and procedures.
Resource conservation and consumption. All five classrooms reused materials
(e.g., cereal boxes were turned into musical instruments). However, in only four of
the five classrooms reference was made to responsible consumption in that those
sites implemented school-wide recycling. The sites varied on the extent of what was
recycled, however. For example, two classrooms recycled paper; one classroom
recycled paper, cardboard, and plastic, yet another added aluminum cans, glass, and
ink-jet cartridges. While four classrooms recycled paper, only one classroom also
conserved water and electricity. In this classroom, however, it was the teachers who
turned off the lights when leaving the classroom. This was appropriate modeling;
however, the reasons for so doing were not made explicit to the children, therefore
missing a “teachable moment.” This classroom also served a family style lunch with
some reusable dishes. During lunch, children put unopened packaged condiments
back in a bin to be used at another time. No classroom discussions were observed

about any of these practices.
No observed discussions took place where children verbally suggested conserva-
tion ideas. However, in three classrooms children used recycled materials, some of
which were brought from their homes, to make art projects, instruments, etc.
Without interviewing the children, we cannot determine the connections they are
making. In one classroom, a conversation between two children indicated an under-
standing of limited quantity. Related to snack, a child said, “We can only have one…
because other kids need some too.” When a child asked for more water to drink, the
teacher relied, “Finish up what’s in your cup and then you can have some more if
you need it.” The message being, don’t waste; take only what you need and think of
others’ needs. There was no evidence in any of the classrooms that parents are
involved in large-scale conservation projects, but in two classrooms parents were
donating empty food containers for classroom reuse.
Economy/use of money both real and pretend. All classrooms had opportunities
for children to play with pretend money, usually as part of dramatic play (e.g., gro-
cery shopping, setting up an ice-cream shop). Children were not observed directly
participating in real money classroom purchase decisions. This was confirmed in
the follow-up interviews. One teacher indicated that children were indirectly
involved through discussion at preK meetings as to what materials should be added
to the classroom (e.g., dramatic play area). Also, teachers pay attention to children’s
interests; this influences purchase decisions. Children’s ideas influence what the
teachers buy, but these decisions are not made transparent to the children.
Children’s attention was not observed being drawn to economic issues of con-
cern to the community. One teacher did explain in the interview that if a child brings
up an economic concern (e.g., a parent losing a job), she addresses it as a “matter-
of-fact” and might say, “Sometimes people lose their jobs.” She felt it necessary to
protect the family’s privacy around personal economic hardships and did not use
such comments to build a general conversation about economics. Teachers did not
facilitate discussion about the hidden costs of products. When asked, they said that
they believed that it was too complex an issue for preschoolers. The PFA Program
prohibits any type of fundraising so children and families do not engage in entrepre-
neurial projects.
Economic fairness/justice. Requirements of the funding for the Preschool for All
initiative ensure that low-income families not only have equal access but also have
first access to the program, which is free for all families.
12.4.3.3 The ERS-SDEC: Environmental Sustainability
Global rating scores. Overall, the five early childhood classrooms we observed
received ratings ranging from 1 (inadequate) to 5 (Good). Three of the five class-
rooms were given a rating of 4 (minimal to good). The mean score for environmen-
tal sustainability is 3.6. The final decisions regarding these ratings were not given
without questioning the meaning of several items found within the scale, including
Fig. 12.2 Recycling station
the meaning of “environmental issues.” Also placed into question was the use of the
terms “some” or “many” in regard to materials found within the classroom which
made the rating somewhat subjective.
References to sustainability in the classroom setting and curriculum. Of the five
classrooms observed, we rated all but Classroom B as having “references to envi-
ronmental sustainability in the setting.” Classroom B was using recycled (although
disposable) bowls and cups for snack time. When asked about these items, the
teachers did not know who had purchased them or why recycled items had been
chosen. The four classrooms that were rated “no” on this criterion were given this
rating primarily due to the presence of materials and practices that are evaluated
elsewhere within the scale (e.g., classroom recycling, books about energy use, natu-
ral materials in the classroom, and the study of environmental phenomena). Criterion
7.3 asks if the curriculum explicitly includes learning about environmental sustain-
ability; this was clearly a “no” for all five classrooms due to the lack of intention by
teachers even when various practices to support environmental sustainability were
in place (Fig. 12.2).
Environmental understanding and problem-solving. Evaluating the classrooms
for environmental understanding and problem-solving provoked some interesting
observations and questions for the researchers. If “environmental issues” is defined

in terms of environmental problems, as is suggested in the current guideline notes,
the researchers found less support for this concept in the classrooms. However, if
“environmental issues” includes learning about the environment, environmental
phenomena, and/or environmental stewardship, evidence of support for the study of
environmental issues was observed in all five of the classrooms to varying degrees.
All of the classrooms discussed environmental issues in some capacity and included
environmental materials in the setting. Discussions of environmental issues with
children focused on issues such as weather patterns, seasons, the life cycles of ani-
mals, and basic environmental practices such as recycling or cleaning up litter on
school grounds or in the local community. Environmental materials found in the
classrooms included wooden unit blocks, books about nature, and a wide variety of
items found in nature (e.g., seashells, seed pods, pine cones, bird feathers, animal
pelts, nests, bones). These items were primarily available for hands-on exploration
by children during free time throughout the day. Two of the classrooms we observed
had particularly rich science areas with many natural items for children to explore
using magnifying glasses and other scientific tools. It was clear that the children
spent a lot of time in these areas.
All five of the classrooms appeared to be engaged in projects and group activities
that fostered a deeper level of exploration, investigation, and understanding about
the environment. The in-depth study of topics related to the environment was
observable. Classroom A was engaged in a project about hibernation during the
winter months. Evidence of their study, drawings and dictations of children’s knowl-
edge about hibernation, was displayed throughout the classroom. One particular
example of children’s hands-on exploration of the topic was a small tub of dirt
found sitting on a shelf in the classroom. At one point during the observation, the
teacher brought the dirt down to the children’s level and asked, “What happened to
the mud?” When the teacher brought the tub down for observation and discussion,
one of the children suggested they should add water back into the tub to see what
would happen.
Despite the involvement with projects that contribute to a greater understanding
of the environment, there was considerably less evidence to support the criterion
that asks that children be “encouraged to identify a range of environmental issues
and to suggest their own ideas,” in any of the classrooms. Only one of the class-
rooms received a rating of “yes” for this item.
At the far end of the continuum regarding environmental understanding and
problem-solving, criterion 7.2 asks that “Children are encouraged to provide a vari-
ety of actions, including narrative accounts, to represent their own and others efforts
to solve environmental issues.” In general, it seemed as if classroom projects con-
cerning environmental issues did not extend to an action-based approach to learning
for environmental sustainability. Environmental problems did not seem to be identi-
fied in classrooms in general, thus providing actions or efforts to solve them was not
emphasized.
12.4.4 Appreciation of and Experience with Nature’s

