9 Recent Advancement in PV

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e9
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Hydrogen storage: Recent improvements and

industrial perspectives
H. Barthelemy a,*, M. Weber b, F. Barbier b

a
Air Liquide, 75 quai d'Orsay, 75321 Paris Cedex 07, France
b
Air Liquide, Paris-Saclay Research Center, 1 chemin de la porte des Loges, 78354 Jouy En Josas, France
article info abstract
Article history: Efficient storage of hydrogen is crucial for the success of hydrogen energy markets (early
Received 11 February 2016 markets as well as transportation market). Hydrogen can be stored either as a compressed
Accepted 29 March 2016 gas, a refrigerated liquefied gas, a cryo-compressed gas or in hydrides. This paper gives an
Available online xxx overview of hydrogen storage technologies and details the specific issues and constraints
related to the materials behaviour in hydrogen and conditions representative of hydrogen
Keywords: energy uses. It is indeed essential for the development of applications requiring long-term
Hydrogen performance to have good understanding of long-term behaviour of the materials of the
Storage storage device and its components under operational loads.
Composites Pressure Vessels © 2016 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Metal Hydrides
Cryogenic Vessel
pressure buffer driven by pressure cycle lifetime.

Introduction Depending on footprint constraints, volume savings and
lightweight can be a driver.
Hydrogen is used worldwide for industrial applications Stationary applications: back-up power supply, power
(thermal treatment of metals, glass industry, etc). It is stored supply to off-grid area, power generator for residential. For
and transported in compressed form. More recently, new ap- this application, the cost of hydrogen supply is the main
plications have emerged in the field of energy. The develop- parameter as well as pressure cycle life.
ment of hydrogen as a reliable energy vector is strongly Portable applications: portable back-up power supply or
connected to the performance and the level of safety of the power generator.
components of the supply chain. In this respect, achieving an
efficient and reliable storage is crucial to address hydrogen To achieve the required performance (autonomy and
energy markets: weight efficiency), hydrogen can be stored under:
Fuel for transportation: buses, cars, scooters or other ve- - Compressed form at pressures ranging from 20 MPa to
hicles powered with hydrogen and a fuel cell or a com- 100 MPa in carbon fibres composite pressure vessels
bustion engine that requires autonomy, volume savings (designated hereafter by COPV) when lightweight/capacity
and lightweight. Fuelling infrastructures requires high needed or in metal pressure vessels otherwise.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: herve.barthelemy@airliquide.com (H. Barthelemy), mathilde.weber@airliquide.com (M. Weber), francoise.barbier@
airliquide.com (F. Barbier).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.178
0360-3199/© 2016 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Barthelemy H, et al., Hydrogen storage: Recent improvements and industrial perspectives, Inter-
national Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.178
2 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e9
- Liquefied cryogenic form at 253 C when large quantity of these pressure vessels started to be used for diving, fuel
hydrogen shall be transported and high gravimetric stor- storage (compressed natural gas) and leisure applications
age performance is seeked. (paintball) with a more extended material mix. The most
- Cryo-compressed form at intermediate low temperature common working pressure is ranging from 25 MPa (com-
(about 20 K) and high pressure (at least 30 MPa) to achieve pressed natural gas) to 30 MPa (oxygen and air for breathing
higher gravimetric and volumetric performance. apparatus). More recently (21st century) 35 MPae70 MPa COPV
