CHAPTER 1

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1. Definition
The word environment is derived from the French word “environ” meaning surroundings. Hence,
everything surrounding us is called environment. Every organism is surrounded by materials and forces
that constitute its environment. It is the environment from where every organism must derive its
requirement. The environment creates favourable conditions for the existence and development of living
organisms. The survival of any organism requires a steady supply of materials and removal of waste
products.
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things. This environment encompasses the
interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and
economic activity. Environmental studies is multi-disciplinary because it comprises various branches of
studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture and public health. It is the
science of physical phenomena in the environment. Environmental studies deals with every issue that
affects an organism. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human civilization
sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
The environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements
inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements are
(1) Physical Elements
Space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable character
of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations
(2) Biological Elements
Plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings constitute the biosphere.
(3) Cultural Elements
Economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade features, which constitute the cultural
milieu.

1.2. Scope and importance

Environment Studies enlighten us about the importance of protection and conservation of our
environment. At present, a great number of environment issues have grown in size and complexity day by
day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.
We live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities. But
even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding villages and these in turn are
dependent on natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water
for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus, our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and
inevitably affects them. We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use
resources from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals which
form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms our environment and our lives
depend on sustaining its vital systems.
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our increasingly
consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural resources such as water, minerals,
petroleum products, wood, etc. Non renewable resources, such as minerals and oil are those which will
be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a thought for subsequent generations.
Renewable resources, such as timber and water, are those which can be used but can be regenerated by
natural processes such as re growth or rainfall. However, these too will be depleted if we continue to use
them faster than nature can replace them. Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers
once the rains are over
What we should implement is Sustainable Development. It is the organizing principle for meeting human
needs while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the resources and
ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends. The desirable end result is a society
where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the stability
of the natural systems.
The scope of environmental studies include:
1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the environment and its related problems.
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection.
3. Developing skills to find solutions to environmental problems.
4. Imbibe and inculcate in others the necessity for conservation of natural resources.

1.3 Needs for awareness

Increasing population, urbanization and poverty have exerted pressure on the natural resources and led to
degradation of the environment. To prevent the environment from further degradation, the Supreme Court
has ordered and initiated environmental protection awareness through government and non-government
agencies.
Environmental pollution cannot be prevented by laws alone. Public participation is equally important with
regards to environmental protection. Environmental Education (EE) is a process of learning by giving an

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overall perspective of knowledge and awareness of the environment. It sensitizes the society about
environmental issues and challenges interested individuals to develop skills and expertise, thereby
providing appropriate solutions.
Climate change, loss of biodiversity, declining fisheries, ozone layer depletion, illegal trade of
endangered species, destruction of habitats, land degradation, depleting ground water supplies,
introduction of alien species, environmental pollution, solid waste disposal, storm water and sewage
disposal pose a serious threat to ecosystems in forest, rural, urban and marine ecosystems.
Both formal and informal education on the environment will give the interested individual the knowledge,
values, skills and tools needed to face the environmental challenges on a local and global level.

QUESTIONS

SECTION A

1. Environmental Studies is multidisciplinary in nature. Account.

2. What are renewable resources? Give examples.
3. Discuss the need for the awareness of environmental studies programme.
4. What is the importance of studying environmental studies as a core paper ?
5. Environmental pollution cannot be prevented by laws alone. Discuss.
6. Explain sustainable development.
7. What are natural resources. Give examples.
8. What are the physical, biological and cultural elements that constitute environment?
9. List out the scope of environmental studies.
10. What are non-renewable resources? Give examples

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 CHAPTER 2

NATURAL RESOURCES

2.1. Introduction to Natural Resources

Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful can be termed
as resource. In other words, it is possible to obtain valuable items from any resources. Resource,
therefore, are the means to attain given ends. The aspect of satisfaction is so important that we consider a
thing or substance a resource, as so long it meets our needs. Life on this planet depends upon a large
number of things and services provided by the nature, which are known as Natural Resources. Thus
water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wild life are all examples of natural resources.
2.1.1. Classification of natural resources
Depending upon availability of natural resources can be divided into two categories such as (1) renewable
and (2) Non renewable resources.
1. Renewable resources
Renewable resources are in a way inexhaustible resources. They have the ability to replenish themselves
by means such as recycling, reproduction and replacement.Examples of renewable resources are sunlight,
animals and plants,soil,water,etc.
2. Non-Renewable Resources
Non renewable resources are the resources that cannot be replenished once used or perished. Examples of
non renewable resources are minerals, fossil fuels, etc.
Resources can also be classified as biotic or abiotic.
a) Biotic resources
These are living resources (e.g. forest, agriculture, fish and wild life) that are able to reproduce or replace
them and to increase.
b) Abiotic resources
These are non-living resources (e.g. petrol, land, minerals etc.) that are not able to replace themselves or
do so at such a slow rate that they are not useful to consider them in terms of the human life times.
2.1. 3 Problems associated with natural resources
1. The unequal consumption of natural resources
A major part of natural resources today are consumed in the technologically advanced or ‘developed’
world, usually termed ‘the west’. The ‘developing nations’ of ‘the east’, including India and China, also
over use many resources because of their greater human population. However, the consumption of

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resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most
developing countries. Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
2. Planning land use
Land is a major resource, needed for not only for food production and animal husbandry, but also for
industry and growing human settlements. These forms of intensive land use are frequently extended at the
cost of ‘wild lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts. This demands for a
pragmatic policy that analyses the land allocation for different uses.
3. The need for sustainable lifestyles
Human standard of living and the health of the ecosystem are indicators of sustainable use of resources in
any country or region. Ironically, both are not in concurrence with each other. Increasing the level of one,
usually leads to degradation of other. Development policies should be formulated to strike a balance
between the two.

2.2. FOREST RESOURCES

Forest is important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and can contribute
substantially to the economic development of any country .Plants along with trees cover large areas,
produce variety of products and provide food for living organisms, and also important to save the
environment.
It is estimated that about 30% of world area is covered by forest whereas 26% by pastures. Among all
continents, Africa has largest forested area (33%) followed by Latin America (25%), whereas in North
America forest cover is only 11%. Asia and former USSR has 14% area under forest. European countries
have only 3% area under forest cover. India’s Forest Cover accounts for 20.6% of the total geographical
area of the country as of 2005.

Uses of forests
Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of forest can be classified
as under

• Commercial values

• Ecological significance

• Aesthetic values

• Life and economy of tribal

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Commercial values

• Forests are main source of many commercial products such as wood, timber, pulpwood etc. About
1.5 billion people depend upon fuel wood as an energy source. Timber obtained from the forest can
used to make plywood, board, doors and windows, furniture, and agriculture implements and sports
goods. Timber is also a raw material for preparation of paper, rayon and film.

• Forest can provide food , fibre, edible oils and drugs.

• Forest lands are also used for agriculture and grazing.

• Forest is important source of development of dams, recreation and mining.

Life and economy of tribal

Forest provide food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital role in the life
and economy of tribes living in the forest.
Ecological uses
Forests are habitat to all wild animals, plants and support millions of species. They help in reducing
global warming caused by green house gases and produces oxygen upon photosynthesis.
Forest can act as pollution purifier by absorbing toxic gases. Forest not only helps in soil conservation but
also helps to regulate the hydrological cycle.
Aesthetic values
All over the world people appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the forest because forests have a
greatest aesthetic value. Forest provides opportunity for recreation and ecosystem research.

2.2.1.Over exploitation of forests

Forests contribute substantially to the national economy. With increasing population increased demand of
fuel wood, expansion of area under urban development and industries has lead to over exploitation of
forest .At present international level we are losing forest at the rate of 1.7 crore hectares annually.
Overexploitation also occurs due to overgrazing and conversion of forest to pastures for domestic use.

2.2.2. Deforestation

1. Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture ,harvesting for wood and timber ,
development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short term where as long term
effects of deforestation are irreversible

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 2. Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present rate of
deforestation continues we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six decades

3. For ecological balance 33% area should be under forest cover but our nation has only 20.6% forest
cover.

Causes of deforestation
Forest area in some developed area has expanded. However in developing countries area under forest is
showing declining trend particularly in tropical region. Main causes of deforestation are

a) Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation

This practice is prevalent in tribal areas where forest lands are cleared to grow subsistence crops. It is
estimated that principle cause of deforestation in tropics in Africa, Asia and tropical America is estimated
to be 70, 50, and 35% respectively. Shifting cultivation which is a practice of slash and burn agriculture
are posses to clear more than 5 lakh hectares of land annually. In India, shifting cultivation is prevalent in
northeast and to limited extent in M.P, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh and is contributing significantly to
deforestation.
b) Commercial logging
It is a important deforestation agent. It may not be the primary cause but definitely it acts as secondary
cause, because new logging lots permits shifting cultivation and fuel wood gatherers access to new logged
areas.
c) Need for fuel wood
Increased population has lead to increasing demand for fuel wood which is also acting as an important
deforestation agent, particularly in dry forest.
d) Expansion for agribusiness
With the addition of cash crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruits and ornamental plants, there is stress to
expand the area for agribusiness products which results in deforestation.
e) Development projects and growing need for food
The growing demand for electricity, irrigation, construction, mining, etc. has lead to destruction of forest.
Increased population needs more food which has compelled for increasing area under agriculture crops
compelling for deforestation.
f) Raw materials for industrial use
Forest provides raw material for industry and it has exerted tremendous pressure on forest. Increasing
demand for plywood for backing has exerted pressure on cutting of other species such as fir to be used as
backing material for apple in J&K and tea in northeast states.

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Major effects of deforestation
Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living beings .Major
causes of deforestation are

• Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

• Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle

• Expansion of deserts

• Climate change and depletion of water table

• Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna

• Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems

2.2.3. Case studies

1. Jhum cultivation
Jhum Agriculture or shifting agriculture has destroyed large number of hectare of forest tracts in North-
Eastern states and Orissa. Jhum agriculture is subsidence agriculture in which tract of forest land is
cleared by cutting trees and it is used for cultivation. After few years, when productivity of the land
decreases, cultivators abandon the land and clear next tract. As a result of this practice, combined with
increasing population there is rapid deforestation as more and more cultivators clear forest to cultivate
land. Also, with increase in population there is cultivators are forced to return to previous tracts of land in
relatively shorter durations, not allowing the land to regain its productivity.
2. Chipko movement
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian
methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from
being felled. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand,with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation. The landmark event in this struggle
took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli
district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights
that were threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest Department. Their actions inspired
hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had
spread throughout India and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the
open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.

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3. Western himalayan region.
Over the last decade, there has been widespread destruction and degradation of forest resources in
Himalayas, especially western Himalayas. This has resulted in various problems such as erosion of top
soil, irregular rainfall, changing weather patterns and floods. Construction of roads on hilly slopes, have
not only undermined their stability, but also damaged protective vegetation and forest cover. Tribes in
these areas are increasingly facing shortage of firewood and timber, due large scale tree cutting. Increased
traffic volumes on these roads leads to increased pollution in the area.
2.2.4. Timber extraction
There has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use. Due to increased industrial demand;
timber extraction has significant effect on forest and tribal people.
Logging

• Poor logging results in degraded forest and may lead to soil erosion especially on slopes.

• New logging roads permit shifting cultivators and fuel wood gatherers to gain access to the logging
area.

• Loss of long term forest productivity

• Species of plants and animals may be eliminated

• Exploitation of tribal people by contractor.

2.2.5. Mining
Major effects of mining operations on forest and tribal people are:

• Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by
sub-surface mining. It leads to degradation of lands and loss of top soil. It is estimated that about
eighty thousands hectare land is under stress of mining activities in India

• Mining leads to drying up perennial sources of water sources like spring and streams in
mountainous area.

• Mining and other associated activities remove vegetation along with underlying soil mantle, which
results in destruction of topography and landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been
reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining.

• The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to
mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides.

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 • Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50000 ha of forest
land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas has caused extensive deforestation in
Jharkhand.

• Mining of magnetite and soapstone have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hilly slopes of Khirakot, Kosi
valley and Almora.

• Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar threats of
deforestation.

• The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining projects for
excavation of copper, chromites, bauxite and magnetite.

2.2.6. Effects of dams on forests and tribal people

India is one of the largest dam-building nations in the world and the fact is that dams are the single largest
cause of human displacement in India and account for 75 per cent to 80 per cent of displacement of about
four to five crore people.

The impact of large dams on forests and on the lifestyle and identity of tribal people is extremely high.
Almost 40 per cent of those displaced by dams belong to scheduled tribes and 20 per cent to schedule castes.
Only 25 per cent of the displaced people have been rehabilitated so far.

A government report based on a study of 110 dam projects stated that more than50 per cent of the total 1.69
million people displaced by these projects were tribals. This means that the tribal communities which
account for just 8 per cent of India’s total population constitute about 40 per cent of the displaced persons.
About 92 per cent of the tribal people in India live in rural areas which are dry, forested or hilly. Most of
them depend on agriculture and minor forest produce for sustenance. These largely self-sufficient tribal
communities live in close proximity to forests, rivers and mountains. Since these areas are rich in natural
resources they are most likely to be developed for dams, mines, industries and so on.

Immediately after Independence, only a few dams were built in tribal areas. However, by the 1970s, when
the resources in more accessible areas were exhausted, more dams were planned in tribal areas thereby
displacing a large number of tribal people.

Tribals are socially, economically and politically the weakest and the most deprived community in India.
They have been evicted from their ancestral homes and are either forced to migrate to urban slums in search
of employment or become landless labourers in rural areas to pay the price of development’. Unfortunately,
tribal people hardly get to share the benefits of development projects that cause their displacement. They
are always forced to live without the basic amenities like roads, electricity, transport, communication,

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healthcare, drinking water or sanitation. On the contrary, a majority of them end up with less income than
before, less work opportunities, inferior houses, less access to the resources of the common people such as
fuel wood and fodder, poor nutrition and poor physical and mental health. Developmental projects have
invariably led to the dispersal of communities, the breakdown of traditional support systems and the
devaluation of their cultural identity. Therefore, the government should devise a strategy to minimize tribal
displacement. It must ensure 100 per cent rehabilitation and make sure that the fruits of development are
shared with the dispersed people as well. It must augment the rehabilitation of the displaced persons of
previous projects, protect the customary rights of the tribal people over natural resources and take their
opinions into consideration for future projects.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru referred dam and valley projects as “Temples of modern India”. These big dams
and rivers valley projects have multi-purpose uses. However, these dams are also responsible for the
destruction of forests. They are responsible for degradation of catchment areas, loss of flora and fauna,
increase of water borne diseases, disturbance in forest ecosystems, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal
peoples.

• India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than
600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130).

• The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms of capacity
is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh. Big dams have been in sharp focus of various
environmental groups all over the world, which is mainly because of several ecological problems
including deforestation and socio-economic problems related to tribal or native people associated
with them.

• The Silent valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the tropical rain
forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people.

• The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by
Shri. Sunder Lal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement.

• The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues have been taken up by the environmental activitist
Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Ray and Baba Amte. For building big dams, large scale
devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region.

Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the repositories of
invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying them (particularly, the tropical rain
forests), we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could be having

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marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which
have evolved over millions of years in a single stroke.

2.3. WATER RESOURCES

Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh
water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is found mainly
as ground water, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world’s supply of ground water is steadily decreasing. The
depletion is occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America. The framework for
allocating water resources to water users (where such a frame-work exists) is known as water rights.

2.3.1. Surface water and Ground water use and over exploitation

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, evapo transpiration and
groundwater recharge. Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within
its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability
of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing
of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water loss.

Human activities can have large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase
storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans increase runoff
quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing the stream flow. The total quantity of water
available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent
need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all
in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity
to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous
need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with
water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when the average stream flow
is below the power plant’s need.

Nevertheless, over long term, the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for
average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed.

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Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another water-shed through a
canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources; however, in practice
the quantities are negligible.

Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia
and Canada.

Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is
flowing within acquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between ground
water that is closely associated with surface water and deep groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called
“fossil water”).

Ground water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical
difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume)
compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater
unsustainably for a long time with-out severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term, the average
rate of seepage above a ground water source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that
source.

The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from ground water are
springs and seepage to the oceans.

If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a ground water source may become
saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated
farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a ground water source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean
to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans can also cause ground water to be “lost” (i.e
become unusable) through pollution. Human can increase the input to a ground water source by building
reservoirs or detention ponds.

Ground water depletion is primarily caused by sustained ground water pumping. Some of the negative
effects of ground water depletion are:

•\ Lowering of the Water Table

Excessive pumping can lower the ground water table, and cause wells to no longer be able to reach ground
water.

•\ Increased Costs

As the water table lowers, the water must be pumped farther to reach the surface, using more energy. In
extreme cases, using such a well can be cost prohibitive.

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•\ Reduced Surface Water Supplies

Ground water and surface water are connected. When groundwater is overused, the lakes, streams, and
rivers connected to ground water can also have their supply diminished.

•\ Land Subsidence

Land subsidence occurs when there is a loss of support below ground. This is most often caused by human
activities, mainly from the overuse of ground water, when the soil collapses, compacts and drops.

•\ Water Quality Concerns

Excessive pumping in coastal areas can cause salt water to move inland and upward, resulting in salt water
contamination of the water supply.

Case Study 4

Coca-Cola ground water exploitation in Kerala

In 1999, the Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Private Limited, a subsidiary of the Atlanta based Coca-Cola
Company, established a plant in Plachimada, in the Palakkad district of Kerala, southern India. The
Perumatty Village Council gave a license to the company to commence production in 2000. Coca-Cola
drew around 510,000 litres of water each day from boreholes and open wells. For every 3.75 litres of water
used by the plant, it produced one litre of product and a large amount of waste water.

Local residents started to protest after two years. Local communities complained that water pollution and
extreme water shortages were endangering their lives. In 2003, women from the Vijayanagaram Colony in
the village of Plachimada, protested that their wells had dried up because of the over exploitation of
groundwater resources by the Coca-cola plant. In April 2003, the Perumatty Grama Panchayat (Village
Council) refused renewal of Coca-Cola’s license to operate on the grounds that it was not in the public
interest to renew the license stating:

“…the excessive exploitation of ground water by the Coca-Cola Company in Plachimada is causing acute
drinking water scarcity in Perumatty Panchayat and nearby places…” The Village Council considered
revocation of the license to be necessary in order to protect the interests of local people.

Since December 2003, various cases were filed by the accused and Perumatty Grama Panchayat. Finally in
2017, the Supreme Court of India ordered Coca-cola company authorities not to resume operations at
Plachimada, thus ending a 12-year-long legal battle with local people.

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2.3.2. Conflicts over water

Water conflict is a term describing the conflict between countries, states, or groups over access to water
resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users-
public or private.

A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars waged over
water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in conflicts that start for
other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for
resources, and strategic advantage. A comprehensive online database of water-related conflicts-the Water
Conflict Chronology-has been developed by the Pacific Institute. This database lists violence over water
going back nearly 5,000 years.

These conflicts occur over both fresh water and salt water, and both between and within nations. However
conflicts occur mostly over fresh water; because fresh water resources are necessary, yet limited. They are
the center of water disputes arising out of need for potable water and irrigation. As freshwater is a vital, yet
unevenly distributed natural resource, its availability often impacts the living and economic conditions of
a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water supply options in areas like the Middle East, among
other elements of water crises can put severe pressure on all water users, whether corporate, government,
or individual, leading to tension and possibly, aggression. Recent humanitarian catastrophes, such as the
Rwandan Genocide or the war in Sudanese Darfur, have been linked to water conflicts.

Case study 5

Kaveri river water issue

The sharing of waters of the Kaveri River has been the source of a serious conflict between the two states
of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The genesis of this conflict rests in two agreements in 1892 and 1924
between the erst while Madras Presidency and Kingdom of Mysore. The 802 kilometers Kaveri river has
44,000 Km2 area in Tamil Nadu and 32,000 Km2 basin area in Karnataka. The inflow from Karnataka is
425 TMC ft whereas that from Tamil Nadu is 252 TMC ft.

Based on inflow, Karnataka is demanding its due share of water from the river. It states that the pre-
independence agreements are invalid and are skewed heavily in the favour of the Madras Presidency and
has demanded a renegotiated settlement based on “equitable sharing of the waters”. Tamil Nadu, on the
other hand, pleads that it has already developed almost 3,00,000 acres (12,000 Km2 ) of land and as a result,
has come to depend very heavily on the existing pattern of usage. Any change in this pattern, it says, will
adversely affect the livelihood of millions of farmers in the state.

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Decades of negotiations between the parties bore no fruit. The Government of India then constituted a
tribunal in 1990 to look into the matter. After hearing arguments of all the parties involved for the next 16
years, the tribunal delivered its final verdict on 5th February 2007. In its verdict, the tribunal allocated 419
TMC of water annually to Tamil Nadu and 270 TMC to Karnataka; 30 TMC of Kaveri river water to Kerala
and 7 TMC to Puducherry. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu being the major shareholders, Karnataka was ordered
to release 192 TMC of water to Tamil Nadu in a normal year from June to May. The dispute however, did
not end there, as all four states decided to file review petitions seeking clarifications and possible
renegotiation of the order.

2.3.3. Dams – benefits and problems

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose
of retaining water apart from managing or preventing water flow into spe-cific land regions eg:
Bakranamgal, Hirakud, Mullapaeriyar Dam, Damodar Valley Dam etc.

Dams are built across rivers to store water for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and flood control.
The dams built to serve more than one purpose are called “multi-purpose dams”. These dams were called
the “temples of modern India” by the country’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.

