From Freud to Brazelton:

100 Years of Child & Parenting

Development Theories

by Dr. Marty Rossmann

1 ©Learning ZoneExpress
 Child Development Through The Ages
17th Century 18th Century Age
Age of Enlightenment of Reason

 John Locke believed in  Jean-Jacques Rousseau

tabula rasa – children were noble savages,
born with an innate sense of
 Children develop in morality; the timing of growth
response to nurturing. should not be interfered with.

 Forerunner of  Rousseau used the idea

behaviorism of stages of
development.
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 Forerunner of
maturationist beliefs

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 Child Development Through The Ages

19th Century 20th Century

Industrial Revolution Theories about children's
 Charles Darwin development expanded
around the world.
– theories of
natural selection  Childhood was seen as

and survival of worthy of special attention.

the fittest  Laws were passed to protect

 Darwin made parallels children,

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between human
prenatal growth and
other animals.

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 Child Development

 Definition:
– Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an
orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and
enhances survival.
 Periods of development:
– Prenatal period: from conception to birth
– Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
– Early childhood: 2-6 years old
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– Middle childhood: 6-12 years old

– Adolescence: 12-19 years old

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 Domains of Development

Development is described in three domains, but growth

in one domain influences the other domains.
 Physical Domain:
– body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor
development, perception capacities, physical health.
 Cognitive Domain:
– thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention,
memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and
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everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language.

 Social/Emotional Domain:
– self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic
identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of
emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others,
interpersonal skills, and friendships.
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 Theories

 What is a theory?
– Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict
behavior.

 What do theories accomplish?

– To give meaning to what we observe.
– As a basis for action -- finding ways to improve the lives and
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education of children.

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 Why Study Child & Parenting
Development Theories?

1. Helps you understand yourself better

2. It helps understanding of future generations
3. Learn skills and techniques for interaction with
children
4. Allows a measure of normal behavior
5. Grants a greater appreciation of development
throughout life.
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Sigmund Freud • Erik Erikson • Maria Montessori

Jean Piaget • Urie Bronfenbrenner • Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
Abraham Maslow • Arnold Gesell • John Bowlby • Rudolph Dreikurs
Lawrence Kohlberg • B.F. Skinner • Benjamin Spock
Diana Baumrind • T. Berry Brazelton • Howard Gardner
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 Why Study the Selected Theories?

 The selected theories:

– Have been popular and influential.

– Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction.

– Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-rearing.

Make good common sense.

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 Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.

 Focus is on:
– Developing a healthy personality.

– Humans develop throughout their life span in eight stages.

– Individuals need to develop identity at each stage.

– Culture is a part of a person’s socialization.

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– If an individual does not achieve a stage, the consequences

may be alterable later in life.

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 Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.

 Psychosocial Stages:
– Trust vs. Mistrust (0-12 to 18 mos.)
 Infant forms a loving, trusting relationship with parent or
is frustrated and lacks self-confidence.
– Autonomy vs. Doubt (18 mos. to 3 years)
 Child needs to develop self-control with firm, gradual and
kindly support of parents so the child does not lose self-
esteem.
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– Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6 years)

 Child gains skill in language and exploring and needs
guidance from parents to proceed in life in a self-
confident, guilt-free way.

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 Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.

 Psychosocial Stages:
– Industry vs. Inferiority (7-12+ years)
 Child pursues and completes activities that produce something
and gain recognition from parents, teachers and friends.
Failure makes the child feel inadequate and inferior.
– Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)
 The sense of “who I am” and what part I play in society
(occupation, politics, sex roles, religion, etc.) is determined.
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Parents have new expectations for the adolescent. Those who

don’t develop effective steps toward a tangible future may be
insecure, confused and lack self-esteem.

(There are more stages for adults, not shown here.)

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 Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.
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 Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

Parents as Preschool Educators

Parents guide their children’s development.

 Each child has an innate unique talent.

 Children should be guided with love and
affection to expected behavior.
 Children should use hands-on activities to learn how to
care for themselves and a home.
 Parents should be aware that learning takes place in a
sequence.
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 Parents should not be too quick to criticize or correct.

 Parents should encourage their child to do as much as
possible on their own.

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 Arnold Gesell (1880-1961)

Developmental Maturational Theory

Heredity plays a role in children’s development.

 Children develop in an orderly

sequence set by heredity.
 No developmental event will take place until the child
is ready for it to happen.
 Maturity traits are identified in
steps in areas such as:
– Motor activity, personal function
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– Emotional expression, fears

– Sexuality
– Social relations and playtime
Dr. Arnold Gesell

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 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Cognitive Development Theory

Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.

 Two processes are essential

for development:
– Assimilation
 Learning to understand events or objects,
based on existing structure.
– Accommodation
 Expanding understanding, based on new information.
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 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Cognitive Development Theory

Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.
 Sensorimotor (Birth – 2 years)
– Learning about world through 5 senses (see, feel, hear, smell & taste).
– Learning to control and manipulate muscles (small & large motor skills).
– Learning about self (egocentric).
– Learning from trial and error (12-18 months).
– Thinking about how to do something without actually doing it.
 Preoperational (2-7 years)
– Learning by using language and mental images.
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– Learning to internalize thought process.

– Continuing to be egocentric.
– Learning by watching and performing.

