American Academy of Religion

Ṭabarī's Exegesis of the Qur'ānic Term al-Kitāb

Author(s): Herbert Berg
Source: Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 761-
774
Published by: Oxford University Press
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 Journalof theAmericanAcademyof ReligionLXIII/4

Tabari's Exegesis of the

Qur'anic Term al-Kitdb
Herbert Berg

AI-KITAB, TRANSLATED"THEbook" or "the writing," is a com-

mon synonym for the Qur'an. The Qur'an itself employs the term
kitab and its plural kutub 261 times. And so, while this term does
not present the same problems associated with the Qur'anic hapax
legomena, the large number of ambiguous and related concepts
that this term seems to signify makes it extremely difficult at times
to discern to what kitab refers in a particular passage. The
Qur'an's largely referential as opposed to expository style has
necessitated the use of supplemental material to provide the con-
text of a passage. However, the historicity of the biographical (sira)
and occasions of revelation (asbab al-nuziil) materials that are used
by both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars for this purpose has
been questioned particularly by scholars such Wansbrough (1977:
39-42, 57-8, and 121-129; 1978: 1-49) and Rippin (1-20). Rather
than attempt to reconstruct how the term kitab was understood by
those who first heard the Qur'an using the sira and asbab al-nuzal
materials, I will rely on explicitly exegetical material to explore
how it was understood by the earliest Muslim exegetes whose work
is extant, particularly as recorded by the great historian and com-
piler of commentary Abfi Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.
923 C.E.). As I shall demonstrate, al-Tabari and the earlier exe-
getes he records display at times a remarkable degree of disagree-
ment and apparent confusion about what the Qur'an means by the
word kitab, even though the compiler lived almost three centuries
after the Qur'an was to have been revealed (or "sent down," to use
an expression which is more akin to the Qur'anic concept of
revelation).
Although the work of al-Tabari is not fraught with the same
problems as those of earlier Muslim works, it must still be used

Herbert Berg is lecturer in the Department of Religion at the University of Vermont, Burling-
ton, VT 05405-0218.

761

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762 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

with caution. Claude Gilliot in his recent study on al-Tabari con-

cludes: "Tabarinous apparaitmoins commele compilateurqu'ona
trop souventvu en lui que commeun exegete-theologienqui a certes
transmis des materiaux connus ou elaboresavant lui, mais qui a
egalementconsolidel'oeuvrede ses predecesseursde la generation
d'a?-Safiet du Aba 'Ubayd,pour ne mentionnerqu'eux" (281).
While al-Tabari's commentary is not a dogmatic summary mod-
elled on the works of his contemporary theologians (mutakallimfan)
and the heresiographers, his commentary "pourtant il participe
dans une certaine mesure a l' laborationd'une orthodoxie, tout
comme ces deux type d'ouvrages"(277). However, it is precisely al-
Tabari's support for an orthodoxy that brings the discrepancies
and confusion evident in his commentary into sharp relief.
On the subject of the term kitab, al-Tabari's own position,' at
least in part, is readily available. In his lengthy introduction to his
commentary al-Tabari states that Allah has given four names to
that which was sent down to Muhammad: al-qur'an, al-furqdn, al-
kitab, and al-dhikr (I: 94).2 A little later he gives only the briefest
explanation for kitab: "As for the interpretation of its name 'kitab',
it is the verbal noun from kataba [to write] ... And the kitab is the
trace left by the writer of the letters of the alphabet joined and sep-
arated. And it is called a kitab because it is written (maktaib)"(I:
99).3 For al-Tabari, therefore, the terms al-qur'an and al-kitab are
generally to be considered synonyms. Yet, as I will show, al-
Tabari's understanding of the term was much less clear than his
few comments in his introduction imply.

I
Only a few Qur'fnic passages that contain the word kitab are
interpreted by al-Tabari as references to some mundane text. For
example, kitab for al-Tabari may mean a marriage contract, a con-

11Inmost cases al-Tabari's opinions accord with the doctrines of "orthodox" Sunni Islam.
However, as Gilliot has shown, al-Tabari helped elaborate that particular orthodoxy. There-
fore, I will speak only of "al-Tabari'sposition" even where it may be shared by many others.
2The best edition of al-Tabari's commentary (1954- ) is only complete through 14.27.
References beyond that verse use an earlier edition (1903).
3Although the word kitab is associated with the act of writing, al-Tabari is not necessarily
referring to a physical entity when he employs the term. When he does refer to a particular
book, such as the copy of the the Qur'an said to have been in the possession of Hafsa the
daughter of 'Umar, al-Tabari uses the term mushaf.

