Islamic Psychology: March 2021
Islamic Psychology: March 2021
Islamic Psychology: March 2021
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Islamic Psychology or ilm an-nafs (science of the soul) is an important introductory textbook
drawing on the latest evidence in the sub-disciplines of psychology to provide a balanced and
comprehensive view of human nature, behaviour and experience. Its foundation to develop
theories about human nature is based upon the writings of the Qur’an, Sunnah, Muslim
scholars and contemporary research findings.
Synthesising contemporary empirical psychology and Islamic psychology, this book is
holistic in both nature and process and includes the physical, psychological, social and spiritual
dimensions of human behaviour and experience. Through a broad and comprehensive scope,
the book addresses three main areas: Context, perspectives and the clinical applications of
applied psychology from an Islamic approach.
This book is a core text on Islamic psychology for undergraduate and postgraduate students
and those undertaking continuing professional development courses in Islamic psychology,
psychotherapy and counselling. Beyond this, it is also a good supporting resource for teachers
and lecturers in this field.
G. Hussein Rassool
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 G. Hussein Rassool
The right of G. Hussein Rassool to be identifed as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-37513-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-37515-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-35476-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Dedicated to Idrees Khattab ibn Adam Ibn Hussein Ibn Hassim Ibn Sahaduth
Ibn Rosool Ibn Olee Al Mauritiusy, Isra Oya,Asiyah Maryam, Idrees Khattab,
Adam Ali Hussein, Reshad Hassan,Yasmin Soraya, BeeBee Mariam, Bibi Safan
and Hassim.
PART I
Islamic psychology 1
PART II
Biological and developmental psychology 81
PART III
Social and personality psychology 169
PART IV
Cognitive psychology 295
PART V
Health psychology 365
PART VI
General and abnormal psychology 485
PART VII
Postscript 581
Index 607
Illustrations and tables
Figures
1.1 Stages in the study of psychology 6
1.2
Conceptual definition of Islamic psychology 16
4.1 Structure of a neuron 84
4.2
Division of the nervous system 87
4.3 central nervous system
The 88
4.4 Lobes of the brain 89
5.1
Human embryo (leech form) 108
5.2
Embryo and gum 109
7.1
Stages of observational spiritual modelling 160
10.1
James–Lange theory 223
10.2 The
Cannon–Bard theory 224
10.3 The
Schachter–Singer two-factor theory 225
11.1 Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs 248
11.2 Model
of knowledge and action 253
11.3 A
model of spiritual motivation 254
11.4 The
Islamic model of motivation 260
12.1 Latané
and Darley’s decision model of helping 282
14.1 Types
of memory 326
14.2 The
three types of sensory memory 328
14.3 Types
of long-term memory 329
14.4 Stages
of memory: Encoding storage and retrieval 330
16.1 Tri-locals:
Internal, external and spiritual loci of control 375
16.2 Health
belief model 378
16.3 Theory
of planned behaviour (TPB) 380
16.4 Transtheoretical
model of change 381
17.1 Model
of Islamic health psychology based on the Qur’an and Hadith paradigm 397
18.1 The
Ottawa Charter 424
18.2 Islamic
Charter for Health Promotion 425
20.1 Stress,
nervous and endocrine system 463
20.2 Three
stage-general adaptation syndrome 466
20.3 transactional model of stress
The 468
23.1 Barriers – social model of disability 540
25.1 Decolonising psychology 585
Illustrations and tables xi
Tables
1.1 Limitations of secular psychology 8
1.2 summary of the themes of Islamic psychology
A 17
3.1
Dimension of human nature 56
3.2 Al-Qayyim’s types of hearts and characteristics
Ibn 71
3.3 Trials and tribulations: Reactions of the heart 72
3.4 Companions’ four types of heart, characteristics and meaning 72
4.1 major neurochemical transmitters and their functions
The 86
4.2
Sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system 94
7.1
Pavlov’s classical conditioning 151
7.2
Comparison of classical and operant conditioning 153
7.3
Stages, process and action in spiritual modelling 161
9.1
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development 197
9.2 The five-factor model of personality 199
9.3 Biological basis of personality theory 201
11.1 Al-Syatibi’s levels of needs 251
13.1 Anatomy of sleep 303
13.2 Stages of sleep 304
13.3 Types of sleep in the Qur’an 307
13.4 Qailullah in Prophetic and other traditions 308
13.5 Some supplications and recitations of the Qur’an before sleeping 311
13.6 Examples of dream interpretation 316
16.1 The key variables of the HBM 377
16.2 Variables on the theory of reasoned action 378
17.1 Differences between health psychology and Islamic health psychology 394
17.2 Role of the Muslim health psychologist 396
18.1 Health promotion approaches and interventions 417
18.2 Application of the principles of harm and hardship for health promotion 424
18.3 Personal hygiene and health promotion 430
18.4 Nutrition and health promotion 430
18.5 General health prevention 431
20.1 Stress and anxieties faced by Muslims 469
20.2 Ways of dealing with stress and anxiety 476
21.1 A summary of models and theories of addiction 495
21.2 Cannabis 496
21.3 Characteristics of psychostimulants (amphetamines and cocaine) 497
21.4 Heroin 498
21.5 Ecstasy/methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) 499
21.6 Catha edulis-khat (contains cathinone and cathine) 499
xii Illustrations and tables
• Fear Allah as He should be feared and die not except in a state of Islam (as Muslims)
with complete submission to Allah. (Ali ‘Imran 3:102)1
• O mankind! Be dutiful to your Lord, Who created you from a single person, and from
him He created his wife, and from them both He created many men and women, and fear
Allah through Whom you demand your mutual (rights), and (do not cut the relations of)
the wombs (kinship) Surely, Allah is Ever an All-Watcher over you). (Al-Nisā’ 4:1)
• O you who believe! Keep your duty to Allah and fear Him and speak (always) the truth).
(Al-Aĥzāb 33:70)
• What comes to you of good is from Allah, but what comes to you of evil, [O man], is from
yourself. (An-Nisā 4:79)
The essence of this book is based on the following notions:
It is a sign of respect that Muslims utter or repeat the words “Peace and Blessing Be Upon
Him” after hearing (or writing) the name of Prophet Muhammad ( ).
Note
1 The translations of the meanings of the verses of the Qur’an in this book have been taken, with
some changes, from Saheeh International, The Qur’an: Arabic Text with corresponding English
meanings.
