Land Evaluation and Geographical Information Systems For Land Use Planning
Land Evaluation and Geographical Information Systems For Land Use Planning
Land Evaluation and Geographical Information Systems For Land Use Planning
Enrique Ojeda-Trejo
Geography Department
University of Durham
South Road,Durham
DH1 3LE, England.
1. Introduction
The actual methodologies of land evaluation (LE) (FAO, 1976; FAO 1983; FAO 1985;
FAO 1991) are used for supporting government planning (FAO, 1993), in a top-down
approach from resource base to land use. Where the need to grow a crop is for
social, economic or political reasons, the physical resource base is less important
and contextual characteristics about socio-economic variables (land tenure,
infrastructure, labour, distance to market and others) become more important
(Burrough, 1996). This is the case with Mexican agriculture where more than fifty
percent of the land (1.03 million sq. km.) is controlled by organised communities, that
is, groups that hold property in common. Mexico introduced a communal village
system, the so-called ‘ejido’, after the revolution of 1917. Heterogeneity is a dominant
characteristic of the Mexican ejido and variability in size, resource base, availability of
irrigated land, technology and productivity is striking (Ireson, 1987; Wilson and
Thompson, 1993). Ejido land was to be communal, and worked either in the form of
co-operatives or individually. In 1992 the prohibition on selling and buying land
ceased with changes in the political constitution and a kind of structural adjustment in
the ejido started (Burger, 1994). The change in the law gave the ejidatario the title
and rights of the land (for rent or sale) and the freedom in decision-making about the
use of individual parcels or communal land in association with the private sector
(PROCEDE,1993). The association would be for a maximum of 30 years.
The land reform, which began in Mexico in 1992, is termed the ‘third generation’. It
does not concern itself with landless groups, but also seeks to use reform as a
means to strengthen the economic and productive potential of existing producers
who are constrained by pre-existing tenure arrangements and institutional
disfunction. This type of land reform has a direct impact on the production process,
decision-making and the allocation of resources (Gordillo de Anda et al, 1996).
Because the land tenure system has been in continuous flux since 1917 there is no
inventory of land resources at ejido level. This lack of information at the ejido level,
especially in terms of socio-economic issues and decision-making, makes both the
development and application of a government policy difficult. Ideally, informed
decision-making at all levels should be based on a knowledge system incorporating
both bio-physical and socio-economic factors as they influence land use systems. A
Geographical Information System (GIS) would help to improve the understanding of
the processes of land evaluation and decision-making. It can improve the efficiency
1
of data processing, can help to solve data integration problems and can support
spatial analysis (Bronsveld, et al, 1994; Rossiter, 1996). Moreover it can help to
improve the description of land utilisation types required for land evaluation (Van de
Putte, 1989; Bronsveld et al, 1994; Rossiter, 1995).
The present proposal is focused on the integration of information generated from the
various programs of Rural Development instituted by the Mexican government in a
Geographical Information System. This will involve three levels of generalization for
the characterization of the resource database and analysis of the decision-making
process for land use i.e. at municipality, ejido and farmer level. The overall aims and
objectives of the project can be summarized as follows:
2. Objectives
1. To integrate maps and databases at municipality and ejido level, from different
government agencies, in a GIS.
2. To develop an information system for the spatial location of different land uses that
stratify the environment in the ejido for the description of land use types and
characterisation of the decision-making process at ejido and farmer levels.
4. To develop a means of integrating qualitative information from PRA and RRA into
a GIS, in a “participatory GIS” framework.
3. Literature Review
2
Land evaluation is defined as the process of assessing the potential production for
various land uses (Beek, 1978). This approach is based on the matching of qualities
of different land units in a specific area, with the requirements of actual or potential
land use. The results of land evaluation should be useful for rational land use
planning (FAO, 1993).