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Tabarf Exegesis of the Qur'anic Term al-Kitab 763

tract between a slave and a master, or a letter,4 indicating, that

kitab can signify just about any piece of writing.
A far more prominent kitab is the one which, according to the
Qur'an, is given on the day of judgement to a person in his or her
right or left land, the former indicating a reward and the latter pun-
ishment. According to al-Tabari these kitabs are each the record of
the deeds (kitab 'amal or kitab a'mal) of an individual.5 Al-Tabari
does not seem to draw a distinction between these individual
kitabs of deeds and the one kitab containing the deeds of Allah's
servants mentioned in 18.49 also referred to as the kitab a'mal by
him (XV: 156).6 Other records of deeds according to al-Tabari are
the pair of kitabs of surah 83, one for the good and one for the
wicked. He glosses the kitab of 83.7 with "a kitab in which their
deeds have been written (kitabun kutiba fihi a'malu-hum)" (XXX:
51) and the one of verse 18 with "the kitab of the deeds of the
righteous (kitab a'mal al-abrar)" (XXX: 57). Al-Tabari seems to
have been content to place these various kitabs under the vague
rubric of the kitab a'mal. His predilection for subsuming what
seem to be diverse concepts under the one term and thereby mak-
ing his exegesis as vague as the term he is trying to explain will
become more evident as we proceed.
Another, perhaps related, kitab is the one of Allah's knowledge
('ilm). Often it is used in an expression like "there is nothing in the
earth, neither small nor large, except that it is in a clear kitab,"
found in 34.3 which al-Tabari explains as meaning "it is estab-
lished in a clear kitab which explains to someone who looks in it
that Allah had established it, enumerated it, and knew it" (XXII:
37).7 In 78.29 the Qur'an says "each thing we enumerate as [or in]
a kitab, " and al-Tabari appends to the verse by way of elaboration
"its number, its amount, and its extent-the knowledge of (any)
thing does not escape us" (XXX: 10). This might suggest that al-
Tabari considered kitab merely as a metaphor for Allah's knowl-
edge. However, from al-Tabari's comments elsewhere on Allah's

4See 2.235 (V: 115-16), 24.33 (XVIII:88), and 27.28-9 (XIX: 28-9), respectively.
5See 17.13-14 (XV: 37-9), 17.71 (XV: 80-1), 84.7 (XXX:63), and 84.10 (XXX:64). In 69.19
(XXIX: 34) and 69.25 (XXIX: 35) al-Tabari refers to this kitab as "kitab a'mal."
6 See also 39.69 (XXIV: 6) and 23.62 (XVIII: 24). However, al-Tabari does refer to the
individual kitabs mentioned in 17.13 as "their portion (nasib) of the kitdb"(XV: 37) but
makes no further comment on this distinction.
7Compare with the "preserved kitdb" in 50.4 (XXVI:84-5) and the "kitab of Allah" in 30.56
(XXI: 34).

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 764 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

knowledge it is quite evident that he is not speaking metaphori-

cally. For example, in 35.11 where the Qur'an states that the
length or shortness of a person's life is in a kitab is explained by al-
Tabari as "it is in a kitab with Allah, written (maktab) which he
computes and knows" (XXII: 71-2).8
Another kitab, again not unrelated to the aforementioned ones,
is the umm al-kitab, literally "the mother of the kitab." When the
Qur'an uses this expression as in 43.4, "Verily it is in the umm al-
kitab with us," al-Tabari, merging the opinions of the cited exe-
getes, says this means it is the asl al-kitab, that is, the root or foun-
dation of the kitab, from which the Qur'an (this kitab) is copied
(XXV: 26-7). While such authorities as 'Atiya, 'Ikrima, and Qatada
are in agreement with al-Tabari, Ibn 'Abbas says, "the first thing
Allah created was the pen. He ordered it to write what He wanted
to create" and this was the umm al-kitab (XXV: 27). For 13.39,
"Allah blots out and establishes what he will, and with him is the
umm al-kitab,"there is considerably less consensus among the exe-
getes which al-Tabari records: one exegete (Al-Hasan) says that the
umm al-kitab is that which is permitted and forbidden, but then he
also says it is the short liturgical surah, al-Fatiha, which begins the
Qur'an; several other exegetes (Qatada, al-Dahhak, and Ibn 'Abbas)
argue that the umm al-kitab is the totality (jumla) of the kitab and
its foundation containing both the abrogating and abrogated
verses; one (Ka'b) states that the umm al-kitab is connected with
Allah's foreknowledge, that is, the knowledge of Allah of what he
creates and what his creation is doing-Allah is said to have "spo-
ken to his knowledge, 'Be a kitab!' so it was a kitab"; another (Ibn
'Abbas according to another chain of transmitters) says it means
the Remembrance (dhikr); and al-Tabari, attempting to compro-
mise, states that the umm al-kitab is the foundation of the kitab
and its totality (XIII: 490-1).
The third occurence of the umm al-kitab in 3.7 is no less prob-
lematic: "He is the one who sent down to you the kitab-an expres-
sion al-Tabari always takes to mean the Qur'an (see below)-from it
are signs [or verses] which are fundamental; they are the umm al-
kitab and others which are ambiguous." Here too, al-Tabari under-

8Most likely related to this kitab of knowledge is the one which contains the 'ajal, the term
or the period of time. That is, the Qur'an states in 15.4 that Allah does not destroy a town
until they have a known kitab, which al-Tabari interprets to mean its appointed time and
known period of time for its destruction (XIV: 5).

