Integrity management of CRA pipelines

Technical Report

POF 510

2015
Amended November 2021
POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

Foreword
Although CRA materials are selected for their increased resistance to degradation in certain operating
environments, operators have suffered compromised integrity, and in some cases failures, of CRA
pipelines. This has been verified through discussions within the Pipeline Operators Forum (POF) and
wider subsea, pipelines and corrosion communities.

CRA materials have the potential for great engineering value as a barrier to corrosion threats which
can otherwise dominate the risk profile of a pipeline; however, the current state remains that for all
existing and proposed CRA pipelines, there is a need for greater understanding of the whole life-cycle
requirements with regards to Integrity Management to ensure that these pipelines remain fit-for-
purpose.

POF aims with this technical report to share experiences from member operators and other
contributing companies (e.g. inspection service providers) in order to assist colleagues within the
pipeline community by highlighting some of the key issues that need to be considered whilst
developing Integrity Management Plans for CRA pipelines.

This document has been reviewed and approved by the Pipeline Operators Forum (POF) and is based
on knowledge and experience available from POF members and others at the date of issue. It is stated
however, that neither POF nor its member companies (or their representatives) can be held
responsible for the fitness for purpose, completeness, accuracy and/or application of this document.

Comments on this specification and proposals for updates may be submitted to the Administrator at
specifications@pipelineoperators.org with the form which is available on the POF website
(www.pipelineoperators.org).

Changes November 2021

The purpose of this revision is to comply with the new POF document numbering system. In addition,
editorial corrections may have been made.

A technical revision of this document is planned in 2023.

Acknowledgement
The Pipeline Operators Forum (POF) would like to thank member companies for their cooperation in
sharing best practices, lessons learned and for providing the draft version of this technical report to
the POF for further development and circulation. POF would also like to thank a number of ILI
contractors for their review and technical input to section 9.

Photographs used in this technical report have been provided by and are used with permission from
a number of sources.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

Table of Contents

1 Scope .............................................................................................................................. 3
2 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4
3 Abbreviations and acronyms ......................................................................................... 6
4 Integrity management ................................................................................................... 7
4.1 CRA threats .............................................................................................................................. 7
4.2 Integrity management plan ..................................................................................................... 8

5 Design........................................................................................................................... 10
6 Pipe manufacture......................................................................................................... 12
6.1 Manufacturing processes ....................................................................................................... 12
6.2 QC/QA during pipe fabrication .............................................................................................. 12
6.3 Cleanliness requirements ....................................................................................................... 13
6.4 Pipeline construction & commissioning ................................................................................. 14
6.5 Welding .................................................................................................................................. 14
6.6 Installation ............................................................................................................................. 15
6.7 Seawater ingress .................................................................................................................... 16

7 Operations & inspection planning ............................................................................... 17

7.1 Integrity monitoring & control ............................................................................................... 17
7.2 Baseline condition .................................................................................................................. 17
7.3 CRA management during operational life .............................................................................. 18

8 Operational inspection technology ............................................................................. 19

8.1 ILI ............................................................................................................................................ 19
8.2 External inspection................................................................................................................. 24

9 Assessment & repair .................................................................................................... 25

10 Final remarks ................................................................................................................ 26

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

1 Scope
This technical report captures challenges that operating companies have experienced whilst managing
the integrity of CRA pipelines within the oil and gas industry. The main input has been from subsea
(flowlines and risers) and onshore pipelines but, where appropriate, information relating to process
piping in topside or production units has also been included.

Each pipeline operating company will have practices and procedures for developing pipeline integrity
management plans. The technical report is provided to assist in the development of these plans for
CRA pipelines by raising awareness of issues that can impact the integrity of the pipeline and the ability
to manage the integrity throughout the life of the pipeline.

This technical report is based on CRA materials for which experience has been gained in operating
environments. Typical examples are 13Cr, 316 SS, Alloy 625, Alloy 825, Duplex and Superduplex
stainless steel, but the lessons learnt can be applied to other CRA materials. The pipeline may be of
solid CRA or a carbon steel carrier pipe with CRA cladding or liner.

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2 Introduction
Pipelines using Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA) materials are not common, due largely to the cost, but
they are increasing in number and length throughout the world and, although this is a maturing
technology, there are still some issues and concerns that Operators face during the operational life of
these pipelines. The advantage they offer with regard to corrosion resistance means they are now
becoming more popular. Production fluids often contain a high sulphur or CO2 content that requires
the use of materials suitable for corrosive environments. When the H2S and CO2 contents are too high
for the corrosion resistance properties of carbon steel, a CRA is often employed.

