Role of UN in Maintaining International

Peace

Submitted to

Mr. Aashutosh Kumar Aahire

Faculty Member in International Relations

By

Sumit Sharma
B. A. LL. B. (Hons.) Student
Semester – V, Section – C, Roll No. 157

Hidayatullah National Law University

Uparwara Post, Naya Raipur – 492002 (C.G.)
 I

Declaration

I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that this Project work titled, “Role of UN in
Maintaining International Peace” is based on my own research work, carried out during the
course of my study, under the supervision and guidance of my faculty advisor.

I assert that the statements made and the conclusions drawn are the outcome of the
said research work. I further declare that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, proper
references have been given and it does not contain any part of any work that has been
submitted for the award of any other degree in this university or any other university.

Sumit Sharma
Semester – V (C), Batch XIII,
Roll No. – 157
HNLU, Raipur
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Mr. Aashutosh Kumar Aahire +91‐9424282642

Faculty of International Relations aashutosh.aahire@hnlu.ac.in
HNLU, Naya Raipur
Chhattisgarh

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project tilted, “Role of UN in Maintaining

International Peace”, submitted by Mr. Sumit Sharma as a part of his

internal assessment in B.A. LL. B. (Hons.) Course is to the best of my

knowledge his own research work.

The research has been conducted under my supervision and guidance

and may be accepted for consideration.

Place: Atal Nagar, Raipur Mr. Aashutosh Kumar Aahire

Date: Faculty of International Relations
HNLU, Atal Nagar
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Acknowledgements

I, Sumit Sharma, would like to take up this opportunity to thank all those who have
stood by me throughout the duration of this project and helped me in completing it.

Foremost my teacher and mentor Mr. Aashutosh Kumar Aahire Sir. I thank him for
his faith in me to provide me with such a topic of research. His constant guidance at every
step and keen attention to detail have been elementary in the completion of this project.

The college administration and staff had no less a part in this job. The value of their
support cannot be expressed in mere words.

Finally, I would like to thank God for his benevolence and grace in enabling me to
finish this task.

I express my heartfelt gratitude to everyone involved,

Thank You,

Sumit Sharma

B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)

Semester – V, Section C,
Batch XVII
Roll no. 157
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Table of Contents

S. No. Topic Pg. No.

Introduction 1
Title of the Study 2
Research Problem 3
Rationale of the Study 3
Objectives of the Study 3
Ch-I-Introduction &
1. Review of Literature 3
Research Methodology
Nature of Study & Sources of Data 6
Chapterisation 6
Time Limit 7
Limitation of Study 7
Contribution 7
Maintenance of International Peace &
8
Ch-II-Maintenance of Security
2. International Peace & Security Council 9
Security
General Assembly 9
Preventive Diplomacy & Mediation 10
Peacekeeping 10
Ch-III-How Does UN
3. Maintain International Peacebuilding 11
Peace & Security
Countering Terrorism 11
Disarmament 11
4. Ch-IV-Role of India in Peace Keeping Operations of UN 12
5. Ch-V-Present Status of UN Peacekeeping by UN 15
6. Ch-VI-Major Peacekeeping Operations 17
7. Ch-VII-Challenges in Peace Making 20
Structural & Systemic Changes 24
8. Ch-VIII-Reforms Needed Connections to Other Reforms 26
Implications for Human Rights 26
9. Ch-IX-Conclusions 28
10. References 24
 1

Ch-I-Introduction & Research Methodology

Introduction

United Nations popularly known as UN is an International inter-governmental body committed

to maintaining International peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and
promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights. It is founded on 24 October
1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries for maintaining and development of peace
and to re-develop the spirit of brotherhood among the nations throughout the world with the
objective to make world a better place to live.

Its main objective is to develop the co-operation among the nations and is also seen as the
replacement of the ineffective League of Nation. The headquarters of the United Nations is in
Manhattan, New York City, and experiences extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated
in Geneva, Nairobi and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary
contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and
security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the
environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed
conflict.

It has 6 principle organs which work for the welfare of different aspects of the society. the
General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain
resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting
international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing
studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the
primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994). UN
System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World
Food Programme, UNESCO and UNICEF.

Though the primary objective of the UN was to maintain peace however during the time of
Cold War it was paralyzed as it was unable to control the differences between US and USSR
and thus kept itself away from the matter of Cold War. In 1956, the first UN peacekeeping
force was established to end the Suez Crisis;1 however, the UN was unable to intervene
against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country's revolution.

1
"Milestones in United Nations History". Department of Public Information, United Nations.
 2
In 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC), the largest
military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga, restoring
it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964.2

While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag
Hammarskjöld, often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General3 died in a
plane crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 4 In 1964,
Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in
Cyprus, which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.5

With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the
Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly
secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN
budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.6

After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on
more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades. Between 1988 and 2000,
the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping
budget increased more than tenfold. Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to
prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number
of simultaneous, serious crises. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.7
Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN
condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption.8

Thus the role of UN has been changing from time to time with different sort of situation they
need to deal with.

Title of the Study

The study is titled as “Role of UN in Maintaining International Peace”.

2
Supra.
3
Supra.
4
Supra.
5
Supra.
6
Meisler, pp. 167–68, 224–25.
7
For quotation "worldwide ridicule", Kennedy p. 104
8
Meisler, pp. 226–227.
 3
Research Problem

The research problem involves the study of the issues of peacekeeping history, operations and
effectiveness along with its impacts and considerations on the global sphere. The research
problem entails a study of all of these aspects on multiple facets.