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Tabarf Exegesis of the Qur'anic Term al-KitAb 765

stands umm al-kitab to mean the foundation or root of the kitab in

which are the pillars of religion, the obligations, the limits and all
that is required by religion, although he does add that the expres-
sion umm al-kitab also means the major part of the kitab. To sup-
port this latter interpretation al-Tabari merely provides an example
of this idiom (VI: 169-70). Once again the cited exegetes differ
with each other. Some are in agreement with al-Tabari, but one
says that it means the whole of the kitab, and another even says it
means the headings which appear at the beginning of some surahs
(Ibn Zayd and Abti Fakhita, respectively) (VI: 182-3). Thus, there
is little agreement as to what the umm al-kitab is, or perhaps are.
Under its rubric are included, the knowledge of Allah, a record of
deeds, and the Qur'an, in whole and in part. Furthermore, when
al-Tabari uses the expression as part of his explanations of other
passages in the Qur'an, he is quite willing to draw on some of the
interpretations given by the various exegetes of umm al-kitab that
he had earlier chosen to ignore or reject. For example, the Qur'an's
"Allah knows what is in the heavens and the earth, verily that is in
a kitab" in 22.70 and the variations on it in 27.75, 6.38, and 57.22
are interpreted by al-Tabari to be references to the umm al-kitab
(XVII: 126; XX: 8; XI: 344-5; XXVII: 120-1).9 And, for 45.29 al-
Tabari cites one exegete (Ibn 'Abbas) who says that the umm al-
kitab contains the deeds of humans (XXV: 86). When all the vari-
ous meanings assigned by al-Tabarito the expression umm al-kitab
are joined with the ways he explains it, it or they become an amal-
gam of all the kitabs, no less vague than the term kitab itself.
An expression which seems closely associated with umm al-
kitab is al-lawh the preserved tablet. Al-Tabari uses it in
to gloss the Qur'anic expression "in the kitab of
33.6 and 8.75 al-mahffz.,
Allah" (XXI: 71; XIV: 90). The referent in these verses for al-Tabari
seems to be the decree of Allah. This is explicitly stated when the
Qur'anic statement in 8.68, "Had it not been for a kitab from Allah
which preceded" is paraphrased by al-Tabari as "Had it not been a
decree (qadd') from Allah in al-lawh al-mahfauz"(XIV: 64). It is
noteworthy that in this passage and in 17.58 al-Tabari uses this
expression when the recorded commentators use only the term
umm al-kitab or al-kitab al-awwal (the first kitab) suggesting that he
felt the terms to be synonymous (XV: 69). In addition, in explain-

9Compare the expressions similar to "verily it is in a kitab" in 11.6 (XV: 240) and 17.4 (XV:
15-6).

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766 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

ing "[nothing] except that is in a clear kitab," an expression also

glossed as umm al-kitab (see above), al-Tabari comments for 6.59,
"there is nothing also of what exists or what will exist or what has
not yet existed except that it is established in al-lawh al-mahfau..
That which is written in it and recorded is its number, its extent,
the time in which it exists, and the state in which it ceases to exist"
(XI: 403). In 7.37 "their portion of the kitab" is that in al-lawh al-
mahfaiz,which al-Tabari, again conflating the opinions of the exe-
getes, says contains what Allah has written for them of good and
evil, blessing, deeds, and term of life in this world (XXII: 408).
Like umm al-kitab various and somewhat ambiguous concepts are
subsumed under the rubric of al-lawh al-mahffiz.

II
Al-Tabari and the exegetes he records are more consistent with
passages which they state refer to the Qur'an. This probably is due
to the fact that kitab appears in fairly consistently structured
phrases. For example, the passages of the Qur'an containing the
word kitab in which the second person singular pronoun also
appears are consistently interpreted by al-Tabari as being
addressed to Muhammad. Whenever the Qur'an uses the expres-
sion "We sent down the kitab to you," or "a kitab which we sent
down to you," al-Tabari glosses the term kitab with the word al-
qur'an.10 When the word kitab appears outside of the stock
phrases mentioned above, it is frequently assumed by al-Tabari to