Pipelines may be of solid CRA material like e.g. 13 Chrome, Duplex Stainless Steel or Super Duplex
Stainless Steel. For onshore and offshore pipelines however, that need to achieve a balance between
cost, the mechanical properties of a CMn steel tube and the corrosion resistance properties of a CRA,
clad or lined pipes can be used. Both clad and lined pipes consist of a carbon steel pipe which has a
layer of CRA in contact with the production fluid and hence, its corrosive environment. In the case of
clad pipes, the layer of CRA is applied using different procedures that create a metallurgical bond,
while in the case of lined pipe an internal CRA pipe is connected to the external carbon steel pipe
through mechanical bond.

During recent years intensive research effort has been carried out by companies and research
institutions worldwide and more information is now available regarding some stages of a CRA pipeline
life, mainly design and installation. However, limited information is available about the integrity
management challenges that operators have faced throughout the life of a CRA pipeline. In order to
contribute to fill in these gaps, POF has conducted a survey among its members trying to identify the
main issues operators face and how they deal with them during the full life cycle of the CRA pipelines,
i.e. from design, fabrication, installation and commissioning. A questionnaire survey was conducted
so that all information presented here is based mainly in actual field experience (field proven
solutions).

This technical report consolidates good practices and experiences from contributing operators in
order that these may be considered by others whilst establishing Integrity Management Strategies for
their CRA risers and pipelines. The document considers the full life cycle i.e. from design, pipe
fabrication, construction, installation, commissioning, operation and decommissioning, in order to
highlight potential threats and, where appropriate, indicate possible mitigation measures to prevent
impacts on the integrity of the pipeline system.

Material selection and fabrication procedures are important aspects of oil and gas production system
design. If non-suitable materials and/or fabrication procedures are selected, then premature failure
may result with potential safety and environmental damage implications, lost production and
considerable costs of line repair and/or replacement. This technical report does not cover the
selection of materials or the preparation of fabrication procedures other than to highlight the
potential failure mechanisms that can have impact on the integrity of the pipeline during operations.
The selection of the CRA material appropriate for the process conditions and the preparation of the
fabrication and installation procedures require specialist knowledge and expertise.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

The use of CRA materials introduces specific challenges during all stages of the pipeline life cycle from
design to operational aspects like integrity monitoring and inspection during operation. These are
highlighted within this technical report.

This technical report does not replace the need for SMEs from the pipeline operator, or on behalf of
them, to be involved throughout all stages of the pipeline life cycle to gain assurance that the
appropriate Integrity Management Strategy is implemented and that the required levels of inspection,
testing and certification are completed.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

3 Abbreviations and acronyms

For the purpose of this technical report, the following abbreviations and acronyms apply:

ART Acoustic Resonance Technology

CMn Carbon Manganese
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CS Carbon Steel
EC Eddy Current
EMAT Electro Magnetic Acoustic Technology
GW Guided Waves
HISC Hydrogen Induced Stress Cracking
ID Inside Diameter
ILI In-Line Inspection
IM Integrity Management
MEC Magnetic Eddy Current
MFL Magnetic Flux Leakage
MIC Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
OD Outside Diameter
PA Phased Array
PDAM Pipeline Defect Assessment Manual
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RT Radiographic Technology
UT Ultrasonic Testing
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCR Steel Catenary Riser
SLOFEC Saturated Low Frequency Eddy Current
SME Subject Matter Expert
SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
TOFD Time Of Flight Diffraction

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4 Integrity management

4.1 CRA threats

The first step in the integrity management of any asset is to understand and identify all potential
threats to the asset at all stages of life. A credible threat is one that is expected to result in corrosion,
erosion or environmental cracking in the pipeline or associated components, based upon a
combination of the material, loading conditions and the environment under consideration. The
deterioration of a CRA pipeline is often seen as an unlikely event since designers, installation
companies and operators tend to consider that these materials have superior metallurgical properties
and are able to withstand any eventual threat. This is obviously not the case, since operators have
experienced issues with CRA pipelines. Whilst the use of CRA provides increased resistance to
corrosion over carbon steel, CRA pipelines can be susceptible to degradation and therefore a detailed
pipeline integrity management plan is still required. Potential threats to CRA include but may not be
limited to:
• Chloride Pitting Corrosion
• Hydrogen Induced Stress Cracking (HISC)
• Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC)
• Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
• Pitting Corrosion
• Crevice Corrosion
• Galvanic Corrosion
• Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking
• Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
• Erosion
• Abrasion
• Fatigue

Both erosion and corrosion (mainly pitting) and fatigue cracking, more specifically in SCR and in
flowline free spans, are possible threats to CRA lines. Additional threats to CRA lines include sea water
corrosion (as part of construction or pre-commissioning processes) and pipe wall erosion as a result
of changes in the operating conditions (temperature, chloride, reservoir performance and sand)
and/or incorrect use of the material. CRAs may have an increased resistance to MIC, however, MIC is
still a threat to a CRA pipeline. CRA clad or lined pipelines continue to be subject to the same external
corrosion threat as for any other carbon steel pipeline.