Benefits of dams:

1.\ Dams are built to control flood and store flood water

2.\ Sometimes dams are used for diverting part or all of the water from river into a channel.

3.\ Water in dams are used mainly for drinking and agricultural purposes.

4.\ Dams are built for generating electricity

5.\ Dams are used for recreational purpose

6.\ Navigation and fishery can be developed in the dam areas.

Problems of dams – Dams may face problems upstream or downstream as listed below:

Upstream problems:-

1.\ Displacement of tribal people

2.\ Loss of non-forest land

3.\ Loss of forests, flora and fauna

4.\ Landslides, sedimentation and siltation occurs

5.\ Stagnation and water logging around reservoirs retards plant growth

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6.\ Breeding of vectors and vector-borne diseases

7.\ Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS) causes earthquakes

8.\ Navigation and aquaculture activities can be developed in the dam area

Down steam problems:

1.\ Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation

2.\ Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers

3.\ Salt intrusion at river mouth

4.\ Since the sediments carrying nutrients gets deposited in the reservoir, the fertility of the land along the
river gets reduced

5.\ Structural defects or faulty design of the dam may cause sudden dam failure leading to collapse and
destruction to life and property.

2.4. MINERAL RESOURCES-USE AND EXPLOITATION

2.4.1. Use and Exploitation

A mineral is pure, inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust. All of the Earth’s crust,
except the rather small proportion of the crust that contains organic material, is made up of minerals. Some
minerals consist of a single element such as gold, silver, diamond (carbon), and sulphur. Minerals provide
the material used to make most of the things of industrial – based society: roads, cars, computers, fertilizers,
etc. Demand for minerals is increasing world wide as the population increases and the consumption
demands of individual people increase. The mining of earth’s natural resources is, therefore accelerating,
and it has accompanying environmental consequences.

More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these contain inorganic compounds
formed by various combinations of the eight elements (O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg) that make up
98.5% of the Earth’s crust. Industry depends on about 80 of the known minerals.

A mineral deposit is a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material, in or on the
Earth’s crust in such form and amount that its extraction and its conversion into useful materials or items
are profitable now or may be so in the future. Mineral resources are non renewable and include metals (e.g.
iron, copper, and aluminum) and non-metals (e.g. salt, gypsum, clay, sand, phosphates).

Minerals are valuable natural resources that are finite and non-renewable. They constitute the vital raw
materials for many basic industries and are a major resource for development. therefore, Management of

17
mineral resources has, to be closely integrated with the overall strategy of development; and exploitation
of minerals is to be guided by long-term national goals and perspectives.

The use of minerals varies greatly between countries. The greatest use of minerals occurs in developed
countries. Like other natural resources, mineral deposits are unevenly distributed around on the earth. Some
countries are rich in mineral deposits and other countries have no deposits. The use of the mineral depends
on its properties. For example, aluminum is light but strong and durable, so it is used for aircraft, shipping
and car industries.

Recovery of mineral resources has been with us for a long time. Early Paleolithic man found flint
arrowheads and clay for pottery before developing codes for warfare. This was done without geologists for
exploration, mining engineers for recovery or chemists for extraction techniques. Tin and copper mines
were necessary for a Bronze Age; gold, silver, and gemstones adorned the wealth of early civilizations; and
iron mining introduced a new age of man.

Human wealth basically comes from agriculture, manufacturing, and mineral resources. Our complex
modern society is built around the exploitation and use of minerals resources. Since the future of humanity
depends on minerals resources, we must understand that these resources have limits; our known supply of
minerals will be used up early in the third millennium of our calendar.

Furthermore, modern agriculture and the ability to feed an overpopulated world is depen-dent on mineral
resources; to construct the machines that till the soil, enrich it with mineral fertilizers and to transport the
products.

We are now reaching limits of reserves for many minerals. Human population growth and increased
industrialization are depleting our available resource at increasing rates. The pressure of human growth
upon the planet’s resources is a very real problem.

The consumption of natural resources proceeded at a phenomenal rate during the past hundred years and
population and production increases cannot continue without increasing pollution and depletion of mineral
resources.

2.4.2. Environmental effects of mineral extraction

The scale and level of requirement of minerals have increased manifold in our country and it is heading
towards the stage where much larger consumption of minerals will be inevitable to sustain even the
minimum growth rate of our economy.

It is pertinent to note that out of the total land area of the country (3.29 million sq.kms),the area leased out
of mining, as on 1-9-94, was 7126.13 sq.kms. Comprising about 9,213 mining leases, excluding atomic

18
minerals, minor minerals, petroleum and natural gas, this constitutes only about 0.25 per cent of the
geographic area of the country and that including atomic minerals and minor minerals it may be around
0.28 per cent of the total area.

Although the area occupied for mining activity is small, the damage to the environment on account of
mining is causing grave concern. Environmental degradation resulting from mining activity in general can
be briefly enumerated as flows:

1.\ Air pollution with dust and gases due to drilling, blasting, mine haulage and transpor-tation by road,
and also from waste heaps.

2.\ Water pollution when atomic elements and other harmful elements are present in the ore/mineral mine
effluents.

3.\ Modifying water regimes such as surface flow, ground water availability and lowering down of water
table.

4.\ Soil erosion, soil modification with dust and salt.

5.\ Noise and vibration problem in the mine and adjoining habitat including wild life.

6.\ Alteration of the landform.

7.\ Deforestation affecting flora and fauna; and

8.\ Spoiling aesthetics with untreated waste dumps

Case Study 6

Mining and Quarrying in Udaipur

About 200 open cast mining and quarrying centers in Udaipur, about half of which are illegal, are involved
in stone mining including soapstone, building stone, rock phosphate and dolomite. The mines spread over
1500 hectares in Udaipur have caused many adverse impact on environment. About 150 tons of explosives
are used per month in blasting. The overburden, wash off, discharge of mine water etc. pollute the water.
The Maton mines have badly polluted the Aharriver. The hills around the mines are devoid of any vegetation
except a few scattered patches and the hills are suffering from acute soil erosion. The waste flows towards
a big tank of “Bag Dara”. Due to scarcity of water, people are compelled to use this effluent for irrigation
purpose. The blasting activity has adversely affected the fauna and the animals like tiger, lion, deer and
even hare, fox, wild cats and birds have disappeared from the mining area.

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 CHAPTER 2

NATURAL RESOURCES
2.5. FOOD RESOURCES

Food is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism’s
cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two
methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the majority of the food energy required by the
ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry.

Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies like the International Association for Food
Protection, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and
International Food Information Council. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity,
climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, and access to food.

The food resources are a composite of the goods (the foodstuffs) and the services in commerce and
distribution through which these are made available for consumption.

The 3 major sources of food for humans are: - the croplands, the rangelands and fisheries.

• The croplands provide the bulk amount of food for human. Though there are thousands of edible
plants in the Earth, solely 4 are essential crops ; potatoes, rice, wheat and corn account for many of the
caloric consumption of human beings. Few animals are raised for milk, meat and eggs (for example.
poultry, cattle and pigs)

• The rangelands provide a different source of milk and meat from animals.

• The fisheries provide fish which are a major source of animal protein in the Earth, particularly in
coastal areas and Asia.

Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that are
used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a staple food that
provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize), wheat, and rice in all of
their varieties account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Most of the grain that is produced
worldwide is fed to livestock.

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Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is
consumed raw or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals
lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular
sweetener in many cultures.

Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical,
or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans
do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.

2.5.1. World Food Problems

Food is essential to survive. There are three degrees of hunger: acute, chronic, and hidden. Famine is caused
by food shortage and the inability of people to obtain food. It is usually caused by low food production
resulting from drought, other factors, or it could be a result of the inability of a country or its population to
afford to buy food.

Every year, 15 million children die of hunger. It is estimated that 925 million people in the world do not
have enough to eat. The WHO estimates that one-third of the world population is well-fed, one third is
under-fed and one-third is starving. There are many factors that have contributed in making food security
one of the most important global issues. An increasing population wants a more varied diet, but trying to
grow more food on less land with limited access to water, all the time facing increased costs for fertilizer,
and fuel for storage and transport poses great problems for which there are no easy solutions.

The available water is decreasing at an alarming rate. This warns us that there is not going to be enough
water on the agricultural land that is needed for producing enough food in order to feed the projected
population of 9 billion people by 2050. Also, the food prices have skyrocketed in the past few years making
it difficult for average earners to afford a three course meal. These effects are witnessed in developing
countries that rely heavily on imported food, such as North Africa, Latin America, and Middle East.

Currently, the world food situation is being defined by some new driving forces. These include climate
change, globalization, urbanization, energy prices, and income growth as they are responsible in
transforming food production, consumption and markets. The security of food in the world depends from
the available food supply, the income of the targeted population, accessibility of food, food consumption
rate, as well as the amount that can be stocked for future use.

5
• The Problem of Distribution of Food

In the world today, there are many people dying because of the shortage of food, however, there are also
many people who are obese. So evidently there is a problem in the way food is distributed .There are wide
gaps of economy between countries. In short, the problem of “distribution” is to devise ways to feed people
in the world with no shortage. If the world population grows in current pace, the amount of production of
food crops is said to be unable to catch up with the population in the future.

Case Study 7

In May 2008 Cyclone Nargis devastated much of the southern part of Myanmar, causing 4000 deaths,
displacing nearly 1,00,000 people and disrupting food supplies so badly as to create a real risk of famine.
The government could not provide the required emergency aid or accept help from other countries. Four
months later, parts of Myanmar were struck by another natural disaster — a plague of rats.

Once every 50 years or so, bamboo plants in the western part of Myanmar produce a fruit. The fruit attracts
hordes of rats, which feed on its seeds. These seeds are rich in nutrients and allow the rats to multiply
rapidly. Once the seeds have been devoured, the hungry rats turn on villagers’ crops, destroying rice and
maize, bringing the inhabitants to the brink of starvation. The Chin region was the part of Myanmar worst
hit by the plague of rats. An estimated 20% of the population were thought to be in immediate need of food
aid.. Despite appeals, little or no emergency food aid was sent to the area. In desperation, many people
migrated and sought food and help in India.

2.5.2. Changes Caused by Agriculture and overgrazing

Agriculture is the world’s oldest and largest industry. Agriculture has both primary and secondary
environmental effects. A primary effect is an effect on the area where the agriculture takes place i.e. on-
site effect. A secondary effect, also called an off-site effect, is an effect on an environment away from the
agricultural site.

The effects of agriculture on the environment can be broadly classified into three groups, viz. global,
regional and local.

(1) Global Effects: These include climate changes as well as potentially extensive changes in chemical
cycles.

(2) Regional Effects: This is caused by the combined effects of farming practices in the same large region.
Regional effects include deforestation, desertification, large scale pollution, increase in sedimentation in

6
major rivers and in the estuaries at the mouths of the rivers and changes in the chemical fertility of soils
over large areas. In tropical waters, sediments entering the ocean can destroy coral reefs.
(3) Local Effects: Soil erosion and increase in sedimentation downstream in local rivers in the vicinity of
the agricultural land can be called local effects. Fertilizers carried by sediments can also transport toxins
and destroy the local fish population.
The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the
ecosystems around them. The environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used
by farmers. There are two types of indicators of environ-mental impact: “means-based”, which is based on
the farmer’s production methods, and “effect-based”, which is the impact that farming methods have on the
farming system or on emissions to the environment.

The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air, animal
and soil variety, people, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are related to
agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil
degradation, and waste.

2.5.3. Problems of Modern Agriculture

Agriculture is the management of the growth of plants and animals for human use. Agriculture includes
preparation of soil for cultivation of crops, harvesting crops, breeding and raising livestock, dairying and
forestry.
The two major types of agriculture are:
• Traditional agriculture
• Modern or Industrialized agriculture
The development of agriculture was achieved in terms of:
1. Expansion and/or conversion of agricultural lands
2. Increased agricultural productivity
3. Multiple-cropping pattern
4. Conversion of single-cropping system to two tier and / or three tier cultivation
In due course of time, agricultural development became possible due to

(a) Development of modern scientific techniques

(b) Advanced technology
(c) Expansion of irrigational facilities
(d) Use of chemical fertilizers
(e) Use of pesticides and insecticides

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 (f) Development and use of high yielding varieties of seeds
(g) Mechanization of agriculture
(h) Varying crop sequences
It will be difficult for us to maintain our present standard of living and current consumption-pattern if we
continue to destroy land. Considering this, it becomes essential to understand the related incidences causing
environmental degradation.

Pests and diseases such as gall midge, brown plant hopper, bacterial blight and tungro virus (or paddy)
considered as minor diseases earlier to the Green Revolution suddenly appeared as major diseases.

Agricultural losses due to such pests and/or diseases increased tremendously since the high-yielding
varieties were more prone to pests and diseases. Naturally, use of pesticides increased and this brought
about widespread occurrence of pesticide-residues practically in every agricultural produce, widespread
pesticide resistance in vectors and finally even resistance to pesticides in stored grains.

Such pesticide resistance to wards pests of agricultural importance became a major constraint in improving
agricultural productivity.

2.5.4. Fertilizer and Pesticide Problems

To assure enhanced productivity in areas where intensive cultivation has been initiated, increased
application of chemical fertilizers supplying the plant nutrients has become an essential component of
modern agriculture.

Fertilizer application in South Asia including India has multiplied with widespread intro-duction of the
Green Revolution. The number of fertilizer plants has gone up and the production has multiplied.

Problems caused by using Fertilizers:

1. Micronutrient imbalance: Chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture contain Nitrogen,

Phosphorus and Potassium (N,P,K) which are macronutrients. Excess use of fertilizers in fields
causes micronutrient imbalance. Ex: Excessive use of fertilizers in Punjab and Haryana caused
deficiency of micronutrient Zinc thereby affecting productivity of soil.
2. Nitrate pollution: Excess Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in fields contaminates the groundwater.
3. Eutrophication: The application of excess fertilizers in fields leads to wash off of the nutrient loaded
water into nearby lakes causing over-nourishment. This is called “Eutrophication”. Eutrophication
causes the lakes to be attacked by “algal blooms”. Algal blooms use up nutrients rapidly and they
die and pollute water thereby affecting aquatic life in the lakes.

8
Problems in using Pesticides :

In order to improve crop yield, pesticides are used indiscriminately in agriculture. Pesticides are of two
types:

1. First generation pesticides that use Sulphur, Arsenic, Lead or Mercury to kill pests
2. Second generation pesticides such as Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) used to kill pests.
These pesticides are organic in nature
Although pesticides protect our crops from severe losses due to pests, they have several side-effects as
listed below:

• Death of non-target organisms: Several insecticides kill not only the target species but also several
beneficial non-target organisms

• Pesticide resistance: Some pests that survive the pesticide generate highly resistant generations that are
immune to all kinds of pesticides. These pests are called “superpests”

• Bio-magnification: Most pesticides are non-biodegradable and accumulate in the food chain. This is called
bioaccumulation or bio-magnification. These pesticides in a biomagnified form are harmful to human
beings.

• Risk of cancer: Pesticide enhances the risk of cancer in two ways (i) It acts as a carcinogen and (ii) It
indirectly suppresses the immune system.

Case Study 8

Potato farmers in the province of Carchi in northern Ecuador suffer a number of health problems caused by
high exposure to chemical insecticides. The dangers to both workers and their families are heightened by
the fact that the most commonplace pesticides used in Ecuador are also among the world’s most dangerous.
Carbofuran (used to control the Andean weevil) and methamidophos (used to combat foliage pests) account
for 47 percent and 43 percent, respectively, of all active insecticide ingredients applied in Carchi. Both of
those chemicals are classified as highly toxic by the World Health Organization and are restricted in
Northern countries because of their acute toxicity and ease of absorption. Exposure to pesticides such as
these is associated with genetic and reproductive disorders and cancers, dermatitis and other skin problems,
as well as neurological disorders. In the Carchi case, scientists have also speculated that the high rate of
suicide may be related to the mood-altering effects of pesticide exposure.

9
2.5.5. Water logging

If water stands on land for most of the year, it is called water logging. Water logging refers to the saturation
of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when it is saturated with water much of the time
such that its air phase is restricted. In water logged conditions the soil gets filled with water and soil-air
gets depleted. In such a condition the roots of plants do not get enough air for respiration. Water logging
also leads to low crop yield. In agriculture, various crops need air. In irrigated agricultural land, water
logging is often accompanied by soil salinity.

Causes of Water logging:

1. Excessive water supply to the croplands

2. Heavy rain

3. Poor drainage

Measures To Prevent Water Logging:

1. Avoid and prevent excessive irrigation

2. Bio-drainage by trees like Eucalyptus

2.5.6. Salinity

The term salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts that are present in water. Salinity is an important
factor in determining many aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological process within it.
The salts are compounds like sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc

10
2.6. ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy is essential for the existence of mankind. Energy production and energy utilization indicates a
country’s progress. It is available on earth in different forms and today every country draws its energy needs
from a variety of sources. Major energy sources are fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, hydro energy, geothermal,
solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, bio-mass, hydrogen etc. However, sun is the main source of our
energy resources. The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country’s expanding energy deficit
and increased focus on developing alternative energy sources, particularly nuclear, solar and wind energy.
India has been ranked 78th among 114 countries on the world economic Forum’s energy transition index.

2.6.1. Growing energy needs

All developmental activities of the world depend directly or indirectly on energy. Most of the industrial
processes like mining, transport, lighting, heating and cooling in buildings need energy. With the growing
population, the world is facing an energy deficit. Lifestyle changes from simple to complex and luxurious
lifestyle adds to this energy deficit. Almost 95% of commercial energy is available from fossil fuels like
coal and natural gas. These fossil fuels will not last for more than a few years. Hence, we must explore
alternative fuel or energy options.

Indian Scenario:

In India, commercial energy like coal, oil, gas and water constitute the main sources of energy. The share
of agriculture in commercial energy consumption has risen rapidly over the past four decades. Industries
like fertilizer, aluminium, textiles, cement, iron, steel, paper etc consume about 80% of the coal and 70%
of the electrical energy in India. The transport sector accounts for 65% of the total oil consumption (petrol
and diesel). The energy consumption of household sector has also increased due to air conditioners,
refrigerators and other electrical appliances. Apart from commercial energy, a large amount of traditional
energy sources in the form of wood, agricultural waste and animal residue are also used.

Due to rapid economic expansion, India has to increase not only the indigenous availability but also aim at
efficient utilization of energy. Our ambitious plan is to expand its renewable and nuclear power industries.
India has the second highest wind capacity in Asia and is the only Asian country apart from China, with a
total capacity of 35 GW. India’s solar power installed capacity reached 34.404 GW as of February 2020.
India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity
from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. Five nuclear reactors are under construction and plans are to construct
18 additional nuclear reactors by 2025.

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2.6.2. Renewable and Nonrenewable energy sources

Based on continual utility, natural resources can be classified into two types:

Renewable energy sources: These resources can be generated continuously and are in-exhaustible. They
are available in plenty and are the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. Examples include
Wood, Solar energy, Wind energy, Hydro power, Tidal energy, Geo-thermal energy, forest, etc. They have
low carbon emission;therefore, they are considered as green and environmental friendly.

Non-renewable energy sources: They are natural resources that cannot be regeneratedonce they are
exhausted. They cannot be used again. They are not environmental friendly and can have serious effect on
our health. Ex: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and Nuclear fuels. Non-renewable sources release toxic gases
in the air when burnt, which are the major cause for global warming.

The points of differences between renewable and non-renewable resources include:

Renewable energy resources Non-renewable energy resources

They are natural resources around us They are formed deep down the earth crust
millions of years ago
It can be generated continuously and It cannot be regenerated once they are
are in-exhaustible exhausted
It is environmental friendly as the It is not environmental friendly as the
amount of carbon emission is low amount of carbon emission is high
They are pollution free They are not pollution free
These resources are sustainable These resources are exhaustible
They are present in unlimited quantity They are present in a limited quantity
These resources cause no harm to life These resources adversely affect the health
on earth of organisms by emitting radiations, smoke,
carcinogenic elements to environment
The rate of renewal of these resources The rate of renewal of these resources are
are greater than the rate of lower than the rate of consumption
consumption

2.6.3. Alternative energy sources

Energy sources that are not popularly used and are environmental friendly are called alternative energy
sources. They cause little or no pollution. They help us to maintain the balance of nature without causing

12
much harm as compared to conventional energy sources. Alternative or renewable energy sources show
significant promise in helping us to reduce the amount of toxins that are byproducts of energy use and help
preserve many of the natural resources that we currently use as sources of energy. They are available free
of cost and is clean and green.

The damage that we have caused to earth due to industrialization is huge and if we want to keep the planet
sustainable for our future generation, use of alternative energy sources is very important. Examples for
alternative energy source include wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric energy,
biomass, tidal energy etc.