Resources
It should be noted that all of the classrooms in this study are located in a naturally
wooded, rural, agricultural region of the USA just north of a national forest and east
of a major river region. The area is known for its lush biodiversity and seasonal
changes. The children that attend these classes are likely to be exposed regularly to
scenic views of farmlands and/or wooded areas. All of the classrooms we visited
included playground spaces that were near small places of natural beauty. However,
when teachers were asked about class trips (to parks, countryside, farms etc.), all
five commented about a recent policy change that prohibited or limited the ability
of the classrooms to take trips away from school grounds. One of the teachers sim-
ply stated that they are no longer taking class trips, while the other four reported that
they are taking fewer trips than they would like to take with children; parks and
pumpkin patches are some of the regularly visited places of natural beauty visited
by the classrooms. During the observation, children were taken on a walk around
school grounds. Children were encouraged in noticing many of the natural elements
found on the school grounds.
All five classrooms involved the children in caring for animals and plants, and
four of the five classrooms had animals and plants in the setting. Classroom A
reported that children do care for animals and plants regularly within the setting.
While there were no plants or animals present at the time of the observation, the
teachers reported that this was due to the cold season and recent winter break.
Hatching chicken eggs had been done the previous year, and the teachers were plan-
ning on doing so again in the spring. Some of the chicken eggs would come from
the chickens that had been hatched the previous year. Because some children are
members of the class for multiple years, they would not only experience the act of
hatching eggs, they would also develop a greater understanding of generational con-
cepts of the life cycle.
Classroom C showed that children are involved in several activities that involve
the daily care of plants and animals. There were two plants that the children helped
to care for in the setting and one hedgehog. It was obvious that the children were
well versed in taking responsibility for the hedgehog. Two children clearly articu-
lated the need to be very quiet when close to the hedgehog habitat (since hedgehogs
sleep during the day). The children are regularly involved with the care and feeding
of the hedgehog. There were many learning resources available about hedgehogs,
including hedgehogs of other varieties and where they could be found around the
world. The children created class-made books about hedgehogs, graphs of different
types of hedgehogs, and artistic interpretations of hedgehogs and explored other
animals with quill variations. Classroom D also showed a consistent involvement
with plants and animals in the room. During the visit, several small plants and root-
ing bulbs were observed in the room. When asked about caring for plants and ani-
mals, in the post-observation interview, the teacher reported that this is something
the children are involved in regularly. While this classroom’s involvement was also
guided by the seasons, the teachers found animals appropriate for all times of year
to care for. In the fall and cooler seasons, the children care for and study a variety of
insects. As spring approaches, this study becomes more focused on animals such as
caterpillars and tadpoles. While classroom E had less involvement with plants and
animals than the others, the teachers did report planting seeds in the spring, as well
as hatching duck eggs, observing tad poles, hamsters, and other animals which find
their way into the classroom.
12.4.5 The Provision of Basic Care for Individuals

and Communities from the Classroom Community
and Beyond
The last strand or theme assessing environmental sustainability concerns the impor-
tant concept of care. By ensuring that children’s basic needs, such as access to clean
water, are provided for, we are practicing the heart of environmental sustainability.
This begins with the provision of basic care for children and extends to mindfulness
about and responsibility for caring for the classroom environment and the local and
international communities and ultimately to expressing care for the Earth as a whole
by using environmentally appropriate building materials in the construction and
maintenance of our schools.
All five classrooms were providing basic needs for children. All children had
access to clean drinking water. Staff and children were able and did wash their
hands before eating and after toileting. However, the level of awareness or mindful-
ness about how and why it is important to drink clean water and/or wash hands at
appropriate times varied for the children in different rooms. In classroom E, the
teachers seemed to bring a special awareness to these activities, particularly in
regard to handwashing. The children were guided through the process of making
sure hands were washed well and that there were enough soap and towels for every-
one. The purpose of handwashing was communicated to children in terms of wash-
ing away germs to “keep everyone healthier.”
All five classrooms supported children in caring for the classroom environment/
setting. Four of the five classrooms extended this responsibility to the care of the
larger school settings. Classroom B reported that the children have sometimes been
involved in city cleanup days. In general, while children’s care for their own envi-
ronments was heavily emphasized, children’s participation in providing care to
larger communities was not evident. This was especially true in regard to supporting
the responsibility toward caring for the global community or the needs of the Earth
as a whole.
12.5 Discussion
12.5.1 Reflections and Considerations
After the study was completed, each of the five lead teachers for the classrooms was
interviewed about their perceptions of some of the terms and phrases closely aligned
with ESD and used within the ERS-SDEC. Specifically, teachers were interviewed
about their thoughts on interdependence, diversity, community, economic concerns
(including the hidden costs and benefits of a range of products), equality, social
justice, human rights, environmental issues, and sustainable development. The
interviews gave insight to some of the potential strengths and challenges of the
ERS- SDEC for use by individual teachers as well as general challenges implement-
ing ESD. Throughout the interviews the teachers expressed a commitment to devel-
opmentally appropriate practice, a value for participatory and problem-based
learning, and an appreciation for the benefits of community engagement – all peda-
gogical tenets of ESD. Teachers also expressed values of fairness and equality and
being open, honest, and matter-of-fact with children. But teachers were new to the
terms of interdependence, social justice, human rights, and economics education in
their early childhood classrooms.
12.5.2 Interdependence
The teachers from southern Illinois indicated that they were not familiar with the
term interdependence, and they used the term “independence” to process their
understanding of the term interdependence. This is especially interesting given the
emphasis in American schools and ideology about independence and autonomy.
However, when the teachers discussed the term community, it was clear that they
saw their classrooms as being interdependent communities; the classrooms func-
tioned as caring communities of learners where everyone is considered a valuable
contributor to the well-being of the classroom. Professional development opportuni-
ties for teachers in ESD should consider first exploring definitions related to the
complexity of ESD, interdependence and independence being two of them. This
may assist American teachers not only in their understanding of interdependence
within the classroom but also of other uses of the term, such as interdependence
with groups and communities or interdependence with nature.
12.5.3 Social Justice and Human Rights
The ERS-SDEC asks if children are encouraged in discussions about diversity and
equality and whether references to equality are found within the classroom. The
teachers’ responses indicated that they were usually comfortable talking about
diversity with children and in fact had intentionally planned curriculum to address
aspects of diversity such as family differences and similarities or studies of chil-
dren’s physical qualities (i.e., hair color, eye color, height, etc.). However, it was
evident that many were uncomfortable talking about some more “controversial”
issues that they considered too complex for children, too personal, or potentially
offensive to other members of the class. For example, discussions about the incar-
ceration of a parent, same-sex parents, socioeconomic inequities, or children mak-
ing biased statements about other races or nationalities in the class were considered
off-limits. Similarly, when the teachers were asked about equality, they seemed to
express a genuine commitment to the ideals of equality and fairness, but had per-
haps not thought much about how they communicate their beliefs about equality to
families in an explicit way. Providing examples of how teachers might incorporate
“references” to equality might enhance understanding and thus usefulness of the
ESD training. Likewise, the ERS-SDEC used as a training tool might provide guid-
ance to teachers about how they might help children to discuss and confront
inequality.
The idea of planning for economics education in the preschool classroom was new
for all of the teachers in this study. Teachers were asked about how they might facili-
tate learning about “local economic issues of concern” (a phrase used within the
ERS-SDEC for EC) and how or if any of these were discussed with children in the
classroom. All five teachers communicated that planning for economics in the cur-
riculum was not something that they had practiced. The teachers did indicate that
they had introduced some aspects of economics, such as playing grocery store in the
dramatic play area or making their own pretend money in the classroom. One of the
teachers made a tacit connection between weather-related events, and another con-
sidered her classroom’s experiences with waste and conservation, but conceded that
she hadn’t really connected that topic to economics. Teachers were concerned that
discussing economics, particularly economic issues of concern, might be too per-
sonal for children or too divisive among the classroom.
One item on the ERS-SDEC that was especially problematic for teachers was the
statement, “children are encouraged and supported in questioning the hidden costs
and benefits of a range of products.” Teachers were asked to interpret this statement
and to provide examples of how they might facilitate this within the classroom.
None of the teachers was able to engage in a conversation about this statement,
despite some prompting by the interviewer. Teachers in this study indicate a need
for educational workshops on consumer literacy. Arlemalm-Hagser and Sandberg
(2011), reported on the views of 32 practicing childcare professionals in Sweden,
and found that economics was not something that teachers freely associated with
sustainable development.
In a country as large and diverse as the USA, it is impossible to draw any defini-
tive conclusions about the state of ESD in the USA. early childhood curriculum and
pedagogy from this study. However, the use of the ERS-SDEC as a starting point to
professional assessments and deeper discussions around ESD is very promising.
Education in the USA is heavily regulated with standards, both knowledge and per-
formance based. Until education for sustainable development principles are man-
dated by state and federal standards and regulations, ESD will be considered merely
an add on topic to the curriculum and will not get the “traction” necessary to be
sustainable, itself.
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Chapter 13
Towards a Research Programme for Early
Childhood Education for Sustainable
Development
In a world characterised by rapid change, uncertainty and increasing interconnectedness,