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 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Cognitive Development Theory

Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.
 Concrete Operational (6 or 7-12 years)
– Learning to understand someone else’s point of view.
– Learning to resolve problems with logic.
– Learning conservation (amounts of liquid remain the same, even if
the shape changes).
 Formal Operations (13 years – adult)
– Thinking logically, abstractly, and hypothetically.
– Testing theories by hypotheses.
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– Understanding right vs. wrong.

– Glimpse of complexity of knowledge in teens leads some to believe
they understand nothing and others to believe they are on the
verge of understanding everything.

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 Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Socio-Cultural Theory
Culture & experiences play a role in a child’s learning.
Patterns and ways of learning are outcomes of the practices
experienced by the child in the culture where the child grew up.

 Five Step Process:

– Step 1 - Adult provides tools, modeling, guidance, interaction and
encouragement.
– Step 2 - Child performs task under adult guidance and adult asks
appropriate questions and expands on the child’s responses.
– Step 3 - Adult helps child develop tasks into smaller segments and
assesses child’s understanding.
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– Step 4 - Adult provides the “scaffolding” (support) necessary in a

learning situation.
– Step 5 - Adult guides child into new situations by having child
transfer familiar knowledge to the unfamiliar.

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 Socio-Cultural Theory
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 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Human Needs Theory

Human needs influence each person’s development.

 Influence of a hierarchy of human

needs on personality.

 Lower need must be filled before upper-level needs

receive attention.

 Child’s genetic potential will not flourish unless they

are nurtured by adults as the child grows.
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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Need to maximize
one’s potential.

Need for self-respect

and self-esteem and for
the esteem of others.

Need for community,

family, friends, lover,
affection & intimacy.

Need for security,

stability, freedom from
fear, structure & order.

Need for shelter,

food, clothes, air,
sleep, and activity.
 Lawrence Kohlberg ( 1927-1987)

Moral Development Theory

Identifies steps toward character development.

 Children are moral philosophers.

 Children experience a series of
predictable stages in their moral reasoning.

 Levels of Moral Development:

– Level 1 – Preconventional (4-10 years)
Decisions are based on consequences.
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 Stage 1 - Children respond to threat of punishment.

 Stage 2 - Children learn that correct action brings reward.

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 Lawrence Kohlberg ( 1927-1987)

Moral Development Theory

Identifies steps toward character development.

– Level 2 – Conventional (10 years and older)

Decisions are based on social rules and expectations.
 Stage 3 - Children are concerned about other’s opinions and
that “good” behavior pleases others.
 Stage 4 - Law and order are important.

– Level 3 – Postconventional (some adolescents and adults)

Decisions are based on personal ethics of what is morally right.
 Stage 5 - Moral decisions are made through understanding that
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society’s rules are for everyone and were made by consensus.

 Stage 6 - Universal principles determine right from wrong.

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 B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)

Operant Conditioning Theory

Role parents play in shaping child’s behavior.

 Emphasizes the role of the parent in

reinforcing (rewarding) the child’s behaviors.
 Consequences of a behavior lead to
changes in its frequency.
 Behavior patterns will change if the child is
rewarded, ignored or punished.
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 B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)

Operant Conditioning Theory

Role parents play in shaping child’s behavior.

 Conditioning functions:
– Shaping behavior - reinforcing a behavior “close” to the
desired behavior.
– Chaining behavior - linking together a series of small steps
toward the desired behavior.
 Consequences include:
– Positive reinforcement - something that causes an act to
increase in the future, i.e. a child smiles and gets a hug.
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– Negative reinforcement - child causes unpleasantness to

cease, i.e. parents “lecture” stops when child cleans room.
– Punishment - unpleasant act by parent discourages behavior
in the future, i.e. T.V. privileges taken away.

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 Howard Gardner (1943- )

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.

 There are eight distinct forms of intelligence

that everyone possesses in varying degrees.
 Parents should focus on the intelligences of their children.
 Different cultures emphasize different intelligences.
 Verbal/Linguistic:
– Able to use words and languages — communicates effectively by speaking,
listening, reading & writing.
– Uses reason, logic and numbers.
– Sensitive to the meaning of words and enjoys writing, reading and
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crossword puzzles.
 Logical/Mathematical:
– Thinks in logical & numerical patterns, and detects patterns.
– Incorporates mathematical and scientific abilities and drawn to
strategic games and experiments.

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 Howard Gardner (1943- )

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.

 Musical/Rhythmic:
– Appreciates and produces music — is a discriminating listener.
– Thinks in sounds, rhythms, and patterns.
– Sings and drums to him or herself.

 Visual/Spatial:
– Thinks in pictures, remembers with vivid mental images.
– Perceives the visual and represents spatial information graphically.
– Controls body movements and handles objects with skill.
– Spends free time drawing, using building blocks, or daydreaming.
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 Bodily/Kinesthetic
– Processes knowledge through sensations in the body.
– Expresses him or herself through movement.
– Has good eye-hand coordination and balance.

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 Howard Gardner (1943- )

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.

 Interpersonal
– Relates to others and understands other’s feelings and intentions.
– Detects differences among people.
– Likes to maintain peace and have everyone cooperate.

 Intrapersonal
– Reflects on oneself and is aware of one’s inner state of being.
– Self-motivated and understands his/her role in relation to others.
– Understands one’s emotions can direct one’s behavior.

 Naturalist
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– Advocates or practices naturalism — and recognizes dangerous species and

categorizes new and different organisms.
– Identifies manmade species (“artificial taxonomies”) such as wearing
apparel or cars.

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