Burrough (1996) states that in the top-down approach to land evaluation, the
direction of reasoning is always from resource base to land utilization, a perfectly
adequate approach where there is plenty of land, and the market is unconstrained. In
general the conditions for agriculture will be initially created by the modification of the
natural physical resources. This may be done by irrigating, fertilizing and other
practices; as the cost of inputs increases, however, physical land resources become
less important and factors such as access to the market, infrastructure, skilled labour
and organization are more important. Added to this are other aspects concerning
social habits and traditions. For example in Mexico, ‘almost all farmers grow maize
because their culture requires it (any maize is better than none)’ (Corbett, 1995).
Burrough (1996) states that we need to look more at the interactions between how
the various tools for land evaluation can be used in different circumstances, and how
physical, economic and social factors can be combined. A demand driven approach
to selecting a land evaluation method would help to reveal what predictions are really
needed and at what level of certainty.
3
of GIS software can help to eliminate data integration problems caused by the
different geographic units to which different data sets are related (Burrough, 1986).
GIS allows overlaying of maps with different thematic data (e.g. soil and land use,
watershed, district, village maps) and thereby facilitates map integration and
analysis. GIS distance modelling makes it possible to assess the interaction of
(potential) land uses, and the physical infrastructure and market. It also permits the
combination of maps with data generated by models (Bronsveld, et al, 1994). In
short, the primary goal of a GIS is take raw data and transform it, via overlay and
other analytical operations, into new information which can support decision-making
processes.
GIS was introduced into developing countries during the 1980’s, the key agents of
delivery being various UN agencies. The approach adopted in the use of GIS was
essentially top-down, with ARC/INFO used on mini-computers as the principal
schema. As GIS developed, however, more inexpensive systems were introduced
using micro-computers, e.g. ILWIS from ITC and IDRISI from Clark University. As
these various GIS systems were taken up by both universities and research centres,
so a change took place in the application of GIS, with bottom-up approaches being
developed, (Taylor, 1991).
The introduction of GIS, whether top-down or bottom-up, has usually come from
outside and so far GIS has been only marginal to the solution of development
problems. Hence Taylor (1991) argues that it is a necessary first step for indigenous
scientists to gain a greater degree of knowledge and control of this technology.
There are several restrictions to the implementation of GIS for planning in developing
countries. Firstly, few attempts have been made to apply GIS in deriving planning
scenarios, in allocating regional investment and in evaluating development
proposals. Secondly, the state-of-the art in planning has not advanced much in
relation to how planners could employ GIS in conjunction with new planning. Thirdly,
the acute shortage of manpower and training have greatly restricted its use. Fourthly,
there is a dominance of GIS technocrats in the use of GIS. Finally, there is an over
concentration of GIS development and technology at a few key universities and
research centres and finally, developing countries need GIS most, but generally do
not have the necessary funding to acquire it. (Yeh, 1991).
4
discourses of the status quo (Taylor, 1991; Pickles, 1993; Goss, 1993, cited by
Weiner et al, 1995). The digital landscape becomes a terrain for elite planners to
negotiate social differences and territorial conflict. In the process, workers, minorities,
women, poor peasants and the unemployed become even further distanced from
decision-making processes (Weiner, et al 1995). Moreover, due to lack of equitable
access to GIS data and technology, small users, local governments, non-profit
community agencies and non-mainstream groups are disadvantaged in their capacity
to engage in the decision-making process (Edney, 1991).
Weiner et al (1995) in the construction of a GIS in Kiepersol, South Africa argued that
it is concerned with multiple realities and the politics of resource access and the use
of different scales of analysis. The GIS production process is informed by two bodies
of literature that are not generally associated with GIS and remote sensing: political
ecology and post-developmentalism. Political ecology encompasses a number of
loosely configured areas of scholarship (Thrupp, 1993; Bryant 1992; cited by Weiner,
1995).
For Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) the operationalization of regional political ecology
(RPE) follows a chain of explanation which starts with local land managers and land
use practises. Specific social relations of resource use are then contextualized more
broadly in terms of their relations with each other and other land users within the
state and the world economy
With participatory GIS the structural distortion can be reduced by the inclusion of
local knowledge from socially differentiated communities whose everyday lives are
tied to local conditions. This requires an approach to complement more traditional
planning methodologies with the expertise and knowledge of communities who have
a long standing relationship with the land (Weiner et al, 1995).
5
intervention strategy can be worked out only if the status of natural resources along
with their spatial distribution is understood fully by the planners, the land owner and
the users. The evaluation of the available resources and the mapping of the existing
land uses and assets would lead to a desirable development strategy evolved
through a series of action plans with the people’s participation.
Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) proposed a land use decision-making approach for land
management based on the cumulative land decision approach of Blaikie (1985) and
outlined above. It focuses on a different set of decisions and provides a simple
decision-tree that traces through the stages in decision-making. They propose that a
number of social-environmental data form the initial desiderata for land use and
management practice. The data consist of the socio-economic characteristics of the
decision-makers and their access to resources. The intrinsic properties of the land
system (soil, fertility, slope, etc.) are also essential elements. These models are
concerned with present investments to maintain or enhance a future income stream
(Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987). The schema for decision-making in land management
is shown in figure 1.
6
4. Development a methodology for the inventory of land use types at ejido level,
using Rapid Rural Appraisal (Chambers, 1994) and cumulative decision-making
(Blaikie, 1985).
5. Development of an understanding of the land use decision-making processes, by
using RRA methodologies. Use will be made of either the model of decision-
making in land management ( Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987) or real life choice
(Gladwin, 1979,1980).
6. Integration of information concerning decision-making into a GIS.
7. Development of a model for improved rural development planning decisions at
the municipality and ejido levels.
5) Objective function of
production. 1
6)Intrinsic properties of soil and YES NO
vegetation .
Other activities. NO
Migrate 15
CHANGE
other compensatory
SOCIAL DATA PERCEIVED
MODIFICATION OF on-site strategies
LAND USE BY DECISION-MAKER
.
AND MANAGEMENT YES
TO BOX 1
NO TO BOX 1
OTHER NO
YES CAUSES
FOLLOW
STRATEGIES TO BOX 15
YES
FEASIBLE
SUBSET CONSIDERATION
WITHIN CONSTRAINTS
OF SOCIAL
OF ARRAY OF LAND DIAGNOSIS
ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES WITHIN DEGRADATION
DATA DECISION-MAKER. IS THE PROBLEM
7
The census contains quantitative and qualitative information at ejido level. This
information is declarative and concerns the characteristics (acerage, number of
ejidatarios, etc.) and activities in the ejidos (crops, credit, machinery, etc.). It will be
used here for the identification of the contrasting socio-economic aspects between
ejidos. During fieldwork more detailed information about socio-economic aspects will
be generated by using techniques of Participatory and Rapid Rural Appraisal..
The information at grassroots levels, related to land use and decision-making, will be
generated directly in the field for the selected ejidos.
DATA
MANIPULATION:
MAPPING
DTM
RAW DATA DATA INTERPOLATION
CONVERSION DATABASE
MAPS
SPATIAL
DIGITISING ANALYSIS
DISPLAY
Taking the municipality data as an example the following procedures will be carried
out for the inputting and integration of information in the GIS: maps of ejido
boundaries, and land resources, soils, vegetation and land use at a scale of 1:50,000
will be digitised and the digital information about satellite images (SPOT,1989 and
1994) and Digital Elevation Model will be input in the GIS. With the transformation of
maps and digital data into the same cartographic system and the mapping and
overlay procedures of GIS the inventory, availability and location of the ejidos and
their resources can be achieved at municipality level. This information can then be
used for a number of purposes e.g. for the location of forest areas, agriculture,
grazing and irrigated land; for identification of the main land use types in the ejidos,
and for the identification of the areas with main restrictions for agriculture. All these
involve map overlay of different layers such as crops, soil units, land phases (salinity,
depth of soil ) and slope. Finally this analysis will enable a spatial stratification of
ejidos and the identification of them with different resource base, from which
representative samples will be selected for field study and data gathering concerning
land use and decision-making.