- Solid form in hydrides. were developed and approved for hydrogen energy applica-
tions. Moreover regulations, codes and standards have been
The different storage technologies, recent development set up for both industrial gases and fuel gas storages. The
and perspectives in term of development and research gaps market share of composites pressure vessels remains quite
are described hereafter. small compared to metallic pressure vessels due to their
higher cost (about 30000000 COPV in the world). The choice of
the storage is based on the final application which requires a
Compressed hydrogen storage compromise between technical performance and cost
competitiveness. For industrial applications, hydrogen is
Overview of compressed hydrogen storage technologies stored at 20e30 MPa in metallic type I cylinders which have
poor mass storage efficiency (about 1 wt% of Hydrogen stored),
Hydrogen can be stored in four types of pressure vessels as that can be far from targets fixed for Hydrogen Energy appli-
presented in Fig. 1. The pressure vessels are generally cylinders cations. As an example, the European target weight efficiency
but they can also be polymorph or toroid. Metallic pressure for on-board storage in vehicles is set at 4.8 wt% of hydrogen
vessels are known as type I. Type II pressure vessels consist in stored in a system [2]. Such target can be reached by using
a thick metallic liner hoop wrapped on the cylindrical part with type III or type IV COPV made of carbon fibre composite with a
a fibre resin composite. The fully composites materials based 70 MPa working pressure (European project Storhy for
pressure vessels (designated by COPV) are made of a plastic or instance [3]). The Table 1 presents the main feature of the
metallic liner wrapped with carbon fibres embedded in a different type of pressure vessels.
polymer matrix (filament winding). When the liner contributes
to the mechanical resistance (more than 5%), the COPV is of Design & manufacturing
type III (mostly metal liner). Otherwise, the COPV is of type IV
(mainly polymer liner or seldom extremely thin metal liner). Most common materials are:
Some history & key characteristics - metallic parts: aluminium 6061 or 7060, steel (inox or
Chrome Molybdene)
The development of metallic pressure vessels was led by in- - polymer parts: polyethylene or polyamide based polymers
dustrial needs in the end of the 19th century in particular to - composite: glass, aramid or carbon fibre embedded in epoxy
store carbon dioxide for beverages. Hydrogen storage at resin. The fibre characteristics are given in Table 2. Carbon
12 MPa in wrought iron vessels is reported in about 1880 for fibres are preferred for 35 MPa and more applications. In the
military use. Pressure vessels made of seamless steels man- same way, various resins can be used (polyester, epoxy,
ufactured by drawing and forming of plates (Lane & Taunton phenol, etc). Epoxy resins are preferred based on their good
British patent) or tubes (Mannesman German Patent) were mechanical properties, stability and compatibility with
developed in parallel in late 1880s. Until the 60s, the working filament winding process. Pre-impregnated fibres are
pressure was 15 MPa. It was then increased to 20 MPa and then commercially available. For cost reasons, fibre impregnation
to 30 MPa. High pressure composites pressure vessels were just before the filament winding is most often preferred.
introduced in the 60s in the USA for military and space ap-
plications (aluminium or polymer liner with glass fibre For all pressure vessels, the design shall take into account
wrapping). The first application for the civil market was the service, test pressures, the external stresses (like me-
breathable apparatus for firemen in the 70s. From the 80s chanical impacts, chemical, integration, etc), the cycling life,
Fig. 1 e Representation of type I, II, III and IV COPV [1].
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e9 3
Table 1 e Key characteristics of compressed gas storage pressure vessels.