10See 3.3 (VI: 106), 3.7 (VI: 169), 4.105 (IX: 175), 4.140 (IX: 320), 5.48 (X: 377), 6.114
(XII: 60), 7.2 (XII: 295), 14.1 (XVI: 511), 16.89 (XIV:99), 18.1 (XV: 117), 38.29 (XXIII:87),
39.2 (XXIII: 110), and 39.41(XXIV: 6). For 29.47 (XXI: 4) and 29.51(XXI: 5) al-Tabari sim-
ply glosses this type of expression with "hddhal-kitdb"(this kitab), which means the Qur'dn
for him. A related expression "tanzil al-kitab"(sending down of the kitdb) in 32.2 (XXI: 52),
39.1 (XXIII: 110), 40.2 (XXIV: 24), and 45.2 (XXV: 77) is similarly interpreted. See also
41.2-3 (XXIV:53). Other expressions of "revelation"such as those using the word awh&are
understood in much the same way by al-Tabari. See, for example, 18.27 (XV: 143), 28.86
(XX: 84), 29.45 (XX: 92), and 35.31 (XXII: 77). A similar interpretation is made when the
addressee is in the plural, except that it is Muslims who are assumed to be addresssed as for
2.231 (V: 15) and 3.79 (VI: 545). Occasionally al-Tabari uses the name the al-furqdn to
gloss kitab as he does, for example, in 2.151 which reads "We sent to you a messenger from
among you reciting (yatla) to you our signs and purifying you, and teaching you the kitab."
Al-Tabari states that by the furqan he means that he taught them his judgements (ahkdm)
(III: 210-11). As noted above, the Furqdn is one of the names Allah has given to what he
sent down to Muammad according to al-Tabari,but he seems to use it to emphasize a partic-
ular attribute of the kitab.

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Tabarf Exegesis of the Qur'anic Term al-Kitdb 767

signify the Qur'an as well, which he either states explicitly or uses

one of his synonymous phrases like "the kitab which Allah sent
down on Muhammad.""'1
This consistency arises largely from the wording of the
passages in which kitab appears. As soon as the wording becomes
ambiguous, discrepencies appear, both between the interpretations
of a single passage and between similar passages in different parts
of the Qur'an. For example, the word kitab is mentioned at the
very beginning of numerous surahs, in what appear to be headings
to the surahs.12 In all but four cases, al-Tabari and the exegetes he
has recorded state that the kitab mentioned in them refers to the
Qur'an. In 2.2 the Qur'an says "that kitab has no doubt in it, a
guidance to those who fear [Allah]." Al-Tabari goes to considera-
ble effort to demonstrate how "that"can mean "this"and so be able
to state that the verse is refering to the Qur'an. However, he also
mentions some anonymous exegetes who thought that it was a ref-
erence to the Tawrat and the Injil which are the Qur'anic names for
the Torah of Moses and the Gospel of Jesus (I: 225-8). This same
confusion occurs in 10.1. Again al-Tabari mentions one commen-
tator who thinks the kitab is the Tawrat and the Injil and another
that states that it refers to the kitabs which are prior to the Qur'an
(Mujahid and Qatada, respectively), but this time the anonymous
support of the "others" say the kitab in this verse refers to the
Qur'an. Al-Tabari accepts this latter interpretation and merely

11See 2.129 (III: 86), 4.127 (IX: 253-60), 5.48 (X: 377), 6.92 (XI: 530), 6.155 (XII: 238),
7.52 (XII: 477), 11.1 (XV: 225), 26.2 (XIX: 34), 28.2 (XX: 17), 39.23 (XXIII: 164),
41.41(XXIV: 71), 42.17 (XXV: 11-12), 43.2 (XXV: 26), 44.2 (XXV: 58), and 46.12 (XXVI:
20). Occasionally,the use of kitdbin the Qur'Anis verygeneral,but still refersto the Qur'an
indirectly, as when it asks rhetorically, "have we sent down a kitab?" in 35.40 (XXII: 84),
demandsthat those who disagreebring their kitabin 37.157 (XXIII:61), or simply states,
"they have no kitab" in 22.8 (XVII: 83). See also 31.20 (XXI: 45), 34.44 (XXII: 61), 43.21
(XXV: 32), 46.4 (XXVI:2), and 68.37 (XXIX:20). Al-Tabariassumes these passages refer to
unbelievers, especially the Arabs of the Quraysh, or to Muhammad in the case of 28.49 (XX:
50) and 42.52 (XXV: 25-6). In 56.77-8 where it says "Verily it is a noble qur'In, in a well-
protected kitab," al-Tabari says that this kitab is with Allah and no harm of dust or anything
else touches it (XXVII: 105), suggesting that this verse refers to a Qur'an which is not an
earthly kitab.
From the above, it is readily apparent that the occurence of the term kitdb is interpreted
to be the Qur'dn, whether it is definite (al-kitab) or indefinite (kitab). This is somewhat odd
given al-Tabari's comments on 2.78 where "They do not know the kitab" is explained "the
kitAb means the Tawrat and therefore it has a definite article because a specific, well-known
scripture is meant by it" (II: 160).
122.1-7, 3.1-9, 7.1-3, 10.1-2, 11.1-3, 12.1-3, 13.1, 14.1, 15.1, 26.1-2, 27.1-6, 28.1-2, 31.1-3,
32.1-3, 40.1-4, 41.1-4, 43.1-4, 44.1-6, 45.1-2, and 46.1-2. Similar headings that do not con-
tain the termkitab can be found in 19.1-2, 20.1-4, 24.1, 25.1, 36.1-7, 38.1-2, and 50.1.