there is a growing need for science to contribute to the solution of persistent, complex prob-
lems. (Hadorn et al. 2008: vii)
It is now widely recognised that holistic solutions are required to address the
world’s problems. It isn’t enough to provide an economic or even a sociocultural or
an environmental analysis in isolation. What is required is to combine these per-
spectives to identify the complexities and the interrelationships of economic, envi-
ronmental and social and cultural contributions to the problems we face such as
poverty, waste, environmental destruction and degradation, inequality, health, safety
and the violation of human rights. Transdisciplinarity is fundamental to sustainable
development. As educational researchers concerned with the development of policy
and practice, we addressed these challenges directly.
13.1 Trials of the Education Rating Scale for Sustainable

Development in Early Childhood (ERS-SDEC)
The collaborative studies carried out within the World Organisation for Early
Childhood Education (OMEP) and reported in the preceding chapters have all been
founded on a common assumption that these challenges are best addressed through
international collaboration and that, as professional ECCE educators and advocates,
our responsibilities to young children and their families extend beyond national
borders, supporting children around the world and especially where their needs are
greatest at the present time.

In the study trials, the ERS-SDEC was well received by teacher in all the coun-
tries involved in the study. Even in the trials carried out in Chile where all of the
settings were considered inadequate, it was felt that the use of the scale, as a self-
evaluation tool, would allow the centres to improve their sustainability practices.
The Chilean research team called for international support in the development of
more training resources for ESD and for materials promoting greater recognition of
the need for ESD in early childhood education. The ratings in Kenya were also very
limited, but the UNESCO Post-DESD Africa Consultation has suggested that the
post-2014 ESD programme framework should focus on the development of indica-
tors to assess ESD implementation at local, national, subregional and regional lev-
els. It was felt that terms of reference and indicators for monitoring and evaluating
ESD implementation were required at all levels and that the information should feed
into the global monitoring and evaluation of ESD progress (Yao et al. 2014, p. 4)
In the Swedish trials, the rating question relating to providing financial support
for low-income families to gain access to the facilities was considered culturally
inappropriate as the Swedish government already legislated for this. Similarly, in
the development of the ERS-SDEC, some teachers in more advantaged preschool
contexts questioned the relevance of including the ‘hygiene’ criteria related to
water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Yet by presenting the provision of clean
water and sanitation as fundamental requirements in the ERS-SDEC, our intention
has been to draw global attention to those preschool contexts where the absence of
these facilities is a direct threat to sustainable development and to children’s future
lives. A final justification for their inclusion in the ERS-SDEC was well put by the
research team in the USA:
By ensuring that children’s basic needs, such as access to clean water, are provided for, we
are practicing the heart of environmental sustainability. This begins with the provision of
basic care for children and extends to mindfulness about and responsibility for caring for
the classroom environment, the local and international communities, and ultimately to
expressing care for the Earth as a whole.
These are issues that we all need to be mindful of, and in working together inter-
nationally to advance sustainable development in early childhood education, we can
all contribute towards ensuring that every child in the world has access to these
basic facilities.
In the USA and in Norway, the teachers were concerned that discussing eco-
nomic issues might be too personal or too divisive for the children. In stark contrast
to this, Hammond et al. (2014) reported on a project that addressed the issues with
children directly, focusing on the subjects of employment, money and food from the
starting point of considering images of an empty and a full refrigerator. Research
carried out by Weinger (2000) in the USA and the UK has shown how many chil-
dren become acutely aware of the consequences of growing up rich or poor from a
very early age. If we fail to address the emerging understandings and assumptions
that young children inevitably bring with them into the classroom, and into their
interactions with peers and their local community, we neglect a significant educa-
tional opportunity.
13 Towards a Research Programme for Early Childhood Education for Sustainable… 195
In fact early childhood economics education was clearly an area of weakness

across all of the trial countries. In the UK there have been recent calls for provisions
to be made to teach children aged 5 and above more about household credit and the
dangers of accumulating excess debts, but such policy proposals of this kind remain
limited.
Following the trials the research teams from the USA and the UK specifically
suggest the need for the ERS-SDEC training to provide guidance to teachers about
how they might help children to discuss and confront inequality. The summary
guidance provided in Appendix B provides some pointers, but an adequate treat-
ment of the subject will be found in texts such as Dermon-Sparkes and Olsen
Edwards (2015) as well as Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke (2000). Further work in this
area will be carried out over the next couple of years in association with UNESCO
and in OMEPs capacity as a member of the UNESCO ESD Global Action
Programme (GAP) Network for Teacher Education.
In China the mean score for all their preschool settings ranged from 2.33 to 3.67.
These scores were generally low because most of the settings had a very low score
in social and cultural sustainability. Even when teachers thought that they under-
stood the concept, they typically treated it as cultural understanding, not the more
important issues of equity and social justice. The concept of economic sustainabil-
ity was also new for most of the Chinese teachers. The social and cultural sustain-
ability domain was also the weakest area for Korea, and in the USA, the mean rating
for social and cultural sustainability was also just 2.2. ‘Inadequate’ ratings were
applied in three cases where some of the books displayed gender stereotypes with,
for example, only boys being portrayed as the knights in armour, superheroes or
firefighters or as doctors, with girls portrayed as nurses. In Sweden the highest scor-
ing setting in terms of social and cultural sustainability education served an ethni-
cally diverse community; it was staffed by mother tongue teachers and had many
multi-ethnic resources. This follows a pattern across Europe and the USA at least,
where those preschools serving ethnic minority communities are the first to intro-
duce multicultural and anti-racist education provisions. The irony is, of course, that
the need is actually greatest and most urgent in less diverse settings even within
these countries. In preschool and local communities where the ethnic majority dom-
inate, ethnic majority assumptions, privileges and prejudices are rarely challenged.
In Sweden the preschool curriculum states
… that preschool should put great emphasis on issues concerning the child’s wellbeing,
development and learning, democracy, citizenship, equality between genders, and solidarity
with the weak and vulnerable. (Pramling-Samuelsson 2015)
This is a reflection of Sweden’s particular and very specific geopolitical condi-

tions and historic realities. These are a set of realities that it has shared to some
degree with other Scandinavian countries but much less with the rest of the world.
In the USA ‘interdependence’ in particular was considered most significantly an
interpersonal issue of ‘classroom community building’, and little or no efforts were
made to support the children in developing their understandings of social and cul-
tural diversity outside of this context. Comments that the teachers made regarding
the relevance of learning about ‘same-sex marriage’ in exclusively heterosexual