It is anticipated that the external corrosion mechanisms are controlled by coatings and cathodic
protection. However, the application of cathodic protection to a CRA pipeline may introduce the
threat of HISC (see example in Figure 1). Criterion for protection to avoid HISC should be defined and
implemented, usually achieved by management of CP potentials. A recommended practice for duplex
stainless steels is document DNV-RP-F112 Duplex stainless steel – design against hydrogen induced
stress cracking.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

Figure 1. – HISC of Super 13Cr due to exposure to seawater with cathodic protection applied

4.2 Integrity management plan

The integrity management (IM) plan should be defined for all stages of the CRA pipeline life cycle. Each
stage of the life cycle will contain specific risks to the integrity of the CRA pipeline and therefore needs
to be considered individually. For example, contamination of the CRA with ferrous debris may be a
risk during pipe fabrication and construction whilst the exposure of the CRA to seawater may be a risk
during installation and pre-commissioning.

The IM plan for each stage of the CRA pipeline life cycle should identify any potential for a defect to
be undetected. This will then feed into the IM plan for the subsequent stage and will finally determine
the extent of inspection required to provide the assurance that the pipeline is fit for operation as well
as the proper adjustment to IM Strategy. Therefore, IM plans for CRA pipeline operation should
consider all defects that have been identified during the previous stages, the remedial actions that
have been performed, the potential defects that may have been undetected together, and any defects
that may be introduced during operation.

It is important that the QA/QC activities performed at each stage is appropriate for the potential
defect morphology or threat associated with the particular risk. High levels of QA/QC during pipe
fabrication, pipeline construction, installation and commissioning are required to ensure that defects
are not introduced into the pipeline that is to be put into operation. The significance of monitoring
the integrity of the CRA throughout all project stages is not always well defined in project procedures
or standards and the implications to the future integrity of the pipeline is not always well understood.

If a CRA pipeline is outside the fluid service limits set for that particular material, then the pipeline
may be subject to corrosion and/or cracking. If these should occur, the failure mechanism may
progress very rapidly although this is not always the case. The significance of monitoring the critical
process conditions is not always well defined in operations procedures or IM strategies. This should
be reviewed as part of the wider pipeline revalidation program.

As any other equipment, CRA pipelines are susceptible to mechanical damage. Dents may prove
difficult to assess and fix compared to carbon steel pipelines. The Pipeline Defect Assessment Manual
(PDAM) does not currently address CRA pipelines and therefore the assessment of any defects
requires specialist advice.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

A CRA pipeline may consist of a number of sections which may have differing design criteria (e.g.
pipeline and riser), different installation techniques (e.g. off-shore and on-shore sections), different
intervention means (e.g. diver accessible depths or not) or differing operating conditions (e.g. large
temperature differential). These differences should be considered when developing the IM plan and,
where appropriate, different plans for different sections should be developed.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

5 Design
During the design phase of a project the appropriate CRA will be selected to resist chemical processes
and other degradation mechanisms that may be present during the whole life of the pipeline. The
chosen CRA will have performance limits. The key barrier to prevent deterioration of the CRA during
pipeline operation is in selecting the appropriate material for the service conditions. Established
Domain Diagrams, setting out the critical process conditions, have been validated for the intended
service conditions. Where these have not been defined and validated, requalification during the
design phase of a project may be required. The material selection should always consider the latest
published data and the results of any recent industry testing that has been carried out. Consideration
should include that CRA liners and cladding can reduce the effectiveness of internal inspection
techniques, such as UT and MFL, to inspect the carbon steel substrate.

Ensuring that the pipeline conditions remain within the performance limits of the CRA is important.
The design of the process controls and monitoring systems is critical to ensuring the integrity of the
CRA pipeline. Process conditions that may require control and monitoring include but are not limited
to:
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Strain
• Cl content
• H2S content
• CO2 content
• pH level
• O2 content
• Particulates/ Flow Rate
• Biocide/Inhibitor
• Produced water content

The selection of the CRA should consider the potential for the process conditions to change during the
life of the pipeline. This could be due to the change in fluids from a particular source or could be due
to potential development of a pipeline network which introduces fluids from other sources.