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768 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

adds that al-kitab is one of the names of the Qur'an (XV: 11-12). In
13.1 al-Tabari cites traditions from the same two commentators
who again say that the kitab means the Tawrat and the Injil and
this time al-Tabari agrees. This, of course, is because the context
seems to demand it: the verse reads "these are the signs of the
kitab and of that which was sent down from your lord"(XVI:319).
The latter is, of course, the Qur'an for al-Tabari. The context and
the interpretation is exactly the same in 15.1, except that this time
the latter phrase is "and of a clear Qur'an" (XIV: 2).13

III
These differences are possible because, for a large number of
Qur'anic passages that contain the word kitab, al-Tabari and the
early exegetes understood the word to refer to one of or both of the
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, namely the Tawrat and the
Injil.
One of the most commonly used phrases of the Qur'an is "ahl
al-kitab,"or people of the kitab. For example, in surah 3.65 "O ahl
al-kitdb, why are you arguing about Ibrahim, when the Tawrat and
the Injil were only sent down after him." For this and the other 30
uses of this phrase,'4 al-Tabari normally paraphrases it with
expressions like "the people of the Tawrat and the Injil," "the Jews
and the Christians," or some combination of them.'5 At times he
and the exegetes are more general, allowing others who believe in
the kitabs of Allah to be subsumed under this expression, while at
other times they are more specific, singling out the Jews of Medina,
one of the Jewish tribes of Medina, the Christians of Najran, or

13A1-Tabari'sexegesis of 27.1 makes an interesting comparison. This passage reads "these

are the signs of al-Qur'an and a clear kitdb." Despite the nearly identical wording to the
aforementioned passages, al-Tabari states that the kitdb mentioned here refers the Qur'dn
(XIX: 74).
142.105, 2.109, 3.64, 3.65, 3.69, 3.70, 3.71, 3.72, 3.75, 3.98, 3.99, 3.110, 3.113, 3.199,
4.123, 4.153, 4.159, 4.171, 5.15, 5.19, 5.59, 5.65, 5.68, 5.77, 29.46, 33.26, 57.29, 59.2,
59.11, 98.1, and 98.6.
15 See 3.64 (VI: 483), 3.65 (VI: 489), 3.71 (VI: 503), and 98.1 (XXX: 144) for
"ahl al-tawrdt
wa-l-injfl." See 3.70 (VI: 502), 5.15 (X: 140), 5.59 (X: 433), 5.65 (X: 461), 29.46 (XXI: 2),
and 98.6 (XXX: 146) for "al-yahfadwa-l-nasdrd." See, for example 3.69 "ahl ul-tawrdt min al-
yahfid wa-ahl ul-injfl min al-nasard" (VI: 500), 3.110 "ahl ul-tawrdt wa-ahl ul-injfl min al-
yahaid wa-l-nasdrd"(VII:107), and 5.68 "al-yahadwa-l-nasard 'yd ahlu l-kitab' al-tawrdt wa-1-
injfl"(X: 473). The synonymy of these expressions is evident from al-Tabari's comments for
the consecutive passages 3.69-71.

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Tabarf Exegesis of the Qur'anic Term al-KitAb 769

even a particular Jew or Christian.16 That this labelling was occa-

sionally done in a somewhat haphazard manner is evident in
passages like 5.15 in which al-Tabari states that ahl al-kitab means
the Jews and the Christians, but in discussing the kitab which this
group is said to be concealing, he says it is the "kitab which Allah
has sent down to you [Jews], that is, the Tawrat" (X: 140-43). A
general uncertainty of the exegetes is further evident in their fre-
quent disagreements with each other about who among the Jews
and Christians is intended by a reference to the ahl al-kitab in a
particular passage.'7
Other related phrases are "alladhinautfi al-kitab"and "alladhfna
ataynd al-kitab," which mean "those who have been given the
kitab" and "those to whom we gave the kitab," respectively, are also
very common.'8 As with "ahl al-kitab," these phrases are generally
applied to the Jews and Christians but with considerable diversity
within those groups and with considerable disagreement between
the exegetes.'9 Similar expressions involving those who read,
write, inherit, have knowledge of, do what is in, dispute about, or
conceal the kitab are also applied to Jews and Christians and also
exhibit the same diversity and disagreement.20