Preface
This book on Islamic psychology is a synthesis of empirical psychology and Islamic psychol-
ogy. The Islamic nature of the human being is whole, comprehensive and complete according
to the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is holistic in both nature and process and includes the physical,
psychological, social and spiritual dimensions. In essence, Islamic psychology provides a
balanced and comprehensive view of human nature, behaviours and experiences. Islam pro-
vides a balanced focus between universal principles of human behaviours (with its universal
laws and Shar’iah or Divine laws) and individual differences. The universal laws may include
biological, social, psychological and economic dimensions based on empirical research. The
Qur’an and Hadith provide guidance and basis to the laws of human nature. These laws can
be used as the foundation to develop theories about human nature based upon the writings of
Muslim scholars and contemporary research findings.
The concept of this book, reflected in the context and scope, attempts to address three
main areas, these being the context, perspectives and applied psychology (clinical applica-
tions) from an Islamic approach. The aims of the book are to bring together both contem-
porary psychology and Islamic psychology, covering theories, application and providing a
framework in one volume. It also aims to provide essential knowledge and understanding
of the nature and psyche of human behaviour and the subdisciplines of psychology includ-
ing developmental, social, health, cognitive, biological and abnormal psychology from an
Islamic perspective. In addition, the contents of the book take this a step further by address-
ing existing issues from a more contemporary perspective by unravelling the topic and pro-
viding a parallel perspective from Islamic psychology. The book provides both theoretical
understanding and clinical applications of the approach, whilst also addressing how to work
with a wide range of psychological issues. The contents of the book expand on earlier texts
in Islamic psychology and are presented in light of more recent research evidence. The book
is, at least in part, a response to the questions posed by researchers, academics and clinicians,
concerning the nature and focus of Islamic psychology.
The book is organised into seven parts (Parts I to VII) according to the sub-disciplines of
psychology for easier reading, especially for those new to the topic of Islamic psychology.
Part I sets the context by examining the concept of psychology, history of Islamic psychol-
ogy origins and heritage and perspectives on human nature. Part II focuses on biological and
developmental psychology, with chapters on the biological basis of behaviour, biological
foundation, developmental and reproductive behaviours, lifespan development and learning
and conditioning. Part III examines social and personality psychology and includes chapters
on social psychology, personality development, emotion, motivation, altruism and helping
behaviours. Part IV covers cognitive psychology and includes chapters on consciousness,
xvi Preface
sleep and dreams, memory and reason, wisdom and intelligence. Part V is based on the sub-
discipline of health psychology including chapters on health psychology and the Islamic
model of health psychology. Part VI focuses on general and abnormal psychology with chap-
ters on the psychology of addiction, mental health, spirituality and possession, models and
approaches to disability and the anatomy of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy. Part VII
is a postscript and deals with decolonising psychology, curriculum development, clinical
supervision and challenges and solutions for Islamic psychology.
The features of the book include learning outcomes, summaries of key points and multi-
ple-choice questions based on the contents of each chapter (Chapters 1–24).
The topic of Islamic psychology has received a rapidly growing amount of interest. This
book is a core text on Islamic psychology for undergraduate and postgraduate students and
those undertaking continuing professional development in Islamic psychology, psychother-
apy and counselling. Beyond this, it would be a good supporting resource for teachers and
lecturers due to the broad and comprehensive nature of the contents.
Acknowledgements
All praise is due to Allah, and may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon our Prophet
Muhammad ( ), his family and his companions.
I would like to thank Eleanor Taylor and other supporting staff at Routledge for their valu-
able and constructive suggestions during the development of the proposal, and during the
process of writing. It is with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the support and help from
colleagues at Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology/Centre for Islamic
Psychology (RICPP/CIP) and faculty members at the Department of Psychology, International
Open University, where I developed the undergraduate course in Islamic psychology.
I am thankful to my beloved parents who taught me the value of education. I am forever
grateful to Mariam for her unconditional support and encouragement to pursue my inter-
ests, and for her tolerance of my periodic quest for seclusion in my home office, during the
COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Lahore, Pakistan, to make this book a reality. I owe my
gratitude to my family, including Idrees Khattab Ibn Adam Ali Hussein Ibn Hussein Ibn
Hassim Ibn Sahaduth Ibn Rosool Al Mauritiusy, Adam Ali Hussein, Reshad Hasan, Yasmin
Soraya, Isra Oya and Asiyah Maryam for their unconditional love and for providing unending
inspiration. Thank you, Nabila Akhrif, for taking care of me while in London.
The author and publishers would like to thank Oxford University Press, Evelyne De
Leeuw and Asim Abdelmoneim Hussein, (1999) for permission to use Figure 18.1, The
Ottawa Charter, “Islamic health promotion and interculturalization,” Health Promotion
International, 14(4), 347–353. We would also like to thank the Canadian Cancer Society
for the permission to use several figures including Figure 4.1, The structure of a neuron,
Figure 4.3, The central nervous system and Figure 4.4, Lobes of the brain, https://www.can
cer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/brain-spinal/brain-and-spinal-tumours/the-brain-
and-spinal-cord/?region=on (permission 10th June 2020). Thank you to Umair Mudassar,
Lecturer, Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology, who designed some of
the figures in the book.
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my teachers who enabled me, through
my own reflective practices, to understand Islam and from their guidance to follow the right
path. Finally, whatever benefits and correctness you find within this book are out of the Grace
of Allah, Alone, and whatever mistakes you find are mine alone. I pray to Allah to forgive
me for any unintentional shortcomings regarding the contents of this book and to make this
humble effort helpful and fruitful to any interested parties.
Whatever of good befalls you, it is from Allah; and whatever of ill befalls you, it is from
yourself. [An-Nisā' (The Women) 4:79]
Part I
Islamic psychology
Chapter 1
Islamic psychology
Context, defnitions and perspectives
Learning outcomes
• Define psychology from a secular perspective.
• Identify the contributions of the Islamisation of knowledge movement in the develop-
ment of Islamic psychology.
• Identify the problems and issues associated with the secularisation of psychology.
• Discuss the relationship of the Qur’an and psychology.
• Discuss the concept of Islamic psychology.
• Formulate your own definition of Islamic psychology.
• Discuss the different approaches to Islamic psychology.