Rationale of the Study

The UN is a body that has entered its 75th year of existence and the major underlying principle
with which the UN was created was peacekeeping Even so when some of the most major organs
of the UN are dedicated to this effort and a considerable number of resources as well, it is
imperative that a detailed study is conducted for the same to establish its effectiveness.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to find out whether UN plays a role of peacekeeper of the
world and if yes to what extent is it successful in performing the same.

In addition to this the objective also includes to research for the methods of peacekeeping which
are used by the UN for maintaining inter-state relations and what bodies are responsible for the
same.

Review of Literature

 The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations - Joachim A.

Koops, Thierry Tardy, Norrie MacQueen, and Paul D. Williams: The Oxford Handbook
of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations presents an innovative, authoritative, and
accessible examination and critique of all United Nations peacekeeping operations
launched between 1948 and 2013. Since the late 1940s, but particularly since the end of
the Cold War, peacekeeping has been the most visible and one of the most important
activities of the United Nations and a significant part of global security governance and
conflict management. The volume offers a chapter-by-chapter chronological analysis,
designed to provide a comprehensive overview that highlights the evolution and impact
of UN peacekeeping. It also includes a collection of thematic chapters that examine key
issues such as “major trends of peace operations,” “the link between peacekeeping,
humanitarian interventions and the responsibility to protect,” “peacekeeping and
international law,” “the UN's inter-organizational partnerships” and “how to evaluate
 4
success or failure.” The volume brings together leading scholars and senior practitioners
in order to provide a comprehensive assessment of the successes, failures and lessons
learned of UN peacekeeping since 1948. As with all Oxford Handbooks, the volume will
be agenda-setting in importance, providing the authoritative point of reference for all
those working throughout international relations and beyond.

 UN Peacekeeping Doctrine in a New Era: Adapting to Stabilisation, Protection and

New Threats, 1st Edition - Cedric de Coning, Chiyuki Aoi, John Karlsrud: This edited
volume offers a thorough review of peacekeeping theory and reality in contemporary
contexts, and aligns the two to help inform practice. Recent UN peacekeeping operations
have challenged the traditional peacekeeping principles of consent, impartiality and the
minimum use of force. The pace and scope of these changes have now reached a tipping
point, as the new mandates are fundamentally challenging the continued validity of the
UN peacekeeping’s core principles and identity. In response the volume analyses the
growing gap between these actual practices and existing UN peacekeeping doctrine,
exploring how it undermines the effectiveness of UN operations, and endangers lives,
arguing that a common doctrine is a critical starting point for effective multi-national
operations. In order to determine the degree to which this general principle applies to the
current state of UN peacekeeping, this book:

o Provides a review of conceptual and doctrinal developments in UN peacekeeping

operations through a historical perspective

o Examines the debate related to peace operations doctrine and concepts among
key Member States

o Focuses on the actual practice of peacekeeping by conducting case studies of

several UN peacekeeping missions in order to identify gaps between practice and
doctrine

o Critically analyses gaps between emerging peacekeeping practice and existing

doctrine

o Recommends that the UN moves beyond the peacekeeping principles and

doctrine of the past
 5
o Combining empirical case-based studies on UN peace operations, with studies on
the views and policies of key UN Security Council members that generate these
mandates, and views of key contributors of UN peacekeepers, this volume will
be of great use to policy-makers; UN officials and peace operations practitioners;
and academics working on peace and conflict/security studies, international
organizations and conflict management.

 Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping - Fetherston, A.B.: 'At a time

when peacekeepers are struggling to fulfil increasingly demanding mandates and UN
peacekeeping is in danger of losing the distinct character that won it the 1988 Nobel
Peace Prize, this important book argues for a clear theoretical redefinition within a
conflict resolution framework and examines the practical implications for training. This
is a valuable and original contribution to the peacekeeping literature.' - Dr. Oliver
Ramsbotham, Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford 'Both for the 'blue
helmets' on the ground, and for the diplomats at UN headquarters, conflict resolution
skills are essential for conducting peacekeeping operations. Betts Fetherstone's excellent
study points the way forward to a synthesis between conflict management and
peacekeeping?' - Hugh Miall, Research Fellow, European Programme, Royal Institute of
International Affairs the prevailing over-taxed ad hoc system of peacekeeping does not
meet the growing demands posed by the post-Cold War world. This volume argues that
peacekeeping needs to be placed on firm conceptual footing directly congruent with its
peaceful third party role. The implications of this conceptualisation of peacekeeping for
practice are then discussed. Training is cited as a key means of translating conceptual
understanding into practice. Without this foundation work, UN has little chance of
changing its existing, and largely ineffective, system of conflict management. At a time
when peacekeepers are struggling to fulfil increasingly demanding mandates and UN
peacekeeping is in danger of losing the distinct character that won it the 1988 Nobel
Peace Prize, this important book argues for a clear theoretical redefinition within a
conflict resolution framework and examines the practical implications for training. This
is a valuable and original contribution to the peacekeeping literature.