16See the various peoples or persons assumed to be the subject of a verse by al-Tabari and
his authorities in 2.105 (II: 407), 2.109 (II: 109), 3.64 (VI: 483-5), 3.75 (VI: 519), 3.98-99
(VII: 52-7), 3.199 (VII:496), 4.171 (IX: 415), 5.19 (X: 155), 5.77 (X: 487), 33.26 (XXI:86-7),
59.2 (XXVIII:18), and 59.11 (XXVIII:29), for example.
170nce again, see 3.64 (VI: 483-5), 3.98-99 (VII: 52-7), 3.199 (VII: 496), and 5.77 (X: 487).
18See 2.101, 2.144, 2.145, 3.19, 3.20, 3.100, 3.186, 3.187, 4.47, 4.131, 5.5, 5.57, 9.29,
57.16, and 74.31; and 2.121, 2.146, 6.20, 6.89, 28.52, and 29.47, respectively.
19For 2.145 (III: 184) , 3.20 (VI: 281), 3.100 (VII: 58-9), 4.131 (IX: 312), 9.29 (XIV: 29),
74.31 (XXIX:86-7), and 98.4 (XXX: 144-5) al-Tabari mentions '"Jewsand Christians" or "the
people of the Tawrat and the Injil." Greater specificity can be found in al-Tabari's discus-
sion of 3.186 (VII:454-8), 4.47 (VIII:440), 6.114 (XII: 61), 29.47 (XXI:4), 45.16 (XXV: 80),
and 57.16 (XXVII:117-8). Disagreements can be found about the referents in 3.19 (VI: 276-
8), 3.187 (VII: 458-62), and 5.5 (IX: 572-81), for example. Somewhat unusual about these
two expressions is their occasional interpretation as referring to the Jewish and Christians
scholars (ulamd' or ahbar) or even to the prophets and people of knowledge of the matters
of religion. See 2.101 (II: 403-4), 2.121 (II: 564-6), 2.144 (III: 183), 2.146 (III: 187), and
3.187 (VII: 458-62). In 5.57 we again have a case where al-Tabari glosses the expression
with "Jewsand Christians" but then specifically mentions only the Jews in his discussion of
the passage (X: 428-9). See also 2.144 (III: 183) and 6.20 (XI: 294-6). An examination of
consecutive passages, such as those of 2.144-6 or 3.186-7 suggests an almost arbitrary
assignment of referrents by the exegetes.
20See 2.44 (II: 9-10), 2.79 (II: 270-1), 2.113 (II: 513-16), 2.174 (III:327-8), 2.176 (III: 334-
6), 3.78 (VI: 535), 6.156 (XII: 239-41), 7.169 (XIII:209-11), 7.170 (XIII:216-7), 10.94 (XV:
200-1), 13.43 (XVI: 500-6), 40.53 (XXIV:45), and 42.14 (XXV: 10). However, occasionally
these same types of expressions are thought to be references to the Qur'An as for 35.29
(XXII: 77) or to have no relation to scripture, as for 27.40 (XIX: 90-4).

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770 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

Fromal-Tabari's commentary it is evidentthatthe expressions

"ahlal-kitab" and "alladhina atv al-kitab"wereseen to referonly to
theJewsand Christians,the two servingas glossesfor each other
in 5.5 (IX:572-3)and28.52 (XX:51-2). Butwithinthisbroaddefi-
nition,any referencecouldbe attributedto bothJews and Chris-
tians,just one of the groups,or evenparticulartribes or named
individualsfrom one or both groups. Nevertheless,as is often
explicitlystatedby al-Tabari, kitab,in these expressions,refersto
eitheror both of the Jewishand Christianscriptures,the Tawrat
and the Injil. Yethere too thereis some inconsistency.In 2.121
the phrase"thosewe gavethe kitab"was thoughtby one exegeteto
referto the believersof the companionsof the Prophet(though
anotherexegeteand al-Tabari maintainedthatit was theJews)(II:
564), while in 13.36, this same phraseis saidto variouslyreferto
the companionsof Muhammad, the Peopleof the kitab,and the
Magians(XVI:473-4). In 3.187 "those who weregiventhe kitab"
is said by the exegetesto referto Jews,to those who havebeen
given knowledgein mattersof religion,or to the prophets(VII:
458-62). Andfinally,in 35.29 "thosewho readthe kitabof Allah"
is said to referto the kitabsent downon Muhammad (XXII:77).
Occurencesof the word kitabin the Qur'anoutsideof these
particularexpressionsarealsofrequentlyassignedto non-Qur'anic
scripturesby al-Tabari.This is particularly true for the passages
which link the kitabwith Mfisa. The expression"WegaveMfisa
the kitab"is alwayssaidto be the Tawrat.21In 6.89 and 4.54 kitab
is said to referto the prophetsand includesthe suhuf(leavesor
pages) of Ibrahimand Mfisa,the Zabfir(Psalms)of Dawud,and
the Injilof 'Isa(XI:514; VIII:480). Whileal-Tabari's assignment
of these texts to the wordkitab certainlyappearsat times to be
done ratherarbitrarily, no real discrepanciesarisefromthis pro-
cess exceptwhen the Qur'anrelatesthe storyof the annunciation
of the birth of 'Isa to Maryamin 3.48. The Qur'anstates that
"Allahwill teach'Isathekitab,the hikma(wisdom),the Tawratand
the Injil."In this passagethereis a kitabwhich seems distinct
fromthe Qur'an,the Tawrat,andthe Injil.Nordoes it seemslikely
to be one of the other kitabs mentionedthus far. Al-Tabari
attemptsto disentanglethis passageby paraphrasing:"Hetaught

21See 2.53 (II: 70), 2.87 (II: 318), 11.110 (XV: 493), 17.2 (XV: 14), 23.49 (XVIII:17), 25.35
(XIX: 9), 28.43 (XX: 43), 32.23 (XXI: 64), 37.117 (XXIII: 52), and 41.45 (XXIV: 74). See
also 19.12 (XVI: 37) and 46.12 (XXVI: 9).