(i)Wind energy
It is an effective source of energy in areas where the velocity of wind flow is high. Wind energy harnesses
the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. The rotation of turbine blades is converted into
electrical current by means of an electrical generator. Wind towers are built together in wind farms. They
can be also built off-shore.
Advantages:
•No pollution (a clean form of energy)
• Source of power generation
• Free of cost
• It is a renewable source of energy
Disadvantages:
• Wind power is intermittent. Consistent wind is needed for continuous power generation. If wind
speed decreases, the turbine lingers and less electricity is generated.
• Large wind farms can have a negative effect on the scenery.
• They sometimes create noise disturbances and cannot be used near residential areas.
(ii) Solar energy
It is one of the promising alternative energy sources which the Earth receives from sun. The solar power
generation is done using a series of photovoltaic cells where the solar rays are converted to electricity. Solar
energy is also used commonly for heating, cooking and in the desalination of seawater.
Advantages:
• It is a renewable resource and will not deplete
• Solar power generation releases no by-products
• It is free of cost and can be very efficiently used for heating and lighting
• Solar power generation is quiet, absolutely clean and pollution free

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Disadvantages:
• Solar power stations are very expensive to built
• Solar power does not produce energy when sun is not shining
• Night time and cloudy days limit the amount of energy produced
(iii) Geothermal energy
Geothermal literally means “earth heat”.Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath
the Earth. Hot rocks under the ground will heat the water to produce steam. When holes are drilled in the
region, the steam that shoots up is purified and is used to drive turbines, which power electric generators.
Advantages:
• It does not produce any harmful by-products
• Geothermal plant is self– sufficient (energy wise)
• They are small and has little effect on landscape
• Cost is less
Disadvantages:
• If constructed incorrectly, it produces pollutants
• Improper drilling into the earth can release hazardous minerals and gases
• It is suitable only to particular region and cannot be harnessed everywhere
• The areas where this energy is harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Setting up of geothermal power stations requires huge installation cost
(iv) Hydroelectric energy
Hydropower is the largest producer of alternative energy in the world. Hydroelectric power stations capture
the kinetic energy of moving water to give mechanical energy to turbines.The moving turbines convert
mechanical energy to electricity through generators.
Advantages:
• Hydropower is renewable, constant and predictable
• Hydroelectric power produces no waste or pollution since there is no chemical
reaction to produce power
• Electricity can be generated constantly, because there are no outside forces
• Water used for hydropower can be reused
Disadvantages:
• Dams are very expensive to build.
• They cause adverse effect on aquatic life

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Another form of hydropower is tidal energy, where rise and fall of ocean tides are captured by tidal energy
generators which run turbines. The movement of turbines is responsible for producing electricity. The main
advantage of tidal energy is that it is completely renewable and more predictable than wave energy.
(v) Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is a clean fuel and an energy carrier that can be used for a broad range of applications as a possible
substitute to liquid and fossil fuels. It has tremendous potential and can be used to power homes, vehicles
and space rockets. NASA has used liquid hydrogen in space shuttles since 1970s. A fuel cell combines
hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both
convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric power.
Advantages:
• It is a renewable and clean energy source
• It is non-toxic
• It is more efficient than other forms of energy
• Used for powering space ships
Disadvantages:
• Production of hydrogen is expensive
• Difficulty in handling, storing and transportation of hydrogen.
• Its low availability in pure form
• Requirement of energy for the production of Hydrogen

2.6.4. Case study 9

Kochi International airport becomes world’s first airport to completely operate on solar power

Cochin International airport has scripted another chapter in aviation

history by becoming the first airport in the world that completely
operates on solar power. The CIAL solar power project is a 40-
megawatt power station built at COK airport, India. Now, Cochin
airport’s solar power plant is producing 50,000 to 60,000 units of
electricity per day to be consumed for all its operational functions,
which technically make the airport absolutely power neutral. This
plant will produce 18 million units of power from ‘sun’ annually-the
power equivalent to feed 10,000 homes for one year. Over the next 25
years, this green power project will avoid carbon dioxide emissions from coal fired power plants by more
than 3 lakh metric tons, which is equivalent to planting 3 million trees or not driving 750 miles. Inspired by

15
the success of the above plant, CIAL decided to set up a larger scale 12MWpsolar PV plant as part of their
green initiatives. This was set up in an area of 45 acres near the International cargo complex.

2.7. LAND RESOURCES

2.7.1. Land as a resource

The term ‘Environment’ includes all physical and social resources. It includes all the resources such as
rivers, oceans, soil, forests, animals etc. Land is a free gift of the nature. The progress and prosperity of any
country largely depends upon the geographical nature. Natural resources are derived from the environment.
A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in various ecosystems.

Land resources mean the resources available from the land. No one can deny the importance of land and
natural resource endowments as factors in the growth process. The quality of land can markedly affect the
level of agricultural productivity in the economic development.

Land can be broadly divided into Urban land, Rural land, Forest land and Sea bed. Man needs land for
building houses, for agriculture purpose , maintaining pastures for domestic animals and developing
industries. If land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.

Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are
dumped on it. Man needs to preserve our grasslands, wetlands, wilderness area in forests, mountains etc to
protect our vitally valuable biodiversity. A rational use of land needs careful planning. Land use may be
defined as man’s activities on land which are directly related to the land.

2.7.2. Land degradation

Land degradation takes place when land use exceeds the carrying capacity of a system. It is a process in
which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human induced processes
acting upon the land. Houghton and Charman defines land degradation “It encompass soil degradation and
the deterioration of natural landscape and vegetation”. Human induced degradation includes the adverse
effects of overgrazing, erosion, urbanization, disposal of industrial wastes, road construction, decline of
plant communities and pollution of the air with its effects on land.

During the last few decades, there has been tremendous pressure on land in India due to increase in
population. As urban centers grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and forests shrink.

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According to studies, water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation. Combined,
they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land. And the excessive erosion is now
one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.

Effects
•Deteriorated Soil texture
•Loss of soil fertility
•Increase in water logging, salinity and acidity problems
•Affects social, economic and biodiversity level

2.7.3. Man induced landslides

The sudden movement of the soil and the down slope of weathered rock material due to the force of gravity
is called landslide. During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of mountainous
regions are cut down and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. When the rivers are in flood they greatly
add to landslides. These land masses weaken the already delicate mountain slopes leading to man-induced
landslides. It results in the loss of habitat and biodiversity and loss of infrastructure and hence in economic
loss. Man induced activities such as deforestation in hilly areas, excessive mining in hilly areas, dam
construction, road and other infrastructure developments are also responsible for man induced landslides.

2.7.4. Soil erosion and desertification

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. It is the removal of the top fertile
layer of the soil. In other words, it is the displacement of the upper layer of soil. Soil erosion by water and
wind is the most common and extensive form of soil erosion. The loss of soil from farmlands may be
reflected in reduced crop production, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks.
Intensive agriculture, deforestation and climate change are the most significant factors responsible for
soil erosion.

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly
arid, typically losing its water bodies as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by climate change and
soil erosion. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of an Earth’s life cycle, then it can
be called a natural phenomenon. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental
problem. The UNO Conference on Desertification has defined it as“ the destruction of the biological
potential of land and can lead ultimately to desert like conditions.”

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The major causes of desertification are mismanagement of forests, overgrazing, mining and quarrying. The
increasing rate of desertification will be a threat to food security.

2.8. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Resource management may be defined as “the conservation of natural resources by technical and
managerial practices for the purpose of man’s utilitarian needs under prevailing socio-economic
conditions.”

Man has exploited nature excessively at the cost of the environment. Continuing current practices will lead
to a massive and unsustainable gap between global supply and demand for natural resources.

What Can We do?

Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve environmental conditions.

• Conducting education programmes relating to environmental management and awareness can go a long
way in controlling environmental degradation. Education and public participation may change and
improve the quality of environment. According to UNESCO “Environmental education is a way of
implementing the goals of environmental protection”.
• Building a sustainable society will require participation by governments, businesses and individuals.
The goals of sustainable development cannot be met without individuals support and actions. Citizens
are an integral part of the economic system as consumers of goods and services, and they are also vital
to the adoption of sustainable practices.
• By becoming conscientious consumers/ individuals (buying green products, buying what you needetc)
you can help to stimulate the transition to sustainability. Transition to a sustainable society requires
participation of human beings.
• Citizens can take actions to promote a sustainable future (Driving fuel efficient vehicles, carpooling,
bicycling, walking or using public transport etcall make significant contributions.)
• Do Recycling.

2.9. EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES

Economic development and growth strategies encourage rapid accumulation of physical and human capital,
but it is at the expense of excessive depletion and degradation of natural resources and eco systems.
Depleting the world’s resources for development and growth have had detrimental impacts on the well-
being of present generations and results challenges for the future. Equity is supposed to be a central ethical
principle of sustainable development. It means that there should be a minimum level of income and

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environmental quality below which nobody falls. It is generally agreed that equity implies a need for fairness
(not necessarily equality) in the distribution of gains and losses, and the entitlement of everyone to an
acceptable quality and standard of living.

Environmental inequities already exist in all societies. There is a big divide in the world as North and South,
the more developed countries (MDC’S) and less developed countries (LDC’S), the haves and the have nots.
The MDC’s have only 22% of world’s population, but they use 88% of its natural resources, 73% of its
energy and command 85% of its income. In order to achieve sustainable development, it is desirable to
achieve a more balanced and equitable distribution of global resources and income to meet everyone’s basic
needs. Reduction of the unsustainable and unequal use of resources and control of population growth are
essential for the survival of our nation. A fairer sharing of resources will narrow down the gap between the
rich and the poor and will lead to sustainable development for all.

SECTION A (2 marks)

1. What are renewable resources?

2. Describe non-renewable resources.
3. State biotic resources.
4. What are abiotic resources?
5. What is the commercial values forest?
6. How forest affects life and economy of tribes?
7. Explain the ecological uses of forest.
8. Enumerate aesthetic values of forest.
9. What is Jhum cultivation?
10. Write notes on Chipko movement.
11. What are renewable energy resources? Give examples.
12. What are non-renewable energy resources? Give examples.
13. List the advantages of using solar power over other forms of energy.
14. What is geothermal energy? What are its advantages?
15. List one advantage and one disadvantage of using wind as energy resource.
16. What is soil erosion?
17. What do you mean by equitable use of resources?
18. What you mean by land as a resource?
19. List out the important cause of land degradation. What tits effects?
20. Define desertification.

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21. What is man induced landslides. What are its effects?
22. Define resource management.
SECTION B (5 marks)

23. Differentiate renewable and non-renewable energy sources

24. Write briefly on alternate energy sources
25. What are the advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel?
26. What are the advantages and disadvantages of solar and wind energy?
27. How geothermal energy can be used to generate electricity. What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
28. What is land degradation? State its causes.
29. What do you mean by soil erosion and desertification?
30. Write a note on Man induced landslides.
31. Write notes on classification of natural resources.
32. Enumerate the uses of forest.
33. Write critical notes on overexploitation of forests.
34. How timber extraction does affect forest and tribes?
35. What are the major effects of mining operation on forest and tribes?
36. List out the effects of dams on forest and tribes
37. What is the impact of human activities on water resources?
38. What are the effects of mineral exploitation on environment?
39. What are the negative effects of ground water depletion?
40. List the benefits of a dam.
41. What are the upstream problems caused by a dam?
42. Explain the harmful effects of over exploitation of water resources.
43. Write a note on the conflicts over water.
44. Briefly describe the benefits and problems caused by dams.
45. Explain the use and exploitation of mineral resources.
46. Name the agencies that monitor food safety.
47. Why is food security important?
48. How has agriculture altered the environment?

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 SECTION C (15 marks)

49. Write notes on a) Renewable and non-renewable energy sources b) alternate energy sources.
50. Discuss the role of an individual in conservation of natural resources.
51. Describe the classification of natural resources and problems associated with natural resources.
52. How forests help to provide prosperity of human beings and to the nation?
53. What is deforestation? Enumerate causes and major effects of deforestation

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 UNIT 3

ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is an area whose environment is unique and recognizable. Natural

ecosystems include forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands such as ponds, rivers,
lakes, and the sea. Man-modified ecosystems include agricultural patterns, and
patterns of urban or industrial land use. The ecosystem's existence is based on its
geographical features, such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, coastal areas or
islands. Climatic conditions such as the amount of sunshine, temperature, and
rainfall also influence it.

The living portion of the ecosystem is called its biotic component and abiotic
component is its non-living portion. All the living organisms in an area live in
communities of plants and animals. They interact with their abiotic environment and
with each other. Living organisms cannot survive without their non-living
environment as this provides food and energy for the former's survival, Thus, the
biotic population and its environment work to create a natural self-sufficient unit
known as an ecosystem. Ecosystems are the very base of life itself.

Definition of an ecosystem: A natural functional ecological unit comprising of

living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio
chemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system.

All of the earth's habitats are connected to each other. For example, an ecosystem of
the river is linked to the ocean ecosystem and a small ecosystem of dead logs is part
of a large forest ecosystem. A complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in
nature but situations can occur that approach self-sufficiency.

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems and aquatic

ecosystems. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living
organisms.

Stability of ecosystems

Many ecosystems are relatively stable and less influenced by some degree of human
perturbation. Some are weak and quickly destroyed by human activity. Eg: Mountain
ecosystems are extremely fragile, because degradation of forest cover contributes to
significant soil erosion and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are also

37
easily affected by human activity which can contribute to the rapid extinction of
many of their unique plant and animal species. Some species may have a significant
impact on the environment if eliminated. These are called ‘keystone species’.
Extinction is caused by land-use changes and other geographical changes. Forests
are deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to create more agricultural land and
semi-arid grasslands are turned into irrigated fields. The pollution from industries
and the waste from urban settings can also lead to poisoning and extinction of several
species.

3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansely in 1935. Ecosystem is
an essential unit of ecology. It has both structure and function. The structure is
related to species diversity. The more complex the structure, the greater the species
diversity within the ecosystem. The functions of an ecosystem are related to energy
flow and materials cycling through structural components of the ecosystem.

Every ecosystem has two key components from the structural perspective: Abiotic
and Biotic.

3.2.1. Abiotic components

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form

the abiotic components. They have a significant impact on the structure, distribution,
behavior and inter-relationship of organisms. Abiotic components are primarily of
two types:

(a) Climate Factors which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and
living organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing
medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on topsoil is closely linked to
this component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for
respiration for the organisms found within ecosystems. The processes of

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evaporation, transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the
organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissues are composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
ex-ceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water
content drops below 10% of their saturation level and most are killed if it is less than
30-50% below the saturation level. Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients
enter and are trans-lo-cated in plants. It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf
turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals
receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original source of this
water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

3.2.2. Biotic Components

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and
Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. From nutrition
point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic components:

(i) Autotrophic components and (ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of
sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components
include non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem, the biotic components can be classified
into three main groups:

(A) Producers (B) Consumers (C) Decomposers or Reducers

(A) Producers:

Green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap energy and change
it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds,
namely, water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the
green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e.
auto=self, trophos= feeder). The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized
partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored
in the plant parts for their future use.

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(B) Consumers:

Animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food. Therefore,
they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros= other, trophos= feeder).

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called
herbivores.

Eg: rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carvivores. Eg: cat,
fox, snake etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. E.g. wolf.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not
eaten up by any other animal: Eg: lion and tiger.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic
materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release
to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-
products of their metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers
resulting in a cyclic exchange of ma-terials between the biotic community and the
abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs
(i.e., sapros=rotten, trophos=feeder).

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 Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of the structure of an ecosystem

Fig. 3.2 Relationship within an ecosystem

3.3. FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

In any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes) and

(iii)Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are
synthesized into organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through

41
photo-synthesis and solar energy is utilized in the process. Green plants become the
source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which in turn become the source of
energy for the flesh eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow and add
organic matter to their body weight and their source of energy is a complex organic
compound taken as food. They are known as secondary producers.

All the living organisms, whether plants or animals, in an ecosystem have a definite
life span after which they die. The dead remains of plants and animals provide food
for saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria, fungi and many other animals. The
saprobes ultimately decompose the organic structure and break the complex
molecules and liberate the inorganic components into their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition

of organic molecules, the energy which kept the organic components bound together
in the form of organic molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment
as heat energy. Thus, in an ecosystem, energy from the sun is fixed by plants and
transferred to animal components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and
animals, cycled from one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to
the soil, water and air, and then recycled. The ecosystems operating in different
habitats, such as deserts, forests, grasslands and seas are interdependent on one
another. The energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may find their way into another
so that ultimately, all parts of the earth are interrelated, each comprising a part of the
total system that keeps the biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun

(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers

(3) Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed

materials

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are
degraded and finally converted by decomposers and converters into such forms that
are suitable for reutilization by producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production,
growth and death of living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of
habitat. It is now clear that there is transfer of both energy and nutrients from
producers to consumers and finally to decomposers and transformers levels. In this

42
transfer, there is a progressive decrease of energy but nutrient component is not
diminished and it shows cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.

The flow of energy is unidirectional. The two ecological processes, energy flow and
mineral cycling, which involve interaction between biotic and abiotic components
lie at the heart.

43
of ecosystem dynamics. The principal steps and components of ecosystem are
illustrated in figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Different components of ecosystem

3.4 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

The biotic community of any ecosystem can be divided simply into producers,
consumers and decomposers.

Producers or autotrophs are organisms that make their own organic material from
simple inorganic substances. For most of the biospheres, the main producers are
photosynthet-ic plants and algae that synthesise glucose from carbon dioxide and
water. The glucose produced is an energy source and combines with other molecules
from the soil to build biomass. It is this biomass that provides the total theoretical
energy available to all non photosynthesizing organisms in the ecosystem.

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that obtain molecules by eating or

digesting other organisms. By eating other organisms, they gain both food as an
energy supply and nutrient molecules from within the biomass ingested. For
instance, to build new protein, consumers have to eat protein containing amino acids.
Consumers are of three types:

Herbivores – animals that eat only plants-primary consumers. Eg: hare, deer,
elephant and fish that live on algae

Carnivores – animals that eat only animals-secondary consumers. Eg: tigers,

leopards, jackals, foxes, carnivorous fish.

44
Omnivores – animals that eat both animals and plants. Eg: humans

Decomposers are the waste managers of any ecosystem. They are small, like worms,
in-sets, bacteria and fungi. They are the final link in a foodweb and break down dead
organic material into smaller particles and finally into simpler substance that are
used by plants as nutrition. Thus, decomposition is a vital function in nature. Without
this, all the nutrients would be tied up in dead matter and no new life would be
produced. Decomposers can be divided into two groups based on their mode of
nutrition:

1.Detrivores are organisms that ingest non-living organic matter. These can include
earth-worms, beetles and many other invertebrates.

2.Saprotrophs are organisms that live on or in non-living organic matter, secreting

diges-tive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion. These include
fungi and bacteria.

Fig. 3.4 Relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers

3.5 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. All the
func-tions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration
of its plant and animal species. These interlinked processes can be depicted as
various cycles. All these processes depend on energy from sunlight. During
photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and oxygen is released into the
atmosphere. Animals depend on this oxygen for their respiration. The water cycle
depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy
cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our own lives are
closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If human activities
alter them, humanity cannot survive on earth.

3.5.1 Energy Cycle

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The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. The energy
from sunlight is converted by plants into growing new plant material like leaves,
flowers, fruits, branches, trunks and roots of plants. Since plants can grow by
converting the solar energy directly into their tissues, they are known as producers
in the ecosystem. The plants are consumed by herbivores as food, which gives them
energy. A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these
animals such as breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining
blood flow and body temperature. Energy is also used for activities like looking for
food, finding shelter, breeding and rearing the young ones. The carnivores, in turn,
depend on the herbivores on which they feed. Thus, the different plant and animal
species are linked to one another through food chains. Each food chain has three or
four links. However, as each plant or animal can be linked to several other plants or
animals through many different linkages, these interlinked chains can be depicted as
a complex food web. This is called the ‘web of life’ that shows that there are
thousands of interrelationships in nature.

The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding
groups, each known as trophic level (feeding level). In any ecosystem, producers
represent the first trophic level, herbivores represent the second trophic level,
primary carnivores represent the third trophic level and top carnivores represent the
last level.

The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or energy
pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of plants called producers. The pyramid
has a narrower middle section that depicts the number and biomass of herbivorous
animals, which are called first order consumers. The apex depicts the small biomass
of carnivorous animals called second order consumers. Man is one of the animals at
the apex of the pyra-mid. Thus, to support mankind, there must be a large base of
herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity of plant material.

When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being broken
down into simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and
fungi; so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots. Animals excrete
waste products after digesting food, which goes back to the soil. This links the
energy cycle to the nitrogen cycle.

On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed
on to the next level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic
levels include respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and nonpredatory

46
death (organisms that die but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of
material that is consumed also influences how efficiently energy is transferred,
because consumers can convert high-quality food sources into new living tissue
more efficiently than low-quality food sources.

The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally
more important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large
amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form,
which is then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during
decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat. The Figure 3.5 shows the flow
of energy (dark arrows) and nutrients (light arrows) through ecosystems.

Fig. 3.5 Energy and nutrient transfer through an ecosystem

Fig. 3.6 Energy pyramid

3.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological Succession is the process by which the ecosystem tend to

47
change over a period of time. There are several developmental stages in the
ecosystem. Developmental stages in the ecosystem consist of a pioneer stage,
a series of changes known as serial stages and finally a climax stage. The
successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the
biological system. Succession usually produces a stable state at the end. For
example, an open area will gradually be converted into grassland, a shrub
land and finally, a woodland and a forest.
There are two different types of succession- primary and secondary.
Primary succession occurs in regions in which the soil is incapable of
sustaining life. This may occur due to factors like lava flows, newly formed
sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession
occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed.
It is characterized by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life
and nutrients from the environment.

The most frequent example of successional changes occur in a pond

ecosystem. The different stages may be: dry terrestrial habitat, an early
colonization stage by small aquatic species after the monsoon, a mature
aquatic ecosystem. It may go back to its dry stage in summer when its aquatic
life remains dormant.
Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes, which create
changes in the community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem.
Other successional events may take much longer periods of time, extending
to several decades. If a forest is cleared, initially only a small number of
species from surrounding habitats are capable of thriving in this disturbed
habitat. As new plant species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering
things like the amount of shade on the ground or the mineral composition of
the soil. These changes allow other species that are better suited to this
modified habitat to succeed the old species. These newer species are
superseded, in turn by still newer species. A similar succession of animal
species occurs, and interactions between plants, animals, and environment
influence the pattern and rate of successional change.