Introduction
The past decades have seen a proliferation of literature on the soul-searching for an agreed
definition, theoretical or conceptual model of Islamic psychology, and its clinical applica-
tion. Various definitions and attempts to develop a theoretical model, organisational develop-
ment and a model of the soul have been met with a degree of success (Kaplick and Skinner,
2017; Al-Karam, 2018a,b; Rothman and Coyle, 2018; Keshavarzi et al., 2020). However
secular contemporary psychology has been promoted on a global scale, and its dominance
has remained unchallenged in most academic institutions in the developing world, especially
in majority-Muslim countries. Many Muslim psychologists have been educated in mostly
Western universities or even in their own countries have remained in a “psycho-secular
bubble.” It is apparent in many Muslim majority countries that the indigenous clinical and
counselling psychologists have not only been acculturated by the Orientalist approach to
psychology but also have internalised values which are alien to both their culture and Islamic
traditions. Some of them have turned into the Muslim Freud with all the psychobabble of the
Oedipus and Electra complexes and psychosexual development, and have followed blindly
their “master’s voice.” This state of affairs resonates with the experiences of Malik Badri
during his first lecture on Islamisation in 1963. Badri states that:
The lay audience liked it but my colleagues in the Department of Psychology were not
happy with it. They prided themselves as scientists being guided by a neutral value-
free scientific method in which there was no room for religious “dogma”. They used to
4 Islamic psychology
sarcastically ask me, “Is there a fasiq or evil physics or an un-Islamic chemistry? Then
why speak to us about an Islamic psychology? If you do not accept Freudian psychoa-
nalysis, then show us a better way to treat the emotionally disturbed.”
(Khan, 2015, p.161)
The emergence, current conceptualisations and the status of Islamic psychology should be
viewed in their broader context, namely, the Islamisation of knowledge (IOK) movement.
The Islamisation of knowledge movement gained momentum in the 1970s with the rise of the
plight of the Muslim Ummah, the secularisation of the educational system in Muslim major-
ity countries, the global re-awakening of Islamic consciousness and the concern of Muslim
scholars towards the adoption of Western-oriented values and life-styles by Muslims. The
concept of Islamisation of knowledge was proposed by Al-Attas (1978) who refers it to “The
liberation of man first from magical, mythological, animistic, national-cultural tradition, and
then from secular control over his reason and his language” (p.41). Al-Faruqi (1982) char-
acterises “Islamisation of knowledge” as “Recasting knowledge according to Islamic tenets.
It includes various activities including removing dichotomy between modern and traditional
systems of education and producing university level textbooks” (pp.13, 48). According to
Ragab (1999), Islamisation refers to the “Integration of Islamic revealed knowledge and the
human sciences.” In this context, Islamisation of knowledge also refers to the “Islamisation
of contemporary or present-day knowledge.” Yusuf (2015) argues that Islamisation of
knowledge
Dzilo (2012) maintains that the concept of “Islamisation of knowledge is not monosemous
but involves multiple approaches to the various forms of modern-world thought in the con-
text of the Islamic intellectual tradition, including metaphysical, epistemological, ethical and
methodological premises regarding the modern issue of knowledge” (p.247). This means
the integration of Islamic theology with scientific knowledge and evidence-based practice in
diverse disciplines including psychology, sociology, health and medical sciences, econom-
ics and finance. This would result in psychological knowledge based on an Islamic world-
view. Rassool (2019b; 2020) suggests that for psychology, the process of desecularisation
has begun, and efforts are being made to reconstruct psychology based upon an Islamic epis-
temological paradigm. Perhaps we need to be reminded of a takeaway message from Malik
Badri, the Father of contemporary Islamic psychology, that not all of Western psychology
needs to be Islamised. Badri (1979) comments
We do not need to Islamise psychophysics or the physiology of sight and hearing and
the anatomy of the eye and ear. Nor do we need to Islamise studies about the role of the
brain neurotransmitter serotonin in our sleep behaviour and in adjusting our body clock,
the role of the hormone noradrenalin in setting our energy level nor the influence of caf-
feine, alcohol or heroine on the human nervous system. We do not need to develop our
Islamic psychology 5
own Islamic statistical psychology or to raise an ethical battle against neutral theories of
learning. Such areas, as I said are “no man’s land” between psychology and other exact
sciences.
(p.9)
• First stage: Psychology was defined as the “study of the soul or spirit.”
• Second stage: It was again defined as the “study of the mind” (Christian Wolff's
Psychologia Empirica, 1732).
• Third stage: William James (1890), psychology as the “Study of science of mental life,
both of its phenomena and their conditions.” John B. Watson (1913), psychology as the
acquisition of information useful to the control of behaviour.
• Fourth stage: Psychology as the study of human behaviour and experiences and the
“study of total behaviour” (consciousness and unconsciousness).
6 Islamic psychology
Fourth Stage
Second Stage
Study of Total Behaviour:
Study of the Study of the Study of Consciousness and
Soul Mind Consciousness Unconsciousness
First Stage Third Stage
The American Psychological Association (2020) defines psychology as “the study of the
mind and behaviour. Psychology is a diverse discipline, grounded in science, but with nearly
boundless applications in everyday life.” Another definition of psychology is that it is
the scientific study of the mind and how it dictates and influences our behaviour, from
communication and memory to thought and emotion. It’s about understanding what
makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address many of the problems
and issues in society today.
(British Psychological Society)
The definitions of psychology from the literature vary from the scientific study of the human
behaviour and experience, to the study of the human mind, its functions and behaviour, and
the study of consciousness and unconsciousness. However, some psychologists deny the
reality of the unconscious, and a significant majority deny the reality of the soul.
has changed the nature and quality of the relationship between psychology and religion it
has not undone the relationship altogether. Religion still matters for many people, including
psychologists, at some level” (p.194).
What is of interest here is the work of William James (1902/1999) in The Varieties of
Religious Experience, because he warned about the separation of religious experience from
the academic pursuit of understanding human behaviour. James argued that,
to describe the world with all the various feelings of the individual pinch of destiny, all
the various spiritual attitudes, left out from the description—they being as describable as
anything else—would be something like offering a printed bill of fare as the equivalent
for a solid meal.