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Tabarf Exegesis of the Qur'anic Term al-Kitib 771

him the kitab, the handwriting (al-khatt) which he wrote by his

hand, the hikma, the sunna which was inspired to him
ilayhi) apart from a kitab, the Tawrat, which was sent down on
(y.iiiha
Musa and was with them from the time of Miisa, and the Injil, that
is, the Injil of 'Isa which did not exist before him" (VI: 421-2). That
is, according to al-Tabari, kitab, is merely being used as a verbal
noun, and simply means the ability to write, though al-Tabari adds
later, "he inspired to him a kitab whose name is the Injil." In a
similar passage in 5.100 he again uses "khatt"as part of his exege-
sis (XI: 215). While certainly inventive, al-Tabari's solution neither
has significant support from the exegetes nor does it parallel the
other items listed and so gives the appearance of being somewhat
extemporaneous.

IV
From the above it is clear that kitab, the singular, is often inter-
preted by al-Tabari as referring to several different scriptures
simultaneously. For instance in 57.26 the Qur'an says "We sent
down to Nuh and Ibrahim and placed in their descendents the
prophethood and the kitab." Al-Tabari says, commenting on this
verse, "kitabs were sent down on them: the Tawrat, the Injil, the
Zabur, and the Furqan and all the known kitabs" (XXVII: 123).22
In fact, he fairly often draws this distinction which the Qur'an does
not: he uses the plural for all the scriptures that are said to have
preceded the Qur'an and reserves, where possible, the singular for
the Qur'an itself. For example, a statement which occurs fre-
quently in the Qur'an, "Wehave sent down the kitab to you ... as a
confirmation for what is before of the kitab" is interpreted by al-
Tabari as "We sent to you, Muhammad, the Qur'An ... as a confir-
mation for the kitabs of Allah before it."23 Al-Tabari even uses the
dual glossing "those we gave the kitab" in 2.121 as the people of
the two kitabs (II: 565),24 although he is far from consistent in this.
Al-Tabari does seem to have felt the need to justify some of his

22Seealso 29.27 (XX:85).

235.48(X:377-81). Heresome of the hadithslist the TawrAtand the Injil,and one adds the
Zabfir. See also 2.79 (II:270-2), 2.159 (III:149-51), 5.57 (X: 428-9), 5.59 (X: 433), 10.37
(XV:90), and 46.30 (XXVI:20), but comparewith 6.92 (XI:530).
24Seealso 2.113 (II: 513), 3.64 (VI:485), and 5.5 (IX:573). When the Qur'Anuses the
dual, however,it causes the exegetessome confusion.In 28.49 the command"Bringa kitab
fromAllahwhich is a betterguide thanthe two of them"means foral-Tabarithe two are the

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772 Journal of the American Academy of Religion

pluralizations. For 3.119, which contains the phrase "And you

believe in the kitab, all of it (tu'minfin bi-l-kitabi kulli-hi),"al-Tabari
paraphrases it as: "and you believe in the kitabs, all of them (bi-l-
kutubi kulli-ha); your kitab which Allah sent down on you, their
kitab which he sent down to them, and the other kitabs which
Allah sent down on his servants" (VII: 148-9). He justifies this by
saying, "The meaning of the kitab in this passage means the plural:
just as one says, 'the dirham increased in the hands of the people'
[even though one] means dirhams" (VII: 148).25 Al-Tabari appears
to have liked this argument, for he also utilized it for his pluraliza-
tion of kitab in 2.285 (VI: 124-5). Another passage through which
al-Tabari attempts to muddle is 3.184 which speaks of "Messen-
gers before you who came with the evidences (bayyindt), the zubur,
and the clear kitab." Al-Tabari explains, "the zubur is the plural of
Zabur [the kitab associated with Dawud] and it is the kitab, and
every kitab is a zabtir." He then adds that in this verse the kitab
means the Tawrat and the Injil (VII: 450-1). In general, it appears
that the vagueness and equivocality found in some of his interpre-
tations of kitab do not cause al-Tabari much consternation. When
they do, he simply uses the literary equivalent of a "hand-waving"
argument to side-step the issue.26
One last Qur'anic phrase, kitab allah, the kitab of Allah, despite
its apparent greater specificity, is no less ambiguous. Both the
Qur'an and al-Tabari use the expression and, once all the different
ways it is interpreted and used are combined, it, like everything
involving the word kitab, incorporates so many entities and con-
cepts that it is rendered more turbid than it was before al-Tabari
explained it. When the Qur'an uses it in 2.101 it is interpreted by
al-Tabari as the Tawrat and again in 5.44 (II: 403; X: 341). Al-
Tabari comes to the same conclusion about the expression in 3.23,