Fig. 3.7 Ecological Succession

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3.7 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

In the ecosystem, green plants alone are able to trap solar energy and convert it into chemical energy.
The chemical energy is locked up in the various organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, fats and
proteins, that are present in the green plants. Since virtually all other living organisms depend upon
green plants for their energy, the efficiency of plants in any given area in capturing solar energy sets
the upper limit to long-term energy flow and biological activity in the community.

The food manufactured by the green plants is utilized by themselves and also by herbivores. Herbivores
fall prey to some carnivorous animals. In this way, one form of life supports the other form. Thus, food
from one trophic level reaches the other trophic level and in this way a chain is established. This is
known as the food chain.

Definition of food chain: A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nu-trients through
a succession of organisms through repeated process of eating and being eaten. In a food chain, the initial
link is a green plant or producer which produces chemical energy available to consumers. For example,
marsh grass is consumed by a grasshopper, the grasshopper is consumed by a bird and that bird is
consumed by hawk.

Food chains are of three types:

Grazing food chain, Parasitic food chain, Saprophytic or detritus food chain

1.\ Grazing food chain

The grazing food chain starts from green plants (autotrophs) and from them, it goes to herbivores
(primary consumers) to primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores
(tertiary consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an ecosystem may be utilized
in three ways – it may be oxidized in respiration, it may be eaten by herbivorous animals and after the
death and decay of producers it may be utilized by decomposers and finally released into the
environment. In herbivores, the assimilated food can be stored as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and
transformed into much more complex organic molecules.

As in autotrophs, the energy in herbivores also meets three routes-respiration, decay of or-ganic matter
by microbes and consumption by the carnivores Likewise, when the secondary carnivores or tertiary
consumers eat primary carnivores, the total energy assimilated by primary carnivores or gross tertiary
production follows the same course and its disposition into respiration, decay and further consumption
by other carnivores is entirely similar to that of herbivores.

2.\ Parasitic food chain

It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in the case of predator.

3.\ Detritus food chains:

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The dead organic remains including metabolic wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain
are generally termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in ecosystem as a whole; rather
it serves as a source of energy for a group of organisms called detritivores that are separate from the
grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain.

3.8 FOOD WEB

Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, and they are not independent. In an ecosystem, one organism
does not depend wholly on another. The resources are shared specially at the beginning of the chain.
The marsh plants are eaten by variety of insects, birds, mammals and fishes and some of the animals
are eaten by several predators. Similarly, in the food chain eg: grass→mouse → snakes→owls.
Sometimes mice are not eaten by snakes but directly by owls. This type of interrelationship interlinks
the individuals of the whole community. In this way, food chains become interlinked. A complex of
interrelated food chains makes up a food web. Food web maintains the stability of the ecosystem. The
greater the number of alternative pathways, the more stable is the community of living things.

Fig 3.8 Food web in an ecosystem

3.8.1 Ecological Pyramids

The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by C.E. Eltron (1927). The trophic structure of an
ecosystem can be indicated by means of ecological pyramid. At each step in the food chain, a
considerable fraction of the potential energy is lost as heat. As a result, organisms in each trophic level
pass on lesser energy to the next trophic level than they actually receive. This limits the number of steps
in any food chain to 4 or 5. The longer the food chain, the lesser is the energy available for the final
members on the chain. Because of this taper-ing off of available energy in the food chain, a pyramid is
formed and this is known as the ecological pyramid. The higher the steps in the ecological pyramid,
the lower will be the number of individuals and the larger their size.

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There are different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, the producer level forms
the base and successive levels make up the apex. Three types of pyramidal re-lations may be found
among the organisms at different levels in the ecosystem. They are:

1. Pyramid of numbers, 2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and 3.
Pyramid of energy.

3.8.1.1 Pyramid of Numbers

It depicts the numbers of individuals in producers and in different orders of consumers in an ecosystem.
The base of pyramid is represented by producers which are the most abun-dant. In the successive levels
of consumers, the number of organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there are a few carnivores.

The pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem indicates that the producers are ingested in large numbers by
smaller numbers of primary consumers. These primary consumers are eaten by relatively smaller
number of secondary consumers and these secondary consumers, in turn, are consumed by only a few
tertiary consumers. In a parasitic food chain starting from tree, the pyramid of numbers will be inverted.

Fig 3.9 Pyramid of numbers of a lake ecosystem

3.8.1.2 Pyramid of Biomass

The living weights of the members of the food chain present at any one time form the pyramid of
biomass of organisms. This indicates the total bulk of organisms or fixed energy present at one time.
Pyramid of biomass indicates the decrease of biomass in each trophic level from base to apex, e.g., total
biomass of producers is more than the total biomass of the herbivores.

Likewise, the total biomass of secondary consumers will be lesser than that of herbivores and so on.
Since some energy and material are lost in each successive link, the total mass stored at each level is
limited by the rate at which the energy is being stored below. This usually gives a sloping pyramid for
most of the communities in terrestrial and shallow water ecosystems. The pyramid of biomass in a pond
ecosystem will be inverted.

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 Fig 3.10 A pyramid of biomass

3.8.1.3 Pyramid of Energy

This depicts not only the amount of total energy utilized by the organisms at each trophic level of food
chain but more importantly, the actual role of various organisms in transfer of energy. At the producer
level, the total energy will be much greater than the energy at the successive higher trophic level. Some
producer organisms may have small biomass but the total energy they assimilate and pass on to
consumers may be greater than that of organisms with much larger biomass. Higher trophic levels are
more efficient in energy utilization, but much heat is lost in energy transfer. Energy loss by respiration
also progressively increases from lower to higher triophic states.

Fig 3.11 Pyramid of energy

In the energy flow process, two things become obvious. Firstly there is only one way along which
energy moves i.e unidirectional flow of energy. Energy comes in the ecosystem from an outside source
i.e. sun.The energy captured by autotrophs does not go back to the sun; the energy that passes from
autotrophs to herbivores also does not revert back. As the energy moves progressively through the
various trophic levels, it is no longer available to the previous levels. Thus, due to unidirectional flow
of energy, the system would collapse if the supply from primary source, the sun, is cut off. Secondly,
there occurs a progressive decrease in energy level at each trophic level which is accounted largely by
the energy dissipated as heat in metabolic activities.

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3.9 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

3.9.1 Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem is a population of organisms residing within a tree. In general, a forest is defined as
a large group of trees. Other important aspects of a forest, however, are the shrubs, the floor-leaf mulch
and the plants that live in conjunction with the trees. A forest ecosystem, however, isn't just about the
forest environment. It also deals with the animals that live in the forest.

3.9.1.1 Characteristic Features of Forest Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems are rich and diverse, and they have many exciting and fascinating features.

1.\ Seasonality: In countries that have seasonal climate, forest ecosystems will change with the
seasons.

2.\ Deciduous or evergreen: A forest may be deciduous (i.e. it sheds its leaves in winter) or evergreen
(i.e. its leaves stay green and intact all the time), or it may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen
trees.

3.\ Different levels: Some forest ecosystems such as rain forests, features several levels– such as the
forest floor, the lower canopy, the upper canopy and the tree tops.

4.\ Attractive to birds: Many bird species nest in tree tops and this makes forest ecosys-tems attractive
to birds.

5.\ Attractive to insects: Many insects live in tree barks, leaf mulch or flowers and as such they find
forest ecosystems very attractive places to make their homes.

3.9.1.2 Importance of Forest Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems are important not just for the community close to the forest, but for the whole world.
The following are the reasons for this.

1.\ The Amazon rainforest is described as a biotic pump-like a giant green lung that releases oxygen
into the atmosphere and locks away carbon.

2.\ Some of our forests are truly ancient, and much older than many human civilizations.

3.\ All our forest ecosystems are important for biodiversity. In fact, biologists very often claim that
they are still discovering new species in the Amazon rain forest on a regular basis.

4.\ Forest ecosystems are not just habitats for animals. Many human communities including indigenous
communities live in forests all over the world.

5.\ Forests keep the earth rich in minerals, protect it from desertification by providing a shield against
winds, and so on.

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3.9.1.3 Types of Forest Ecosystems

Taiga: This thin, sparse forest exists at the extreme north of the world, in countries such as Canada and
Finland and in the Arctic Circle. It is characterized by chilly conditions and the fact that the animals
and birds and other organisms that live there have adapted to the cold. The taiga is a very ancient forest.

Rain forests: Rain forests are huge, humid, highly bio-diverse swathes of forest that are usually found
within the global South. Due to the thick canopy created by their leaves, rain forests usually create their
own mini ecosystem that seals off heat and humidity.

Boreal forests: Boreal forests exist in the sub Arctic zones of the world (i.e. less far north than the
Taiga). Here, you can find a mix of deciduous and evergreen trees and plenty of different animals,
insects, birds and so on.

Forests of the temperate zone: Located between the freezing cold of the polar zone and the scorching
heat of the equator, the temperate zone is somewhere where forests can truly flourish. Some very ancient
forests, such as the New Forest in Britain are examples of how the temperate zone conditions are just
right for huge amounts of biodiversity to occur. Again, in this zone, forests can be made of a mix of
deciduous and evergreen trees or of mainly one or mainly the other type of tree.

3.9.1.4 Functions of Forest ecosystems

Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and their
surrounds. Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem. Some provide food for other
organisms, other provide shelter or control populations trough predation.

3.9.2 Grass Land Ecosystem

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grassland Ecosystems and other herbaceous
(non-woody) plants. Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface. They occur in regions too dry
for forests and too moist for deserts. The annual rainfall ranges between 25-75cm, usually seasonal.
The principal grasslands includes Prairies (Canada, USA), Pampas (South America), Steppes (Europe
and Asia), and Veldts (Africa). The highest abundance and greatest diversity of large mammals are
found in these ecosystems. The dominant animal species include wild horses, asses and antelope of
Eurasia, herds of Bison of America, and the antelope and other large herbivores of Africa. Grasslands
are found primarily on plains or rolling topography in the interiors of great land masses, and from sea
level to elevations of nearly 16,400 ft in the Andes. Because of their continental location, they
experience large differences in seasonal climate and wide ranges in diurnal conditions.

3.9.3 Desert Ecosystem

A desert ecosystem is a community of organisms that live together in an environment that seems to be
deserted wasteland. A desert ecosystem generally witnesses little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation

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than in more humid areas of the globe. Look closely at any seemingly deserted piece of land and you
will usually be able to see numerous insets living in communities, an abundance of plant life, mammals
and birds. In addition, micro organ-isms such as bacteria will also be present in this ecosystem, though
they are not visible to the naked human eye.

There are many different types of desert ecosystems. They are:

1. Hot deserts: Hot deserts can be found close to the equator. The Sahara is a good exam-ple. Hot deserts
tend to feature scorching hot ground which many plants may struggle to grow on, little shade, and a
shortage of water. The plants and animals that live here have evolved in order to adapt to these very hot
conditions. For example, cacti have grown a tough outer skin and interiors which can store any fluid
that they absorb so that they can stay hydrated during droughts.

2. Cold deserts: Desertification can exist at high altitudes too, and when this happens, the desert will be
cold. A good example is the deserted rocky peaks of a mountain. A cold desert may be sandy or rocky,
but it will be a harsh environment where organisms have adapted in strange and wonderful ways so that
they can survive. Eg: Gobi desert.

3. Ice deserts

Ice deserts are another type of cold desert. Here, instead of a sandy or rocky wasteland, we have a
seemingly uninhabited region that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be found towards the north and
south poles of the planet, though they may also be located high up on mountain peaks.

3.9.4 Aquatic Ecosystems

In the broadest sense, there are two major types of ecosystems-aquatic and terrestrial. Among which
aquatic ecosystems are further classified into freshwater, marine and estu-arine ecosystems based on
their salt content. Composing more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, aquatic ecosystems are not only
the dominant feature of earth but are also very diverse in species and complexity of interaction among
their physical, chemical and bio-logical components.

3.9.4.1 Fresh water ecosystems

Fresh water ecosystems cover about 2% of the earth’s surface, an area of about 2.5 million Km2. These
ecosystems are characterized by running water or still water. The running water ecosystems are also
known as lotic ecosystems and still water as lentic ecosystems.

Lotic ecosystems

Fresh water streams (Springs, rivulets, creeks, brooks etc.) and rivers can change over their course from
being narrow, shallow, and relatively rapid to become increasingly broad, deep and slow moving. A
river is a lotic ecosystem that is formed because of gravity and acts as a catchments delivery/removal
system. They are Mother Nature’s pipelines. The water in a lotic ecosystem, from source to mouth, will

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have atmospheric gases, turbidity, longitu-dinal temperature gradation and material dissolved in it.
Lotic ecosystems have two main zones:- rapids and pools. Rapids are the areas where the water is fast
enough to keep the bottom clear of materials, while pools are deeper areas of water where the currents
are slower and silt builds up. Temperature is a major abiotic factor for life in these systems. Water found
in these systems will freeze much quicker, and thaw much faster than the deep waters of lentic systems.
Lotic ecosystems depend on precipitation, snow melt, and springs to keep the water flowing. In time of
drought these shallow systems will dry up and many organisms will die.

Lentic ecosystems

Lentic water systems consist of still bodies of water, such as lakes, ponds and seas. During periods of
drought, these systems will often last longer than their smaller counterparts and organisms can continue
to live despite the shortened supplies. These bodies often experience many things that lotic water
systems do not. Lentic water systems are made up of multiple zones: littoral, limnetic, vertical, and
benthic.

The epilimnion, or surface water, is the area in which most life can be found. This zone is high in oxygen
content during the summers; the warmer waters that receive the most sun-light will hold the most
oxygen, thus allowing the greatest amount of life to flourish here.

The metalimnion, or middle mass of water is where the temperature of the water begins to decrease;
life is not as plentiful as in the surface waters but there are still many organisms that can be found here.
Very often, this is where the thermocline will begin. A thermocline is a point at which the water
temperature decreases approximately one degree Celsius per meter.

The hypolimnion is the warmest zone during the winter time and the coldest during the summer. It is
the bottom most part of the body, where sometimes light does not reach. This zone is where the least
amount of life will be found throughout most of the year.

Overturns occur when water is stratified in bodies; the water from the bottom of the mass is mixed with
the water close to the surface. This occurs during spring and fall.

3.9.4.2 Marine ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems. Examples include salt marshes,
intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be
contrasted with fresh water ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover two-
thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports
the animal life and vice versa.

Marine ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial en-vironments.
According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats account for about one-third of marine
biological productivity. Estuarine ecosystems, such as salt marshes, sea grass meadows and mangrove

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forests, are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. Coral reefs provide food and shelter
to the highest levels of marine diversity in the world. Marine ecosystems usually have a large
biodiversity and are therefore thought to have a good resistance against invasive species.

Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the
area that extends from as far as the tide come in on the shoreline out to the edge of the continental shelf.
Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though shelf area occupies only seven percent of the
total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental
shelf.

Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal zones. Pelagic hab-itats are
found near the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal
habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a
pelagic organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a
demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habi-tats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral,
depending on what ocean currents are doing.

Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp,
mangroves and sea grasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine en-vironment to the
point where they create further habitat for other organisms.

3.9.4.3. Estuaries

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams
flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.

Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are
subject both to marine influences-such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water-and to reverie
influences-such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of both sea water and fresh water
provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries one among
the most productive natural habitats in the world.

Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river erod-ed or glacially
scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years ago. Estuaries are typically
classified according to their geomorphological features or to

water-circulation patterns. They can have many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets,
or sounds, although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet the above definition of an estuary
and may be fully saline.

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The banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about
60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the coast. As a result, many estuaries suffer
degradation by many factors, including sedimentation from soil ero-sion, deforestation, overgrazing
and other poor farming practices; overfishing; and filling of wetland; eutrophication due to excessive
nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pol-lutants including heavy metals, polychlorinated
biphenyls, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and damming for flood control or water
diversion.

Questions

Part A (5 marks)

1. What is an ecosystem?
2. Explain the structure of an ecosystem.
3. What are the functions of an ecosystem?
4. Which are the functional components of an ecosystem?
5. Write briefly on the biotic components of an ecosystem.
6. Which are the abiotic components in an ecosystem?
7. Explain with examples producers, consumers and decomposers.
8. What do you mean by ‘web of life’?
9. Explain the energy cycle in an ecosystem.
10. What do you mean by ecological succession. Explain.
11. Which are the different types of food chain ?
12. What do you mean by an ecological pyramid. Name the different types of ecological pyramids.
13. What is meant by pyramid of numbers?
14. Which are the different types of forest ecosystems. Give examples for each.
15. List the characteristic features of forest ecosystems.
16. Why is a forest ecosystem important to the world?
17. What is a desert ecosystem ?
18. Name the different types of a desert ecosystem. Explain each.
19. Explain lotic and lentic ecosystems.
20. Write a short note on freshwater ecosystem.
21. What are pelagic and demersal zones ?
22. 22.\ What is an estuary?
23. Part B (15 marks)
24. Explain its structure and functions.

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25. Write a note on the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem explaining the functions of
each with examples.
26. Explain the energy flow in an ecosystem. What is an energy cycle?
27. Explain the terms food chain and food web.
28. Describe ecological pyramid.
29. Explain a forest ecosystem focusing on the different types, its importance and char-acteristics.
30. Which are the different types of ecosystems? Explain the features of each.
31. Describe aquatic ecosystems. Which are the different types ? Explain each.

Part B (10 marks)

1. Define an ecosystem. Explain its structure and functions.

2. Write a note on the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem explaining the functions of
each with examples.
3. Explain the energy flow in an ecosystem. What is an energy cycle?
4. Explain the terms food chain and food web.
5. Describe ecological pyramid.
6. Explain a forest ecosystem focusing on the different types, its importance and char-acteristics.
7. Which are the different types of ecosystems? Explain the features of each.
8. Describe aquatic ecosystems. Which are the different types ? Explain each.

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 CHAPTER 4

BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

4.1 Introduction:

It is really amazing , if we divide the whole mother earth into 10 billion parts, it is only one part where
life exists and the surprising variety of living organisms which could be about 50 million species are all
restricted to just about a kilometer –thick layer of soil, water and air. It is indeed wonderful to see that so
much diversity has been created by nature on this earth from so little physical matter. Biodiversity refers
to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which
they occur. Biodiversity constitutes the biological wealth.

Importance of biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation, the practice of protecting and preserving the wealth and variety of species,
habitats, ecosystems, and genetic diversity on the planet, is important for our health, wealth, food, fuel,
and services we depend on. Biodiversity conservation is vital for economic growth and poverty
reduction.This has created a great imbalance in nature. Thus, the importance of biodiversity has to be
understood and actions have to be taken to maintain all the three levels of diversities.

4.2. Biogeographic Classification of India:

India is country of vast biodiversity. It is divided into different regions based on the geography, climate
and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects and
other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as
forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains and hills, which have specific plant and animal
species.

Biogeographic classification of India is the division of India according to biogeographic characteristics.

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in
geographic space and through geological time. There are ten biogeographic zones in India.
1. Trans Himalayan zone.
2. Himalayan zone
3. Desert zone.
4. Semiarid zone.
5. Western Ghat zone.
6. Deccan plateau zone.
7. Gangetic plain zone.

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 8. North east zone.
9. Coastal zone.
10. Islands present near the shore line.

Trans-Himalayan region

The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range are called the Trans- Himalayas.
The Trans-Himalayan region with its sparse vegetation has the richest wild sheep and goat community in
the world. The snow leopard is found here, as is the migratory black-necked crane.

Himalayas

The Himalayas consist of the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the world. The Himalayas have
attained a unique personality owing to their high altitude, steep gradient and rich temperate flora.

The forests are very dense with extensive growth of grass and evergreen tall trees. Oak, chestnut, conifer,
ash, pine, deodar are abundant in Himalayas. There is no vegetation above the snowline. Several
interesting animals live in the Himalayan ranges. Chief species include wild sheep, mountain goats, ibex,
shrew, and tapir. Panda and snow leopard are also found here.

Semi-Arid Areas

Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone between the desert and the denser forests
of the Western Ghats. The natural vegetation is thorn forest. This region is characterized by discontinuous
vegetation cover with open areas of bare soil and soil-water deficit throughout the year.

Thorny shrubs, grasses and some bamboos are present in some regions. A few species of xerophytic herbs
and some ephemeral herbs are found in this semi-arid tract. Birds, jackals, leopards, eagles, snakes, fox,
buffaloes are found in this region.

Western Ghats

The mountains along the west coast of peninsular India are the Western Ghats, which constitute one of the
unique biological regions of the world. The Western Ghats extend from the southern tip of the peninsula
(8°N) northwards about 1600 km to the mouth of the river Tapti (21°N).

The mountains rise to average altitudes between 900 and 1500 m above sea level, intercepting monsoon
winds from the southwest and creating a rain shadow in the region to their East.

The varied climate and diverse topography create a wide array of habitats that support unique sets of plant
and animal species. Apart from biological diversity, the region boasts of high levels of cultural diversity,
as many indigenous people inhabit its forests.

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The Western Ghats are amongst the 25 biodiversity hot-spots recognized globally. These hills are known
for their high levels of endemism expressed at both higher and lower taxonomic levels. Most of the
Western Ghat endemic plants are associated with evergreen forests.