8
3.9 Identification of the ejidos with different local conditions
Each of the ejidos has specific local conditions of resources and infrastructure, which
have influenced local land use decision-making processes. As Blaikie (1985) states:
for the understanding of decision-making, attention needs to be focused on land and
land users in a bottom-up approach. This should start with the actual people making
decisions on how to use land and the identification of income generation to fulfil
some objective functions in terms of alternative land uses. At this point with the
overlay procedure of GIS, the identification of the differences in cumulative land use
decisions and their relation with the resource database can be matched for analysis
of the land use and decision-making processes.
Once the location of clustering of land use has been achieved, a qualitative ranking
of ejidos with comparative advantages for different resource availability and use will
be generated; for example the ejidos with more profitable crops, infrastructure, soils,
etc. A sample of two or three ejidos with more variation in their land resource
database and degradation will be selected for the characterization of the typology
and decision-making processes of land uses.
The techniques that will be used for the fieldwork will include:
• evaluation of secondary data and information both published and unpublished
• direct observation of field ‘objects’, events, processes, relationships of people
• semi-structured interviewing, that is, informal, guided interview sessions
where only some questions are predetermined and new questions or lines of
questioning arise during the interview (Pretty, 1988). During the discussions
satellite images and airphotos will be used to help discussion of land use
changes that have occurred, together with other changes e.g. increased
degradation.
4. References.
Aitken S.C. and Michel S.M. (1995) Who contrives the “real” GIS? Geographic information, planning and
critical theory. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems. 22,17-29.
Bartlett P. (1980) Introduction : Development issues and economic Antrophology. In Bartlett P. (Ed)
Agricultural decision-making : Anthropological contributions to rural development. Academic
Press. London.
9
Blaikie P. (1985) The political economy of soil erosion in developing countries. Longman. London.
Blaikie P. and Brookfield H. (1987) Land degradation and society. Methuen. London.
Beek J. (1978) Land evaluation for agriculture development ILRI. Publication 23. Wageningen.
Bryant R. (1992) Political ecology: An emerging research agenda in Third World studies. Political
Geography. 11,12-36.
Bronsveld K. Huizing, H. and Omakupt M. (1994) Improving land evaluation and land use planning. ITC
journal 4, 359-365.
Burger A. (1994) The agriculture of the world . Averbury, London.
Burrough P.A. (1986) Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Asessment.
Oxford University Press. New York.
Burrough P.A. (1996). Discussion of the paper of D. G. Rossiter. Geoderma 72, 192-194.
Chambers R. (1994) The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal , World Development ,
22,1253-1268.
CESS (Centre of Earth Science Studies) (1991) Panchayat level resource mapping. An approach paper.
A model for micro level resource survey with peoples participation. Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala.
Corbett J. (1995) Dynamic crop environment classification using interpolated climatic surfaces . In
Goodchild, M. E. Steyaert, I. Parks, B.O. Crane, I. Johnson, L. Maidement D. and Glenndining
S.(Editors) GIS and environmental modelling : Progress and Research Issues. GIS World
Books. New York.
Edney M. H. (1991) Strategies for maintaining the democratic nature of Geographic Information
Systems. Papers and proceedings of the Applied Geography Conferences, 14, 100-108.
FAO. (1976) A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32 . Food and Agriculture Organisation of
the United Nations. Rome.
FAO. (1983) Guidelines: Land evaluation for rainfed agriculture Soils Bulletin 52 . Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations. Rome.
FAO. (1984) Land evaluation for forestry Forestry paper 48. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations. Rome.