The design will determine whether the pipeline will be solid CRA or a carbon steel pipeline either lined
or clad with CRA. Each of these options provides differing challenges to the ability to monitor the
pipeline integrity. Manufacturing and installation factors should also be considered when determining
whether a lining, cladding or weld overlay should be used. Lined pipe is not recommended for
manufacturing bends. CRA may be applied to seamless pipe as a lining or weld overlay, however, solid
alloy may need to be used for components that cannot be easily clad or applied with weld overlay.
Cladding or weld overlay with a CRA, can offer the same corrosion resistance as a solid equivalent of
the same material. However, as a cladding or weld overlay is typically only a few millimetres thick, it
can be subject to mechanical damage through manufacture, installation, commissioning or inspection,
as well as corrosion damage during commissioning or in service. Unlike a solid CRA component,
damage to a thin CRA cladding or a CRA weld overlay will result in the exposure of a carbon steel
substrate, which will suffer from higher rates of corrosion than the cladding.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

In the design phase the requirement for pigging needs to be assessed for both operational efficiency
and integrity management. It is recommended, as a base case, that CRA pipelines should be designed
with pigging capabilities. There have been instances where CRA pipelines have been designed and
installed without the facilities required to pig the pipeline but where the requirement for pigging has
been identified during operations and therefore the facilities have had to be subsequently installed.
Additionally, pigging may be of benefit for under-deposit corrosion, MIC and flow assurance.

Once the design options have been selected a key part of the design process should be to prepare the
initial pipeline IMP, to ensure that the necessary controls can be put in place to maintain the integrity
of the pipeline. This should consider the ability to monitor and inspect the pipeline, the required
analyses and tests and procedures to be utilized to assure and demonstrate the integrity of the
pipeline at all stages.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

6 Pipe manufacture

6.1 Manufacturing processes

In the table below an overview of CRA pipe manufacturing processes, their abbreviation and
applicable codes/standards is given.

Type of CRA pipeline material Codes/Standards

CRA-S CRA-Solid: Solid CRA pipe material. API-5LC

DNV-ST-F101
Fabrication process: seamless (hot rolled or centrifugally cast) or
longitudinally seam welded.
CRA-C CRA-Clad: Layer of CRA material is metallurgically bonded to a API-5LD
carbon steel substrate. DNV-ST-F101

Fabrication process: longitudinally seam welded pipe made from

hot rolled or explosion bonded CRA layer onto a carbon steel
plate
CRA-L CRA-lined: A thin liner pipe of CRA material is placed within a API-5LD
carbon steel substrate pipe but not metallurgically bonded to it. DNV-ST-F101
Depending on the process of fabrication however, it might be a
very tight shrink-fit.

Fabrication process: longitudinally welded or seamless liner

which is expanded in a carbon steel pipe.
CRA-O CRA-Overlay: CRA material is applied by fusion welding and API-5LD
metallurgically bonded to the carbon steel substrate pipe. DNV-ST-F101

Fabrication process: Welding with an as welded or machined

surface finish.
Note: typically used at the inside of pipe ends of CRA-L pipes and
cladding of fittings.

Table 1. – CRA type of pipeline materials and respective standards

6.2 QC/QA during pipe fabrication

Pre-qualification of the materials and supplier(s) based on the pipeline media in combination with the
operating conditions is advised as one of the first steps during material purchase.

General inspection and testing requirements are described in the codes and standards as listed in
Table 1. In addition to the requirements in these documents, operators quite often specify extra
inspection activities, specific inspection / NDT techniques or tighter acceptance criteria.

Some of the advised additional and specific inspection techniques / criteria are:

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

• Inspection of the (accessible) clad surface for defects or surface iron contamination with the
Ferroxyl test, as per ASTM A380 (e.g. for welded overlay surfaces). It is recommended to be
applied by experienced personnel who are familiar with the limitations of this method of
testing.
• Inspection of coarse-grained austenitic steel welds with compression wave UT probes due to
the coarse grain microstructure. Compression waves are more suitable to penetrate such
welds, but applying this technology requires additional training.
• For automatic UT inspection it is advised to require a signal to noise ratio of the reference
signals of at least 12 dB (signal height from reference defect > 4 x noise level height).
• PMI (Positive Material Identification) of the internal CRA material of CRA-C and CRA-O pipes
if possible (e.g. for 1 out of 10 pipes).

6.3 Cleanliness requirements

Segregation and preventing cross contamination during the manufacturing process is important to
ensure the long-term integrity of the CRA.

Example shown in Figure 2 is scale on the inner surface of a CRA lined section of pipe which has been
produced due to ferrous contamination during the pipe manufacturing process. Whilst this may be
superficial and the immediate impact on the integrity of the CRA minimal, the impact during
operations if left untreated could be more significant (e.g. crevice corrosion may develop) and in
particular the potential for future internal inspection of the pipeline would be compromised.

Figure 2. – Example of contamination of CRA surface of lined pipe section

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

6.4 Pipeline construction & commissioning

Operators’ experiences with CRA pipelines have highlighted the importance of QC/QA during the
various project stages. A significant proportion of the reported defects identified in CRA pipelines
result from practices employed or incidents that occurred during installation and commissioning of
the pipeline. The management of the integrity of the CRA during these project stages is imperative to
ensure that latent defects are not transferred to the operating phase.