(p.543)
He made three cardinal points: There is a variety of feelings, attitudes and experience that
are religious in nature and significant to human life; religious experiences are as describable
as any other human experience; and any description of human life that excludes religious
experience will be incomplete in understanding human behaviour.
The problem with secular psychologists including Muslim psychologists in the “lizard’s
hole” (see below) is the failure to include ethical behaviours or ethical intelligence within
the paradigm of secular psychology. However, despite their recognition of the inclusion
of a “Code of Ethics” for therapy or research involving animals or human participants,
they still reject that human ethics and values form part of the dimensions of psychology. A
more integrated psychology of the 21st century, rather than being stuck in its colonial and
Orientalist past, would have ethics and human values of what is right or wrong, good or evil,
“as philosophical and religious issues like ethics, human values, aesthetics, and the nature
of life have everything to do with psychology” (Reber, 2006, p.200). In summary, Badri
(1979) makes this position clear in relation to the “soullessness of Western psychology” by
stating that
There is no mention at all of the other aspects of man. The religious, the spiritual or at
least the transcendental … Criteria which fail to include the spiritual side of man can
only find anchorage in a society blinded by materialism. In such a society, the behaviour
of spiritually motivated practising individuals may brand them as misfits, eccentrics or
abnormal.
(p.24)
The main limitations of contemporary secular psychology are presented in Table 1.1.
Despite the claim that psychology is a science, Kuhn (1962) argues as a science emerges
and develops, it progresses through four distinct stages: Pre-paradigm, normal science/para-
digm, crisis and revolution. Since psychology is in the initial pre-paradigm stage, it is some-
what fragmented and characterised by eclecticism (Kuhn, 1962; Sankey, 2002). That is, the
theoretical and conceptual framework and approaches, methodologies and techniques are
eclectic and derived from a broad and diverse range of sources. Others believe that psychol-
ogy has already experienced scientific revolutions. Whether it is pre-paradigm or not should
not distract from the fact that the source of psychology is based on philosophical discourse
and the study of the human soul.
8 Islamic psychology
Badri (1979) p.24 “Criteria which fail to include the spiritual side of man can only fnd
anchorage in a society blinded by materialism. In such a society, the
behaviour of spiritually motivated practising individuals may brand
them as misfts, eccentrics or abnormal.”
D’Souza and Rodrigo Lack of cultural sensitivity and competence in dealing with clients’
(2004) religious beliefs and practices.
James (1902/1999) Any description of human life that excludes religious experience will be
incomplete and will fail to provide a full and rich understanding of
human life.
Plato (trans by Jowett, “The cure of the part should not be attempted without treatment of
1982) the whole. No attempt should be made to cure the body without
the soul. Let no one persuade you to cure the head until he has frst
given you his soul to be cured, for this is the great error of our day,
that physicians frst separate the soul from the body.”
Reber (2006) p.200 Exclusion of ethics, human values and the nature of life. What is right
or wrong, good or evil?
Reber (2006) p.196 “Modern secularism results in an incomplete psychology of human life
because it excludes many religious aspects of life that are widespread
and important to many people, including many psychologists.”
Richards and Bergin, Scientifc naturalism provides an impoverished view of human nature
(2005) p.37 and does not adequately account for the complexities and mysteries
of life and of the universe.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Humans are viewed as independent of their Creator and Lord.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Theories are based upon human intellect alone, while
discounting revelation from the Creator.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Knowledge and research focus only on the tangible aspects
of humans, while ignoring the spiritual and unseen elements.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Behaviours are generally seen to be determined solely by
drives, refexes, conditioning and social infuences.
Zaraboso (2002) Dangers of fabricated or secular theories: Leading people to the wrong
pp.44–45 path for spiritual purifcation.
People are duped into thinking theories that are supported by false but
cleverly stated arguments are true and benefcial.
The end result is that people can become blind to their misguidedness.
Utz (2011) p.29 The secular defnition of psychology “assumes that we were put in this
world and left to our own devices, without any divine intervention.”
The Qur’an is a guidance for the whole of mankind, not just the believers. The message of
the Qur’an has reference to individual self-care, relationships, family, marriage, social wel-
fare, embryological and developmental stages, emotional behaviours, prosocial behaviours,
spiritual and ethical intelligence, personality, need for learning and knowledge and many
Islamic psychology 9
other holistic facets of human behaviours and experiences. In addition, there are proscribed
behaviours including suicide, sexual perversions, gambling, alcohol and drug misuse, crime
and racial discrimination. Though the Qur’an is not an encyclopaedia of health, it is a spir-
itual, social, psychological and economic guide in the understanding of human behaviours
and experiences. The messages of the Qur’an that Allah has revealed are crystal clear, and
these messages are to be implemented as a complete way of life for all mankind. The verses
of the Qur’an encourage us to repeatedly “reflect” on its contents, and to understand, think
and put into practice its messages and commands. From its teachings, we discover that at
the core, we are both physical and spiritual beings who are in need of the purification of the
soul and to sustain a connection with our Creator, Allah. The psychological language of the
Qur’an depicts all kinds of human behaviours and psychological experiences. Utz (2011)
suggested that
Our thoughts, emotions, will and behaviour must focus on attaining the pleasure of
Allah. The key to sound mental health and well-being from the Islamic perspective is
submission to Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty and His commandments, and to subse-
quently purifying the soul.
(p.25)
In the above verse, Allah mentions that nothing has been neglected in this Register (Qur’an)
and that the knowledge about all things is with Allah. According to the Islamic perspec-
tive, the primary source of knowledge and authority in Islam is divine knowledge from the
Qur’an, and guidance from the Traditions (Sunnah) of Prophet Muhammed ( ). Allah, the
Almighty, has the knowledge of everything and knows us better than we know ourselves.
Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And with Him are the keys of the unseen; none knows them except Him. And He knows
what is on the land and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but that He knows it. And no grain is
there within the darknesses of the earth and no moist or dry [thing] but that it is [written]
in a clear record. (Al-An'am 6:59)
• And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and We are
closer to him than [his] jugular vein. (Qaf 50:16)
So, Allah knows what is in our heart and soul. According to Ibn Kathir, the above verse (Qaf
50:16) means that “Allah the Exalted affirms His absolute dominance over mankind, being
their Creator and the Knower of everything about them. Allah the Exalted has complete
knowledge of all thoughts that cross the mind of man, be they good or evil.” It has been sug-
gested that
Revelation is the foundation upon which all knowledge is built; it is perfect and complete.