 United Nations Peacekeeping Challenge: The Importance of the Integrated

Approach, 1st Edition - Anna Powles, Negar Partow: Drawing from a diverse range of
military, policing, academic and policymakers’ experiences, this book seeks to provide
 6
solutions of how national militaries and police can work together to better support future
United Nations peacekeeping operations. It addresses the growing tension between
increasing non-combat related responsibilities being placed on land forces and the ability
of UN peacekeeping forces to fulfil the demands of government and development tasks
in fragile and conflict-affected environments. An original contribution to the debate on
UN peacekeeping reforms that includes constructing an enhanced partnership for
peacekeeping; building on renewed commitment to share the burden and for regional
cooperation; providing peacekeepers with the necessary capabilities to protect civilians;
and supporting nations in transition from conflict to stabilisation. This book offers the
very latest in informed analysis and decision-making on UN peacekeeping reform.

Nature of Study & Sources of Data

This project work is descriptive analytical in approach and has been done taking the help of
secondary data i.e. websites, articles, journals, books, etc. To construct this project, the help of
dictionaries, websites as well as foreign journals and books on the said case has been taken. The
points as discussed in this project include the study of different sources on the topic as well as
the points guided by the faculty. Footnotes have also been provided for acknowledging the
sources as and where needed.

Chapterisation

I. Introduction & Research Methodology

II. Maintenance of International Peace & Security

III. How does UN Maintain International Peace & Security

IV. Role of India in Peace keeping operations of UN

V. Present Status of Peace Keeping by UN

VI. Major Peacekeeping Operations

VII. Challenges in Peace Making

VIII. Reforms Needed

IX. Conclusion
 7
Time Limit

The total time spent on research questions was over 10 days. The expression form of the project
took place in 5 days. Time limit therefore is 15 days.

Limitation of Study

The scope of the study includes the role played by the UN after its formation and also during Pre
and Post-Cold War times in maintaining peace time situations.

How it was effective in handling the war like situation and what role was played by the
peacekeeping forces of the UN for the maintenance of the peace throughout the world. Also o
find out as to what organ of the UN is responsible for what action and other deliberative issues
of the like nature also fall within the scope of the project.

Contribution

The contribution of this project work is to make available concise and proper understanding of
the issues on the subject in question.
 8

Ch-II-Maintenance of International Peace & Security

The United Nations came into being in 1945, following the devastation of the Second World
War, with one central mission: the maintenance of international peace and security. The UN
does this by working to prevent conflict; helping parties in conflict make peace; peacekeeping;
and creating the conditions to allow peace to hold and flourish. These activities often overlap
and should reinforce one another, to be effective. The UN Security Council has the primary
responsibility for international peace and security. The General Assembly and the Secretary-
General play major, important, and complementary roles, along with other UN offices and
bodies.

Peacekeeping is one among a range of activities undertaken by the United Nations to maintain
international peace and security throughout the world. It began in 1948 and led by the
'Department of Peacekeeping Operations' (DPKO), and works to create the conditions for lasting
peace in a country, torn by conflict.

It has participated in 64 peacekeeping missions in total, around the world.

The UN played a role in bringing about independence in more than 80 countries that are now
sovereign nations.

As of 28 February 2011, UN workforce consisted of:

 84,342 serving troops and military observers.

 14,521 police personnel.

 114 countries contributed military and police personnel.

 Over 5,500 international civilian personnel.

 Nearly 13,700 local civilian staff.

 2,387 UN Volunteers.

The UN does not have its own military force. It depends on contributions from Member States
(192). There are currently 15 UN peace operations deployed in four continents.
 9
There are more than 10,000 peacekeepers. Among them 118 are Indians.

In addition to maintaining peace and security, peacekeepers are increasingly charged with
assisting in political processes, reforming judicial systems, training law enforcement and police
forces, disarming and reintegrating former combatants, supporting the return of internally
displaced persons and refugees.

Security Council

The Security Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or an act
of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means and
recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. Under Chapter VII of the Charter,
the Security Council can take enforcement measures to maintain or restore international peace
and security. Such measures range from economic sanctions to international military action. The
Council also establishes UN Peacekeeping Operations and Special Political Missions.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the
UN. Through regular meetings, the General Assembly provides a forum for Member States to
express their views to the entire membership and find consensus on difficult issues. It makes
recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. Decisions on important
questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary
matters, require a two-thirds majority, but other questions are decided by simple majority.
 10

Ch-III-How does UN maintain International Peace and Security?

Peacekeeping is flexible and over the past two decades has been deployed in many
configurations. There are currently 16 UN peacekeeping operations deployed on four continents.

Today's multidimensional peacekeeping operations are called upon not only to maintain peace
and security, but also to facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in the
disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; support the organization
of elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law. Success is
never guaranteed, because UN Peacekeeping almost by definition goes to the most physically
and politically difficult environments.

Whenever a problem arises, the UN tries to resolve it peacefully. In order to accomplish this,
UN can:-

1. Call for more people and resources.

2. Reinforce their decisions.
3. Orders for sanctions which may include an arms embargo, trade and finance
restrictions.
4. The main motive to have peacekeeping is help countries torn by conflict.
5. Peacemakers were never allowed to fight. They were supposed to enact in case of
ceasefire.
6. In order to have peacekeeping, the council had a common pattern. This included
drafting guidelines for a specific operation but exercised little actual direction over
the operation.

Preventive Diplomacy and Mediation

The most effective way to diminish human suffering and the massive economic costs of
conflicts and their aftermath is to prevent conflicts in the first place. The United Nations plays an
important role in conflict prevention, using diplomacy, good offices and mediation. Among the
tools the Organization uses to bring peace are special envoys and political missions in the field.