6.5 Welding
Welding of CRA is a key issue as it can have a serious detrimental impact on the overall performance
of the CRA and therefore the pipeline integrity. Whilst weld procedures will be prepared, and tests
carried out to qualify the procedure, there also needs to be stringent quality control during the
welding processes to ensure that the welding is completed as intended.

Quality assurance of the weld preparation is particularly critical for CRA pipelines and components.
Figure 3 shows an example of the resultant corrosion following incorrect weld preparation. The
preparation for the weld had completely removed the CRA cladding adjacent to the weld area to such
an extent that, following completion of the weld, an area of exposed carbon steel remained resulting
in loss of the carbon steel and a subsequent leak.

Figure 3. – Corrosion of a weld overlay clad flange resulting from poor weld preparation

Quality control during the welding process is also critical. Figure 4 shows an example of corrosion in a
CRA clad pipeline which was caused due to the use of carbon steel for the weld root rather than a CRA
consumable. This was not identified during the execution of the weld and could not be determined by
the weld inspection. The subsequent corrosion of the weld root eventually exposed the carbon steel
section of the pipe behind the cladding. Due to a fabrication mistake all superior performance of roll
bonded clad pipe was jeopardized.

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

Figure 4. – Corrosion of clad pipeline due to incorrect material used for weld root

6.6 Installation
The way in which the pipeline is installed has the potential to impact the integrity of the CRA pipeline.
For example the design of an offshore pipeline called for snake lay (i.e. the pipeline to be installed
with a zig-zag route) to manage excessive buckling/local bending during operations. However, the post
installation in-line inspection identified that the selected pipeline profile had introduced numerous
minor geometrical deformations in the CRA liner caused through localized variations in the
longitudinal stress and strain. The deformations were either wrinkles (as shown in Figure 5),
circumferential deformations close to the girth welds or individual dent-like deformations. Whilst
these do not pose an immediate threat to the integrity of the pipeline as, in this case, the liner has
remained intact, further assessment was required to confirm the ability of the liner to meet the long-
term requirements. The deformations also impact the ability to internally inspect the pipeline.

Figure 5. – Inspection results showing wrinkles in CRA liner

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

6.7 Seawater ingress

During installation, testing and commissioning of offshore pipelines there may be times during which
the CRA could be exposed to seawater. This could have significant impact on the CRA depending on
the CRA alloy used, chloride concentration, dissolved oxygen content and temperature. Figure 6 below
shows a reported feature within a CRA clad pipeline that had been exposed to seawater during
installation. Pitting of the CRA had occurred and at certain locations the CRA layer had been breached
exposing the carbon steel.

Figure 6. – Perforation of CRA layer due to exposure to seawater

Figure 7 provides a further example of the damage caused to a 13Cr pipeline exposed to seawater
during commissioning.

Figure 7. – Pitting of Super 13Cr due to exposure to seawater

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7 Operations & inspection planning

The Operator should be able to demonstrate, at any time, that a pipeline system is and remains fit for
purpose. Potential threats can be identified by risk assessment and to some extent may be mitigated
by implementing a variety of monitoring and/or inspection activities, usually captured in an IM plan.
Applicable (national) legislation may also oblige certain prescriptive requirements.

7.1 Integrity monitoring & control

As part of the integrity management of the CRA pipeline, it is critical to monitor and manage the
pipeline environment and conditions:
• Relevant process conditions, listed in Section 5, should be monitored to provide confirmation
that the operations have remained within the set limits.
• Monitoring and assessment of strain associated with buckling and spanning may also be
required.
• The frequency of sampling needs to be sufficient to identify any excursions, the extent of the
excursion and the duration.
• The pipeline operating procedures should identify the actions to be taken should excursions
occur which could include the pipeline continued operation, inspection or immediate shut-
down.
• For subsea CRA pipelines prevention of seawater ingress may need to be considered. For
example, the risk associated with seawater ingress during pipeline depressurizations,
interventions, etc. should be considered.

7.2 Baseline condition

An early assessment of the pipeline will set the “baseline” against which future integrity management
plans can be developed and inspection results can be compared. The benefits of the baseline
assessment also include verification of the manufactured/installed state together with early
identification of any potential integrity threats.

The operator should determine how the baseline assessment is to be achieved. For positive validation
(i.e. based on actual inspection results) that the CRA barrier is intact throughout the pipeline, then ILI
is the most appropriate technology if the tools are correctly selected and deployed under the right
conditions. However the success and outcome will be dependent on the nature of the CRA pipeline
(solid, lined, clad or weld overlay). Alternative means of assessment, such as detailed review of project
QA/QC records, may carry more uncertainty than ILI, but may be acceptable based on review and risk
assessment of the integrity management activities that have previously been completed. The nature
of the baseline assessment varies amongst companies and applications.