This reflects the Muslims’ firm and unwavering belief in their scripture (the Qur’an) as
the final revealed word of Allah, a conviction that is unique to Islam.
(Utz, 2011, p.39)
10 Islamic psychology
One of the first verses of the Qur’an notes this fact (interpretation of the meaning):
• This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for those conscious of Allah.
(Al-Baqarah 2:2)
The divine knowledge of the Qur’an is knowledge of an infinite nature. Allah says in the
Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Say, “If the sea were ink for [writing] the words of my Lord, the sea would be exhausted
before the words of my Lord were exhausted, even if We brought the like of it as a sup-
plement.” (Al-Kahf 18:109)
This means, according to Ibn Kathir, “Say, O Muhammad, if the water of the sea were ink for
a pen to write down the words, wisdom and signs of Allah, the sea would run dry before it
all could be written down. (even if We brought like it) means, another sea, then another, and
so on, additional seas to be used for writing. The Words of Allah would still never run out.”
Knowledge is also gained from sense perception and rationalism (logical reasoning), and
these sources should not be neglected. Giving priority to revelation does not debase science,
knowledge from empiricism, intuition and reason. However, scientific evidence would be
judged and evaluated according to the criteria of divine revelation. Muslim psychologists
should attempt to put Islamic ethical considerations before rationality, and empirical evi-
dence, and these should become secondary to the primary source. Enquiring or probing is
permissible in Islam so as to arrive at the truth (Leaman, 2006, p.571). This is reflected in the
following verse (interpretation of the meaning):
• And [mention] when Abraham said, “My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead.”
[Allah] said, “Have you not believed?” He said, “Yes, but [I ask] only that my heart may be
satisfied.” [ Allah ] said, “Take four birds and commit them to yourself. Then [after slaugh-
tering them] put on each hill a portion of them; then call them – they will come [flying] to
you in haste. And know that Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise.” (Al-Baqarah 2:260)
From the verse shown above, it has been suggested that it is evident that Allah entertained
the query [from Prophet Abraham] (Leaman, 2006, p.572). In fact, mankind has been asked
repeatedly in the Qur’an to contemplate and reflect on the working of nature, paying attention
to the signs that they can find within themselves or in the universe and find out the truths. The
following two verses illustrate the contemplation and reflection of the universe. Allah says in
the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Say, “Observe what is in the heavens and earth.” But of no avail will be signs or warners
to a people who do not believe. (Yunus 10:101)
• We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes
clear to them that it is the truth. But is it not sufficient concerning your Lord that He is,
over all things, a Witness? (Fussilat 41:53)
the Qur’an was revealed “to the heart” of the Prophet Muhammad ( ) by [Angel]
Gabriel (Al-Baqarah 2.97). At (Ash-Shu’ara 26.193–194) we read that it was transmitted
Islamic psychology 11
by the faithful spirit (Ruh) “upon your heart”, thus cementing the links between the
heart (Qalb) of humanity and the spirit (Ruh) or [Angel] Gabriel. The psychology of
the Qur’an takes seriously the idea that we are in between the material and the spiritual.
(Leaman, 2006, p.441)
You will most certainly follow the ways of those who came before you, arm’s length by
arm’s length, forearm’s length by forearm’s length, hand span by hand span, until even
if they entered a hole of a mastigure (lizard) you will enter it too.
They said: “O Messenger of Allah, (do you mean) the Jews and the Christians?” He said:
“Who else?” (Ibn Majah).
In the sphere of Islamisation, it has been reported that “Badri was greatly influenced by
the writings of Mohammad Qutb, particularly his book titled Islam: ‘The Misunderstood
Religion’ and by the writings of Mawdudi [Abul A’la Maududi]” (Khan, 2015, p.160). In the
psychological field, he was influenced by both Hans Eysenck, of the Institute of Psychiatry,
12 Islamic psychology
Maudsley and Bethlem Hospital, London, and Joseph Wolpe, a South African psychiatrist
and one of the most influential figures in behaviour therapy, and Victor Meyer, behaviour
therapist at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School. Badri’s (1979) warning was to save
Muslim psychologists from being trapped in the “lizard’s hole” that is implicit in other dis-
ciplines of human life and thoughts. However, five decades have passed since the cautionary
observations from Badri about the blind following of secular psychology and the develop-
ment of an Islamic paradigm of psychology. Since then, there have been some significant
world-wide developments, slowly but surely, in Islamic psychology and psychotherapy.
Haque et al. (2016) in a review of literature identified five themes that have emerged over a
period of nine years. The five themes emerged are:
More recently, the literature has been augmented with Islamic Counselling: An Introduction
to Theory and Practice (Rassool, 2016); an Islamic theory of human psychology has been
developed through empirical research (Rothman and Coyle, 2018); integrating the Islamic
faith with modern psychotherapy (Al-Karam ed., 2018a); and the clinical application of
Traditional Islamically Integrated Psychotherapy (TIIP) (Keshavarzi et al., 2020). In sum,
what is at stake is the percolation of the theoretical or conceptual framework of Islamic psy-
chology, and the application of integrated psychotherapeutic techniques down to the grass-
root levels, to become available to practitioners in the field for use in their clinical practice,
remains distant. The biggest disappointment after more than five decades of the “evolution
of Islamic psychology” is that there is a dearth of educational framework and curriculum
development in the integration of Islamic ethics in psychology. Despite the absence of edu-
cational philosophy and curriculum approaches in Islamic psychology, this has not deterred
some institutions from developing professional continuing courses in Islamic psychology,
psychotherapy and counselling.
In contemporary times, Islamic psychology has been defined according to the author’s orien-
tation to the “Islam and psychology movement” (Kaplick and Skinner, 2017). Some defini-
tions are clearly defined, at times too comprehensively to be operationally used, and others
are an amalgam of psychology and Islam. A few definitions can easily be labelled as “old
wine in a new bottle.” Al-Karam (2018b) argues that
A review of a number of publications that have the term “Islamic Psychology” [IP] in
the title reveals two basic trends: scholars either talk about IP without defining it, as if
the reader is supposed to know what the author means by the term or as if it some clearly
defined and well-understood concept, or they define it, but provide no discussion of the
methodology used to come up with the definition. Both trends are problematic.