Peacekeeping

Peacekeeping has proven to be one of the most effective tools available to the UN to assist host
countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace. Today's multidimensional
 11
peacekeeping operations are called upon not only to maintain peace and security, but also to
facilitate political processes, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization and
reintegration of former combatants; support constitutional processes and the organization of
elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law and extending
legitimate state authority. Peacekeeping operations get their mandates from the UN Security
Council; their troops and police are contributed by Members States; and they are managed by
the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and supported by the Department of Field Support
at the UN Headquarters in New York. There are 16 UN peacekeeping operations currently
deployed and there have been a total of 69 deployed since 1948.

Peacebuilding

United Nations peacebuilding activities are aimed at assisting countries emerging from conflict,
reducing the risk of relapsing into conflict and at laying the foundation for sustainable peace and
development. The UN peacebuilding architecture comprises the Peacebuilding Commission, the
Peacebuilding Fund and the peace building Support Office. The Peacebuilding Support Office
assists and supports the Peacebuilding Commission with strategic advice and policy guidance,
administers the Peace building Fund and serves the Secretary-General in coordinating United
Nations agencies in their peace building efforts.

Countering Terrorism

The United Nations is being increasingly called upon to coordinate the global fight against
terrorism. Eighteen universal instruments against international terrorism have been elaborated
within the framework of the United Nations system relating to specific terrorist activities. In
September 2006, UN Member States adopted the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy. This was the first time that Member States agreed to a common strategic and
operational framework against terrorism.

Disarmament

The General Assembly and other bodies of the UN, supported by the Office for Disarmament
Affairs, work for the disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear, chemical, biological and
other weapons of mass destruction, and conventional weapons.9

9
Un.org, Maintenance of International peace and Security.
 12

Ch-IV-Role of India in Peace keeping operations of UN

India's contribution to Peacekeeping Operations commenced in 1952 in Korea. Time and again,
India has risked the lives of its soldiers in peacekeeping efforts of the United Nations, not for
any strategic gain, but in the service of an ideal. India's ideal was, and remains, strengthening the
world body, and international peace and security. While approaching our participation in
different peacekeeping operations, we have based ourselves on the basic principles given below:

1. All means for the peaceful settlement of disputes should be exhausted before
establishing a peacekeeping operation.

2. Peacekeeping operations should strictly adhere to principles of the UN Charter, in

particular the principles of full respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
States, and non-intervention in their internal affairs.

3. Peacekeeping operations should be considered only at the request of the member

states involved and should be under the command and control of the UN.

4. Resources for peacekeeping activities should not be at the expanse of resources for
development activities of the UN.

5. There should be no hesitation in ending those operations, which have been overtaken
by events or become inconsistent with their mandates.

6. It is also important to ensure that the distinction between peacekeeping operations

and other activities of the UN, including humanitarian assistance, is maintained at all
times.

7. The anticipated duration of a peacekeeping mission should be tied to clear objectives

and realistic criteria to end the mission and an exit strategy.

Indian troops have taken part in some of the most difficult operations, and have suffered
casualties in the service of the UN. Professional excellence of the Indian troops has won
universal admiration. India has taken part in the UN peacekeeping operations in four continents.
It most significant contribution has been to peace and stability in Africa and Asia. It has
demonstrated its unique capacity of sustaining large troop commitments over prolonged periods.
 13
Presently, India is ranked among the largest and most reliable Troop Contributor Nations to the
UN. India has also offered one brigade of troops to the UN Stand- by Arrangements. Countries,
which participate in UN Peacekeeping Operations, have to provide not only the military
expertise but also have to be politically acceptable. The range of sensitive peacekeeping
operations India has participated in is testimony to India's image in the world.

India has always contributed generously to UN demands for peacekeeping. Known for their
equanimity and forbearance, Indian troops have proved popular everywhere. The first call came
early enough, when India sent troops to Korea to form the Custodian Force (India), which
functioned under the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission headed by Major General (later
General) KS Thimayya, in 1953-54. This was a delicate task, involving the repatriation of
Prisoners of War. This was followed by a stint at Gaza to keep Israeli and Egyptian forces apart.

The largest (and longest serving) contingent was sent to the Congo in 1961. A complete
independent brigade group, it helped bring about peace and thereafter enforce it - which
involved light to heavy engagements with motley groups beefed up by white mercenary
columns. One most cherished compliment came from an adversary. The mercenaries themselves
conceded, in later writings, that the Indian contingent's activity curbed their style. Mention was
made of a certain tenacity of purpose in combat.

India has sent battalion groups, engineers, medical teams, mil observers and staff personnel to
Cambodia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Lebanon, Ethiopia-Eritrea, Congo, Sudan and Golan Heights.
Observers and staff personnel have made their contributions to the international peace efforts in
Central America, Iran, Yemen, Iraq, Kuwait, Liberia, Lebanon, Mozambique, Congo, Ethiopia-
Eritrea, Sudan and Golan Heights. After Korea (1950-52) and Congo (1960-63), India again sent
a brigade group to Somalia and Congo displaying its resolve to support international community
in peace, and security issues.

The Indian Army's participation in the UN peacekeeping operations spans a period of 57 years
covering 43 UN Missions, in which over ninety thousand Indian soldiers have served in various
parts of the world. In support of UN peacekeeping endeavours, the Indian Army has contributed
outstanding force commanders, elite military contingents, impartial observers and dedicated staff
officers.