communities parallel a situation that was common two decades ago in most devel-
oped multicultural contexts in Europe: where schools and preschools made no pro-
visions for multicultural or anti-racist education except where there were ethnic
minorities in the school community. While teacher education has made this less
prevalent, such a situation still exists in some, mostly rural communities.
Being a citizen means accepting the rights and responsibility of being a member
of a community. In all of the preschools involved in our trials, the rights and respon-
sibilities of members of the classroom community were considered of crucial
importance. In some settings around the world more than others, teachers are aware
of their responsibility to educate young children about the diversity in the local
community around them. In far fewer so far, this caring for the community extends
to humanity as a whole, to global diversity and the needs of the planet. Our recogni-
tion of global interdependence is profoundly important in collectively dealing with
the environmental and biological challenges that we face. Arguably, the promotion
of global citizenship presents the most significant ongoing challenge to early child-
hood education. In Sweden preschools are recognised as institutions with the aim of
social change, yet the Swedish trials suggested that a major challenge for the teach-
ers remains concerned with developing transformative whole institution approaches
to ESD. The problem here may be related directly to another challenge identified in
the trials which has been to develop practitioners’ understanding of children as
active agents of change (see Arlemalm-Hagser and Davis 2014) and the inter-
connectedness of ecological, social and economic sustainability.
13.2 The Research Collaboration
In Chap. 2 reference was made to the fact that some writers would reject the very
principle of applying such an evaluative instrument as the ERS-SDEC in an interna-
tional context:
Throughout the project it has been important to consider cultural comparative issues. To
take a concrete example, in the UK, policy makers and analysts have often drawn special
attention to the apparent superiority of Swedish preschool practices. In particular, it is often
suggested that as Swedish preschools place less emphasis on literacy than in the UK, and as
Swedish children only begin formal education at age 7, children in the UK could achieve
similar standards with the same provisions. (Palmer 2009)
What this account leaves out, as noted in Chap. 2, is the fact that for 300 years
Sweden has been recognised as the country where children have access to more
books at home and also the country with the highest literacy rates and reading stan-
dards in Europe. As Harris et al. suggest, ‘Long before school entrance some chil-
dren may have had thousands of hours of fruitful meetings with written language’
(p. 167).
There are many children in UK homes who enjoy similar home educational ben-
efits, but for the majority in the UK and for a minority of children at least in every
other nation in the world, reading instruction is considered the responsibility of the
school and not the home. The ERS-SDEC therefore included provisos that refer to
the need for ‘good’ preschool practice to include encouraging literacy activities and
reading to the children. As noted in the introduction, poverty and educational disad-
vantage have been recognised as sustainability issues in themselves.
Often, when a group of people are working together, they may choose to ignore
a major issue that would divide or distract their thinking sufficiently to make col-
laboration difficult. While this is pragmatic and sensible, sooner or later it is inevi-
table that we need to address the issue directly. Often in such a situation, someone
will refer to the metaphorical presence of an ‘elephant’ in the room, something
really big and of significance that everyone has been ignoring. The ‘elephant in the
room’ for the OMEP ESD research collaboration has been epistemological in
nature, and in this chapter, where an attempt is being made to provide guidance to
students and others embarking on continuing research in this area, the ‘elephant’
cannot be ignored. At the most abstract level, the division has often been presented
as being between those who believe the aims of research in the area of ESD is one
of collecting reliable and objective evidence to inform policymakers and practitio-
ners and those who reject the possibility of objectivity and seek to present the voices
and interests of preschool practitioners and children to be listened to and given
equal authority and empowerment in determining policy and practice. One way of
describing this division has been to seek an alternative to science:
A turn away from the search for certainty and order, unity and closure, into a recognition of
multiple perspectives and ambivalence, provisionality and contestation. (Dahlberg and
Moss 2005, p. 63)
Dahlberg et al. (1999) and Dahlberg and Moss’s (2005) argument has been that
the priority for ECCE institutions should be to develop themselves as
places of ethical and political practice”, “…able to confront dominant discourses that claim
to transmit a true body of knowledge, and that seek to manipulate our bodies, mould our
subjectivities and govern our souls. (ibid, p. 2)
The problem with this is that while we may share Dahlberg and Moss’s princi-
pled opposition to competitive education systems that ultimately only serve to sup-
port economic inequality, their rejection of efforts to improve quality and outcomes
in ECCE and to improve social mobility in ‘meritocratic’ capitalist contexts can do
nothing to change those contexts. The approach is idealistic and potentially damag-
ing. The only possible result would be to reduce equality of opportunity and the
possibility of individuals to escape poverty. The ERS-SDEC enterprise is concerned
with improving the quality and scope of the ECCE-ESD curriculum. In providing a
universal prescription, it may be considered fundamentally at odds with Dahlberg
and Moss’s position. Apart from the moral argument, Dahlberg and Moss also seek
to reject definitions of quality philosophically. In his critique of ECCE ‘quality’
prescriptions and ‘early interventions’ (p. 230), Moss (2007) quotes from his 1999
collaboration with Dahlberg and Pence:
…the concept of quality in relation to early childhood institutions is irretrievably modern-
ist, it is part of the Cartesian dream of certainty and the Enlightenment’s ambition for
Progress and Truth. It is about a search for definitive and universal criteria, certainty and
order- or it is about nothing.
But the conception of postmodernism that is applied here as some kind of refuta-
tion of modernism and its truth-seeking objectives are open to serious question. As
Burbules (1995) has observed, when Lyotard (1984) defined postmodernism as an
‘incredulity towards metanarratives’, incredulity was never considered any kind of
denial or rejection. It was simply an ‘inability to believe’ (Burbules 1995, p. 2).
Lyotard fully recognised that however ambivalent its relation to modernism had
become, postmodernism was not a refutation of modernism; rather it was a product
of it:
…it is a mistake to think that postmodernism is about the rejection of modernist concep-
tions of language, science, ethics, reason, and justice. Thinking that it is would require that
we ask for the arguments that would support such a rejection, and ask for an account of
what one is going to replace them with….[and] as soon as one offers something that looks
like counterarguments, or tries to offer criteria of a “better” alternative, he or she is promptly
caught up in a contradiction, for these are precisely the types of things that are being denied.
(Burbules 1995. p. 2)
Dahlberg et al. (1999) arguments may be considered all the more surprising
given the fact that, since the 1980s, university research methods courses have intro-
duced students to a wide range of alternative postpositivist epistemologies that may
be applied in quantitative and mixed method studies including those based upon
pragmatic, scientific and critical realism. For example, Siraj-Blatchford and Manni
(2007) argue that while ‘quality’ may, in part, be subjective, it should not be consid-
ered arbitrary. Siraj-Blatchford et al. identify the general approach taken in the
Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE 1997–2003) Project (Sylva et al.
2010) which also applied quality rating scales as ‘scientific realist’, As scientific
realists we explicitly reject naïve empiricism and argue that knowledge may be fal-
lible, partial and approximate, yet still remain “objective”’ (Bunge 1993, p. 74).
The realism in scientific realism may be considered a ‘contingent’ realism
(Lashchyk 1992) which holds that science makes progress, i.e. that scientific theo-
ries usually get successively better:
…scientific realism is a middle-ground position between direct realism and relativism.
Scientific realism is also a critical realism, contending that the job of science is to use its
method to improve our perceptual (measurement) processes, separate illusion from reality,
and thereby generate the most accurate possible description and understanding of the world.
(Hunt 1990)
As Pring (2000) argued, the dichotomy that is often drawn between ‘naïve real-
ism’ and ‘radical relativism’ is false. In the practice of social scientific investigation,
realism and relativism might alternatively be considered to offer simply the most
extreme positions in a continuum of positions that might be taken in combination or
as alternatives.
The curriculum ‘problem’ for policymakers and researchers is certainly one of
power, politics and ideology, and these are as much between generations as across
them. But to deny or wish away the process of cultural transmission from generation
to generation is simply naïve. The solution is not to somehow ‘remove’ the instru-
mental ‘quality’ curriculum, in fact that really isn’t an option, and to imagine that it
is to ignore the fact that all knowledge is socially constructed. It is also important to
recognise that the knowledge that the disadvantaged are disproportionately excluded
from is not just the ‘knowledge of the powerful’; it is also ‘in an important sense,
knowledge itself’. (Young 2008, p. 10).
The promotion of totally ‘free play’ in early childhood doesn’t put the curricu-
lum in the hands of the child; inevitably they are playing in the cultural contexts and
within the environmental constraints provided by the adults around them, and for
good or ill they ‘play out’ the day-to-day realities of all those whose lives they
observe around them.
13.3 Globalisation
A good deal of ‘political correctness’ is apparent in the writings of Dahlberg et al.