The timing of any baseline survey needs to be considered. Baseline surveys could be conducted prior
to operations in order to establish the condition of the pipeline prior to the introduction of
hydrocarbons. Alternatively, a baseline could be conducted following a pre-determined period of
operation. Some Operators recommend baseline surveys be conducted during both periods.

CRA materials are known to be effective for well-defined operating regimes. Therefore, if the baseline
condition is known, evidence to demonstrate that operating conditions have remained within defined

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POF 510 Integrity Management of CRA Pipelines

limits may possibly be considered sufficient to revalidate the pipeline against internal corrosion
threats.

7.3 CRA management during operational life

Baseline inspection may detect and permit remediation of some potential defects introduced in to the
pipeline prior to its operation. The pipeline design will have selected a CRA material that is suitable
for the predicted operating envelope and the potentially highly corrosive environments in the pipe.
However the CRA may still be susceptible to corrosion or cracking under conditions which may result
from long term operations outside of defined operating limits or short term upset conditions. It is
important that process monitoring is in place to identify any loss of control or change in operational
conditions.

When excursions outside of defined operating limits occur an assessment will be required to
determine the potential damage that could have occurred. In such instances, it may be necessary to
inspect the pipeline and therefore the operator needs access to the appropriate inspection
technology.

The IM plan set out for the pipeline may require periodic inspection of the pipeline. The inspection
may be targeted at defects in the CRA or, for lined or clad pipelines, the carbon steel or both.
Inspection of the carbon steel may highlight instances of external defects but may also highlight areas
where there are breaches in the CRA.

There is potential to damage CRA pipelines during either routine or inspection pigging operations.
Consideration should be given to both mechanical damage and metallurgical contamination. Pig discs
have been known to fail and could lead to the pig body scoring the relatively soft CRA material. This is
even more detrimental if it occurs in clad or lined pipes and exposes the carbon steel backing material.
Further, care must be taken to avoid metallurgical contamination of CRAs, such as by designing pigs
with non-carbon-steel brushes. The risk of other metallic contaminants within the flow, such as failed
chokes, valve internals etc. should also be considered.

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8 Operational inspection technology

8.1 ILI
The only technology with the capability to inspect the whole pipeline ‘end to end’ is In-Line Inspection
(ILI). Current ILI technology was however generally developed for the inspection of carbon steel
pipelines and so there are limitations when used to inspect pipelines which are CRA or contain CRA
sections.

CRA pipelines can be pigged, without damage. ILI tools can be designed to inspect CRA lines without
damaging liners / cladding, by avoiding metal to metal contact between tool and pipeline. Risk of ILI
should be considered prior to any run. Risks include damage to the CRA, potentially sticking the tool
in the line, data reliability, and other operational risks.

Different types of tools are available and these can be equipped with various inspection equipment:
• Free swimming tools that can cover large distances
• Tethered (cable operated) tools for shorter distances also allowing additional features
• Crawler tools

8.1.1 UT tools
An ultrasonic pulse generated by a transmitting/receiving transducer will travel at constant speed
through a liquid and at constant, but different, speed through steel. When passing from a liquid to
steel, part of the energy in a pulse will reflect from a solid steel surface, generating a return pulse, and
part will be transmitted into the steel, resulting in an ultrasonic pulse which propagates through the
steel. When passing through steel, most of the energy in a pulse will reflect from the outer steel
surface and return to the transmitter/receiver. The time elapsed between sending and receiving the
ultrasonic pulses is representative for the pipe wall thickness and location of metal loss
(internal/external if present). An example is depicted in Figure 8. The transmission of energy across a
steel/gas interface or through gas to the steel surface is much less efficient than at a liquid/steel
interface, making standard UT tools ineffective in a gas environment.

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Figure 8. – UT ILI of external metal loss in Duplex pipe

On a flat surface, the pulses are easily identifiable as discrete entities, whereas, where they are
reflected from an uneven surface, such as an un-machined inner surface of the pipe following weld-
overlay cladding, the pulses spread out and can merge. Furthermore, there may be more than two
pulses reflected by the steel wall, which has the potential to confuse the measurement of the timing
device. Where there are concerns regarding the surface finish, the impact should, wherever possible,
be confirmed by pull-through test using sample of the actual pipe (a pipe sample of 1m length would
suffice). As a general rule, surface roughness of 0.1 to 0.2mm will not have an impact on signal quality.
Figure 9 gives an example of the UT inspection result in carbon steel pipe with weld overlay.