Their devotion to duty and excellent performance has been widely acclaimed. Time and again,
India has risked the lives of its soldiers in peacekeeping efforts of the United Nations, not for
 14
any strategic gain, but in the service of an ideal. India's ideal was, and remains, strengthening the
world body, and international peace and security. India has also offered one brigade group to the
UN Standby Arrangement Systems.

It has demonstrated its unique capacity of sustaining large troop commitments over prolonged
periods. Presently, India is ranked, as the third largest troop contributor to the UN. The Indian
government has honoured its soldiers for gallantry, whilst serving the noble cause of world
peace.
 15

Ch-V-Present Status of Peace Keeping by UN

UN peacekeeping has changed over the years along with the change in the nature of conflicts
from inter-State to intra-State. Although the military remains the backbone of most
peacekeeping operations, the many faces of peacekeeping now include administrators,
economists, police officers, legal experts, de-miners, electoral observers, human rights monitors,
specialists in civil affairs and governance, humanitarian workers and experts in communications
and public information.

In recent times, the rising demand for increasingly complex peace operations has challenged the
UN peacekeeping operations as never before. The new challenges and political realities have
been met by the Organization by working vigorously to strengthen its capacity to manage and
sustain field operations. Thus, peacekeeping has contributed to the most important function of
the United Nations - maintaining international peace and security. Peacekeeping has evolved
from its traditional role of monitoring ceasefire agreements and borders between sovereign
States to carrying out large scale multi-dimensional peacekeeping operations often addressing
civil wars. The newer UN missions are mandated to facilitate political processes through the
promotion of national dialogue and reconciliation; protect civilians; assist in the disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration of combatants; support the organization of elections; protect
and promote human rights; promote reform of the domestic security sector; and assist in
restoring the rule of law.

In 2000, the UN Security Council adopted its landmark Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and
Security. For the first time in an omnibus resolution, the Council recognized that women bear
the brunt of armed conflicts, and should have a commensurate role in their prevention and
resolution. The resolution stressed the importance of women's equal participation and full
involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security.

These expanded responsibilities make the need for more women peacekeepers more pressing
than ever. In all of these fields, women peacekeepers have proven that they can perform the
same roles, to the same standards and under the same difficult conditions, as their male
counterparts.

In many cases, women are better-placed to carry out peacekeeping tasks, including interviewing
victims of sexual and gender-based violence, working in women's prisons, assisting female ex-
 16
combatants during the process of demobilizing and reintegration into civilian life, and mentoring
female cadets at police academies.

Female peacekeepers also act as role models in the local environment, inspiring, by their very
example, women and girls in the often male-dominated societies where they serve.
Demonstrating to these women and girls that they can do anything - in the realm of politics,
security, law and order, medicine, journalism and beyond - the female blue helmets truly
embody the concept, "Power to Empower."

The Peace building Commission (PBC) is a new intergovernmental advisory body of the United
Nations that supports peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict, and is a key addition to
the capacity of the International Community in the broad peace agenda. The PBC plays a unique
role in:

 Bringing together all of the relevant actors, including international donors, the
international financial institutions, national governments, troop contributing
countries;

 Marshalling resources

 Advising on and proposing integrated strategies for post-conflict peace building and
recovery and where appropriate, highlighting any gaps that threaten to undermine
peace.

The concurrent General Assembly and Security Council resolutions establishing the Peace
building Commission also provided for the establishment of a Peace building Fund and Peace
building Support Office.
 17

Ch-VI-Major Peacekeeping Operations

The UN General Assembly session opened on September 15. This year the organisation
celebrates its 70th birthday but how has the UN had an impact on the world's conflicts?

United Nations peacekeeping operations began in 1948 and the light blue helmets and berets
have been deployed to many of the world's trouble spot from Papua New Guinea to Haiti ever
since, with varying levels of effectiveness.

An internal UN study last year found that UN peacekeeping missions routinely avoid using force
to protect civilians who are under attack, intervening in only 20 per cent of cases despite being
authorised to do so by the UN Security Council.

While some peacekeeping missions perform adequately, others have failed to protect civilians –
notably at Srebrenica, where Dutch peacekeepers watched on powerless as thousands of men
were murdered.

Of the 69 UN peacekeeping missions over the past 68 years, there have been some notable
failures – and cases of successful intervention.

Where peacekeepers have succeeded and failed

Srebrenica

On July 11, 1995, towards the end of Bosnia's 1992-95 war, Bosnian Serb forces swept into the
eastern Srebrenica enclave and executed 8,000 Muslim men and boys in the days that followed,
dumping their bodies into pits. It was the worst massacre in post-Second World War European
history. The UN had previously declared the town one of the safe areas, to be "free from any
armed attack or any other hostile act". 600 Dutch infantry were supposed to be protecting
thousands of civilians who had taken refuge from earlier Serb offensives in north-eastern
Bosnia.

As Serb forces began shelling Srebrenica, Bosnian Muslim fighters in the town asked for the
return of weapons they had surrendered to the UN peacekeepers but their request was refused.
The Dutch peacekeepers were obliged to watch as the killings began. The failure led in part to
the creation of the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission and set the West on a new course
of 'liberal interventionism'.
 18
Rwanda

Another major failing of the UN peacekeeping organisation was not doing more to prevent the
1994 Rwandan genocide that left up to one million people dead. A 1999 inquiry found that the
UN ignored evidence that the genocide was planned and refused to act once it had started. More
than 2,500 UN peacekeepers were withdrawn after the murder of ten Belgian soldiers. In one
case, the peacekeeping forces deserted a school where Tutsis were taking shelter – hundreds of
people inside were immediately massacred.