(1999), and the moral panic that that they propagate is founded at their core upon
fears of cultural imperialism and globalisation. Yet globalisation isn’t a new phe-
nomenon even if it has accelerated in recent years, and migration and increased
ethnic diversity are, and always have been, one of its most significant consequences.
Early childhood education must face up to the inevitability of these processes. As
Rogoff (2003) has observed, if we want to find the roots of globalisation, we must
look back to technological innovations such as the introduction of farming from
Mesopotamia 10,000 years ago and the events that followed the domestication of
horses in the Ukraine about 5000 years ago (p. 334). The development of Information
and Communications Technologies (ICTs) has opened up international trade and
communication beyond all previous possibilities, and this has especially accelerated
these processes in recent times (Amos et al. 2002):
New information technologies allow the acceleration of world-wide communication and
connect distant localities in such a way, that almost every phenomenon is potentially shaped
by events occurring very far away. (ibid)
These processes of globalisation result in both costs and benefits. On the one
hand, transnational companies have built upon the colonial domination of the past
to exploit those least able to defend themselves (Chomsky 2004), and, on the other
hand, we have improved global dialogue in terms of peace, environmental protec-
tion and human rights. Rogoff (2003) cites the moving testimony of an infant Inuit
child in the USA to illustrate the cruelty of the missionary excesses of cultural
imperialism in the past. These excesses often caused extreme suffering, most espe-
cially by children. Similar stories are told about the experiences of the ‘stolen chil-
dren’ of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families in Australia (ref). Colonial
education was central to the processes of Western Empire building, and the place
taken in that by the Christian Church has yet to be fully acknowledged. In fact such
an acknowledgement may be particularly important at a time when Islamophobia
has become so widespread (Annan 2004). We must never forget the abuses of the
past or the responsibility that comes with being relatively powerful in the world
today. But we must also be very careful not to pass on to the children any guilt that
we might feel about this.1 This is again a case where children will learn much more
from our actions than from our words.
History shows that cultural change has at times been very rapid and brutal and at
other times, peaceful and slow. People have sometimes entered into it willingly and
sought to learn from others, and at other times, they have struggled violently to keep
hold of their traditions and social practices. Modern historical studies have shown
that even in the most extreme cases of large scale migration or invasion, the cultural
changes that have taken place have never been simply one way. The ‘invaders’ may
bring with them many foreign practices, but they are themselves reshaped by the
beliefs and practices of those they ‘conquer’. In any event, cultural change has
always been fearful, even if we may have to accept that to some extent it is
inexorable.
13.4 Conclusions
In chapter one it was argued that in education, as in other areas of enquiry, ‘knowl-
edge’ is developed in the process of long-term collaborative and cumulative research
programmes, where individual research studies are subjected to peer review, and the
relevance of their findings established only after they have been replicated in other
contexts. We are currently at a very early stage in this process in early childhood
ESD. As we also argued in the opening chapters, sustainable development in early
childhood care and education is faced with four major challenges:
• Supporting children who are suffering through ill health, harm, poor nutrition
and/or an ‘accident of birth’, to equality of access to high-quality ECCE
services
• Developing children’s resilience – Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
• Developing children’s global knowledge, awareness and solidarity
• Curriculum practice in Education for Sustainable Development – local recy-
cling, energy and environmental conservation, etc.
The ERS-SDEC is most significantly an instrument designed to begin to address
the last of these, but it is important that, wherever it is applied, data should also be
presented to give voice to those children and families who are denied access to
ECCE. We need to collect international evidence about unsustainable policy and
practice in ECCE, and the most significant of these may be considered to be the
failure to provide it. Provisions to counter inequality and to empower children with
DRR should also feature within the early childhood ESD curriculum of every coun-
try. We need to share our knowledge of good practice and the progress being made
1
This also applies to the environmental unsustainability of any of our current practices. As Hick’s
(1994) has argued, too much of the environmental education of the past may have led to children
adopting pessimistic attitudes of dystopia. We need to engage children in envisaging positive
futures.
so that successes can be celebrated and children take pride in their contributions.
One of the fundamental aims of OMEP has been to develop global solidarity in
ECCE, but there are some significant dangers of misperception to be overcome
(Siraj-Blatchford and Huggins 2015). Talking about ‘Third World’ poverty and
inequality can lead to the children and parents in more advantaged community con-
texts developing false notions of cultural superiority and majority world depen-
dency. The ‘carbon partnership’ approach presented in the UK (Chap. 11) provides
one approach to avoiding this where the identification of inequality in the UK-Kenya
preschool carbon footprints reminds everyone involved that the UK preschools have
been consuming more than their share of world resources and, in most cases, are
continuing to emit more carbon than is sustainable. The UK preschool communities
are therefore in debt to their Kenyan partners, and any support they provide may be
seen as compensatory rather than charitable.
The level one ‘hygiene’ criteria on the ERS-SDEC also include references to the
unsustainable situations where young children have inadequate access to clean
water for drinking and to inadequate sanitation and hygiene facilities. DRR provi-
sions are largely still to be developed but in a context where current progress in the
international response to climate change is widely considered to be inadequate so
that there is every likelihood that this in an area that we will ultimately recognise as
of much greater relevance and importance to all children.
13.5 Access to Early Childhood Care and Education

in the Majority World
6.6 million children under age 5 died in 2012, and more than half of these early
child deaths were due to conditions that could be prevented or treated with access to
simple, affordable interventions (WHO 2013). Young children are particularly vul-
nerable and in need of protection. Fifty-eight percent of all the deaths of under
5-year-olds are caused by infectious diseases, with pneumonia being the most sig-
nificant. Diarrhoea kills an estimated 1.6 million children each year, caused mainly
by unsafe water and poor sanitation. Another million children (mostly in Africa) die
every year due to malaria, a disease much intensified due to poor water management
and storage, inadequate housing, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Economic
analysis has shown unequivocally that it is productive to invest in the care and edu-
cation of disadvantaged young children. In fact research shows that investments in
early childhood are among the best, if not the best, investments that we can make to
support sustainable development, now and into the future (Cunha and Heckman
2007). At the most fundamental level, the provision of adequate support for ECCE
in disadvantaged communities should therefore be seen as itself a requirement for
sustainable development. Yet the inequalities in access to ECCE remain a major
problem as UNESCO statistics testify (Fig. 13.1).
North America and Western Europe 85