Expansion of traditional agriculture and the spread of particularly rubber, tea, coffee and forest tree
plantations would have wiped out large pockets of primary forests in valleys. The Western Ghats are well
known for harboring a large number of endemic species of caecilians (i.e., legless amphibians) out of 15
recorded from the region so far.

North-West Desert Regions

This region consists of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and parts of Gujarat. The climate is characterized
by very hot, dry summer and cold winter. Rainfall is less than 70 cm. The plants are mostly xerophytic.
Babul, Kikar, wild palm grows in areas of moderate rainfall. Indian Bustard, a highly endangered bird is
found here. Camels, wild asses, foxes, and snakes are found in hot and arid deserts.

Deccan Plateau

Beyond the Ghats is Deccan Plateau, a semi-arid region lying in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India. The highlands of the plateau are covered with
different types of forests, which provide a large variety of forest products. The Deccan plateau includes
the region lying south of the Satpura range.it extends up to the southern tip of peninsular India. Anaimudi
is the highest peak of this region.The Deccan plateau is surrounded by the Western and the Eastern Ghats.
These Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills. The Western Ghats includes the Sahyadri, Nilgiris,
Anamalai, and cardamom hills. Many rivers such as Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri originates
from Western Ghats and flow toward the east.The Eastern Ghats are broken into small hill ranges by river
coming from the Western Ghats. Most of these rivers fall into the bay of Bengal.The Godavari is the
longest river in the Deccan plateau .Narmada and the Tapi flow westwards and fall into the Arabian sea.

Gangetic Plain

In the North is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan foothills. This is the largest unit of the
Great Plain of India. Ganga is the main river after whose name this plain is named. The aggradational
Great Plains cover about 72.4mha area with the Ganga and the Brahmaputra forming the main drainage
axes in the major portion.

The thickness in the alluvial sediments varies considerably with its maximum in the Gangetic plains. The
physio geographic scenery varies greatly from arid and semi-arid landscapes of the Rajasthan Plains to
the humid and per-humid landscapes of the Delta and Assam valley in the east.

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Topographic uniformity, except in the arid Western Rajasthan is a common feature throughout these
plains. The plain supports some of the highest population densities depending upon purely agro-based
economy in some of these areas. The trees belonging to these forests are teak, sal, shisham, mahua, khair
etc.

North-East India

North-east India is one of the richest flora regions in the country. It has several species of orchids,
bamboos, ferns and other plants. Here the wild relatives of cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus
and pepper can be grown.

Islands

The two groups of islands, i.e., the Arabian Sea islands and Bay Islands differ significantly in origin and
physical characteristics. The Arabian Sea Islands (Laccadive, Minicoy, etc.) are the foundered remnants
of the old land mass and subsequent coral formations. On the other hand, the Bay Islands lay only about
220 Km.

Away from the nearest point on the main land mass and extend about 590 Km. With a maximum width of
58 Km the island forests of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea have some of the best-preserved evergreen
forests of India. Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests and some are highly dissected.

Coasts

India has a coastline extending over 5,500 km. The Indian coasts vary in their characteristics and
structures. The west coast is narrow except around the Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch. In the
extreme south, however, it is somewhat wider along the south Sahyadri.

The backwaters are the characteristic features of this coast. The east coast plains, in contrast are broader
due to depositional activities of the east-flowing rivers owing to the change in their base levels.

Extensive deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are the characteristic features of this coast.
Mangrove vegetation is characteristic of estuarine tracts along the coast for instance, at Ratnagiri in
Maharashtra.

Larger parts of the coastal plains are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown. Rice is
the main crop of these areas. Coconut trees grow all along the coast.

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4.3 Value of Biodiversity

As all the organisms in an ecosystem are interlinked and interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the
life of all the organisms including humans is enormous.

• Loss of biodiversity contributes to climatic change.

• Forest converts carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen. Loss of forest covers due to release of
carbon dioxide and other gases due to industrialization, contributes to ‘Green House Effect’. This
leads to Global warming which results in raise in sea-level submerging the low-lying areas in the
world and causing atmospheric changes.
• Biological diversity is also essential for preserving ecological processes.
• Tribal communities who directly gather resources from the forest or fisher folk who catch fish in
marine or freshwater ecosystems are directly or indirectly linked to the biological variety present in
the biosphere.
• For agricultural communities, biodiversity is used to grow their crops to suit the environment.
• Urban communities generally use the greatest amount of goods and services, which are all indirectly
drawn from natural ecosystems.
• Preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and long-term survival of
mankind.

Biodiversity everyday around the globe is being lost and some species are being pushed towards
extinction. Evolution also brought forth new life forms, replacing species that were lost. Today we are
losing about 1500 species every two months.

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Some of the major values of biodiversity are as follows:

1. Consumptive value 2. Productive Value 3.Social Value 4.Ethical Value 5.Aesthetic Value and
6.Option value.

4.3.1 Consumptive use

The value of Nature’s Products that are consumed directly such as firewoods , fodder and meat. In other
words the products which are consumed directly without passing through the market .Consumptive use
value seldom appear in National income accounts.

• A straight forward example is the direct utilization of timber, food, fuel wood and fodder by local
communities.

• The biodiversity contained in the ecosystem provides forest dwellers with all their daily needs, food,
building material, fodder, medicines and a variety of other products. They are well-known about the
qualities and different uses of wood from different species of trees, and collect a large number of local
fruits, roots and plant material that they use as food, construction material or medicines.

• Fisher folks are completely dependent on fish and know where and how to catch fish and other edible
aquatic animals and plants.

4.3.2 Productive use

These are the direct use values where the product is commercially sold in national and international
market. Many industries are dependent upon these values. Example: Textile, leather, silk, paper and pulp
industry etc. There is an international ban on trade of products from endangered species like tusks of
elephants, wool from sheep, fur of many animals etc.

4.3.3 Social values

Social value of Biodiversity in India is particularly important for its religious,spiritual and other cultural
uses. Many plants and animals have ritual significance. The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural and
spiritual purposes.Some examples among auspicious flowers offered in temples are Hibiscus (Shoe
flower) offered to the goddess Kali, Datura (Ummam) flowers to God Siva. A network of sacred groves
is still in evidence in some parts of India.

4.3.4 Ethical values

Ethical values are economic arguments that can be advanced to justify the protection of biological
diversity. Ethical arguments assert that humans have a duty to protect species based on their intrinsic
value, unrelated to human needs.

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People do not have the right to destroy species and should take action to prevent their extinction.

4.3.5 Aesthetic value

Regardless of our own material self-interest, we should treat nature respectfully. Enlightened self-
interest, arguing that preserving biodiversity and developing our knowledge of it will make us better and
happier people. Symbols from wild species such as the lion of Hinduism, the elephant of Buddhism and
the vehicles of several deities are animals that have been venerated for thousands of year. The sacred
Basil or the ‘Tulsi’ has grown in the courtyards of household for centuries.

4.3.6 Option values

Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called the option value. It is impossible to predict which
of our species or traditional varieties of crops and domestic animals will be greatest use in the future.

4.4 India as a Mega-Diversity Nation

India is very rich in the diversity of plants and animals, so it is called as mega diversity
center.Mega means large, so mega diversity means a large number and wide range of species present in
an ecosystem.

India recorded:

• 45,000 + species of wild plants

• 89,000 + species of wild animals
• 320 species of wild relatives of crops have been originated here.
• 1,39,000 species of plants, animals and microbes are recorded  More than 4 lakh species are yet
to be identified

4.5 Hot-Spots of Biodiversity

It is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity, that is under threat from humans.
Concept was first introduced by Norman Myer. Twenty five hotspots have been identified all over the
world.

Important hot spots are

1 .Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
2. Eastern Himalaya
3. Mediterranean basin
4. Indo-Burma
5. Horn of Africa

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 6. Madagacsar and Indian Ocean islands
7. Sundaland
8. Forests of Australia
9. Caucasus
10. Mesoamerica
Two out of ten hot spots are located in India ( Western Ghats and hilly regions of north east Himalaya).

4.6. Threats to Biodiversity

4.6.1. Habitat loss

Habitat loss can be described when an animal loses their home. Every animal in the animal kingdom has a
niche (a comfortable or suitable position).

Reasons of habitat loss caused by humans:

• Agriculture and farming

• Harvesting natural resources for personal use
• For industrial and urbanization development

Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary causes of species extinction worldwide.Example:
The impact upon China’s panda, once found across the nation. It is now only found in fragmented and
isolated regions in the south west of the country as a result of wide spread deforestation in the 20th
century.

Natural causes of habitat are volcanic eruption,, fire and climatic changes.

Solutions for habitat loss are:

• Protecting the remaining sections of natural habitats.

• Reduce human population and expansion of urbanization and industries.
• Educating the public about the importance of natural habitat and bio diversity.

4.6.2 Poaching of wildlife

Poaching is the hunting and harvesting, taking of wild plants or animals. It is for large profits gained by
the illegal sale or trade of animal parts, and meat. Many cultures believe that certain animal parts have
medicinal value. Poaching or illegal hunting endangers animals. If more animals becomes extinct there's
a disruption in the food chain, and that will cause major problems in our ecosystem, resulting eventually
in new adaptations of animals, and or species beyond human control.

4.6.3 Man-wildlife conflicts

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Any conflict that arises where the behavior of one (human or wildlife) is unacceptably disadvantageous to
other.Increase in man wildlife conflict is due to resource limitations such asfood, shelter and space.
It is also due to increasing population of human beings, loss of forest, and decrease in the
quality of forest and development activities.

4.7 Endangered and Endemic Species of India

The endangered species are those living organisms which are almost on the critical level of being
extinct. Thousands of species of plants and animals are endangered and the number increases each year.
World Wildlife Federation (WWF) published a book containing the details of endangered and threatened
species of Flora and Fauna called as RED DATA BOOK or RED LIST BOOK. The RED DATA BOOK
symbolizes a warning signal for those species which are endangered and have to be protected. Otherwise
they are likely to become extinct in the near future. Some examples for animals are red panda, Red fox,
Python and Golden monkey. Plants like Cycasrevoluta, Rauwolfiaserpentina, Nepenthes etc.

An Endemic Species is one that is only found in that region and nowhere else in the world. As such they
are of conservation concern, because they are not widespread and may be confined to only one or two
protected areas. Some examples for endemic species of plants in India are:

Binomial of the plant Common name Place

Polygala irregularis Milkwort Gujarat (rare)

Lotus corniculatus Bird's foot Gujarat (rare)

Arunachal Pradesh
Amentotaxus assamica Assam catkin yew
(threatened)

Moa, skeleton, fork fern,

Psilotum nudum Karnataka (rare)
and whisk fern

Karnataka
Diospyros celibica Ebony tree
(threatened)

Actinodaphne lawsonii Malavirinji Kerala (threatened)

Umbrella tree, kudaivel

Acacia planifrons Tamil Nadu (rare)
(Tamil)

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 Abutilon indicum Indian mallow Tamil Nadu (rare)

4.7.1 IUCN Threat Categories

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), is a network of environmental organization

for the Protection of Nature. The IUCN maintains the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,
a comprehensive assessment of the current risk of extinction of thousands of plant and animal species.The
main aims of IUCN are;

• To convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers.
• To help the international community to try to reduce species extinction.
• To provide scientifically based information on the status of species and subspecies at a global
level.
• To provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity.

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4.7.2 Red Data Book

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List. The Red
Data Book is the state document established for documenting rare and endangered species of animals,
plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species that exist within the territory of the state or country. It
uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies.

4.8. Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation of biological diversity is essential for the survival of the human race.

Objectives and advantages of biodiversity conservation

• Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to

preserve the continuity of food chains.
• The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
• It ensures the sustainable utilisation of life support systems on earth.
• It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the scientific community.
• A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced, if need
be, in the surrounding areas.
• Biological diversity provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and tourism.
• Biodiversity conservation serves as an insurance policy for the future

4.8.1 Types of conservation

In situ conservation: Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find
it unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the number

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of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation resources available. On a
global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists. They identified for maximum
protection, certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness and high
degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region and not found anywhere else). Although all
the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 percent of the earth’s land area, the number of
species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hotspots could reduce the
ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.

In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves,
national parks and sanctuaries. India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife
sanctuaries. India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions that emphasized protection of
nature. In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were
venerated and given total protection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in
Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the
Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh. In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last
refuges for a large number of rare and threatened plants.

Ex situ Conservation:

In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
special setting where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens
and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild
but continue to be maintained in zoological parks. In recent years ex situ conservation has advanced
beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in
viable and fertile condition for long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in
vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds of different genetic strains of
commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks. Biodiversity knows no political
boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility of all nations. The historic
Convention on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called upon all
nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its
benefits. In a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in Johannesburg,
South Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the
current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

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 QUESTIONS

SECTION A (2 MARKS)

1. What do you mean by Hotspots?

2. Name the hotspot centers of India.
3. What are the reasons of habitat loss caused by humans?
4. Give the solutions for habitat loss.
5. What is poaching? How does it affect biodiversity?
6. Explain endangered species with two examples.
7. What is Red data book? Give its importance.
8. Describe endemic species. What is IUCN?
9. Name the in-situ conservation centers of India.
10. List the ex-situ conservation centers in India.

SECTION B (5 Marks)

1. Enumerate the importance of Biodiversity.

2. What are the different biogeographic zones of India?
3. Write notes on species diversity of Himalayan zone.
4. Briefly describe “Trans Himalayan regions”.
5. Explain the biodiversity of Western Ghats.
6. Discuss the biodiversity of Gangetic plains.
7. Write notes on species diversity of “Islands”.
8. Enumerate the biodiversity of “Coast”.
9. What are the consumptive use values of biodiversity?
10. Describe productive values of biodiversity.
11. State the social values of biodiversity.
12. List out the ethical values of biodiversity.
13. What are the aesthetic values of biodiversity?
14. List out different hotspots of biodiversity centers in India.
15. How habitat loss affect biodiversity. Give example.
16. What is IUCN? Give its objectives.

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 SECTION C (15 Marks)

1. Write an essay on Biogeographic classification of India and explain “Biodiversity at Global,

National and local levels”.
2. Enumerate major values of biodiversity. Explain with examples.
3. What are the threats to biodiversity. Write short notes on endemic species of India? Explain
its significance
4. Discuss biodiversity conservation. Describe Ex-situ conservation and In-situ conservation in
detail.
5. Describe different types of biodiversity conservation with examples.

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 CHAPTER 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
5.1. INTRODUCTION

The air we breathe, the water we drink and the place we live in may be polluted with unwanted toxic
substances. The tremendous increase in industrial activity during the last few decades and the release of
toxic industrial wastes into the environment, have been of considerable concern in the recent years from
the point of view of environmental pollution.

It is well known that the outcome of the human activity in the last 200 years on nature (after the industrial
revolution) is very damaging and disrupts natural phenomena and ecological balance. Many incidents and
issues like the death of thousands of people in Minamata in Japan after eating fish from the local Bay
(mercury poisoning), Itai-Itai’ disease (due to cadmium pollution), Bhopal gas tragedy(due to poisonous
gas, MIC), London smog in 1952, the emergence of new ocean currents like El-Nino, Global warming,
Depletion in Ozone umbrella, the nuclear accidents of Three mile island, Chernobyl and recently in
Fukushima, Japan have forced mankind to have a second look on the impact of industries on nature.
Thus, environmental pollution on one hand and deforestation and population explosion on the other, are
threatening the very existence of life on earth. Hence to stimulate awareness of the environment and to
enhance political attention and public action United Nations General Assembly in 1972 established June
5th as World Environment Day.

Pollutants and Contaminants

The term pollution was derived from the Latin word ‘pollotioneum’ which means to make dirty. A
substance present in the environment in greater proportion than its natural abundance and resulting in
harmful or detrimental effect is called a pollutant and this phenomenon is called pollution. For example,
carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone and nitrogen oxide are present in air, but if their percentage
increases because of human activities, they are likely to cause pollution. In addition to this, there are
certain substances which are not present in the environment, but the release of which as a result of
chemical reactions can lead to pollution. They are called as contaminant. Examples: oil spills in sea,
methyl isocyanate (MIC) –the gas responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy.

The major forms of environmental pollutions, their cause, effects and control measures are discussed
below:

1
5.2. AIR POLLUTION

The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope held to earth by gravity. It extends from earth’s surface to about
1000 km. The composition of the air varies from place to place. The composition is Nitrogen 78%,
Oxygen 21%, Argon less than 1%, and others include carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone, helium,
methane etc in trace amount.

Composition of air

The main layers of atmosphere from the surface of earth upwards are troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere. As far as atmospheric pollution is concerned, only troposphere and
stratosphere are important. Troposphere extends to a height of about 10 km from the sea level. It contains
air, water vapour, clouds etc. The pollution in this region is caused by poisonous gases, fumes and smog.
Examples include photochemical smog, acid rain*, global warming and green house effect*.

Stratosphere, which is the seat of ozone is above troposphere. It extends from the height of 10 to 50 km
above the sea level. It is the ozone layer at stratosphere that acts as the protective blanket of the earth
from the injurious effects of the ultraviolet rays from the sun. Ozone layer depletion* is the pollution that
affects the stratosphere.

[ *refer section 5.5.2, 5.5.3 and 5.5.4 for more details]

The World Health Organization defines air pollution as “the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.”Or it is the occurrence or addition of
foreign particles, gases and other pollutants into the air which have an adverse effect on human
beings, animals, vegetation, buildings, etc.

2
Pollutants are classified into primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants: they are emitted into
the atmosphere directly from the source and retains the same chemical form. Examples are carbon
monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter(SPM).Secondary
pollutants: they are formed by the inter mingling and reactions of primary pollutants. Examples are
photochemical smog, acid rain, PAN etc.

The sources of air pollution are classified into two groups: Natural and Man- made sources. Natural
process of air pollution includes dust storms, forest fires, ash from volcanoes, decay of organic matter,
pollen grains floating in air etc. Manmade sources include population explosion, deforestation,
urbanization and industrialization.

5.2.1. Causes of Air Pollution

Important causes of air pollution include:

• Pollutants emitting from vehicles, carbon monoxide formed by improper or incomplete

combustion which are emitted from vehicles is a major pollutant.
• Pollutants from industries, like sulphur dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen oxide, chlorine,
asbestos dust, hydrocarbons and chemicals deplete the quality of air.
• Use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.
• Particulate matter from mining activities.
• Household cleaning products, carpets, paints emit toxic chemicals into the air and cause indoor
air pollution.
• Suspended particulate matter (SPM) produced due to burning of coal.
• Nuclear power plants pollute air by releasing radioactive radiation.
• Indiscriminate cutting of trees and clearing of forests increases the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.
• Acid deposition due to acid rain may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life.
• Use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers pollute air by
depleting the ozone layer.
• Smoking pollutes air by emitting carbon monoxide and nicotine.

5.2.2. Effects of Air Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

• It affects respiratory system causing breathing difficulties and diseases such as bronchitis, asthma,
lung cancer, tuberculosis and pneumonia.

3
 • Inhaling carbon monoxide results in respiratory problems, muscular weakness, mental
impairment, and dizziness in human beings. At high concentration, it will harmfully affect the
plants causing leaf drop, reduction in leaf size, and premature aging.
• Carbon dioxide causes mild narcotic effects and affects respiratory systems. Increased
concentration in the atmosphere causes green house effect and global warming.

• Air pollution causes acid rain which damages crop plants, trees, buildings, monuments, statues
and metal structures. It also makes the soil acidic.

• Ozone layer depletion due to which ultraviolet radiations can reach the earth and cause skin
cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
• Excess nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere results in respiratory problems and bronchitis. It also
causes harmful effects on nylon, rayon and causes cracks in rubber.
• Excess sulphur oxides are extremely harmful to plants and animals. It causes eye irritation,
respiratory problems, lung cancer etc. In plants, it kills leaf tissues, reduces plant productivity,
and bleaches leaf pigments.

• Pesticides like DDT which are toxic, enter into our food chain and gets accumulated in the body
causing kidney disorders, problems of brain and circulatory system.

• Excess pollen and microbes in the atmosphere directly damage the vegetation, food articles and
cause diseases in plants, animals and human beings.

5.2.3. Control Measures of Air Pollution

The atmosphere has several built-in self-cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling,
flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of contaminants
at their source level is a desirable and more effective method.

• Use of public transportation facilities and using unleaded petrol or using fuels with low sulphur
and ash content.
• Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.
• Planting trees along busy streets remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise.

• Renewable and non- polluting sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy etc. should be
used.

• Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to emission control standards.

4
 • Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the downwind
of the city. It should also be fitted with equipment for removal and recycling of wastes.
• Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by industries.

• Tall chimneys should be installed in factories.

• Better designed equipment and smokeless fuels should be used in houses and industries.

• Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. So conserve energy by switching off
fans and lights when not in use.

• Understand the concept Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

• Use energy efficient devices like LEDs, CFL lights etc.

• Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide. Example: Phaseolus vulgaris, Daucus carota

• Growing plants capable of metabolizing nitrogen oxides and other gaseous pollutants. Example:
Vitis, Pimis, Pyrus etc.

5.3. WATER POLLUTION

Water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. It is essential for the
survival of any form of life. Water pollution is a major global problem, both in developed and developing
countries, as more and more wastes are being disposed in oceans, rivers and lakes. This increase in
pollution is harming our food supplies, drinking water and environment. Water pollution is defined as the
“the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful
effects on humans and aquatic life”.

Point and non-point sources:

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Point source pollution refers to contaminants that
enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this
category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant to rivers, lakes etc. Non-point source
pollution (NPS) refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS
pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area.
Run-off and under-drainage from agricultural land into rivers are typical examples.