FAO. (1985) Guidelines: land evaluation for irrigated agriculture .Soils Bulletin 55 . Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations. Rome.
FAO. (1991) Guidelines: land evaluation for extensive grazing .Soils Bulletin 58 . Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations. Rome.
FAO. (1993) Guidelines for land use planning . FAO development series 1. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations. Rome.
Gladwin C. (1979) Cognitive strategies and adoption decisions: A case study of non adoption of an
agronomic recommendation. Economic development and cultural change. 27, 155-174.
Gladwin C. (1980) A theory of Real Life choice : applications to agriculture decisions. In Bartlett P.(ed)
Agricultural decision-making: Anthropological contributions to rural development. Academic
Press. London.
Gordillo de Anda, G., Ridell J., Archer M.(1996) Habitat II and the world food summit: The challenges
ahead. HTTP//WWW.FAO.ORG/ WAICENT/FAOINFO/ SUSTDEV/ LTdirect/LTan0007htm.
Goss J. (1993) “ We know who you are and we know where you live”: the rationality of geo-marketing
Information Systems. Proceedings NCGIA Geographic Information and Society workshop.
Friday Harbor. Washington.
Harris M.T, Weiner D., Warner A.T., Levin R. (1995). Pursuing social goals through participatory
Geographic Information Systems. Redressing South Africa’s historical political ecology. In
Pickles J (ed.). Ground Truth. the social implications of Geographical Information Systems. p
196-222. Guilford Press. London.
Ireson R.W (1987) Landholding, agricultural modernisation and income concentration: a Mexican
example. Economic development and cultural change 35,1, 351-366.
Jensen J.R and Christensen E.J (1986) Solid and hazardous waste disposal site selection using digital
Geographical Information Systems techniques. In the Science of the total environment, 56,
265-276.
Laurini R. and Thompson D. (1992) Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems . The APIC series No.
37 . Academic Press. London.
10
Mark D. (1993) On the ethics of representation or whose world is it anyway? Proceedings NCGIA
Geographic information and society Workshop, Friday Harbor. Washington.
Meijerink ,A.M., Valenzuela, C.R., and Stewart (eds) (1988) ILWIS: The integrated land and watershed
management information system. ITC publication Number 7. International Institute for
Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences. (ITC), Netherlands.
Pickles J. (1993) Representations in an electronic age: geography, GIS and democracy. Proceedings
NCGIA Geographic information and society Workshop, Friday Harbor. Washington.
PROCEDE, (1993) Programa De Certificacion de Derechos Ejidales y titulacion de solares
urbanos.Procuraduria Agraria, Mexico.
Rossiter D.G. (1995) Economic land evaluation: why and how. Soil use and management 11,132-140.
Rossiter D.G. (1996) A theoretical framework for land evaluation . Discussion paper. Geoderma 72,165-
190.
Taylor D. R.F. (1991) GIS and developing nations. In Maguire D.J., Goodchild, M. and Rhind D.W.
(eds.) Geographical Information Systems: principles and applications. Longman, London. 71-
84.
Thrupp L. (1993) Political ecology of sustainable rural development: Dynamics of social and natural
degradation. In Allen P. (ed). Food for the future. Conditions and contradictions of
sustainability. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.
Van de Putte, R.(1989) Land evaluation and project planning. ITC Journal 1989 2.139-143.
Weiner D., Warner T., Harris T., Levin R. (1995) Apartheid representations in a digital landscape : GIS
remote sensing and local knowledge in Kiepersol ,South Africa. Cartography and Geographic
Information Systems, 22, 30-44.
Wilson N.P. and Thompson D.G. (1993) Common property and uncertainty: Compensating coalitions by
Mexico’s pastoral Ejidatarios. Development and cultural change 43, 299-308
Yeh, Gar-On. A. (1991) The development and applications of Geographic Information Systems for urban
planning and regional planning in the developing countries. International Journal of
Geographical Information Systems, 5, 5-27.
11