Latin America and the Caribbean 70
Central and Eastern Europe 69
East Asia and the Pacific 57
World 48
South and West Asia 48
Central Asia 30
Arab States 22
%
Sub-Sahara Africa 17
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 13.1 Pre-primary Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) (UNESCO 2012, 193/209 Countries http://
www.uis.unesco.org/Education/GED%20Documents%20C/GED-2012-Complete-Web3.pdf)
The economists identify inequality as a problem within as well as between coun-

tries. In Africa, for example, children living in the poorest households are ten times
less likely to attend early childhood education programmes than those living in the
richest (Penn 2008; UNICEF 2012). According to Awopegba (2010), pre-primary
school fees can range from $10 to $60 in the Congo, for example, putting it beyond
the reach of most families.
Climate change leads to the relocation of communities and conflict over scarce
resources. Many studies provide evidence of the serious negative impact of violence
and abuse on the survival and development of young children (Britto and Ulkuer
2012; UNICEF 2012). Violent forms of discipline are also common in communities
surviving under stress, and this has consequences that many children carry into
adulthood (Lansford and Deater-Deckard 2012; Straus and Paschall 2009).
According to UNICEF (2012) survey findings, the percentage of children 2–4 years
of age who experience violent forms of discipline, including physical punishment
and psychological aggression, ranges from 41 % in Bosnia and Herzegovina to 94 %
in Vietnam.
13.6 WASH from the Start
In the development of the ERS-SDEC, some teachers in more advantaged preschool

contexts questioned the relevance of including the level one ‘hygiene’ criteria
related to the provisions of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). By presenting
the provision of clean water and sanitation as fundamental requirements in the ERS-
SDEC, our intention has been to draw special attention to those preschool contexts
where the absence of these facilities is a direct threat to sustainable development
and to children’s future lives. A justification for its inclusion in the ERS-SDEC was
well put by the research team in the USA:
By ensuring that children’s basic needs, such as access to clean water, are provided for, we
are practicing the heart of environmental sustainability. This begins with the provision of
basic care for children and extends to mindfulness about, and responsibility for caring for
the classroom environment, the local and international communities, and ultimately to
expressing care for the Earth as a whole.
These are issues we all need to be mindful of, and in working together interna-
tionally to advance sustainable development in early childhood education, we can
all contribute towards ensuring that every child in the world has access to these
basic facilities.
Despite some significant progress, one billion people, mostly in sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia, still lack access to improved water source, and there has
been even less progress in the area of sanitation. In fact it is estimated that globally,
2.6 billion people do not have adequate sanitation. Parasitic worm infections com-
promise the physical and intellectual growth of 47 % of children aged 5–9 years in
developing countries, and the lives of over 3.5 million children worldwide every
year are claimed through diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections due to poor
hygiene facilities and practices.
13.7 Resilience and Risk Reduction
Concerns with risk reduction date back to the 1990s when the UN declared the first
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). In 2005, 168 coun-
tries adopted the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 5 with the overarching goal
to build the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. Natural disasters
catch our attention because of their rapid onset yet, as Blaikie et al. (2014) remind
us, famine and drought take more than six times more lives than floods, earthquakes
and tsunamis, storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides, avalanches and wildfires put
together (ibid, p. 3). A much greater percentage of the world’s population find their
lives unnecessarily shortened by events that, under different economic and political
circumstances, would never happen. Famine and drought often leads to large scale
population movements that result in violent conflicts. Poverty and illness are closely
related.
Children between the ages of 0–8 represent the highest percentage of affected
populations in today’s global emergencies. These early years comprise the most
important phase of physical, cognitive, emotional and social development in the
human life cycle. DRR is increasingly being integrated into ECCE programmes.
One example, from Plan International is the DRR introduced as part of its ECD
programmes in the Philippines:
Children under 8 years of age learn about natural hazards, mitigation and preparedness
through drama and focus group discussions. They take part in risk assessment exercises
based on their evolving capacities. In disaster-exposed areas, ECD centres participate in
safe school campaigns and children under 6 years old engage in psycho-social coping exer-
cises through games. (UNICEF 2011, p. 90)
Although disasters can affect anybody at any time, in most cases it is the poorest
and most vulnerable people, including children, that are affected first and hit the
hardest. Prejudice and inequality are also significant factors. Girls must be recog-
nised as disproportionally the victims of foeticide, infanticide, malnutrition, neglect
and abandonment (UNICEF 2000). It is for this reason that most Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR) projects have so far been developed in the poorer communities.
But in considering DRR, it may be important to recognise that this is not an issue of
relevance only in countries that have been considered especially prone to ‘natural’
disasters in the past. Extreme climatic conditions are increasingly relevant around
the world, and the DRR approach is relevant to far wider situations of civil conflict,
crime and emergency. In a recent paper describing a pre- and elementary school
project associated with the Costa Rica Ecological Blue Flag programme, Quirós
et al. (2012) report on the updating of their Mitigation of Risk and Institutional
Disaster Plan which included information related to security on the streets and a
campaign on road safety which ‘…explained to the children how to get to school as
well as the importance of wearing seatbelts’.
In fact forms of DRR are already being employed in rich and poor preschools
around the world. Children are given ‘fire drills’, to ensure their safety in an emer-
gency; they are also taught not to talk to strangers and about road safety. Young
children have particular needs that must be addressed in DRR processes and activi-
ties. Hayden and Cologon (2011) cite the evidence of studies by Shores et al. (2009)
and Mitchell et al. (2010) to argue for more attention to issues of resilience in ECCE
and for children in emergency situations. Hayden and Cologon also provide a hand-
book of tools and processes to support DRR programmes at a community level.
According to the International Resilience Research Project:
1225 Caregiver/parent and children interviews were conducted between September, 1993
and August, 1996. 22 countries in Europe, Africa, North and south America, and Pacific
region. The 6 major outside problems the family experienced within the preceding 5 years
were, in rank order: earthquakes; floods; robberies; war; fires; and riots. The 6 major within
family problems the family experienced within the preceding 5 years, were, in rank order:
death of a parent or grandparent; loss of job or income; separation; illness of parent or sib-
lings; and family or a friend moving. (Grotberg 1997a)
As the IRRP have suggested, the resilience of children can be developed in antic-
ipation of inevitable adversities, and
…adversity is not limited to man-made disasters, such as war, famine, poverty, confine-
ment, refugee status, etc., or to natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods,
fires, droughts, etc. Adversity also occurs in everyday life in the form of divorce, abandon-
ment, abuse, alcoholism, stabbing, illness, death, robberies, loss of home or job, moving,
accidents, murder. (Grotberg 1997a)
Martin Woodhead argued in 1997 that the contemporary conceptualisation of

childhood constructed in terms of the ‘needs’ of a particular culture should be
replaced by an alternative construction based on the concept of ‘rights’.
The universal adoption of resilience and risk reduction education as a central
element of ESD around the world is a logical extension of the UN Convention on
the Rights of the Child, and they are arguably very long overdue.
In the opening paragraph of this chapter, it was suggested that transdisciplinarity