5.3.1. Causes of Water Pollution

Important causes of water pollution include:

5
 • Sewage and waste water: Raw sewage contaminates water with pathogens. Microorganisms
causing degradation of sewage take up most of the oxygen present in water. Untreated sewage
water is a major problem in developing countries with insufficient sanitation.
• Industrial waste: Many industrial plants use fresh water to dispose their waste, polluting rivers,
lakes, and oceans. Toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides are released
into water bodies. They also cause thermal pollution of water.
• Organic contaminants: They include detergents, disinfection byproducts like chloroform,
food processing wastes, insecticides, herbicides, petroleum products, industrial solvents,
cosmetic products etc.
• Inorganic contaminants: They include industrial discharge, ammonia from food
processing waste, fertilizers containing nutrients like nitrates and phosphates, heavy
metals from motor vehicles, acid mine drainage, runoff from construction sites. The
major inorganic pollutants in water are arsenic, cadmium, lead, chromium, cyanides,
nitrates, phosphates etc.
• Radioactive waste: Produced during industrial, medical, and scientific processes, and through
mining and refining of nuclear fuels like Uranium and Thorium. Nuclear processing plants give
off wastes that can pollute the marine environment.
• Oil Pollution: Large oil spill events account for only 12% of total oil pollution. The remaining is
through routine shipping, land run-off, and intentional oil dumping.
• Eutrophication: It occurs when ocean waters and other aquatic habitats are enriched with excess
nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrogenous compounds caused by agricultural runoff. Excess
nutrients cause algal blooms in the ocean, lakes and other freshwater bodies.
• Run-off from many different sources (non-point source pollution):Rainfall and snowmelt can
wash natural and man-made pollutants into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and coastal waters.
• Agricultural Run-off: Agricultural pollutants include excessive nutrients, ammonia and nitrates,
pathogens, antibiotics and hormones, heavy metals and salts. Manure, animal bedding, wasted
feed, soil, dust, hair and feathers can be mixed together and can end up in waterways.

5.3.2. Effects of Water Pollution

Important effects of air pollution include:

• Organic pollutants like sewage, industrial waste, wastes from slaughtering units, paper mills and
tanneries, run off from agricultural activity etc causes the depletion of oxygen. Low oxygen levels

6
 cannot support most marine organisms and hence the natural ecological balance in rivers and
lakes is disturbed.
• Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within the wildlife in
ecosystems. Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and persistent. They will remain in the
water bodies for a fairly long time and results in environmental hazards. Pesticides, show
biomagnification* by reaching the food chain. Organophosphorous pesticides cause
Eutrophication*resulting in algal bloom and lowering of DO, thereby threatening aquatic life.

• Excess fluoride in water causes defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis, while arsenic can
cause significant damage to the liver and nervous system.

• Oil spills in the water cause animals to die when they ingest or encounter it.

• Excess sediments in water cause cloudiness reducing photosynthetic ability, which disrupts the
aquatic food chain.

• Drinking contaminated water causes health problems like cancer, reproductive problems, typhoid
fever, stomach sickness and skin rashes in humans.

• Excess radioactive materials in water cause genetic mutations, birth defects and cancer.

• Excess of nitrates in drinking water produces Blue baby syndrome, a disease that affects the
oxygen carrying capacity of infant's blood, usually resulting from the consumption of high levels
of nitrate.

5.3.3. Control Measures

• Setting up effluent treatment plants to treat waste water.

• Planting more trees will reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide.

• Oxidation pond can be useful in removing low level radioactive wastes.

• Sewage pollutants are to be subjected to chemical treatment to convert them into non-toxic
substances.

• Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws
should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological
advancements.

7
 • No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any natural
water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage
must be used for irrigation.

• Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes
into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.

• Thermal pollution can be reduced by employing techniques like cooling ponds, wet/dry cooling
towers etc.

• Water hyacinth (plant) can purify polluted water. It can also filter out heavy metals like cadmium,
mercury, lead, nickel as well as other toxic substance from industrial waste.

• The government has undertaken several projects to clean the rivers, the first of which was the
Ganga Action Plan.

• Increase public education and awareness around the world concerning the causes and impacts of
water pollution.

5.3.4. Eutrophication*

Eutrophication is the enrichment of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically compounds

containing nitrogen and phosphorous and other nutrients from detergents, fertilizers, sewage and
agricultural runoff. Eutrophication can be a natural process in lakes, occurring as they age
through geological time. The process of eutrophication can be both natural and human-induced.

Steps involved in Eutrophication include:

(i) Excess nutrients are applied to soil.

(ii) Some nutrients leach into the soil where they will remain for years or get drained
into the water bed.
(iii) The excess nutrients result in algal bloom.
(iv) Algal bloom blocks the sunlight from reaching the bottom of the water body.
(v) Plants beneath the algal bloom die due to non-availability of sunlight.
(vi) Algal bloom dies and sinks to the bottom of lakes.
(vii) Bacteria decomposes the dead remains, using up the oxygen for respiration.
(viii) Due to decomposition water gets depleted with oxygen, larger life forms like fish
suffocate to death.

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 (ix) Water body cannot support any forms of life.

Human activities can accelerate the rate at which these nutrients enter the ecosystem.
Phosphorous is regarded as the main culprit of eutrophication. With the phasing out of
phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s, industrial/domestic run-off and agriculture have
emerged as the dominant contributors to eutrophication.

5.3.5. Biomagnification or bioaccumulation*

It is the process by which a pollutant or pesticide moves up the food chain, works their way into
rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large
birds, animals or humans. The substances/toxins become concentrated in tissues or internal
organs as they move up the chain. Each successive step up in the food chain causes a stepwise
concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals like mercury or persistent organic pollutants
like DDT. Bioaccumulants are usually accumulated and collected in certain part of living
organisms so that their concentration increases because the substances are slowly metabolized or
excreted.

Substances that biomagnify include DDT, hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyles,

monomethyl mercury and heavy metals. For example, DDT is stored up in the fatty tissues of
breast so that the breast milk is contaminated by DDT. The shell fish collects and stores heavy
metals like cadmium.

Process of Biomagnification includes:

(i) Release of toxic chemicals and pollutants into environment.

(ii) Absorption of toxins by phytoplankton (small plants that float on sea) – once
absorbed, the toxin stays in their tissues without being excreted or broken down.
(iii) Consumption of phytoplankton by zoo plankton (small marine animals that float in
sea) – hence they take up the toxin, which stay locked in the organism tissue without
being excreted or broken down.
(iv) Small fish consume the zooplankton.
(v) Large fish consume the smaller fish.
(vi) The top food chain organism consumes the fish – these toxins get accumulated in the
liver of sea birds, dolphins, humans etc.

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Effects of Biomagnification
(i) Impact on human health.
(ii) Reproduction and development of marine creatures.
(iii)Destruction of the coral reefs.

(iv) Disruption of the food chain.

5.3.6. Water Quality parameters

The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. The parameters that are important to
drinking water are alkalinity, colour, pH, taste, odour, dissolved metals, microorganisms like fecal
coliform, dissolved metals, dissolved organic compounds, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals etc. The water
quality parameters important in environmental concerns are salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), BOD
(Biochemical Oxygen Demand), nitrate, orthophosphates, COD (Chemical oxygen demand), pesticides,
pH, temperature, total suspended solids (TDS) and turbidity.

(i) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in an aqueous solution. DO enter water
through the air or as a plant by-product. From air, oxygen can slowly diffuse across the water surface
from the surrounding atmosphere.

Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic life. It is an important parameter in assessing the water quality
because it influences both plant and animal population in water. It is expressed in parts per million (ppm)
or mg/L. The optimum value of DO in water is 4-6 ppm. Low value of DO indicates water pollution.
Pollutants like sewage, industrial waste, wastes from slaughtering units, paper mills and tanneries, run off
from agricultural activity etc reduces DO. All these materials undergo bacterial activity in the presence of
DO, converting the carbon in the waste to carbon dioxide, thus deoxygenating the water. Aquatic life is
made impossible in water with low DO. Dissolved oxygen should be analyzed immediately after
collecting the sample. Hence, this is a field test that should be performed on site.

Consequence of unusual DO level include fish mortality, fish kill, gas bubble disease (bubbles block the
flow of blood through blood vessels causing death), creation of dead zone (it is an area of water with little
or no dissolved oxygen), water column stratification (which is the separation of water body into layers)
etc.

10
 (i) Biological Oxygen demand [BOD] and Chemical Oxygen Demand [COD]

No Biological Oxygen demand [BOD] Chemical Oxygen Demand [COD]

1 It is an important parameter used in It is an important parameter used in estimating
estimating the degree of organic pollution the degree of organic pollution in wastewater
in wastewater
2 BOD is milligram of oxygen used by COD is an index of inorganic and organic
microorganism to decompose the organic content of water. It is the amount of oxygen
material in one liter of waste water required to degenerate all pollution in a
chemical way (by adding oxidizing agents and
heating).
3 It measures the dissolved oxygen It measures all organic compounds that can be
consumed by organisms to oxidize organic chemically oxidized.
compounds
4 BOD will be lower than COD COD will be higher than BOD

5 BOD is only a measurement of consumed COD refers the requirement of dissolved

oxygen by aquatic microorganisms to oxygen for both the oxidation of organic and
decompose or oxidize organic inorganic constituents
6 BOD measurements take five days to COD measurements can be made in a few
complete hours
7 Less reproducible results COD is more scientific, more reproducible
and accurate
8 Increased BOD can be due to domestic Increased COD can be due to industrial waste
sewage, petroleum residues and organic
wastes etc
9 The determination of BOD is time Determination of COD is precise, saves time
consuming and depends on biochemical and is completely chemical in nature
factors
5.3.7. Quality of Drinking Water

The following parameters must be followed before water is supplied for drinking
• It must be colourless and free from any odour or smell.
• It must be free from suspended particles and turbidity.
• It must be free from microorganisms.
• Its pH must be between 6 to 9.
• It may have harmless dissolved salt to impart good taste.
• It must be free from harmful chemicals.

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5.4. SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a very important constituent of the lithosphere. It is a complex physio-biological system containing
water, mineral salts, nutrients and dissolved oxygen. It is a resource for which there is no substitute.
Fertilizers are not a substitute for a fertile soil. Several factors contribute for the formation of soil like
weathering of rocks due to temperature changes, abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, etc. Climate and
time are also important in the development of soil. Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of various
thicknesses called soil horizon. Depending upon the type of soil there are different horizons like O, A, B
and C.

The top layer or surface layer is called O horizon. It consists mostly of dead leaves, twigs, animal waste,
fungi and other organic wastes. Normally it is brown or black in colour. Below the O layer is A horizon,
also called surface soil. This layer has maximum fertility because it contains microbes and
microorganisms. Below A horizon is B, also called subsoil which contains less organic materials and
fewer organisms than surface soil. The parent rock is called C horizon which is below B. It contains
inorganic materials and large unbroken rocks.

Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil, in high
enough concentrations to pose risk to human health and ecosystem. Soil pollution is the adverse
alternation in the properties of the soil due to dumping of solid
and semi-solid waste from agriculture, industry and urban
areas. It also results because of washing down of pollutants by
rain and faulty sanitation in the soil. However, soil pollution is
different from air and water pollution in following respects

o Soil pollutants do not get dispersed unlike air and

water pollutants.
o The pollution is localized unlike air and water
pollution.
o The pollutants remain at a particular place for
relatively longer period.

5.4.1. Causes of Soil Pollution

Important causes of soil pollution include:

• Agrochemicals: Agricultural activities involving the diffusion of herbicides, pesticides,

insecticides and fertilizers.

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 • Industrial wastes: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the soil pollution in
the last century due to increased mining and manufacturing units. It also includes the
release of harmful gases and chemicals.

• Petroleum wastes: Contamination of soil by petroleum products is a current problem in several

countries in the world. Oil leakage during transportation and storage of petroleum liquids in
underground tanks are the main cause.

• Electronic wastes or E-waste: it is a complex, non-biodegradable waste which is generally

dumped in soil. They have large quantities of lead, cadmium, arsenic etc. Electronic waste
include cell phones, computers, gadgets, printers, radio, camera, video games, scanners, DVDs,
Land phones etc.

• Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices.

• Indiscriminate dumping of untreated domestic waste on land .

• Improper septic system, leakages from sanitary sewage, underground tanks and underground pipe
lines.

• Accidental oil spills which can happen during storage and transport of chemicals.

• Construction and mining activities.

• The storage of waste in landfills, as the waste products may leak into groundwater or generate
polluted vapors.

• Radioactive waste from laboratories, nuclear reactors and nuclear explosions.

• Soil erosion results in the loss of topsoil and makes the soil less fertile and reduces it water
holding capacity.

5.4.2. Effects of Soil Pollution

Some of the serious problems caused by soil pollution are:

• Reduction in soil fertility.

• Soil pollution has major consequences on human health. Consumption of crops and plants grown
on polluted soil cause health hazards. This could explain small and terminal illness.

• Imbalance in the flora and fauna of the soil.

• Excess use of chemical fertilizers may result in reducing the ability of plants to fix nitrogen.

13
 • Increase in salinity of the soil makes it unfit for cultivation.
• Pollutants in soil cause alteration in soil structure, causing death of many soil organisms which
can affect the food chain.
• Decline in the microorganisms found in the soil creating additional problems of soil erosion.

• Emissions of toxic gases and foul odour from the landfills pollute the environment and causes
serious health effects.

• Contamination of underground and surface drinking water.

5.4.3. Control Measures

• Reducing the use of chemicals and fertilizer and encouraging the use of biopesticides in the place
of toxic chemical pesticides.

• Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and
reused.

• Prevention of erosion and silting.

• Create dumping ground away from residential area.

• Launching extensive afforestation and community forestry programmes

• Proper treatment of liquid wastes from industries and mines.

• People should be trained regarding proper sanitary practices.

• Effective treatment of domestic sewage by suitable biological, chemical and adopting modern
method of sludge disposal.

• Public awareness programmes should be implemented to educate people on health hazards due to
soil pollution.

• Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides which are fatal to plants and animals.

• Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

• Bioremediation: It uses microorganisms (yeast, fungi or bacteria) to breakdown, or degrades

hazardous substances into less toxic or nontoxic substances (such as CO2 and H2O).

• Waste water from industries should not be used for irrigation without eliminating toxic chemicals
from the effluent. This will also reduce the concentration of unwanted substances in the soil.

14
 • Enforcing environmental audit for industries and promoting ecolabelled products.

• Municipal waste should be properly collected, segregated, treated and disposed scientifically in
land fills.

5.5. MARINE POLLUTION

Seas are the unlimited source of water and main source of food and sustenance for persons living in
coastal areas. When the marine water is polluted, it affects the animals and other food chain components.
Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substance to marine environment directly or
indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction to marine
activities, and lowering the quality of sea water.

5.5.1. Causes of Marine Pollution

While the cause of marine pollution may be similar to that of water pollution, there are some very specific
causes that pollutes marine water.

• Toxic chemicals like chemical run-off from industries, industrial wastes, household cleaners, nuclear
power stations etc.
• Rivers carry waste in the drainage and joins sea/ocean. The drainage includes sewage effluents,
sludge, industrial effluents, agrochemicals, plastics, metal scraps etc.
• Petroleum and oil washed off from roads normally enter sewage system and finally into the seas.
• Oil spillage is usually an accidental form of releasing oils by ships, which can devastate marine life.
• Testing of atomic weapons, space aircrafts, missiles and other radioactive wastes when dumped in
seas, cause heavy loss to aquatic life.
• Oil drilling in seas, tourism activities and heat released from industries.
• Plastic bags, aluminium cans, trash and other human waste constitute major marine pollutant.
• Greenhouse gases from human fossil fuel consumption are making sea more acidic.

5.5.2. Effects of Marine Pollution

Important effects of marine pollution include:

• Oil is the most dangerous pollutant when afloat on sea or mixed with water, a great threat to marine
life specially fish, birds, invertebrates and algae. Oil also affects sensitive flora, fauna, phytoplankton,
zoo plankton, and other animals.

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• Oil slicks damage salt marshes and mangrove ecosystem and liquid oil contaminates birds’ plumage
and its water repellant properties diminishes.
• Presence of sewage and other bio-matter in sea will result in oxygen depletion, which destroys marine
life.
• Toxic chemicals make the sea/ocean more acidic which harms marine animals, plants and corals.
• Plastic materials are dumped into seas by commercial ships or from drainage. Animals take it through
their food in stomach which may cause ulcer or reduced hunger.
• Heavy metals like mercury, lead, factory materials, mineral oils, are also hazard to marine life when
mixed with sea water.
• Presence of detergents is responsible for the high mortality of marine animals.
• Marine pollution affects the food chain in seas. Serious diseases like cancer are caused when affected
animals are consumed by man from ocean.

5.5.3. Control Measures

• Recycling the plastics and proper disposal is our key responsibility to reduce marine pollution.
• Authorities should take effective measures to check oil leakage from ships and tankers.
• Urban and coastline corporations should check the dumping of wastes from human activities and
municipalities.
• Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of the final product before discharging into
sea.
• Port authorities should take anti-pollutant measures to reduce pollution.
• Cleaning oil from surface water and beaches can be done by spraying chemical dispersants, suction
device or by spreading high density powder over oil spill.
• Developmental activities in coastal areas should be minimized.
• Nuclear explosion and nuclear activities in sea should be minimized.
• Drilling should not be allowed in coastal areas.

5.6. NOISE POLLUTION

Sound that is unwanted, unpleasant or that disrupts the activity of living beings is called noise. When
there is lots of noise in the environment, it is called noise pollution. The word noise comes from the Latin
word nauseas, meaning seasickness. The unwanted, unpleasant sound which causes irritation to ears
and pollution caused by heavy noise is called noise pollution.

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The unit of sound intensity is Decibel (dB), which is the standard for the measurement of noise. It is not
an absolute physical unit, but it is a ratio expressed as logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound
pressure level. People are generally exposed to noise levels ranging from 65 to 80 dB which is the
tolerable noise level forthe human ear. Exposure to noise level greater than 80 dB leads to stress and is
referred as noise pollution. The sensitivity of the ear is lost if the sound intensity exceeds 150 dB level.

5.6.1. Cause of Noise Pollution

There are several sources of noise that contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise pollution.

• Industries/ Factories
• Poor urban planning
• Construction activities
• Household chores
• Transportation/ vehicles
• Playing of loud speakers during festivals/ social events
• Fire crackers
• Microphones
• Television
• Loud music
• Home appliances
• Barking dogs
• Service sirens

5.6.2. Effects of Noise Pollution

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is the physical damage to our ears causing temporary or
permanent hearing loss. People suffering from this condition will be unable to detect weak sounds. 125
dB give the sensation of pain in the ear and 150 dB might kill a human being. The various effects of noise
pollution in human beings can be classified as auditory and non-auditory effects.

1. Auditory effects:

The impairment of hearing which may cause immediate auditory fatigue finally leading to deafness is
known as auditory effects.

2. Non-auditory effects:

These effects include interference with speech communication, ill-temper, mental disorientation, violent
behaviour and a series of health hazards.

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In addition to hearing loss, the effect of noise on human being can be physiological or psychological in
nature.

The physiological disorders include progressive hearing loss, nausea, dizziness, hypertension, reduced
heart beat, variations in blood pressure and breathing problems. The continuous noise can generate
resonance in the skull and affect the brain and nervous system. It can have an impact on thinking and
coordination of limbs and induce pain and numbness. Moderate noise/ vibration can lead to pain,
numbness and cyanosis (blue coloration in fingers). Severe vibrations results in damage to bone, joints
with swelling and stiffness. Exposure to low frequency noise can reduce heart beat, variation in blood
pressure and breathing difficulties.

It is difficult to assess psychological noise effects on human beings. The psychological effects include
sleep disturbances, physical and mental fatigue, lower efficiency, reduced work rate, increased
absenteeism, forgetfulness, higher potential for accidents and injuries. Children exposed to excess noise
show signs of behavioral disorder in later age. Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive
noise.

The effect on living beings can be summarized as:

➢ Health issues – Effect psychological health, aggressive behaviour, stress, fatigue, hypertension, work
efficiency and behaviour etc.

➢ Pediatric problems – hearing problems associated with children.

➢ Gynecological problems – pregnant women are vulnerable to high noise levels.

➢ Heart problems – hypertension and cardiovascular problems.

➢ Hearing problems – auditory fatigue caused by noise levels above 80 dB.

➢ Sleep disorders – exposure to noise reduces duration of sleep, diminish quality of sleep, Psychic
disorders.

➢ Wild life issues - noise bring about changes in the behavioral aptitude of birds and animals. They
become inefficient in hunting and hence disturb the balance of ecosystem. For example, noise
pollution discourages the annual visit of migratory birds to Alipore Zoo at Kolkata.

5.6.3. Control Measures

Noise produced from different sources has created a catastrophe. Hence necessary steps should be taken
to minimize the level of noise and protect the living world from detrimental effects.

• Create public awareness.

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 • Antipollution laws should be enacted and enforced.

• Planting coniferous trees (they have pointed leaves which reflect minimum sound).
• Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles.
• Reduction of traffic density in residential areas and giving preference to public transport system.

• Preference to petrol engines over diesel engines.

• The use of microphones should be controlled and regulated.

• Ban on fire crackers.

• Proper lubrication and sound proofing of machineries.

• Minimum use of loudspeakers.
• Creation of green vegetation covers in highway, streets and industrial areas.
• Usage of ear plugs and mufflers.
• Buildings can be designed with noise absorbing materials on walls, windows and ceilings.