Technology maturity Cost performance Weight performance
Type I Pressure limited to 50 MPa, þþ þþ e
Type II Pressure not limited, þ þ 0
Type III For P 45 MPa (difficulty to pass pressure cycling requirements for e þ
70 MPa, [4])
Type IV For P 100 MPae First commercial series e liner behaviour in gas to be e þþ
further studied
finally carried out by UV exposure and more typically by

Table 2 e Range of fibre mechanical properties.
curing in an oven.
Fibre type Tensile Tensile Elongation For each technology, quality controls of the materials and
modulus (GPa) strength (MPa) (%) of manufacturing steps are performed and monitored. The
Glass ~70e90 ~3300e4800 ~5 pressure vessel final control is a proof test, typically at 1.5
Aramid ~40e200 ~3500 ~1e9 times the working pressure. Development of non destructive
Carbon ~230e600 ~3500e6500 ~0.7e2.2
testing technique would bring additional information.
the lifetime and the safety coefficient defined both for static Materials issues & R&D challenges
and dynamic conditions. Materials choices shall also take into
account failure modes and operating conditions as it will be The compatibility of the gas with the materials chosen and the
discussed in next section. For example, Fig. 2a gives the main impact of operating conditions on the materials and the
stresses considered for metallic cylinders/liners (note that structure have to be assessed. The whole lifecycle of the
domes are generally overdesigned). The composite wrapping pressure has to be considered: storage, transportation, use
is designed using finite element analysis with respect to static (emptying, handling, etc), filling steps including gas quality
conditions. management, periodic inspection and maintenance. The
Type I pressure vessels and type II and III liners can be objective is to prevent the risk of failure by burst or leak in
manufactured from 3 different processes as shown in Fig. 2b: service and guaranty the performance.
from plates by deep-drawing to form the shape, from billets:
the billets is first heated to carry out drawing, from tubes. The Metallic parts (pressure vessel, liner and boss)
neck is then formed by hot-spinning. The ports are machined In general, metallic materials and in particular steel, in con-
in the excess of metal coming from the spinning step. Heat tact with hydrogen are affected by hydrogen embrittlement
treatments are then applied to have the desired mechanical (HE), with consequent degradation of mechanical properties
properties. and premature crack. It results from H atom dissolution and
Polymer liners of type IV pressure vessels can be obtained trap (stress corrosion cracking). Major efforts have been per-
by rotomolding, blow molding or by welding injected domes to formed by the industry and academia in mitigating this
an extruded tube of polymer. Metal parts (boss) can be inser- problem through a better understanding of the HE mecha-
ted in the domes during the forming process or glued to the nisms, the improvement of alloys manufacturing, compo-
liner in a second step. nents assembling, and appropriated mechanical testing [3,5].
For composites pressure vessels, the composite is obtained Regarding to the latter issue, different testing methods exist to
by filament winding of the fibre embedded in the resin (either assess fracture toughness properties of metallic materials in
by wet winding or by using pre-impregnated fibres). The gaseous hydrogen (KIEAC): ASTM 1681 [6], ASTM 1820 [7] and
composite is wrapped using a circumferential angle (hoop) for methods B and C of ISO 11114-4 [8] and ANSI/CSA [9]. An
type II pressure vessels and a combination of circumferential, experimental study is on going to assess the different
helical and polar angles for type III and IV pressure vessels as methods and evaluate the need for harmonization of testing
illustrated in Fig. 3. The curing of the resin of the composite is methods [5,10].
Fig. 2 e (a) Stress calculation in metallic pressure vessels. (b) Manufacturing of metallic pressure vessels from plates, billets
and tubes.
Fig. 3 e Manufacturing principle of the composite wrapping.
Premature failure in fatigue for metal liner of COPV can (solubility). The occurrence of the deformation depends on the
occur at high pressure, Fuelling stations buffers are subjected to maximum pressure in the cylinder and on the pressure
extensive pressure cycles with reduced pressure amplitudes. maintained in the cylinder at the end of emptying. Residual
pressure valves use thus appears mandatory. Emptying speed
Polymer parts (liner of type IV pressure vessels) also seems to have an effect that must be further analysed.
A high purity of hydrogen is required to guarantee perfor- Further tests are needed to propose recommendations on
mance and reliability of fuel cells. The draft standard ISO operating conditions and assess the effect of liner deformation
14687-2 set these hydrogen specifications in terms of on cylinder lifetime (does it lead to an increase risk of
maximum quantity of impurities admitted (see Table 3). So leakage?). Such question tackles multidisciplinary fields by
far, among the species listed in Table 3, water has been coupling diffusion mechanisms to mechanics.
identified as the main compound that could degas from a During filling and emptying, the structure and in particular
polymer liner. The content of water in a polymer depends on the polymer liner and the boss liner junction are subjected
its chemical nature. Thermal gravimetric analysis have evi- respectively to high (65 or 85 C, depending on standards) and
denced that polyethylene water uptake can be neglected while low temperatures (40 to 60 C, depending on standards).
the water uptake of polyamide is of several weight percent Materials have to be chosen accordingly to avoid materials
(the weight percent depends on the polyamide grade). Such degradation and thus leak risk.
water content in the polymer liner could lead to the imple-
mentation of additional drying steps of COPV prior to gas Composite parts (types II, III and IV)
filling to respect the 5 ppm specification. Regarding the composite wrapping, damage accumulation can
The permeation of gases is an inherent phenomenon for all result from pressure loads & environment impact in operation
gases in contact with polymers. It is the result of gas mole- [13] and accidental mechanical impacts. In the scope of
cules dissolution and diffusion in the polymer matrix [12]. hydrogen energy markets, COPV can be subjected to a broad
Because hydrogen is a small molecule, the permeability is range of impacts either usual or accidental (car accident, fall or
enhanced. For safety reasons, permeation maximum allow- impact during handling and transportation of transportable
able rates are defined in standards and regulations. COPV). Damage mechanisms occurring in such composites are
Quick emptying of COPV may in some cases lead to a fibre breaks, delamination and matrix cracking.
deformation of the liner when pressure is released, as depicted Damage resulting from a mechanical impact or a fall, its
in Fig. 4. Though the mechanism is not fully understood, it can evolution under typical in-service loadings (monotonic pres-
be attributed to the diffusion of hydrogen through materials surization, filling/emptying cycles, …) and the corresponding
and accumulation at the interfaces, voids and in materials loss of performance are not well described for COPV as only a
Table 3 e Concentration of impurities in hydrogen listed in ISO 14687-2 [11].