should be considered fundamental to sustainable development and that research
must look beyond the limitations of economics, environmental science and social
and cultural studies to develop more holistic solutions to social problems. This has
epistemological significance. Ultimately, as Fish (1989) has argued, even if the
boundaries that legitimise knowledge between subjects were broken down, this
would only create new boundaries and disciplines. For social constructionists and
postmodernists such as Lyotard, each academic discipline is considered a histori-
cally contingent ‘language game’ developed to serve prevailing rationalities and with
no legitimate claims to truth beyond their own limited paradigmatic boundaries.
From this perspective knowledge can only advance where there is a commonality of
findings within each discipline, but the disciplines can never be combined or merged.
Social epistemology (Fuller 1988, 2012) has aimed to support the development of
knowledge by providing accounts of the particular biases in knowledge production
and therefore the potential for correction. But disciplines might still be considered
incommensurate and ‘a necessary evil of knowledge production’ (Fuller 2007, 2014).
Where does this leave policy and the concerns of policymakers to make the best
decisions based on the evidence available? One potential solution is offered by
transdisciplinarity.
Transdisciplinary studies are projects that both integrate academic researchers
from different unrelated disciplines and nonacademic participants, such as land
managers and the public, to research a common goal and create new knowledge and
theory. Transdisciplinarity combines interdisciplinarity with a participatory
approach. Much of the current curriculum development and research referred to in
this book may be considered transdisciplinary in this way. As a group of researchers
from 10 countries around the world, we have brought together differing epistemo-
logical and methodological perspectives. Our dialogue has approximated what
Green and Caracelli (1997) have referred to in Geertz’s (1979) terms as ‘dialectical
tacking’: ‘…between experience-near (particular, context specific, ideographic) and
experience-distant (general, universal, nomothetic) concepts, because both types of
concepts are needed for comprehensiveness and meaningful understanding’ (Green
and Caracelli 1997, p. 10).
Each of the OMEP research teams has also worked closely with practitioners,
children and families to develop and evaluate early childhood education projects for
sustainable development. As researchers it will be important for us to continue to be
critically aware of the dangers of adopting universal essentialisations and dichoto-
mies and to seek a more pragmatic way forward. As Sandra Harding once put it,
what we require is that
…instead of science as a monolithic smart system, in which the trick is to learn it and do it,
we get the very different epistemological model of many smart systems, with their limita-
tions. Its users who have to be smart; they have to learn when to use one and when to use
another. (Harding October 11, 1996, p. 18)
13.8 ESD in the ECCE Curriculum
Pedagogy is what teachers actually do to encourage learning. In professional terms

it has been defined as the ‘science of the art of teaching’ (Gage 1985). While cur-
riculum may be considered the intended or unintended products of learning, peda-
gogy defines the educational processes of learning. But it is important to recognise
that every learning and teaching event in the classroom has both curriculum and
pedagogy, so they may be considered two sides to the same coin. Yet, to be effective
in our planning, we need to consider and to plan each separately. In a recent visit to
a UK forest preschool where the staff pride themselves on supporting a strongly
child-initiated ‘free play’ curriculum, it was clear that the rich environmental
resources, the forestry and a stream running through the property provided an
exceptionally strong environmental education curriculum. The children’s attention
was most commonly drawn to environment features, and playful activities sup-
ported by the adults were typically, and quite naturally, initiated with that focus.
Where parents are content to provide much of the wider breadth and depth of cur-
riculum at home themselves, this may be sufficient. Where parents seek to share
their educational responsibilities with the setting, or where families are disadvan-
taged and have limited time and resources to satisfy their children’s wider needs,
this provides a significant challenge for free play settings. In the forest school set-
ting, the staff ‘seeded’ the play environment with a wider range of stimulus materi-
als including printed signs and texts, and they encouraged collections that would
initiate counting and sorting activities.
Put simply and most widely, the curriculum should be understood as all of those
particular skills, knowledge and understandings that children learn. Some of these
may be explicitly taught like hygiene, and others encouraged. But young children
are learning all the time, and however hidden the curriculum may be in settings
where children are encouraged to make their own choices in play, the material
resources, furniture, props, learning materials and technology, activities and envi-
ronments that we offer children define both the opportunities and the limitations for
their learning. The curriculum content is therefore always determined by the adults
who care for them, and as the above example of the forest preschool demonstrates,
the notion of totally ‘free’ child-initiated play should be recognised as a myth. The
physical, linguistic and cultural context that children are immersed in fundamen-
tally determines what they will learn. It is easy to accept this uncritically, forgetting,
for example, that the learning environment that we offer may often be highly gen-
dered or that an inner-city preschool has limited natural resources or stimulation.
When we compare preschool practices around the world, the differences often seem
much more apparent. This was especially apparent for the OMEP research teams
comparing the practices in Africa and Northern Europe:
The curriculum content that we select should ultimately reflect the character of an interde-
pendent global society, transforming, “…content about cultural, ethnic, and racial groups -
and about women - from the margin to the centre of the curriculum”. (Banks 1996, p. 339)
Unfamiliar
context
Atmospheric
Pollution Beds and Unfamiliar
Unfamiliar Sleeping context
context
Materials
Air
Sleep Housing
Clothes Clothing
Familiar Shelter
context Weather
Unfamiliar
Unfamiliar Warmth
Heating context
context Food
Water Staples
Insulation
Receipes
Drinks
Irrigation Unfamiliar
Unfamiliar
context
context
Fig. 13.2 Progression in intercultural project work
In educating children about cultural ‘difference’, it is important not to make the

‘other’ groups (e.g. Europeans/Africans/Chinese) appear ‘exotic’ – this may rein-
force prejudice and not undermine it. If a project is planned on food, for example,
teachers should begin with the theme of diet – emphasising the importance of bal-
ance to everyone around the world. By doing this they will be emphasising the com-
monalities of human experience. Then we can show how different groups (very
cleverly) solve the problem of creating a balanced diet in different ways. Similarly,
rather than focusing first upon the clothes worn by different people around the
world, start with ‘How do we keep ourselves warm?’/‘How do we keep ourselves
cool?’ The children can then study the immensely creative and innovative ways that
people around the world solve these common problems. The following diagram
shows how the curriculum emphasis should begin at the centre, building upon the
child’s own familiar experience. Examples may be taken from learning about air,
clothing, warmth, water, food, shelter and sleep. Suggestions are made on how each
of these topics may be developed to identify the realities, practices and solutions
applied in less familiar contexts (Fig. 13.2).
Looking back on the examples of good practice that were identified in each of the
country case studies within this project, the model may be considered to provide a
valuable approach for ESD teacher education in ECCE. Applying this model, our
students might usefully be encouraged to begin by identifying the particular rights
of young children that must be respected in their familiar local context, and then in
each area of particular concern to consider how they may contribute in solidarity
with the global community of ESD early childhood educators, towards achieving
this in different countries around the world.
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14(2), 135–146.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2013, September). Children: Reducing mortality (FactSheet
No. 178). Retrieved from http://www.who.int
Yao, D., Viehofer, J., Shumba, O., Houenou, P., Otieno, D., & Musyoki, Z. (2014). Outcome docu-
ment: Africa regional consultation to support planning for an ESD programme framework to
follow on the UN Decade of ESD in 2014. Abidjan: UNESCO.
Young, M. (2008). Bringing knowledge back in: From social constructivism to social realism in the
sociology of education. London: Routledge.
Appendix: The Environmental Rating Scale
for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood
(ERS-SDEC)
Copies are available in Chinese, Croatian, English, Korean, Portuguese, Spanish,

Swedish and Turkish - for download from the OMEP website at: http://www.
worldomep.org/en/esd-scale-for-teachers/
Also from: http://www.schemaplay.com/ESD_instruments.html

Childhood Education and Development 14, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-42208-4
212
Item Inadequate Minimal Good Excellent