Figure 9. – UT ILI of internal metal loss in carbon steel pipe clad with Alloy 625 weld overlay

The speed of sound within a CRA material is practically similar to carbon steel and therefore, if the
CRA is metallurgically bonded to the carbon steel there will not be reflection of the UT pulse at the

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interface and hence the UT tool will record the combined material as one wall thickness. However if
the materials are not metallurgically (fully) bonded as in the case of lined pipe, the energy of the UT
pulse will be reflected at the interface generating an interface echo. For lined pipe therefore, the UT
tool will record the thickness of the CRA layer only, there will be no results recorded for the carbon
steel.

Free swimming and tethered tools can be equipped with UT technology for corrosion detection (wall
thickness measurement) and crack detection.

Specially developed tethered tools are available with the Time Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique.
These tools can be accurately aligned to a girth weld and used to detect and size external fatigue
cracks. Tools based on TOFD technique are better than traditional UT tools with respect to sizing of
small cracks whilst traditional UT tools are better at detection of small cracks. Therefore a combination
of traditional UT, for detection of small cracks, and TOFD for sizing of small cracks can be applied.

8.1.2 MFL tools

Austenitic CRA (e.g. 316, 625, 825) is not magnetic and does not influence a magnetic field. Therefore
an MFL tool cannot be used to inspect austenitic CRA.

Martensitic CRA (e.g. 13Cr) or Austenitic/Ferritic CRA (e.g. Duplex) do have some magnetic properties
and therefore it is possible to inspect these CRA using an MFL tool although the performance of the
tool will be significantly different to that in carbon steel and therefore a revised performance
specification will be required. The development of the performance specification will be required on
a pipeline by pipeline basis, through testing on sample spools.

For pipelines clad or lined with austenitic CRA it is possible to inspect the carbon steel behind CRA
using MFL. The thickness of the CRA layer causes an increased distance of the magnets and sensors
from the carbon steel layer which influences the defect detection capability of the tool. The CRA
causes a sensor lift-off influencing the magnetization and therefore any defect signals. Additionally, if
the CRA layer is electrically conductive then the transient magnetic field produced by a passing MFL
tool will generate eddy-currents in the CRA layer. In turn this will produce a magnetic field in
opposition to that generated by the tool. This could potentially affect magnetic field levels in the pipe-
wall as well as defect response. The thicker the CRA layer, the lower is the maximum allowable carbon
steel thickness. Within limits, this effect may be compensated for by running the inspection tool at
reduced velocity. Pull-through tests will be required for each application to determine the actual
impact of the CRA and to develop the appropriate performance specification for the inspection tool.
It is important that these pull-through tests are performed with pipe samples representing the full
range of thickness for both the CRA and the carbon steel. Figure 10 gives a detailed example of the
MFL inspection result in carbon steel pipe with 316L clad layer.

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Figure 10. – Features identified during MFL inspection of carbon steel pipeline clad with 316L - Feature
dimensions confirmed by external TOFD

In addition to the issues related to the inspection of pipelines clad or lined with austenitic steel, the
MFL inspection of pipeline clad or lined with Martensitic CRA is more complicated as the CRA layer
cannot be simply treated as increased stand-off.

8.1.3 EMAT tools

EMAT tools need to magnetize the pipe wall in order to generate ultrasonic pulses inside the pipe wall.
In case of non-magnetic CRA, the CRA layer itself cannot be inspected. Moreover, the non-magnetic
CRA layer then causes an increased distance of the EMAT sensors from the carbon steel (lift-off);
therefore, depending on the thickness of the non-magnetic CRA layer, also the carbon steel behind
cannot be inspected.

The sensors on an EMAT tool can be of many different types and their performance in CRA pipe will
vary. However all will have significantly reduced inspection performance due to poor electrical
conductivity and low magnetostriction in austenitic CRA compared to regular pipeline steel. Note:
magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or
dimensions during the process of magnetization. This poor performance can be partially overcome by
systems that move slowly compared to typical free swimming tools and therefore allow for increased
numbers of measurements using the sensors.

For magnetic stainless steels, such as Ferritic stainless, Duplex or Martensitic, the performance of the
EMAT tool increases compared to operating in the austenitic CRA steels, potentially allowing
inspection of these materials at velocities typical for free swimming tools. However, CRA alloys differ
in magnetic properties so much that tests on sample spools of the specific pipeline alloy need to be
performed to confirm the effectiveness of the sensors in advance of an inspection run.

Another factor which will affect the EMAT tool is the physical nature of the CRA within the pipeline
itself. An EMAT tool will not be able to inspect a CRA lined pipe where there is no metallurgic bond
between the CRA and the other pipe material. For a pipe which is fully composed of CRA steel,

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inspection should be possible subject to the limits described above. For a pipe where carbon steel and
CRA lining are metallurgically bonded, tests on sample spools must be performed to ensure that the
performance of the EMAT meets the desired specification in these materials.