5.7. THERMAL POLLUTION

It is defined as the sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural body of water like oceans,
lakes, rivers or ponds by human influence. It can also be defined as the degradation of water quality by
any process that changes ambient temperature of water. Many industries generate their own power and
use water to cool their generators. This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn,
causing a warming trend of surface water. It creates a disturbance in the oxygen level of water bodies.
This will disturb the marine life and local ecosystems.

5.7.1. Causes of Thermal Pollution

Important causes of thermal pollution include:

1. Nuclear power plants: They emit a large amount of unutilized heat and traces of toxic radio
nucleotides into nearby water streams. Emission from nuclear reactors and processing instruments
are also responsible for increasing the temperature of water bodies.

2. Industries: Industries generating electricity require large amount of cooling water for heat
removal. Industries like textile, paper-pulp and sugar industry also release heat in water, but to a
lesser extent.

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 3. Coal- fired power plants: Some thermal power plants use coal as fuel. Coal- fired power plants
constitute one of the major sources. Their condenser coils are cooled with water from nearby
lakes or rivers and discharges hot water.
4. Hydroelectric power plant: The generation of hydroelectric power may result in the release of
warm water into water bodies.
5. Domestic sewage: It is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams without waste
treatment. The municipal water sewage normally has a higher temperature than receiving water.

6. Deforestation and soil erosion: Removal of trees along the shore line increases solar incidence

7. Natural and Geothermal activities: Natural geothermal activities like volcano can stimulate lava
and can cause a rise in water temperature, leadingto thermal pollution

8. Chemical pollutants discharged into water: There are factories that discharge their chemical
waste directly into natural water bodies.

5.7.2. Effects of Thermal Pollution

Important effects of thermal pollution include:

• The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases with increase in temperature.

• The increase in temperature increases toxicity of poison (pesticides, detergents, chemicals)
present in water.
• A rise in temperature changes the physical and chemical properties of water.
• The physiology, metabolism and biochemical process of aquatic organisms are affected with
increase in temperature.

• It influences the reproductive cycle, digestion rate, respiration rate and many enzymatic activities
of living organisms.

• Economic and environmental damage.

• Thermal pollution may permit the invasion of organisms that are tolerant in warm waters and are
highly destructive in nature.

• The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all.

• Thermal pollution results in low dissolved oxygen levels thereby perishing aquatic organisms.

5.7.3. Control of Thermal Pollution

Heat must be removed from the condenser cooling water prior to their disposal into water bodies

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 • Cooling ponds: This is the simplest and cheapest method which cools water to a considerably low
temperature. Heated effluents on the surface of water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of
heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume.
• Spray ponds: In spray ponds, the water is sprayed in the cooling ponds with the help of spray
nozzles to convert it into fine droplets which provide more surface area to facilitate efficient heat
transfer to atmosphere.

• Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-through cooling. The
heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for cooling purposes may be
withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation.

• Plantation of trees upon the banks of rivers, seas and other water bodies: Trees not only help in
controlling thermal pollution but also aid in a better environment
• Recycling used water:New ideas to be developed on recycling the used water in factories. Every
plant or industry should make it a rule that water used as coolant will not be spilled back into
water bodies.
• Co-generation: Co-generation is also a wonderful idea to combat thermal pollution. In the
process of co-generation, the useless heat from hot water can be recycled and used smartly in
many tasks by industries.

5.8. NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Nuclear pollution is the pollution that contains radioactive materials. It can spread in air, land or
water. It is created by the mishandling and inappropriate storage of nuclear fuels, contaminated tools,
insecure transportation of highly radioactive materials, nuclear explosions etc. It is the only type of
pollution which “we can’t see, we can’t smell and we can’t touch”. The effect of which may not show up
in this decade, this generation or in this century. However, the nuclear impacts on us are far beyond our
imagination.

Nuclear energy is both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is used. We use the
science of radioactivity in the treatment of cancer, diagnosis of diseases, electricity generation, industrial,
commercial, food processing and agriculture applications. Approximately 17 % of electricity generated in
the world comes from nuclear power plants. However, on the other hand, it is impossible to forget the
hazards caused by the nuclear explosion at Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945), Three Mile Island accident
(1979), Chernobyl disaster (1986), Tokaimura nuclear accident(1999), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear
disaster(2010).

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The two main sources of nuclear pollution are natural and manmade. Natural sources include cosmic rays
from outer space, emission from radioactive materials from earth’s crust. Manmade sources include
nuclear waste produced during mining and processing from nuclear power plants, nuclear weapon, use of
radioisotopes in medical, industrial and research applications.

5.8.1. Causes of Nuclear Pollution

Important causes of nuclear pollution include:

• Nuclear waste comes from nuclear power stations. They release tritium (an isotope of hydrogen)
into air and water. Tritium has a half-life of 12.3 years and emits beta particles. Inhalation of
tritium can cause mutation.
• Cosmic rays from outer space.
• Mining and refining of radioactive materials like uranium and thorium.
• Nuclear fuel cycle (used in many industrial, medical and scientific processes).
• The advent of nuclear medicines to cure and for precise diagnosis, with the help of radio isotopes.
• Use of various radioactive derivatives to produce nuclear weapons for mass destructions
• Use of radio isotopes in industrial activities and various detectors.
• Nuclear accidents or any leaks.
• Disposal of nuclear wastes.
• Nuclear tests carried out by defense sectors.
• Radioisotopes coming from scientific research institutions contains various radioactive materials
which causes water pollution.
• Television set, radiographic equipment’s.

Fallout: The radioactive pollution that will spread through the earth’s atmosphere is called fallout. The
best example of fallout is the nuclear bomb attack at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan in 1945 by US
during World War II. As a result of these nuclear bomb explosion, more than two lakh people died owing
to radiation effect and cancer.

5.8.2. Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Important effects of nuclear pollution include:

• The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate of
diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and climatic
conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects.

22
 • As long as the radiations continue, nuclear wastes are dangerous for living being. The effects may
be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generation) damage.
• No physical, chemical or biological process can influence the process of radioactive emissions.
The unstable nuclei have to decay and acquire a stable state.

• Exposure of human beings to low doses of radiations, may begin to suffer from fatigue, nausea,
vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.

• Exposure of human beings to medium doses of radiation may result in bone marrow disorder,
reduction in blood cells,reduction in natural resistance against germs and failure of blood to clot.

• Higher radiation doses will kill the organisms by damaging tissues, brain etc.

• Radiations may cause skin burns which may lead to skin cancer.

• Radiation at pelvic regions of pregnant ladies, cause damage to the fetus. Infants between eight
and fifteen weeks of pregnancy who were exposed to the atomic attack at Hiroshima and
Nagasaki during World War II were reported to have a greater incidence of brain damage with
side effects including lower Intelligent Quotient (IQ) and severe mental retardation in some
cases.

• The radiation weakens the immune system of the body.

• Delayed effects of radiation include cataracts, leukaemia, malignant tumours, cardiovascular

disorders, premature ageing and reduced life span.
• In spite of all these hazards, nuclear reactors and tests are still continuing and increasingly large
amounts of radioactive wastes are accumulated every day while no solution to the problem of
their safe disposal is in sight till date.

5.8.3. Control Measures

Control of natural radioactive pollution may not be possible. On one hand, the peaceful uses of
radioactive materials are so wide and effective that modern civilization cannot go without them; on the
other hand, there is no cure for radiation damage. The only option against nuclear hazards is to check and
prevent radioactive pollution. For this:

• Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective. Low level wastes should be subjected to
treatment for the removal of radioactivity and then discharged to water bodies or landfills.

23
 • Medium level wastes (e.g., filters, reactor components, etc.,) are solidified and mixed with
concrete in steel drums before being buried in deep mines or below the sea bed in concrete
chambers.
• High level wastes should be concentrated, contained (ceramics) and stored out of the reach of
human environment or buried deep into earth or stored in deep salt mines.
• Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels, fission
products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped.
• There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in the
risk areas.
• Prevention of erosion of radioactive waste disposal sites.
• Prevention of any drilling activity in and around the waste disposal site.
• Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
• Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
• Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should only be applied when absolutely necessary.
• Nuclear tests should be banned.
• Nuclear reactor should be perfectly maintained to avoid accidental leakage.
• High chimney and ventilations should be used at working places where radioactive contamination
is high.
• Protective garments must be worn by the workers who work in the nuclear power plants.
• The nuclear power plants must follow all the safety instructions.
• Production of radio isotopes should be minimized.
• In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be employed along with underground drainage.

5.9. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Industrialization across the world has brought a lot of good as well as bad things as well. One of the
negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation.

According to Britannica, “Solid-waste management is the collecting, treating and disposing of solid
material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of
municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to
pollution of the environment and to the outbreaks of vector-borne disease”

24
Human and animal activities generate different kinds of wastes. These wastes are generally in solid form,
and may cause pollution of land, water and air unless treated and disposed off. The process of collection,
transportation, treatment and disposal can be grouped under solid waste management. The increase in the
quantity of solid waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological advancement.

5.9.1. Causes of formation of solid waste

Sources Waste generators Types of solid waste

Food wastes, cloth, waste paper,

cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather,
Urban / yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes,
Residential wastes Single and multifamily dwellings special wastes like consumer
electronics, batteries, used oil, tires and
household hazardous wastes.

Light and heavy manufacturing, Packaging, food wastes, hazardous

Industrial fabrication, power and chemical chemical wastes, ashes, medical wastes
factories. and special wastes.

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food

Commercial / Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets,
wastes, glass, metals, medical wastes,
institutional office buildings, schools, hospitals etc.
hazardous wastes.

Construction and New construction sites, road repair, Wood, steel, demolition materials,
demolition renovation sites, demolition of buildings concrete, dirt, metals etc.

Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, Street sweepings, tree trimmings,

Municipal services beaches, other recreational areas and general wastes from parks, beaches,
wastewater treatment plants. plastics and other recreational areas.

Process Heavy and light manufacturing units,

Industrial process wastes, scrap
(manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants,
materials.
etc.) mineral extraction and processing.

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

Agriculture Crops, dairies, feedlots, farms. wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g.,
pesticides).

25
5.9.2. Effects of Waste Pollution

• Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition and may create unsanitary conditions. This may
lead to the outbreak of epidemic, producing foul smell and becoming a breeding ground for
disease vectors.
• Burning of industrial and domestic wastes (plastics, batteries) produce furans and dioxins which
are harmful to human beings.
• Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
• Solid waste from industries like toxic metals, hazardous wastes and chemicals, when released to
the environment can cause biological and physicochemical problems to the environment and may
affect the productivity of the soil in that particular area.
• Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes results in the accumulation of toxic
substances in the food chain through the plants and animals that feed on it.
• Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health hazards for the neighborhood.
Improperly operated incineration plants cause air pollution.
• Improperly managed and designed landfills attract all types of insects and rodents that spread
disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a safe distance
Coloured Plastics….. they
from all human settlements.
are dangerous !!!!!
• Recycling wastes also carries health risks if proper precautions
are not taken. The unhygienic use and
• Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected disposal of plastics and its
dust, especially during landfill operations. effects on human health has

• Intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the become a matter of concern.

waste. Coloured plastics are harmful

• Skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste as their pigments contain

and from infected wounds. heavy metals like copper,

• Incineration operators are at risk of chronic respiratory diseases lead, chromium, cobalt,

including cancer and skin diseases. selenium and cadmium. In

most industrialized countries
5.9.3. Control Measures
coloured plastics are banned.
i) Sanitary Landfill: This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Disposing of
waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, in abandoned or unused places. In this method garbage is
spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay, sand or plastic liner. The liners protect the

26
ground water from being contaminated. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay,
top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

Advantages: Simple, economical, cheap equipment, no residue or by-products, skill labour not required,
segregation of waste not required, natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.

Disadvantages: Large area is required, continuous evolution of foul smell from the site, use of insecticide
is required, may cause ground water pollution, cause fire hazard due to formation of methane gas in wet
weather.

ii) Incineration: It is the hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is a thermal process (controlled
combustion) in which the waste material is converted to heat, gas, steam and ash, which can be used for
electrical generation and domestic heating. It is suitable for hazardous, organic and medical wastes.
Combustible substance should be separated and removed before incineration process. Wet municipal
waste should be preheated before incineration process. It reduces the volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of
the original volume.

Advantages: Safest and hygienic method, requires very little space, residue is only 20-30% of the original
amount and can be used as cement clinker after treatment, an incinerator plant of 3000 tones per day
capacity can generate 3MW of power.

Disadvantages: Its capital and operating cost is high, operation needs skilled personnel, formation of
smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air pollution, ordinary incinerators
cannot be used for radioactive wastes.

iii) Composting: It is a popular method by which bulk organic matter is converted into fertilizer by
biological action. Microorganisms like fungi, bacteria convert degradable organic waste into broken,
odourless mass called humus, which is a good fertilizer. Separated compostable waste is dumped in
underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with soil of 20 cm and left for decomposition.
Sometimes, actinomycetes are introduced for active decomposition. Biological action will start within two
to three days. Good quality environmental friendly manure is formed from the compost and can be used
for agricultural purpose.

Advantages: Environmentally effective than landfill and incineration, manure can be sold thereby
reducing cost of disposing wastes, recycling can be done, this method can be used to treat several
industrial solid wastes, controls growth of weeds in garden, make soil easier to cultivate.

Disadvantages: Non-consumables have to be disposed separately; the technology has not caught-up with
the farmers and hence does not have an assured market.

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iv) Vermi Composting:It has become very popular in the last few years. In vermi composting,
earthworms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost rich in nutrients. It is very useful biofertilizer and soil conditioner.

5.9.4. Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle is the new answer to the problem of environmental pollution

The aim of waste management is to collect, treat, utilize and dispose solid waste in an economic manner
protecting public health. Its major consideration, apart from health, is to adopt three R’s-reduce, reuse and
recycle strategy.

(i) Reduction in use of raw materials:

This will correspondingly decrease the production of waste. Reduced demand of any metallic product will
decrease the mining of their metal and cause less production and less waste.

(ii) Reuse of waste materials:

Reuse of paper, cardboard, glass, metal, plastic, discarded cycle tubes, auto-parts of vehicles considerably
reduces the waste of generation.

(iii) Recycling of materials:

Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products. Examples include
formation of new cans, bottles from broken aluminium cans and glass, fuel pellets from kitchen waste,
cellulose from waste paper etc.

5.9.5. Green Chemistry

Green Chemistry, also known as sustainable chemistry, is the design of chemical products and
processes that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry is a
powerful approach to pollution prevention, waste minimization and hazard reduction.

The focus of Green Chemistry is on

1. Source reduction/prevention of chemical hazards

2. Reuse or Recycle chemicals

3. Treat chemicals to render them less hazardous

4. Dispose chemicals properly

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 CHAPTER 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

5.10. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

Pollution is a man-made disease that can be cured only by man and remedies adopted by them.
Incomplete and inefficient technology coupled with increased population is the main cause of man-made
pollution. In fact, the role of individuals in prevention of pollution is of critical importance because it is
the individual that makes a community or country.

Environment awareness programme should be organized and individuals should be encouraged to modify
the life style and living habit, if that are not healthy for environment. Over population and pollution are
potent ecological forces impinging upon man by affecting the quality of the environment.

The main causes of pollution in developing countries

i. Increasing population
ii. Illiteracy and poverty
iii. Rapid industrialization
iv. Failure in pollution management

Ways in which an individual/NGO can help in prevention of pollution

• Development of nonpolluting sources of energy.

• Effective use of water resources.
• Usage of cloth bags instead of plastics.
• Usage of rechargeable batteries.
• Avoid burning plastics.
• Switch off electrical appliance when not in use.
• Make use of public transport system.
• Periodic pollution check should be done for vehicles by approved authorities.
• Reuse items whenever possible.
• Use renewable source like solar heaters, solar cookers etc.
• Cells, batteries, pesticide containers should be disposed properly.
• Quit smoking.

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 • Reduce the use of air conditioners, refrigerators etc.
• Reduce deforestation.
• Use handkerchief instead of paper tissues.
• Purchase recyclable, recycled and environmentally safe products.
• Organize environmental awareness programme.
• Implement environment protection law.
• Use unleaded gasoline in your cars.
• Never use open fires to dispose of wastes.
• Do not litter in public places.
• Organic waste should be dumped in places far from residential areas.
• Use of chemical pesticides, weedicides, insecticides etc. should be minimized. Promote the use of
bio-pesticides, bio-fertilizers etc.
• Non -biodegradable waste should be collected and disposed for recycling processes.
• Start individual or community vermin-composting plant in your neighborhood and motivate
people to join.
• Advocate organic farming.
• Develop respect for all forms of life.

5.11. POLLUTION CASE STUDIES

Case study 1: Love Canal incident [New York]

It was the most widely quoted example for ground water pollution. In 1978, residents of love canal
neighborhood in New York city noticed high rates of cancer and alarming number of birth defects. This
was found to be due to the organic solvents and dioxins from an industrial land fill. These contaminants
have infiltrated into water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate air. During 1930-
53, New York city municipal waste and industrial waste was dumped in love canal dumping site. Later
this site was filled up with soil and sold to build an elementary school and residential area. Survey of air
sample around the area showed the presence of 26 different organic compounds including chloroform,
benzene, toluene, perchloroethylene etc. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and
moved, after extensive legal battles and media coverage.

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Case study 2: Minamata Tragedy [Japan]

A case of human mercury poisoning which occurred in May 1956 in

the Minamata in Japan, which is a typical example of the pollution Minamata disease, is a
neurological syndrome
related health damage. A large plastic plant located near the
caused by severe mercury
Minamata Bay used a mercury containing compound in a reaction to
poisoning. Symptoms
produce polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a common plastic material. The include ataxia, numbness
left-over mercury was dumped into the Bay along with other waste in the hands and feet,
from the plant. Though mercury was in its inorganic state when general muscle weakness,
narrowing of the field of
dumped, the microorganism at the bottom of the bay converted the
vision and damage to
mercury into its organic form. This organic mercury entered into the
hearing and speech.
tissues of fish which were in turn consumed by the people living in the
area. The contaminated fish thus caused an outbreak of poisoning, killing and affecting several people.
Mothers who had eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to infants who showed the signs of mercury
poisoning. Mercury poisoning is thus called ‘Minamata Diseases’.

Case study 3: Exxon Valdez oil spill- worst oil spill disaster [Alaska, US]

On March 24, 1989 Exxon Valdez, a tanker in an

attempt to avoid iceberg, ran aground and
released 11 million gallons of crude oil into a
wide channel in Prince William Sound near
Valdez in Alaska. It was the worst environmental
disaster in Alaska history, and occurred in a very
sensitive coastal ecosystem. It contaminated 1300
miles of shoreline and stretching over 470 miles from the crash site. The site was in a remote location and
lack of oil skimming equipment and ineffective chemical dispersants made a speedy response very
difficult. The cleaning operation involved 11,000 people and 1000 boats. The fast spreading oil proved
deadly for wild life in the region. Countless fishes, along with more than 2,50,000 sea birds and thousands
of otters and seals perished. Exxon spent more than $2 billion for cleaning up the spill, but some oil still
remains. In a civil case Exxon was hit with a $ 5 billion civil judgment for its role in the accident.

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Case study 4: Kuttanadu Wetland [ Kerala, India]
It is a low-lying area near the coast and is known as the rice bowl of Kerala. Kuttanadu is a wetland
ecosystem located in the southern coastal part of Kerala State, and spread across the districts of
Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta; that is in an extreme state of ecological decay and
environmental degradation. Wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems and play a significant
role in the ecological sustainability of a region.

Kuttanadu is a complex system of brackish lagoons, marshes, mangroves, reclaimed land and a network
of canals. Vembanadu Lake is identified as an important bird area, which supports the third largest
wintering waterfowl of the country. It is also one of the 15 mangrove areas. The most significant eco-
system services of Vembanadu include fishery, agriculture, navigation, port facility, tourism and coir
industries. The environmental conditions of this lake are in a steady state of decline due to various
anthropogenic activities which leads to severe livelihood crisis for the dependent communities. The major
ecological consequences in this region is the fall in soil fertility, increased incidence of pest and diseases,
use of large quantities of pesticides, and extinction of mangroves that used to function as favoured
nursery areas of fishery resources.

All this makes water pollution the major environmental problem of Kuttanadu region. The residues of
pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides, animal and human wastes etc accumulate in water. Pollutants
from industrial and agro-chemical residues, municipal sewage, effluents from motor boats, and coir
retting to open water bodies, deteriorates the quality of the lake ecosystem. Kuttanadu area is found to
have very high occurrence of cancer of the lip, stomach, skin and brain, lymphoma, leukemia, vision and
multiple myloma. The other health problems include breathing problems, dehydration, vomiting, cramps
and diarrhea.This intense pollution and environmental degradation is adversely affecting the flora and
fauna of the area. For example, many of the fish varieties that were common in the area are already
extinct.

5.12. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The Indian subcontinent is traditionally vulnerable to natural disaster on account of its unique geo-
climatic conditions. Floods, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena. About
60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares are prone to
floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
Among all the disasters that occur in the country, floods are the most frequently occurring natural disaster
due to the irregularities of the Indian Monsoon. The term disaster management includes all aspects of
preventive and protective measures, preparedness and organization of relief operations for mitigating
the impact of disaster on human beings and socioeconomic aspects of the disaster-prone areas. At the

4
global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as scientific progress is
made, loss of lives and property due to disaster is increasing. Disaster management occupies an important
place in our country’s policy framework as it is the poor and under-privileged who are the worst affected
on account of calamities and disaster.