Tawritand the Injil(as it does forIbn 'Abb s) but for Ibn Zaydit is the kitAbgivento Miisi
and the one given to Muhammad(XX:52).
25However,in 4.136 he uses the thirdperson singularpronoun for al-kitaband says "itis
the Tawratand the Injil"(IX:312).
26Evenwhen the Qur'anuses the expression"thosewho weregivena portion(nasfb)from
the kitab"in 3.23, seeminglyin recognitionof variousscripturesthat are all said to be the
kitab, al-Tabarimakes little of it and simply glosses nasfbwith hazza (partor portion) and
latercommentsthat they are theJews (VI:288). See also 4.44 (VIII:426-7) and 4.51 (VIII:
461). Howeverin 7.37 "theirnasfbfrom the kitab"refersto that part of the kitAbthat con-
tains the decreesof Allahwith respectto theirpunishment,fortuneand misfortune,good or
bad deeds, or blessing (XII:408-14). See the discussionof al-lawh above.Neither
of these usages arerelatedby al-Tabarito the use of ba'dal-kitab(some of the kitab)in 2.85
al-mahfiz,
(II:308-10).

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TabarfExegesisof the Qur'anicTermal-Kitib 773

though he does record that some exegetes say that it refers to the
kitab which Allah sent down on Muhammad, that is, the Qur'an
(VI: 288-90). Also, the plural, kutub allah, which is used in 66.12
means the Tawrat and the Injil for the commentator (XXVIII:98).
In the remaining three instances, the Qur'anic uses of the kitab of
Allah, in 9.36, 30.56, and 33.6, are for al-Tabari references to the
decree of Allah that was decreed on the day he created the heavens
and the earth (XIV: 234), to his foreknowledge (XXI: 34), and to
the preserved tablet (XXI: 71). Hence, in his commentary to the
Qur'an's use of the expression the kitab of Allah, al-Tabari explains
the term using the full variation of the term kitab generally except,
oddly, the Qur'an itself. On the other hand, when he uses the term
in the explanations, he often does so as a synonym for the Qur'an,
as in 40.70 where he explicitly equates the two (XXIV:49).27 How-
ever, several times he uses the expression for the Tawrat and/or the
Injil, whereas its plural always refers to these scriptures which pre-
ceded the Qur'an.28 Thus, for al-Tabari the expression the kitab of
Allah refers primarily to the Qur'an,29secondarily to other scrip-
tures, in what seems to be a concerted effort to add the Qur'an to
this final, special, but equally vague, category of kitab.
The Qur'anic universe as presented by al-Tabari is one filled
with kitabs which are amorphous, seem to overlap in their termi-
nology and function, and yet are somehow distinct from each
other. Other than that, very few generalizations can be made. The
Qur'an exhibits an obvious sense of awe at the written word.
Allah's own knowledge and power, and knowledge of Allah all
exist in writing. Al-Tabari, in seeking to comment on the Qur'an,
fails to lessen the degree of confusion created by the Qur'an
through its use of one word for all of the various entities and con-
cepts mentioned thus far. It would therefore seem that the word
kitab became, or more likely remained, an unstable semantic signi-
fier. But why after all this time? Before that can be answered, the

27See also 2.231 (V: 15), 3.164 (VII: 369), 7.170 (XIII:216), 62.2 (XXVIII:57), 19.16 (XVI:
39), and 19.41 (XVI:59). Comparethese last two with 19.51 (XVI:62), 19.54 (XVI:63),
and 19.58 (XVI:63), which all commenton the exact same phrase.
28See 2.121 (II: 565), 2.176 (III: 336), and 19.12 (XVI: 37); and 4.54 (VIII: 480), 5.48 (X:
377), 10.37 (XV: 90), and 46.30 (XXVI: 20).
291n one passage, 27.40, al-Tabari uses the expression knowledge ('ilm) from the kitab of
Allah to clarifythe Qur'Anic"knowledgeof the kitab"which the 'ifrfthad in the story of
SulaymAn,which he follows with numeroushadiths in which the exegetesstate that this
knowledgeconsistedof knowingthe greatestname of Allah,which,if invoked,caused Allah
to answer(XIX:93).

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774 Journalof theAmerican
Academy
of Religion
controversies to which I alluded at the beginning of my paper
which surround that early period of Islamic history must be
resolved. It is enough to show that many Qur'anic passages, so
critical to Muslim self-definition, were unclear even for the greatest
authorities three centuries after "the clear kitab" had been sent
down.

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