Kofi Annan, who was then head of UN peacekeeping forces was accused of failing to pass on
warnings of the massacre. UN soldiers did not return to Rwanda until June, by which time
hundreds of thousands of people were dead. The UN was accused of “leaving Rwanda to its
fate”.

Somalia

The UN operation was the first time the peacekeeping force had been used for “humanitarian
intervention”. However, the peacekeepers were met with a hostile reception in Mogadishu.
Several of them were killed and the bodies of dead US soldiers were paraded through the streets
on the orders of the Somali warlords.

When an American Black Hawk helicopter was shot down as part of the Battle of Mogadishu,
the US withdrew its troops. In 1995 the UN withdrew all peacekeeping troops. It was described
at the time by one UN official as "the greatest failure of the UN in our lifetime".

Sierra Leone

The UN peacekeeping force that operated in Sierra Leone from 1999 to 2005 is hailed as a
success. It was created to help implement a peace agreement after the country’s devastating civil
war.

Mr. Ban officially closed the UN offices in Freetown in 2014, declaring a “successful
conclusion” to the organisations work in helping to bring peace to the country, calling it a
“triumph for the people of Sierra Leone” after what had been a decade of warfare. “Our blue
helmets disarmed more than 75 000 ex-fighters, including hundreds of child soldiers. The UN
destroyed more than 42,000 weapons and 1.2 million rounds of ammunition – a potentially
deadly arsenal that is now itself dead,” Mr Ban declared.
 19
Burundi

Burundi is also frequently cited as a success story for the UN peacekeeping operation, helping it
recover from decades of ethnic war. Ban Ki-moon, UN secretary-general, hailed Burundi's
“substantial progress, overcoming formidable challenges since the end of the civil war”. But in
2014 he extended the peacekeeping mission for a year to help the country through elections that
took place earlier in July, and cautioned that the gains made under the UN’s watch were not
irreversible.10

10
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/11729436/Srebrenica-20-years-on-What-have-
been-the-successes-and-failures-of-UN-peacekeeping-missions.html
 20

Ch-VII-Challenges in Peace Making

In recent years, the United Nations (UN) has engaged in a series of processes to strengthen its
ability to perform its core function – to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.

Beyond the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its ground-breaking goal on
peaceful, just and inclusive societies, the peacebuilding architecture review, the women, peace
and security agenda, and the focus on youth and peacebuilding, Secretary General Antonio
Guterres’s focus on prevention and the recent birth of the ‘sustaining peace’ agenda have
brought about deep reflection on the UN’s role in the modern era.

The list is long – yet we live in a profoundly insecure world where national, rather than human
security priorities dominate the global narrative. So can the UN be effective in sustaining peace
and prevention today?

Indeed it can – but to get there we need to be honest about the biggest challenges the UN is
facing, and think boldly about how to confront them.

UN peace efforts face five big challenges today:

1. Geopolitical aggression and intransigence: Conflicts are becoming protracted by

intense rivalries between global powers and regional powers as they support proxies
to wage war overseas. The wars in Syria and Yemen are prime examples.

2. The practice of relabelling conflicts as counter-terror struggles: This tendency leads

to the neglect of the factors and actors driving conflict and the erosion of space
needed to build peace. We’ve seen this occur in high-profile cases like Syria, but
also in Egypt, Turkey and elsewhere. When leaders use the pretext of counter-terror
to crush dissent and political opposition, it escalates violent conflict rather than
reducing it.

3. Legacies of military intervention and regime change: Framed as interventions to

counter terror, save civilians or remove rogue regimes, in case after case military
intervention and regime change have failed to bring lasting stability or to defeat
fundamentalist groups. On the one hand this has brought deep distrust of
interventionism – but at the same time there are huge risks in simply giving up on
supporting constructive, peaceful change in the face of repression.
 21
4. Panic over forced displacement: As desperate people flee conflict zones, the impact
of forced displacement is hitting neighbouring countries hardest and they are coping
as best they can. Meanwhile, Western governments are making hasty deals to
support border and security forces in transit countries to close their borders and shut
the problem out. But this train, equip and ignore approach – as in the EU’s
Khartoum Process – fails to address the root causes of the problem.

5. Struggling humanitarianism: Undoubtedly humanitarians have a tough job. The UN

and others are making enormous efforts, with inadequate resources, to assist the
victims of conflict. But they are not yet good enough at defending humanitarian
values, working for prevention during crisis or empowering those affected by
humanitarian crises to take the initiative. And if UN Security Council members –
either directly or through allies they support – continue to bomb hospitals or attack
humanitarian convoys, we are unlikely to see this change.

How can ‘sustaining peace’ work in the face of these challenges?

In the face of these challenges we need to ask not only ‘what are the right structures and
mandates for the UN?’, but also ‘how can we work for conflict resolution and peaceful change
in an era of renewed geopolitical division’? Here are six suggestions:

1. Apply peacebuilding tools to the geopolitical level of conflict and rivalry. We need
new ideas and initiatives on how to mediate conflict, not only in the case of Yemen
or Syria but also in terms of fixing the relationships between the parties that stand
behind those who are fighting.