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Social and cultural sustainability (global social justice)
1.1 Some books, pictures, dolls and 3.1 Some books, pictures and 5.1 Many books, pictures and 7.1 The children share their ideas
display portray gender and ethnic or displays include images that do not displays show images of men and and knowledge of their own and
racial stereotypes conform to social and cultural women that do not conform to social others’ cultures in group-sharing
stereotypes (e.g. showing a black and cultural stereotypes (gender, times and are able to speak openly
teacher or police officer that is ethnic, tribal or racial, etc.) about diversity
wearing a religious head scarf)
1.2 No policy statement exists 3.2 Teachers and staff emphasize 5.2. Staff take advantage of the 7.2 Children explore and investigate
regarding the importance and value the commonality of the human opportunities afforded in storytelling unfamiliar social and cultural
of social and cultural diversity in the experiences of different ethnic and/or other group activities (e.g. with contexts
setting groups and the common needs, multimedia, community visits) to
values and desires of all human encourage the discussion of social and
beings cultural sustainability and
interdependence
1.3 There is little or no reference in 3.3 Children discuss issues 5.3 Children participate in activities 7.3 The inherent and universal
classroom discussion/materials that associated with inequality and that cross stereotypical gender, racial, rights of all humans are discussed
all people are equal regardless of suggest their own ideas for ethnic and tribal boundaries (e.g. openly and regularly within the
social background, ability, gender, achieving social justice providing diverse opportunities and classroom
ethnicity, religion or other belief or materials for dramatic and social play)
sexual orientation in the preschool
setting
1.4 There is little or no reference 5.4 Children regularly use services 7.4 Where social inequality is
made to the importance of social and outside the setting (e.g. library, identified, children contribute their
cultural sustainability either in communal vegetable garden, own efforts to achieve social justice
classroom discussion or materials swimming pool) or have community (e.g. through presentations, making
(toys, books, puzzles, etc.) in the support and interaction within the posters, contacting appropriate
preschool setting setting persons or writing letters)
7.5 Curriculum policies, plans and
reviews explicitly include
references to learning about social
and cultural sustainability
Appendix: The Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable Development…
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Economic sustainability (equality)
1.1 There is very little or no 3.1 The children have the 5.1 The children are encouraged to 7.1 The children are encouraged
reference made to paper, electricity opportunity and are often seen to suggest ways in which costs can be and supported in questioning the
and water consumption in the setting play with pretend or real money reduced by conserving and/or hidden costs and benefits of a range
and point-of-sale technology (tills, recycling materials and resources of products (e.g. factory farmed
etc.) such as paper, water and electricity in foods, high performance vehicles)
the setting, at home and beyond
1.2 There is rarely or never a time 3.2 The children are sometimes 5.2 The children are regularly and 7.2 The staff invites parents and
when the children are given the involved in purchase decision- routinely involved in purchasing community groups to participate in
opportunity to talk about money, making in the nursery decisions in the setting projects concerned with
saving and/or the need for conservation of resources and
economising recycling (e.g. related to paper,
electricity and water consumption)
1.3 There are no resources recycled 3.3 The children are sometimes 5.3 The children are regularly and 7.3 The staff provides support for
in the setting involved in recycling activities in routinely involved in recycling the children and their families to
the nursery activities in the setting engage in entrepreneurial and
mini-enterprise projects and, e.g. the
sale of herbs from an herb garden or
greetings cards
3.4 The use of materials and 5.4 The children’s attention is 7.4 Where the setting is fee paying,
resources including water, paper specifically drawn to economic issues provisions are made to support the
and electricity are audited and of concern to the local and children of low-income families in
conserved in the setting international community (e.g. gaining access to the facilities
discussing a TV report that an
individual child has identified)
5.5 Wherever relevant, provisions are 7.5 Curriculum policies, plans and
made to support low-income families reviews explicitly include
to ensure access and participation in references to learning about

all the preschool projects or activities economic sustainability
(e.g. outings, music classes)
(continued)
213
214
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Environmental sustainability
1.1 No references are made to the 3.1 Some sustainable 5.1 Many resources are available 7.1 Classroom and/or school
environmental sustainability in the environmental educational including animals and plants in the buildings are constructed using
setting materials such as posters and setting environmentally appropriate
books are included in the setting technologies
1.2 The children are never 3.2 Children’s attention is 5.2 The children are encouraged to 7.2 The children are encouraged to
encouraged to discuss any explicitly drawn to the need to care identify a range of environmental provide a variety of actions,
environmental problems for the environment of the setting protection issues and to suggest their including narrative accounts, to
and in the local community own ideas for solving them represent their efforts to solve
environmental issues
1.3 The children are never taken on 3.3 Children are involved in at 5.3 The children routinely participate 7.3 Curriculum policies, plans and
environmental visits to areas of least one activity that involves in projects and group activities to reviews explicitly include
natural beauty caring for animals and for plants explore, investigate and understand references to learning about
environmental issues in their daily environmental sustainability
lives
1.4 The children have inadequate 3.4 Environmental resources are
access to clean drinking water provided for the children to use in
their sociodramatic play (e.g.
gardening play)
1.5 Staff or children are often
unable, or fail, to wash their hands
before eating and/or after toileting

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International Perspectives on

Early Childhood Education and Development 14

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7601

International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education and Development

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953490

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Sustainable development was first defined in 1987 by the Brundtland World

Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) convened in

The UNESCO objectives of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) have

The SWEDESD recommendations also included the need to:

Fig. 1 The child’s voice

Plymouth, UK John Siraj-Blatchford

SWEDESD. (2008). The Gothenburg recommendations on education for sustainable development.

1 Education for Sustainable Development in Early

10 Education for Sustainable Development in Turkey ............................. 139

Appendix: The Environmental Rating Scale for Sustainable

John Siraj-Blatchford and Ingrid Pramling-Samuelsson

Sustainable development was first defined in 1987 by the Brundtland World

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

1.1 Preprimary Curriculum Practice

As Feine (2012) suggests: “…to be truly sustainable, development processes have

Fig. 1.1 The three pillars

1.2 ESD Exemplars

In 2012 UNESCO published a report directly focused upon Education for

trum of employment opportunities. To help the physical development of the chil-

1.3 Looking at ESD Curriculum Globally

riculum of the ‘political’ dimensions of human development, such as children being

1.4 Resilience and Risk Reduction

1.5 Wash from the Start

A successful pilot project carried out in Colombia provides a good example of

In the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Consultation on a post-DESD framework, it

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 17

The OMEP Educational Rating Scale for Sustainable Development in Early

committed to the further development, refinement and revision of this instrument in

preschools, a balance is struck between child-initiated and teacher-extended and

2.1 Pedagogic Progression in the ERS-SDEC

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 involve young children being supported in developing their

nised in sociocultural terms as a learning and developmental ‘construction zone’

The Modern School Movement (Movimento da Escola Moderna (MEM)) has

The UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Consultation on a post-DESD framework

SWEDESD. (2008). The Gothenburg recommendations on education for sustainable development.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 29

3.1.1 Chile’s Present Situation

3.2 Context of ECEC

3.2.1 National Policy of an Education for a Sustainable

In 2002, the United Nations organized the World Summit on Sustainable

achieve sustainable development, and the government pledged to improve and

3.2.2 Experiences of Environmental Education in Early

In Chile, environmental education, as such, doesn’t appear in the official curriculum

3.2.3 Intercultural Skills

International Labour Organization, Law 19.284 on the Social Integration of the

3.2.4 Intercultural Early Childhood Education

3.2.5 Access for All

3.2.6 Early Childhood Education and the Care

3.2.7 The Gender Approach

Since 1990, government policy placed special emphasis on taking measures to

by incorporating this perspective in the curriculum and teaching practices in its