(pp.99–100)
Let us examine some definitions of Islamic psychology. Although there is no single standard
definition, if one examines the many definitions that have been proposed, there are some sim-
ilarities between definitions. In some cases, different definitions, suitably interpreted, actually
say the same thing but in different words. This is purely a subjective selection.
One comprehensive definition of Islamic psychology is from the International Association
of Islamic Psychology (2018).
Psychology, as it is generally practiced, only represents a part of the whole. Often the
soul is not taken into account. Islamic psychology is a holistic approach that endeav-
ours to better understand the nature of the self and the soul and the connection of the
soul to the Divine. It conceptualizes the human being with a focus on the heart as the
centre of the person more so than the mind and is grounded in the teachings of the
Qur’an, Prophetic teachings, and the knowledge of the soul from the Islamic tradition.
Islamic psychology embraces modern psychology, traditional spirituality, metaphysics
and ontology.
This structure serves as a template for how to think about complex and multidimensional
disciplines, such as Islamic Psychology, that are inherently interdisciplinary. The tem-
plate then serves as a methodology for defining the discipline because it is the structure
of the model itself that provides it.
(Al-Karam, 2018b, p.101)
In doing so Al-Karam incorporates all the psychology disciplines and their application to
all Islamic sects, despite cultural and religious differences, under the umbrella of Islamic
psychology. Though this is a comprehensive definition by Al-Karam, the main concern
is its fuzziness in contents and approach. The definition focuses on a “one-size-fits-all”
paradigm and reads more like the principles of Islamic psychology rather than a defini-
tion. However, Al-Karam (2020) has provided a refined vision of Islamic psychology. She
maintains that “That vision portrays IP [Islamic psychology] as having an inner [batin]
dimension and an outer [dhahir] dimension and that we should think about it as an integral
part of the psychology mainstream.” More refinement is needed for this to be fully accepted
as a valid definition. In the same tone, Kaplick and Skinner (2017) did not define Islamic
psychology but “Islam and psychology” (referring to the broader movement that relates
Islam to psychology in general), is “the interdisciplinary field that explores human nature in
relation to Islamic sources and which uses this knowledge to bring human beings into their
best possible state, physically, spiritually, cognitively, and emotionally” (p.199). This is a
holistic definition of Islam and psychology involving all the dimensions of human nature
using knowledge from Islamic sources. Does this mean that knowledge from other sources
will not be entertained?
The next categories are definitions of Islamic psychology focusing on the Qur’an, Sunnah,
Shari’ah, etc. For instance, Begum (2016) states that
Islamic psychology (Ilm Ul Nafs) is the study of the “self” (nafs) or the “psyche” from an
Islamic perspective with concepts that are not included in Western forms of studying the
field i.e. the unseen influences, the impact of destiny, the sway of the Shaytaan [devil]
and the inclusion of the soul.
This definition has themes such as the self (Nafs), unseen influences (Ghayb), destiny
(Qadar) and control of the devil. This definition is like a mini encyclopaedia of the Qur’an
and implicit in the “definition” is that the Nafs is not perceived as the soul. Other authors like
Siddiqui and Malek (1996) view Islamic psychology as the application of Shar’iah. They sug-
gest that Islamic psychology is “the study of persons who have complete surrender and sub-
mission and obey the laws of God.” It is quite a surprising definition, and it is totally unclear
how they arrived at that definition. Perhaps what they mean is that by submission to Allah by
obeying His command and laws, people may be able to purify themselves. In a similar tone,
Vahab (1996) defines Islamic psychology as “the study of the manifestation of God in nature
as reflected in the behavioural patterns of all living and non-living organisms in all walks of
their lives using the Islamic paradigms.” Yet again, it is unclear what the author’s intention
is in his definition.
Islamic psychology 15
to all aspects of Islamic teaching from the Holy Qur’an, Hadith and Sunnah which
directly mention or relate to aspects of the human psyche, with particular emphasis on
maintaining a healthy mental state or causes and treatments of an unhealthy mental state.
(p.6)
Alizi (2017) defines Islamic psychology as “The scientific study of manifestation of the soul
in the form of behaviour and mental process.” Alizi’s definition has the dual components of
using scientific methodologies (Qur’anic sciences and scientific method) and also the inclu-
sion of the soul. According to Alizi, the “definition will make Muslim psychologists use soul
as the general framework in interpreting psychological data (behaviour and mental processes)
instead of the limited approach of biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, and
cognitive perspectives in psychology.”
One of the classical and operational definitions of psychology is from Utz (2011). She
defined Islamic psychology as “the study of the soul; the ensuing behavioural, emotional,
and mental processes; and both the seen and unseen aspects that influence these elements”
(p.34). For Utz, it is the soul that drives human behaviour, emotions and mental processes.
The essence of man is spiritual and metaphysical. According to Utz (2011),
since its [the soul] true nature is spiritual, the soul requires a spiritual connection to its
source, the Creator, just as the body requires food and water to survive. In the Islamic
conceptualisation of psychology, aspects of both the seen and unseen world may influ-
ence humans. Islamic psychology incorporates additional aspects of the unseen world to
explain human nature.
(p.35)
However, this definition has been criticised by Muslim secular psychologists on the grounds
that it deals with the soul or the unseen aspects that influence behaviours and experiences.
The current scientific paradigm with its secular approach fails to recognise this spiritual
dimension of life. However, Utz’s definition has been very popular with students of Islamic
psychology because of its simplicity, and because it is easy to comprehend and can be related
to the real work. It encapsulates what Islamic psychology is and should be without the verbi-
age that accompanies most definitions in the current literature.
This final definition of Islamic psychology was generated at a workshop on “Islamic
Psychology Curriculum Development” at the Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional
Psychology and the Centre for Islamic Psychology, Riphah International University, Pakistan,
in February 2020. Small groups of participants were formed, and their task was to come up
16 Islamic psychology
Islamic Psychology is the study of the soul, mental processes and behaviour according to
the principles of psychology and Islamic sciences.
(Rassool et al., 2020)
In the conceptualisation of Islamic psychology, aspects of the soul and cognitive, affective
and behavioural processes are studied within the evidence-based paradigm (compatible with
Islamic beliefs and practices) and Islamic sciences. This definition and its conceptual frame-
work are still under construction. Figure 1.2 depicts the conceptual definition of Islamic
psychology.