Component Target concentration Component Target concentration
of impurities (mmol/mol) of impurities (mmol/mol)
Inert gases (Nitrogen þ Argon) 100 Total sulphured components 0.004
Oxygen 5 Ammonia 0.1
Carbon dioxide 2 Formaldehyde 0.01
Carbon monoxide 0.2 Formic acid 0.2
Total hydrocarbons 2 Total halogenated compounds 0.05
Water 5 Helium 300
Fig. 4 e X-Ray tomography of a polymer liner COPV with

permanent deformation after an emptying. Fig. 6 e Deformation of a metallic liner after subjected to a
mechanical impact on the external surface of the COPV.
few studies tackle the consequence of impact on the residual

life time of composite materials obtained by filament winding gases. Hydrogen needs to be liquefied at 253 C, the process
[14e17]. It is thus important to continue the effort on the is both time consuming and energy intensive. Up to 40% of the
development of knowledge on the effect on mechanical energy content can be lost (in comparison with 10% energy
impact on pressure vessels performance. In addition, it is loss with compressed hydrogen). On the other hand, the main
observed that a surface impact creates damage in the thick- advantage associated to cryogenic storage is the density of
ness of the composite as illustrated in Fig. 5 [17] and can even liquid and thus storage efficiency (see Fig. 7). It explains why
damage the liner as illustrated in Fig. 6 for type III COPV. liquid hydrogen is used in space programmes. Liquid
Periodic inspection of COPV is required by regulations. hydrogen is difficult to store over a long period because of
Currently, periodic inspection consists of a visual inspection product loss by evaporation. As a consequence, it is not a
(internal and external) and a hydraulic proof test. As an preferred solution for on-board storage in vehicles but more
alternative to hydraulic proof test which gives poor informa- used for gas delivery using trucks which can exceed a capacity
tion on the real damage level in COPV (as illustrated in Figs. 5 of 60,000 L. Stationary vessels can be used at customer sites for
and 6), non destructive techniques (NDT) providing more in- storage. The intercontinental transport of hydrogen will
formation on damage level are under development. Acoustic probably be carried out in liquid form using dedicated ships.
emission is for instance studied [10,18] and a proposal of In order to manage storage at 253 C, high efficiency
standard in under construction (ISO 19016). (vacuum) insulated vessels. Such vessels are composed of an
Bonfire tests were carried out on different COPV, mostly inner pressure vessel and an external protective jacket (see
with a polymer liner. Time to burst and pressure at time to Fig. 8). To reduce the thermal conductivity of the space be-
burst have been evaluated. At time to burst, the pressure in tween the inner vessel and the outer jacket, perlite (powder
COPV increases by less than 10% [19]. The increase of pressure structure) or super insulation (wrapping with layers of
is thus not responsible for the burst of COPV, as observed in aluminium films) are used.
metallic pressure vessels. The knowledge of the degradation
of the composite materials in fire is thus important to predict Materials & design
the behaviour of COPV in fire. Further research is needed on
that topic. To form the inner pressure vessel, cold stretching of stainless
steel can be used to allow reducing the wall thickness and the
cost. It is used in particular in Europe. Design methods are
Cryogenic storage described on ISO 21009-1 e cryogenic vessels e static vacuum
insulated vessels, part 1: design, fabrication, inspection and
History & key characteristics test, ISO 21009-2, cryogenic vessels, static vacuum insulated
vessels e part 2 operational requirements.
Cryogenic vessels are commonly used for more than 40 years Hydrogen embrittlement effect is usually observed at
for the storage and transportation of industrial and medical ambient temperatures and can often be neglected above
Fig. 5 e (a) Illustration of the external surface composite damage and (b) in the thickness of the composite by XRay CT Scan
for a mechanical impact with angular impactor [17].
Fig. 7 e Hydrogen density versus pressure and temperature from BMW [20].
Fig. 8 e Illustration of a double jacket storage and of a cryogenic trailer.
þ100 C. In the case of unstable austenitic stainless steels yield strength, hardness and modulus increase with the
often used for cryogenic vessels, the maximum effect is decrease of temperature. In the case of ferritic or martensitic
reached at 100 C but can be neglected for temperatures steels, toughness drops rather suddenly in a relatively narrow
below 150 C as displayed on Fig. 9. temperature range leading to a transition from a ductile fail-
At low temperature, change of mechanical characteristics, ure to a brittle failure. It is important to consider relative
expansion and contractions phenomena and more impor- contractions at low temperature, especially for assemblies
tantly brittleness have to be considered. In general, for made of different materials. As an example, it can be seen that
metallic materials, ductility and toughness decrease and the the main stainless steels used contracts in appreciably the
same way. To avoid cold embrittlement of brittle parts
through the thermal conduction, proper insulation has to be
used. In conclusion, stabilized austenitic stainless steels and
aluminium alloys are the main metallic materials used at low
temperatures in hydrogen environment (note that nickel
ferritic steels can be used above 200 C).
Cryo-compressed storage
Cryo-compressed storage combines properties of both com-