2. At a time when political consensus for peace is hard to build, it will be critical to use
the vision and the mandate of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This
consensus was developed through a uniquely consultative process. Then as now, the
concerns that came out around sovereignty were sincere and grounded in real
examples. As happened during the process, reassurance should be offered that
prevention is actually a recipe for less intervention, not more. SDG16 – and the
peaceful, just and inclusive societies agenda as a whole - was not imposed by the
global north. It was supported by the African Union, the nations of the Pacific, the
g7+ and many others. Civil society organisations unanimously demanded it and so
did people in every region of the world. Peace is not a global north conspiracy but in
 22
fact something we must now demand of the most powerful nations in our own
interest.

3. ‘Sustaining peace’ should also be a moment to reclaim the policy space. Policy panic
is setting in – framing conflicts as ‘terror’ threats and as a ‘migration’ crisis is
exacerbating the problem. Prevention and peacemaking tools are the answer to these
problems, and we must safeguard the special mandate of the UN to provide options
for mediation and peacemaking rather than gearing it up to fight rebels and terrorists
in the name of peace – as it has begun to do in places like Mali and the Congo, with
dangerous consequences. Since the UN is taking sides in today’s wars, where will
the world look for the mediators and peacemakers it will need in the coming years?

4. However scarce political will to sustain peace may be, the UN must not settle for an
inert, technocratic approach focused only on building capacity of state institutions.
At the heart of the SDGs is a drive for transformative change with more peaceful,
just and inclusive societies helping to shape stronger and more inclusive institutions.
If sustaining peace merely means reinforcing the very institutions that are at the
heart of the problem – such as predatory militaries or corrupt bureaucracies – then
we will fail to live up to the ambition of the 2030 Agenda.

5. Remaining true to an agenda that will transform people’s lives requires supporting
those who work for peaceful change – in and out of government, including women
and youth. This requires a willingness to step out of national capitals, to talk to a
wider range of people, to build up understanding of conflicts rooted in people’s
priorities, and to work in solidarity with people to help them:

a. Call for peaceful change;

b. Survive during conflict and maintain cohesion across conflict divides;

c. Rebuild their lives and their institutions after the guns fall silent;

d. Get involved fully and meaningfully in peace and reconciliation processes so

that they can influence and live with the peace settlements that emerge.

6. Peacebuilding that works with, and through, society for constructive change needs a
massive increase in support – perhaps achievable by scaling back the record-level
 23
investments being made in fighting war – and looking instead to increasing efforts to
support peace.

People around the world want peace and prosperity – they want leaders to champion
peacebuilding, to work to prevent conflicts – to build peaceful, just and inclusive societies. At a
time when many states are undermining international norms and standards aimed at promoting
and protecting peace and human security, we need new champions to ensure the ‘sustaining
peace’ agenda achieves tangible, transformative results for all those living in the shadow of
violent conflict.11

11
https://www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/news-and-analysis/post/755-five-challenges-the-unas-asustaining-
peacea-agenda-needs-to-address
 24

Ch-VIII-Reforms Needed

All of the reforms are intended, to varying degrees, to modernise the UN, to streamline and
increase the efficiency of its work, and prioritise delivery of services at the country level.

The main objective of the peace and security reforms is to improve the capacity of the peace and
security architecture of the UN to support all stages of a ‘peace continuum,’ from prevention to
conflict resolution to peace operations to peacebuilding. This necessitates a ‘whole of pillar’
approach, and thus the resulting reforms feature a reconstituting of the original departments as
well as new connective tissue.

More specifically, the reform seeks to:

Prioritise prevention and sustaining peace;

Enhance effectiveness and coherence of peacekeeping operations and special political missions;

Make peace and security pillar more coherent, address fragmentation, ensure a whole of pillar
approach;

Align the peace and security pillar closer to the development and human rights pillars.

Structural and systemic changes

Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA)

The newly created Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) combines the
strategic, political, and operational responsibilities of the former Department of Political Affairs
(DPA) and peacebuilding responsibilities of the previously standalone Peacebuilding Support
Office (PBSO). The DPPA is intended to manage a spectrum of tools across the ‘peace
continuum’ to ensure a more holistic approach to conflict prevention and resolution, electoral
assistance, peacebuilding and sustaining peace. It will also provide strategic advice, direction
and backstopping to special political missions.

A strengthened Peacebuilding Support Office within DPPA is intended to serve a ‘hinge

function’ and connect the peace and security pillar with the development and human rights
pillars, ensuring more system-wide coherence in support of priorities at the country level. The
components of the former PBSO (policy, intergovernmental and financing) would remain
 25
integrated under the leadership of an Assistant Secretary-General managing the Peacebuilding
Fund and supporting the Peacebuilding Commission. The terms of reference of the
Peacebuilding Fund will ‘remain unchanged and functionally linked to the Executive Office of
the Secretary-General, providing a catalytic, timely and flexible pre-positioned pooled fund as a
facilitator for sustaining peace across the United Nations system’.

Department of Peace Operations (DPO)

The Department of Peace Operations (DPO) will provide direction, management and support for
peacekeeping and field-based special political missions (that are not under the authority of the
DPPA). This includes facilitating and implementing political agreements, and providing
strategic, political, operational and management direction and support to peace operations.
Given the cumulative experience in peace operations that the UN has developed, the DPO is also
intended to be a “center of excellence.” It will also be working on the peace continuum that
DPPA is supporting, responsible for preventing, responding to and managing conflict, and
sustaining peace in countries where deployed.

Structural changes to the peace and security pillar embody a ‘whole-of-pillar’ approach. The
Under Secretary-Generals of the new DPPA and DPO are meant to collaborate for the coherence
of the pillar, and to provide advice to the Secretary-General and direction to the Assistant
Secretary-Generals working below them.