8.1.4 EC tools
Eddy current tools measure metal loss features on the inner surface of the pipeline.

In principle, the eddy current inspection technology is applicable to CRA as the required material
property is its electrical conductivity. However, the response of the inspection tool will differ from
that in carbon steel. Therefore prior to any inspection of a pipeline containing CRA pull tests will be
required to determine the actual performance of the tool.

8.1.5 Magnetic field strength tools

A permanent magnet with a sensor is used to measure the magnetic field strength. The measured
magnetic field strength will be affected by the presence of and distance to ferromagnetic material
(such as carbon steel) near the magnet. In this way the distance between sensor and carbon steel
surface can be measured. The trade name of a tool based on this technology is DMRTM (Direct
Magnetic Response). As an austenitic CRA layer is not ferromagnetic, the tool can be calibrated to
measure the distance between the inner surface of the internal CRA layer and the carbon steel
substrate for both CRA-C and CRA-L pipe material. The technology can detect wrinkles in CRA-L pipes,
corrosion defects under the CRA layer and measure the thickness of the CRA liner/layer.

8.1.6 ART tools

A sending transducer transmits a broad-band acoustic signal towards the metal structure of interest.
The signal spreads in the structure, exciting half-wave resonances. The response of the structure
transmits a characteristic signal which is detected by the receiving transducer. Analysis of the
frequency content of the response signal yields the resonance peak frequencies, from which the base
resonance frequency, and ultimately the structure’s thickness, can be estimated.

ART is not dependent on a liquid coupler and hence it can be used in gas pipelines however the use
within low pressure pipeline needs to be assessed.

Since ART is a relatively new technique for pipeline inspection there is limited experience in general
and no examples of use within CRA pipelines have been published. Within CRA clad/lined pipelines
ART is expected to have similar challenges as traditional UT tools which require metallurgical bonding
between the CRA layer and the carbon steel if inspection of the full wall thickness is required.

8.1.7 MECtm tools

The Magnetic Eddy Current technology is a dynamic electromagnetic scanning technique that
combines a direct current magnetic field with an Eddy Current field. It is stated to be the next
generation of the SLOFEC technology. The technique is capable of inspecting through different
coatings and cladding types and it is claimed that an ILI tool based in the technology is under
development.

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8.2 External inspection

External inspection techniques may require removal of coating to expose the pipe surface and access
around the circumference of the pipe.

Techniques include, but are not limited to:

• Ultrasonic Technology (UT) / Time Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) / Phased Array (PA)
• Radiography (RT)
• Guided Waves (GW)
• Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
• Electro Magnetic Acoustic Technology (EMAT)
• Saturated Low Frequency Eddy Current (SLOFEC) / Magnetic Eddy Current (MEC)
• Acoustic Resonance Technology (ART)

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9 Assessment & repair

Guidance on the assessment of defects in CRA line pipe is not available in PDAM or any other industry
codes/standards doing little beyond highlighting the need for special or expert attention. The
treatment of these materials, including girth welds, is complex especially when combined with
installation methods involving plastic strains. Consequently, effort is now required to develop
validated defect assessment procedures for CRA line pipe, which should be included in further updates
to PDAM.

The four different types of CRA pipelines (solid CRA, CRA clad, CRA lined and CRA weld overlay) each
provide specific challenges for the assessment.

Assessments should include the capability to provide a continued effective barrier against accelerated
corrosion in addition to mechanical integrity.

The rate of pit growth is a function of temperature, pH and the presence of chloride ions. Determining
the growth rate within CRA pipelines can be complex.

POF has not been able to identify any experience of repairing CRA lined or clad pipelines. This should
be addressed in the design phase.

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10 Final remarks
CRA materials have been selected for severe operating conditions due to their increased corrosion
resistance when compared to carbon steel pipes. However, to take advantage of its superior
metallurgical performance it is paramount to assure high quality levels and commitment in all stages
of pipeline life cycle (e.g. material selection, design, pipe fabrication, construction, operation, etc.).
When this is not the case some failures may occur. Because of this, and also due to potential challenges
that ILI inspection tools for CRA material still face, additional care must be taken during design,
fabrication and installation of CRA pipelines in order to avoid potential threats into the pipeline once
it is put in place.

Continued dialogue and use of best practices will continue to help improve the understanding and
practice of integrity management of CRA pipelines and will help reduce operational risks for operators.
Regular review of the contents of this technical report together with root cause analysis and lessons
learnt from any related pipeline incidents is recommended.

This technical report highlights some of the issues to be considered whilst developing plans to manage
the integrity of CRA pipelines during manufacturing, fabrication, installation and operation. The use
of structured inspection, maintenance and repair regimes together with the management and
monitoring of operating conditions will minimise the potential for the deterioration of CRA pipelines
and the potential for pipeline failure.

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