pressed gaseous hydrogen and liquefied hydrogen storage
systems. It is developed to minimize the boil-off loss
Fig. 9 e Influence of temperature for some stainless steels. (dormancy) from liquefied hydrogen storage while retaining a
higher system energy density. Hydrogen is stored in an insu- such as LiBH4 or NaBH4 having high theoretical gravimetric
lated tank that can accept cryogenic temperatures (20 K) and capacities of 18.4 wt% and 10.6 wt%, respectively). The
high pressure (at least 30 MPa) at ambient temperature. The disadvantage with this method is the need to regenerate the
fact that the tank is able to withstand high pressures allows by-product by chemical treatment on a suitable site. We will
greater pressure increases before hydrogen has to be boiled focus here on hydride materials capable of storing hydrogen
off. Such cryogenic pressure vessels significantly extend the reversibly.
time before starting evaporative losses when they are in The formation of hydrides results of dissociative chemi-
operation and thus increase storage autonomy. sorption. The hydrogen molecule is first dissociated on the
As an example, the BMW Group has started validation of surface of the solid and then its atoms diffuse into the metal
cryo-compressed hydrogen storage for hydrogen vehicles host. Depending on the bonding mechanism between the
with high energy and long range requirements [20,21]. The hydrogen and the host material, different families of hydrides
diagram depicted in Fig. 7 reported by BMW [20] shows that exist: ionic hydrides (ionic bonding), covalent hydrides (co-
cryo-compressed H2 enables high storage density (80 g/l). The valent bonding) and interstitial metal hydrides (metallic
cryogenic gas is denser than liquid hydrogen. bonding). Ionic and covalent hydrides are also called complex
The tank consists of a type III composite pressure vessel metal hydrides.
with a metallic liner that is encapsulated in a secondary The most relevant parameters used to determine a good
insulated jacket, whose role is to limit heat transfer between storage material are related to the absorption thermodynamic
the hydrogen and the environment. More details on the cryo- properties, defined by measuring under equilibrium condi-
compressed storage tank design can be found in [22]. Experi- tions the hydrogen pressure-composition characteristics at a
ments have also been performed to evaluate the effect of given temperature. In addition to the thermodynamic char-
combined pressure and cryogenic temperature cycling on the acteristics, the kinetics also plays an important role. Absorp-
composite material properties of tanks [20]. tion of hydrogen is an exothermic process while its desorption
Cryo-compressed storage tanks can be filled with hydrogen or release is an endothermic process. Therefore, good man-
at any state between 20 K liquid H2 and ambient temperature agement of heat transfers with the exterior is required, with
gaseous H2. Filling the tank with compressed gas instead of the possible association of a heating system for desorption
liquefied hydrogen is expected to be more economical. In and a cooling system for absorption, to avoid penalising the
terms of infrastructure, cryo-compressed tanks offer refuel- kinetics.
ling flexibility as they are compatible for gaseous and liquid. Ionic hydrides are salts like NaH, LiH … with a high degree
of ionic character. Typical binary ionic hydrides tend to be
quite thermally stable toward releasing hydrogen with the
Hydrides storage exception of magnesium. In fact, magnesium hydride is not a
true ionic hydride as the interaction between hydrogen and
Storage of hydrogen in solids offers some advantages magnesium is partly ionic and partly covalent. Ionic hydrides
compared to storage under pressure or in liquid state in terms are difficult to use since their reversibility conditions are very
of volumetric density. Hydrogen can be absorbed reversibly by high in terms of pressure and temperature. However, given
solid compounds under temperature and pressure conditions. their high gravimetric capacity, their hydrolysis reaction can
It can also be generated in situ irreversibly by hydrolysing be exploited for in situ hydrogen production, with the draw-
some compounds (for example, alkali metal borohydrides back of by product formation.
Fig. 10 e Metal hydrides versus hydrogen capacity from [23].
In interstitial metal hydrides, there is no discrete formation