Regional political-operational structure

The DPPA and DPO will share a single regional political-operational structure existing between
them, which is divided by regions and which will provide day to day guidance and analysis. This
regional structure will link prevention, mediation, conflict-resolution, peacekeeping, and
peacebuilding, and connect all of them to long-term development. This regional bridge may also
facilitate smoother transitions between different types of UN operations, as both the DPPA and
DPO will be working with the same regional teams within this structure.

Standing Principal’s Group

A Standing Principals Group (SPG), has been established which will include the Under-
Secretaries-General for DPPA and DPO, will be chaired by the Secretary General and is
intended to provide unified leadership for coordination, communication and coherence at the
 26
Secretariat, and to support senior leadership on the ground. This SPG can also include Under-
Secretaries- General of related offices such as the Offices of Counter-Terrorism and of
Disarmament Affairs. The SPG will meet quarterly and on an ad hoc basis. It will ‘not duplicate
existing strategic level decision-making mechanisms in the Secretariat but will serve as a forum
to ensure unified decision-making on peace and security matters’ (Letter from the President of
the General Assembly, November 2018).

Connections to other reforms

The reforms to the UN management system are inter alia aimed at supporting and enhancing the
work of the peace and security pillar by simplifying the existing administrative policy
framework and decentralising and delegating decision-making administrative authority to senior
managers, including heads of missions. This allows the peace and security pillar to be more
adaptable and responsive to situations on the ground. Development system reforms, including
changes to the Resident Coordinator System, UN Country Teams and UN Development
Assistance Frameworks (UNDAFs) may also potentially widen the range of tools for prevention
and peacebuilding at the country level.

Within the peace and security pillar, the Standing Principles Group aims to provide a ‘high-level
entry point’ for the development and human rights pillars. The Peacebuilding Support Office
within the DPPA will be reinforced to assume a stronger bridging role, exercising a hinge
function, and connecting the peace and security pillar with the development pillar, human rights
pillar and humanitarian actors. ‘It will be responsible for connecting relevant tools and
approaches across the conflict spectrum, drawing together the expertise of the United Nations
system to facilitate coherent system-wide action, and for strengthening partnerships within and
beyond the United Nations’.

Implications for human rights

The SG’s report A/72/707 notes that ‘the collective work of the United Nations system to
advance human rights should help to identify the root causes of and responses to conflict. In that
respect, it will remain imperative for the peace and security and development pillars to make use
of the existing human rights mechanisms, such as special procedures, the treaty bodies and the
universal periodic review and their recommendations in support for Member States.’
 27
There are considerable opportunities for elements of the peace and security pillar to utilise
human rights related tools, analysis and data, with the objectives of supporting Member States in
preventing serious violations of human rights and conflict, and bolstering efforts at sustaining
peace. Furthermore, the notion of providing support along a ‘peace continuum’ offers a holistic
understanding of providing preventative and resilience building support for Member States.

There are opportunities for cross-pillar collaboration in the new structures. As mentioned above,
the Standing Principles Group is intended to provide a ‘high-level entry point’ for the human
rights pillar and development pillar. The Peacebuilding Support Office within the DPPA is
intended to provide a hinge function to link the work of the peace and security pillar with other
peacebuilding elements, including human rights. In addition, the single regional political
operational structure bridging DPPA and DPO is intended to develop a comprehensive
understanding of the drivers of conflict in which ‘analysis must also be reinforced with better
links to the rest of the system and greater coherence with the development and human rights
pillars’.

A more responsive peace and security architecture envisioned to support the work of the UN
across peace continuum and set to utilise tools across the UN system, opens up myriad positive
possibilities. But many remain concerned about the lack of codification of linkages and spaces
for human rights related work in the peace and security structures.

Codification comes with its own political hurdles, but a lack of designated support or space
carries risks as well. As one onlooker put it ‘human rights could be everywhere or nowhere in
the new system.’ Not all practices and policies need to be legislated, but the absence of
dedicated linkages could leave good practices unprotected (and unexplained) given inevitable
shifts in personnel, and the already considerable changes that those in the DPPA and DPO must
contend with.

For the stated objectives of prevention and sustaining peace to succeed, cross-pillar integration,
including the constructive (and innovative) integration of available human rights tools and data,
must be actively supported, and cannot be guaranteed by the new changes.12

12
https://www.universal-rights.org/blog/un-peace-and-security-reform-an-update/
 28

Ch-IX-Conclusion

After going through the project I have come to conclusion that UN act as a sole body at
International level and is responsible for maintaining the peace among the nations at
International level.

Most of the countries throughout the world support and follow the rules and regulation laid
down by the UN. However, it is not obligatory on part of the countries to follow, therefore UN is
not able to maintain the peace among nation in the way it wants. Also the allegation of
corruption and mismanagement and lack of co-operation among the organs of the UN also
hamper the efficiency of UN in peace-keeping.

In addition to this it can also be concluded that UN don’t enjoy as much Independence as
enjoyed by Individual Nations and is also not fully sovereign in its functioning and therefore in
most of the cases is unable to direct or impose any sanction on Individual nation which
ultimately results in failure in maintaining peace and act as protector of Nations.
 29

References

Books

 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 33rd edition

 Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, 7th Edition

Online Articles

 www.UN.org

 www.JStor.org

 www.Bookfi.org

 www.PreserveArticles.com

 www.SaferWorld.org.uk

 www.Universal-Rights.org

 www.Telegrapgh.co.uk