The above section has demonstrated that definitions of Islamic psychology are not a homo-
geneous academic entity. In reality, there will be multiple definitions of Islamic psychology
based on the school of thought, orientation and worldview of the author(s). If Islamic psy-
chology is considered to be holistic in approach, thus diversity in definitions and approaches
will be on the agenda of both academics and clinicians. Table 1.2 presents a summary of the
themes of Islamic psychology from the literature.
Whither psychology?
There is already a divergence of opinions of what constitutes Islamic psychology, and the
same is applicable to Islamic psychotherapy and counselling. A number of schools of thought
have emerged in the midst of this knowledge gap. However, before examining the differ-
ent schools of thought, it is valuable to consider the different kinds of Islamic psychology.
Since the 20th century many kinds of “Islamic psychology” have been developed. Ashraf Ali
Thanvi (1873–1943), referred to as the “Physician of the Muslims” [Hakim al-ummat], can
be regarded as “Hakim-Psychologist.” He used various psychosocial and spiritual interven-
tions in the treatment of psychological and spiritual disorders. There is Muslim psychology,
developed in Pakistan in the late 1970s by A. A. Rizvi and the establishment of the Institute
of Muslim Psychology. Muslim psychology is also taught as a module in the undergraduate
Islamic psychology 17
psychology programme in four universities in Pakistan. In India, there is the Indian Council
on Islamic Perspective in Psychology (ICIPP).
Recently we have a new psychology on the scene called Quranic Psychology (Bakhtiar,
2019). It is stated in the description of the book that
Quranic Psychology has a goal—to prepare us for our return to whence we came—
to strengthen or return to our fitrat [Fitra] Allah as the monotheist we were created
18 Islamic psychology
What is of great interest and challenging is the identification of a fourth Qur’anic aspect of
the soul, the Nafs al-mulhamah (the inspired soul that fluctuates).
During the past four decades, the emergence of the “Islam and psychology” movement
(Kaplick and Skinner, 2017) has nudged Muslim psychologists, clinicians and academics to
redefine psychology and its clinical applications in order to meet the psychosocial needs of
the Muslim Ummah. Within this movement, there was a growth of a diversity of approach
in shaping a valid Islamic psychology discipline. Long (2014) suggests that approaches to
Islamic psychology “have taken one of two forms: a critical revision of Western psychol-
ogy—involving the exegesis of relevant passages from the Qur’an—or an elaboration of the
classical Islamic legacy. A theocentric-individualistic outlook marks both strands” (p.15).
This is similar to the “Filter and Islamic psychology” approaches as illustrated by Kaplick and
Skinner (2017). Kaplick and Skinner (2017) identified three broad approaches to the literature:
The Islamic filter approach, the Islamic psychology approach and the comparison approach.
• Islamic filter approach: Critical review of Western psychology paradigm but operating
within the framework of Western psychology. Incorporation of “Indigenous” psychology.
• Comparison approach: Finding a common ground between Western psychological con-
cepts and matching those concepts in Islamic sources.
• Islamic psychology approach: Emphasis on traditional Islamic thought at the foundation
of the discipline. The classical Muslim scholars as secondary sources and conceptualis-
ing Islamic psychology as being derived from Islamic sources
Both the comparison approach, attempting to demonstrate convergences, and the filter
approach, aspiring to incorporate “indigenous” Islamic psychological practices into con-
temporary psychology, seem to be referenced primarily against Western psychological
theory and thought. Whether and how knowledge from subaltern cultures may be trans-
posed to dominant ones is highly contested.
(p.2)
In contrast Rassool (2019b; 2020) has identified three schools of thoughts that have emerged
in the “Islam and psychology movement”: The Orientalist approach, Integrationist approach
and the “Tawhid Paradigm” approach. The Orientalist group, with minimalist Islamic tradi-
tions embedded within their framework, are, instead of decolonising psychology (Seedat,
2020), globalising Islamic psychology. The Integrationist group, with a mixture of orthodox
psychology, mixed with Sufi ideologies and practice, use a mixture of Islamic traditions and
folk psychology; and the “Tawhid Paradigm” approach is based on the Qur’an and Sunnah
embedded with the framework of the theory and practice of secular psychology that are con-
gruent with Islamic beliefs and practices. However all three approaches claim that they are
Islamic psychology 19
in line with the traditions of Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa’ah (those who adhere to the Sunnah
and who unite upon it, not turning to anything else, whether that be in matters of belief
(‘Aqeedah) or matters of actions which are subject to shar’i [Shari’ah] rulings) (Islam Q&A,
2001). These indicated approaches are reflected in their conceptual framework and clinical
and educational practices.
Long (2014) argues about the attempts to indigenise psychology “from within” or “from
without” are problematic. That is, it becomes apparent that attempts to indigenise psychol-
ogy are between “Scylla and Charybdis.”1 Long (2014) maintains that “indigenisation from
without” is a paradox because “Western psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that
cannot accommodate the Islamic worldview, any attempted revision must remain, in spirit,
no different from the original articulation” (p.17). The other alternative, “indigenisation from
within,” necessitates an expansion of the work of classical Muslim scholars. Long regards
this as problematic as well. He asserts that
Early Muslim contributions to the field of psycho-spirituality were suitable for the social
constellations of the pre-modern Muslim world. In light of the present-day homogenisa-
tion of world culture, one may well ask whether Muslim societies consider traditional
forms of social organisation to be desirable any longer.
Muslim apologists – many of whom have never received professional training in psy-
chology and have focused consequently on the details of Islamic spirituality to the vir-
tual exclusion of the secular discipline. In these cases, it is not psychology that is being
Islamicised but Islamic spirituality that is being advocated.
(p.17)
Whether we are able to develop a unified Islamic theoretical framework from “indigenisation
from within” and from “indigenisation from without” remains a challenge. However, in order
to have a valid and robust Islamic psychology, it must meet all the criteria to be considered
“Islamic.” That means it must adhere to authentic sources and proofs that are employed to
understand human nature and behaviour from an Islamic perspective.
• The message of the Qur’an has reference to individual self-care, relationships, family,
marriage, social welfare, embryological and developmental stages, emotional behav-
iours, spiritual and ethical intelligence, personality, need for learning and knowledge and
many other holistic facets of human behaviours and experiences.