of compound. Hydrogen atoms fill determined interstitial sites
in the metallic structure and solid solution formation is
common. Their reversibility conditions are close to normal
temperature and pressure conditions. Numerous compounds
known for their absorption properties are listed in the hydride
database US Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen Storage
Materials Database http://hydrogenmaterialssearch.govtools.
us/. Interstitial hydrides by their nature are composed of
high atomic number transition metals, and therefore contain
a low mass fraction of hydrogen. To date, most of the known
compounds have a reversible storage capacity less than 3 wt%
of hydrogen as shown in Fig. 10. Despite a highly interesting
volumetric density, their low gravimetric storage capacity is
not suitable for many applications.
Covalent hydrides encompass compounds such as MgH2,
AlH3, the boranes and borohydrides and related derivatives Fig. 12 e Hydrexia's magnesium alloy [29].
such as amines … where the bonding is highly localized be-
tween the hydrogen and the central element. Many of these
materials are known to release hydrogen at temperatures company Hydrexia [28]. An example of the Hydrexia alloys
above room temperature and up to several hundred C, and produced using conventional casting equipment is shown on
can release more than 9 wt % hydrogen. There is an intensive Fig. 12.
effort of research worldwide in this field. An overview of the The ISO standard 16111 is referenced in the UN regulation
storage materials developed through the Centers of Excellence for dangerous good transportation. The scope of the standard
of the US Department of Energy H2 storage program is pre- covers small cartridge (<120 ml) to 150 L pressure vessels. The
sented in Fig. 11. standard is under revision to update it for large capacity and
A very promising hydride material is MgH2. It was proposed may extend the water capacity of the vessels to volume up to
40 years ago for H2 storage [25]. It is attractive for its low raw 450 L for hydrogen bulk transportation applications.
material cost and high gravimetric capacity of 7.6 wt%. Initial
hydrogenation is difficult and the resulting hydride is there-
fore expensive. It is why nanostructuration, with or without Conclusion
catalyst addition, was used to improve the initial reactivity to
hydrogen [26] but the synthesis employs sophisticated tech- In order to store hydrogen, cryogenic and compressed storage
niques that are difficult to scale up. Recently Dahle and Nogita are the most mature technology. Hydrogen energy applica-
[27] synthesized a hypoeutectic MgeNi alloy by casting, a low- tions have triggered the development of high pressure com-
cost method more suitable to large-scale industrial produc- pressed storage in composites pressure vessels and new
tion. This technology is currently developed by the Australian solutions like cryo-compressed and hydrides. The feasibility
Fig. 11 e Plot of hydrogen storage materials as a function of observed temperature release from [24].
of those last technologies has been demonstrated and the [13] Hycomp project website (www.hycomp.eu).
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9 Recent Advancement in PV

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e9

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Hydrogen storage: Recent improvements and

H. Barthelemy a,*, M. Weber b, F. Barbier b

article info abstract

pressure buffer driven by pressure cycle lifetime.

Fig. 1 e Representation of type I, II, III and IV COPV [1].

Table 1 e Key characteristics of compressed gas storage pressure vessels.

finally carried out by UV exposure and more typically by

Fig. 3 e Manufacturing principle of the composite wrapping.

Table 3 e Concentration of impurities in hydrogen listed in ISO 14687-2 [11].

Fig. 4 e X-Ray tomography of a polymer liner COPV with

few studies tackle the consequence of impact on the residual

Fig. 8 e Illustration of a double jacket storage and of a cryogenic trailer.

Cryo-compressed storage combines properties of both com-

Fig. 10 e Metal hydrides versus hydrogen capacity from [23].

In interstitial metal hydrides, there is no discrete formation

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