• Several Islamic movements, including the Association of Muslim Social Scientists
(AMSS), scholars, theologians and revivalists, have had significant influence on the
“Islamisation of knowledge.”
• Badri’s warning was to save Muslim psychologists being trapped in the “lizard’s hole”
that is implicit in other disciplines of human life and thoughts.
• Islamic psychology is the study of the soul, mental processes and behaviour according to
the principles of psychology and Islamic sciences.
• Whether we are able to develop a unified Islamic theoretical framework from “indigeni-
sation from within” and from “indigenisation from without” remains a challenge.
Multiple-choice questions
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1. Which statement is not correct? Malik Badri, during his first lecture on Islamisation in
1963, stated that:
A. The lay audience liked the lecture.
B. His colleagues in the Department of Psychology were not happy with it.
C. Then why speak to us about an Islamic psychology? If you accept Freudian psy-
choanalysis, then show us a way to treat the emotionally disturbed.
D. They prided themselves as scientists being guided by a neutral value-free scientific
method in which there was no room for religious “dogma.”
E. They used to sarcastically ask me, “Is there a fasiq or evil physics or an un-Islamic
chemistry?”
2. The emphasis on the secularisation of modern psychology is based on the premise that
A. Religion is based upon faith which cannot be evaluated by objective methods.
B. Science is based on empiricism and experimentation in order to establish facts that
are verifiable.
C. Science is based on objectivity and experimentation in order to establish facts that
are verifiable.
D. Religion is based upon faith which can be evaluated by objective methods.
E. A and B.
3. The emergence, current conceptualisations and the status of Islamic psychology should
be viewed in their broader context, namely,
A. Islam and psychology movement
B. Islamisation of knowledge movement
C. Anti-Freudian movement
D. Indigenous psychology movement
E. Psychology and Islam movement
4. The concept of Islamisation of knowledge was proposed by
A. Al- Faruqi
B. Al-Kindi
C. Al-Qayyim
Islamic psychology 21
D. Al-Attas
E. Al-Rushd
5. Psychology, etymologically, means the
A. Science of the soul
B. Scientific study of human behaviour and experience
C. Study of the mind
D. Science of the spirit
E. Science of evolution
6. The second stage of the evolution of the definition of psychology is
A. Psychology was defined as the “study of the soul or spirit.”
B. William James, psychology as the “Study of science of mental life.”
C. The “study of the mind” (Christian Wolff’s “Psychologia empirica”).
D. John B. Watson, psychology as the acquisition of information useful to the control
of behaviour.
E. Study of total Behaviour (consciousness and unconsciousness).
7. The scientific study of the mind and how it dictates and influences our behaviour, from
communication and memory to thought and emotion. It is about understanding what
makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address many of the problems
and issues in society today. This definition is from the
A. Islam and psychology movement
B. Association of British Counsellors
C. American Psychological Association
D. British Psychological Society
E. International Association of Islamic Psychology
8. This psychologist warned about the separation of religious experience from the aca-
demic pursuit of understanding human behaviour.
A. B. F. Skinner
B. W. James
C. J. B. Watson
D. S. Freud
E. Al-Atas
9. Despite the claim that psychology is a science, Kuhn (1962) argues that, as a science
emerges and develops, it progresses through distinct stages. Which one is not a stage?
A. Post-paradigm
B. Pre-paradigm
C. Normal science/paradigm
D. Crisis
E. Revolution
10. “Our thoughts, emotions, will and behaviour must focus on attaining the pleasure of
Allah. The key to sound mental health and well-being from the Islamic perspective is
submission to Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty and His commandments, and to subse-
quently purifying the soul.” Who made this statement?
A. Al-Atas
B. Al-Faruqi
C. Utz
D. Al-Karam
E. Badri
22 Islamic psychology
11. The verse of the Qur’an “This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for
those conscious of Allah.” is from
A. Qaf 50:16
B. Al-Kahf 18:109
C. Al-An’am, 6:38
D. Al-Baqarah 2: 2
E. Al-An’am 6:59
12. This scholar founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in the USA.
A. Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas
B. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi
C. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
D. Malik. B. Badri
E. Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī
13. The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists cautioned Muslim psychologists of blind copying
(psychological Taqleed) of Western, non-Islamic ideas and practices.
A. Malik B. Badri
B. Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas
C. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi
D. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
E. Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī
14. In the sphere of Islamisation, it has been reported that Badri was greatly influenced by
the writings of
A. Mohammad Qutb
B. Abul A’la Maududi
C. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
15. In the sphere of psychology and behaviour therapy, Badri was greatly influenced by
A. Joseph Wolpe
B. Hans Eysenck
C. Victor Meyer
D. A, B and C
E. A and C
16. Haque et al. (2016), in a review of literature, identified themes that have emerged over a
period of nine years. Which one is not a theme?
A. Unification of Western psychological models with Islamic beliefs and practices.
B. Research on historical accounts of Islamic psychology and its rebirth in the
modern era.
C. Development of educational models and frameworks within Islamic psychology.
D. Development of interventions and techniques within Islamic psychology.
E. Development of assessment tools and scales normed for use with Muslims.
17. This definition of Islamic psychology “An interdisciplinary science where psychology
subdisciplines and/or related disciplines engage scientifically about a particular topic
and at a particular level with various Islamic sects, sources, sciences, and/or schools of
thought using a variety of methodological tools.” is from
A. C. Al-Karam
B. A. Utz
Islamic psychology 23
C. M. Badri
D. G. Hussein Rassool
E. R. Skinner
18. The Islam and psychology movement includes:
A. Islamic psychology
B. Muslim psychology
C. Qur’anic psychology
D. A and C only
E. All of the above
19. Indigenisation psychology from without is a paradox because
A. Western psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that cannot accommodate
the Islamic worldview.
B. It necessitates an expansion of the work of classical Muslim scholars.
C. Eastern psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that can accommodate the
Islamic worldview.
D. A and B.
E. A, B and C.
20. Rassool (2020) has identified schools of thoughts that have emerged in the “Islam and
psychology movement.” Which one has not?
A. Orientalist approach
B. Qur’anic approach
C. Integrationist approach
D. “Tawhid Paradigm” approach
E. None of the above
Note
1 An idiom deriving from Greek mythology, which has been associated with "to choose the lesser of
two evils."
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