5.12.1. Flood

India is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. Floods occur in almost all rivers basins in
India. Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin,the
northwestern river basin, peninsular river basin and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Orissa, Kerala, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Twenty-three of the 35 states and union territories in the
country are subject to floods and it affects an average area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.
According to the National Commission on Floods, the area susceptible to floods was estimated in 1980 to
be around 40 million hectares and it is possible to provide reasonable degree of protection to nearly 80 per
cent.

Flood is a state of high-water level reaching land in a short span of time, causing land surface to be
submerged under water. Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly
without any warning due to spill over, heavy rains etc. There are different types of floods namely: flash
flood, river line flood, urban flood, etc.

Causes
There are several causes of floods and they differ from region to region. The causes may vary from a rural
area to an urban area. Some of the major causes are:

• Heavy rainfall and deforestation.

• Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
• Blockage in the drains leads to flooding of the area.
• Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
• Construction of dams and reservoirs.
• In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with storm surge
leads to flooding.

Adverse Effects

• The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like houses,
bridges, roads etc. get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning.

5
 • Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, municipal
water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria and many other
infectious diseases.
• Flooding also leads to huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. Floods
may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top
soil or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.
• 121 people were killed due to floods across the state of Kerala during August 2019. Over 2 lakh
people have been directly affected by flood and were shifted to 1318 relief camps in different
parts of Kerala.

Control measures:

• Mapping of flood prone areas using Satellite and remote sensing-based imageries are found to be
the best tool.
• As soon as the information of a flood event is obtained, the earliest available satellite is
programmed to collect the required data for the explanation of flooded areas. Both optical and
microwave satellites data can be used.
• Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when water enters the flood plains and
the coastal areas.
• Construction of engineered structures in the flood plain will strengthen the structures to withstand
flood forces like flood walls, flood levees, coastal protection works, etc.
• Reforestation will help in flood control by decreasing the amount of run-off.
• Diversion of flood water and improvement in drainage facilities.
• The National Flood Control Programme was launched in 1954. Since then, sizeable progress has
been made in the flood protection measures.
• Flood insurance, public health awareness, and disaster relief.

5.12.2.Cyclones

The major disaster that affects the coastal region of India is cyclone. India has a coastline of about 7516
Km and it is exposed to nearly 8% of the world’s tropical cyclones. About 71% of this area falls in ten
states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
and West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones.

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction in
the Northern Hemisphere and in clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They generally move

6
300-5000 Km per day over the ocean. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world. The main dangers from cyclones are very strong winds, torrential rains and high storm tides. The
development of a cyclone covers three stages namely formation and initial development state, fully
matured and weakening/decay. Although one cannot control cyclones, the effect can be mitigated through
effective mitigation policies and strategies.

Adverse effect:

• Major damage to infrastructure and housing

• Causalities due to flooding and flying elements in air
• Contamination of water supplies may lead to diarrhea, malaria etc
• Contamination of ground and pipe water
• Loss of crops and food supplies
• Disruption of communication towers, electricity, telephone cables etc
• Roads and rails may be damaged

Control measures:

• Hazard mapping/ early warning system - Using appropriate models and satellite data, ISRO is
supporting the efforts of India Meteorological Department to predict the tropical cyclone track,
intensity and landfall. After the formation of cyclone, its future tracks are regularly monitored and
predicted by ISRO. These experimental track predictions are regularly posted on departmental
web portal (http://www.mosdac.gov.in/scorpio/) as part of information dissemination.
• Using the wind pattern generated by the Oceansat-2 Scatterometer, data models have been
developed for predicting the formation of a cyclone even before the depression turns into a
cyclone.
• Coastal belt plantation and land use control.
• Engineered structures which can withstand high wind forces.
• Protect river embankment.
• Construction of permanent houses.
• Communication lines should be installed underground.
• Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
• Land use control and settlement planning.
• Public awareness programme /training /education.

7
5.12.3. Earthquakes

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazards. They may occur at any time of the year with
sudden impact and little warning and involves violent shaking of the ground. An earthquake struck
Gujarat on 26 January 2001 on a massive scale. Remote Sensing and GIS provide a database from which
the evidences left behind by disaster can be combined with other geological and topographical database to
arrive at hazard map. The areas affected by earthquakes are generally large, but they are restricted to well-
known regions (Plate contacts).

Earthquakes results from the release of accumulated stress of the moving lithospheric or crustal plates.
The earth's crust is divided into seven major plates, that are about 50 miles thick, which move slowly and
continuously over the earth's interior and several minor plates. Earthquakes are tectonic in origin; that is
the moving plates are responsible for the occurrence of violent shakes.

Cause:

India's increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions mushrooming all over, including
multistoried luxury apartments, huge factory buildings, gigantic malls, supermarkets as well as
warehouses and stonework buildings keep - India at high risk. During the last 15 years, the country has
experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in over 20,000 deaths.

Adverse Effects

• Damage to structures, human life.

• The occurrence of an earthquake in a populated area may cause numerous casualties and injuries
as well as extensive damage to property.
• Sea activity-water level in the sea could rise suddenly.
• Landslides will be caused due to impacts, changed topography, blocked roadways etc.

Control measures:

• Satellite data gives a synoptic overview of the area affected by the disaster. These data can be
made use to create a very large scale base information of the terrain for carrying out the disaster
assessment and for relief measures.
• Community preparedness.
• Construction of buildings should be based on the guidelines of the Bureau of Indian standards to
with stand ground shaking.
• Public education through sensitization and training programme for community, architects,
engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries, teachers and students.

8
5.12.4. Landslide

Landslides are downward and outward movement of slope materials such as rock debris and earth, under
the influence of gravity. Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the
land area of our country—an area which exceeds 0.49 million Km2. They are recurring phenomena in
Himalayan region.

Cause:

• Earthquake
• Volcanic eruption
• Weakness in the composition of the structure of rock or soil
• Erosion
• Intense rainfall
• Human excavation

Adverse effects:

• For a long time, landslides have had disastrous consequences causing enormous economic losses
and affecting the social fabric. In 2005 alone, more than 500 human lives were lost due to this
hazard in our country.
• Loss of buildings, roads, communication lines etc.
• On August 2019 in Kerala, incessant rainfall triggered major landslides at Ipadi, Puttupala,
Wayanad, Neelambur and Mallapuram, which trapped several people under debris. 64 land slides
happened in the state in the recent disastrous spell. Unlike in 2018, where around 400 people
were killed, mostly due to floods, in 2019, majority of the 103 deaths have happened due to
landslides.

Control measures

• Remote sensing data have been proved to be useful for landslide inventory mapping both at local
and regional level.
• Engineered structures with strong foundations.
• Strong vegetation cover.
• Department of Space has prepared Landslide Hazard Zonation maps (LHZ) along tourist and
pilgrim routes.
• Hazard mapping will locate areas prone to slope failures. These maps will also serve as a tool for
mitigation planning.

9
• The surface drainage control works are implemented to control the movement of landslides
accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring flows.

5.12.5. Role of public/community participation in disaster management

The government of different countries, international, national and local (also voluntary) agencies have
adopted comprehensive disaster management plans and programs, emphasizing on public
participation with an intention of reducing the pains and sufferings of victims, shorten the number of
loss of human lives and livestock. As it is the public which is going to face the disaster, it is very
important that community should be part of the complete disaster management process in all three
phases- rescue, relief, and post-disaster recovery. Communities are the first responders in case of a
disaster. Therefore, community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) should be the core of any risk
reduction approach.

Public is a largely untapped resource in the emergency management field. Engaging the public
dialogically in early policy stages and emergency management phases is essential to successful
inclusion for both administrators and communities. Public inclusion creates expanded knowledge,
shared learning, personal responsibility, and increased social capital. Faced with the growing threat
from disasters, emergency management can create communities that are both more resilient and
sustainable by increasing public participation.

QUESTIONS

Part A (2 marks)

1. Define pollutants. Give example.

2. What are contaminants? Give example.
3. List the main segments of atmosphere.
4. Define air pollution. List two important causes of air pollution.
5. What is blue baby syndrome? What are the causes
6. What is photochemical smog? Why it is dangerous?
7. Why is CFCs dangerous?
8. What are indoor air pollutants? Give examples.
9. Name two inorganic pollutants in water
10. What is noise pollution? Name the unit formeasuring noise pollution.
11. Outline BOD

10
12. What is primary pollutant? Give examples
13. Define water pollution
14. What is secondary pollutant? Give examples.
15. Differentiate point and non-point sources
16. What is greenhouse effect. How can it be reduced?
17. Suggest two control measures for marine pollution
18. What are the essential qualities of drinking water?
19. Discuss two factors responsible for nuclear pollution
20. What is Eutrophication
21. What is dissolved oxygen. What does it indicate?
22. How can you reduce water pollution?
23. Which region of soil has maximum biological activity? Why?
24. What is meant by COD?
25. Outline Love canal incident
26. Discuss the cause of soil pollution
27. What is marine pollution. How can it be reduced?
28. How isthermal pollution different from marine pollution?
29. What is nuclear fallout. How is it dangerous
30. Why solid waste management is essential?
31. What is vermin-composting?
32. Define bioaccumulation.
33. Why is disaster management necessary?
34. What are earthquakes? How is it caused?
35. List four important causes of noise pollution
36. What are landslides? How can it be prevented?
37. Solid waste management is an essential perquisite for a healthy living. Discuss.
38. Name any two nuclear accidents
39. What is the effect of biomagnification?
40. How can noise pollution be prevented?
41. What are water quality parameters?
42. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle is a new answer to environmental pollution. Explain.

11
 Part B (5 marks)
1. What are the control measures adopted to minimize air pollution?
2. Discuss global warming and greenhouse effect.
3. What are the adverse effects of water pollution?
4. How can we control water pollution?
5. Differentiate between BOD and COD.
6. What is soil horizon? Explain.
7. How can soil pollution be reduced?
8. What are the causes of land degradation/soil pollution? Suggest few techniques to reduce soil
pollution.
9. Discuss the preventive measures which can be adopted for nuclear pollution
10. Comment on the Love canal incident –a case study of ground water pollution.
11. What are the different types of water pollution? What are the major sources?
12. What is pollution? Explain the different sources of air pollution
13. Write briefly on marine pollution
14. What is biomagnification? What the effects?
15. What is noise pollution? How can it be controlled?
16. What are the health effects of noise pollution?
17. What are nuclear hazards? How can you control nuclear pollution?
18. Comment on the environmental degradation of Kuttanadu wetland
19. Write briefly on solid waste disposal.
20. Discuss following methods adopted for waste management a) sanitary landfills b/ incineration c)
composting
21. What is thermal pollution? How can it be controlled?
22. What are causes and effects of nuclear pollution?
23. Discuss the important methods adopted for solid waste disposal
24. Write notes on Minamata tragedy
25. What is disaster management? What the measures opted for the prevention of landslides.
26. Discuss the cause, effects and control measures for flood
27. How can cyclone be prevented? What are its adverse effects?
28. Discuss the role of community in disaster management
29. Write a note on nuclear pollution, its source and impact on environment
30. Outline the role of individual in the prevention of pollution.

12
 Part C (15 marks)

1. Analyze critically the factors responsible and remedial measures for a) air pollution b) noise
pollution
2. Explain the cause, effects and control measures of a) water pollution b) soil pollution
3. Outline the cause, effects and control measures of thermal pollution. How is it different from
marine pollution?
4. What is nuclear pollution? Briefly describe its causes, effects and control measures
5. Write an essay on the causes, effects and control measures employed for solid waste
management.
6. What is pollution? Which are the different types? Explain the role of NGO/individual in the
protection of environment.Outline the role of public/community participation in disaster.
management
7. What is disaster management? Write explanatory note on the cause, effects and control measures
adopted for a) floods b) earthquakes
8. Discuss the cause, effects and control measures adopted for a) landslides b) cyclone c)
earthquakes
9. What is water pollution? What are it causes? How can it be controlled? Explain with the help of a
case study.
10. Discuss the factors responsible and remedial measures for a) nuclear pollution b) solid waste
management.

13
 CHAPTER 6
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

6.1. URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Economic growth and urbanisation cause serious damage to the environment. In Asia and Africa most
of the population lives in cities. The rate of urbanisation and population growth in these continents
exceed incredibly when in comparison to other continents. As the cities develop our use of energy
also increases. Virtually, all industrial nations get the energy they need from non-renewable energy
sources. On an average, they receive about 85% of their energy from fossil fuels, 5% from nuclear
power and 10% from solar and wind energy. In the less developed countries, biomass (wood and cow
dung) play an important role in supplying demand, satisfying about 40%of energy requirements. Non-
renewable fossil fuels supply about 60% of the total energy. But this is not sufficient to meet the
growing demands.
World Primary energy demand is expected to increase in future. The International Energy Agency’s
(IEA), projects energy demand growth rate of 1.4% per year up to 2030.The fastest growth is
expected in non- OECD countries with a projected rate of 2.2% per year particularly in China and
India and other emerging economies in Asia and the Middle East. Many non-OECD countries are also
expected to see large increase in imports of oil or gas or both. In 2006, the European Union (EU)
pledged to cut its annual consumption of primary energy to 20% by 2020.
The global community and the governments are faced with four major challenges with respect to the
energy sector: 1) Concerns about energy security, 2)Combating climate change, 3)Reducing pollution
and public health hazards 4) Addressing energy poverty.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

The burning of fossil fuels emits carbon to the air. Accelerating carbon emissions indicate a mounting
threat of climate change. The causes of the energy crisis Water-Energy -Pollution Link

vary but they all share a common feature: the gross Production,Consumption,Emission,Control

misallocation of capital. During the last two decades,

Coal Crude
Energy
(Electricity) Oil(Gasoline)
much capital was poured into property, fossil fuels and Production

structured financial assets. However, relatively little in Water Consumption

Water Consumption
Urban Energy
comparison was invested in renewable energy, energy Consumption
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
efficiency, public transportation, sustainable agriculture, Water Supply Buildings
Transportation
Drainage/Sewage
eco-system and biodiversity protection and land and water
Biological Contaminants Climate emissions
conservation. There is a link between energy-water and
Energy in water production/treatment Energy in controlling climate emissions
pollution. Production and consumption of energy results in
various pollution and it is a threat to environment. (Chart 3.1)
Chart 3.1

115
Reasons for increase in energy consumption in the cities:
1. The increase in the household use: Earlier firewood and other Goals
things were used forcooking. But today it has given natural gas,
Improve the energy efficiency
kerosene etc. In older days, the kitchen of houses was arranged to of all machines,
use firewood. But today, it is not possible in the flats and apartments homeappliances, buildings,
factories, motorvehicles,
in the cities. This is one of the reasons for shifting firewood ovens to airplanes and so on.
electric and natural gas. This results in a higher energy loss.
Find clean, renewable
2. Using of electricity / Air-conditioning: The development of cities replacements for oil because
leads to different types of climatic changes. The buildings in most of its supplies are limited. Also
find replacements for fuel
the cities are using glass roofing’s because of climatic changes and because it is such an
global warming. It creates greenhouse effect by absorbing Sun’s heat environmentally costly fuel.
during warm climate. But it causes to increase the heat two-fold Find a replacement for natural
during summer season. So, most of the buildings use centralised air gas (which is primarily used
for heating and industrial
conditioning. Moreover, due to the increase of heat due to global processes).
warming leads to the use of more fans.AC has more consumption of
energy than fans. Also, the loss of electricity is more in the urban sector than the rural because of
obvious power consumption by the former.
3. Transportation: Today people in the cities use their private vehicles and avoid public transport
system. The increase in number of vehicles depict this. These vehicles mainly use fossil fuels. The
carbon monoxide that forms due the emitting of these fuels leads to lot of respiratory diseases.
Creating sustainable energy for future will require a careful analysis of options for factors such as
efficiency, environmental impacts, renewability and affordability.
What individuals can do?
As citizens, it is our duty to preserve energy. Therefore, reduce the energy consumption to maximum.
For that:
• Use LED bulbs
• Control the use of electricity
• Use public transportations
• Our aim should be “efficient use of energy”. For example: insulating a home allows a
building to use less heating and cooling energy and to achieve and maintain a comfortable
temperature. It also lowers energy cost by preventing future resource depletion. Some
countries employ energy or carbon taxes to energy users to reduce their consumption.
Citizens can take any number of additional actions to promote a sustainable future.
• Drive fuel-efficient vehicles, carpooling, riding in public buses, bicycling or walking – all
make significant contributions.

116
Energy conservation can be made possible by limiting the use of energy in residential sections, urban
transport sector and commercial industrial sector. National energy policy also plays a dominant role in
this.

6.2. WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, AND WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT
Why is our source of water vanishing these days? Is it because of deforestation and urbanisation?
Why are the rivers drying up at phenomenal rates? Why are India’s rivers in such a pathetic state?
How should India manage its water?
It’s not too far for that day to come where mankind awaits the day of reckoning – world war for
water! Yes, we cannot rule out a possibility of such a war if exploitation continues at this rate.
6.2.1. Water Conservation
Water is essential to human existence and ecosystems and a vital element for human development.
Thus, water availability is a global issue. Although, water is the most widely occurring substance on
Earth, it is a well-known fact that only about 2.5% is fresh water and the rest is salt water. Of the
2.5% of freshwater, its biggest portion is locked up in glaciers and permanent snow cover. Thus, in
reality, only about 1 % of the world’s freshwater is readily available and accessible for direct human
use.
Water availability is becoming an increasingly crucial issue for Asia. In recent years, evidence
indicates that water is becoming increasingly affected by erratic weather patterns, as has already
happened to countries such as Indonesia and China, which have experienced droughts and inevitable
food shortages.
Climatic changes, misuse of water by industries, population growth etc are the reasons for shortage
of water.Factors such as climate change have increased the pressure on natural water resources,
especially in agricultural and manufacturing irrigation. The people who used rivers and wells once for
agriculture and domestic purposes, now depending on private water taps. The loss of water during
distribution is also a great problem. The British had constructed dams for the development of cities
but Indian Govt. constructed dams for agriculture purpose. Though this agricultural development
especially green revolution has taken us to food sufficiency but it has led to loss of natural manure,
soil and salinization. In the past, the farmers in North India collected and preserved water in tanks
known as “Jheels” and “Talabs”. It has lost its importance due to the introduction of new irrigation
techniques. The quantity of water consumed and exploited by the industries also creates problems and
it need to be controlled. These industries are in the forefront of water pollution also. The agitation at
Plachimada against Coca-Cola in Kerala is an example for this.
Studies show that by 2025 more than half the people around the world will not have enough water.
Preservation of water is very essential for the existence of mankind. Water conservation includes all

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the policies, strategies and activities made to sustainably manage the use of fresh water and to meet
its future human demand.
Goals & Strategies
The goals of water conservation efforts include:
1. Ensuring availability of water for future generations.
2. Energy conservation: because by introducing new water pumping techniques, delivery and waste
water treatment facilities which consumes a significant amount of energy.So, energy conservation is
also a part of water conservation policy.
3. Habitat conservation by minimising human water use which helps to preserve fresh water habitats
for local wildlife and water quality.
Strategies:
Continuing current practices of water use will lead to a massive and unsustainable gap between global
supply and demand for water. This is exacerbated by failure to collect and treat used water to enable
subsequent uses. With no improvement in the efficiency of water use, water demand is projected to
overshoot supply by 40 per cent in 20 years’ time. Improvement in water productivity, as well as
increases in supply (such as through the construction of dams and desalination plants and increased
recycling) are expected to address 40 percent of this gap, but the remaining 60 percent needs to come
from investment in infrastructure, water policy reforms and in the development of new technology.
Water conservation programmes are in need to be initiated at the local level, by either municipal or
local governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns, charging higher price as
water use increases, restrictions on outdoor water use such as car washing etc. And one of the
fundamental conservation goals is Universal metering. At the same time, the quantity of pure water
used by industries should be controlled and accurate monitoring also to be done.
6.2.2. Rain water harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the system of
collecting water from its source itself. It is the
accumulation and deposition of rainwater for
reuse rather than allowing it to run off.It can
be collected from rivers or roofs and in many
places, the water collected is redirected to a
deep pit reservoir with percolation. The
harvested water can be used as drinking water,
for irrigation, long term storage and for other
purposes such as ground water recharge.
Generally, check dams are constructed across
the streams to enhance the percolation of
surface water into subsoil strata.

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Why is it important?
• When people do not have access to water, either large amounts of their disposable income
have to be spent on purchasing water from vendors which in turn erodes their capacity to
engage in other activities.
• When sanitation services are inadequate, the risk of water-borne diseases increase. Cambodia,
Vietnam, Indonesia and Philippines have lost many lives because of poor sanitation. Access
to reliable, clean water and adequate sanitation services for all is a foundation of a green
economy.
• The drought that affected Maharashtra in 2013 tells us that our water management strategies
are skewed. Water must be managed in a way to enable its equitable and distributed access.
Rain has to be harvested.
Rainwater is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for house-holds.
• It provides an independent water supply.
• It provides water when there is a drought and can help to mitigate flooding of low-lying areas.
• It helps in the availability of potable water as it is substantially free of salinity.
Today, most of the nations are effectively using rainwater harvesting. It is a cheap and reliable
source of clean water.
6.2.3. Watershed Management
Watershed Management seeks to manage water
supply, the quality of water, drainage, water
rights and the overall planning and utilisation of
watersheds. It is the study of the relevant
characteristics of a watershed aimed at sustainable
distribution of its resources and creating and
implementing plans and programmes that affect
the plant animal and human communities within
the watershed boundary. It is an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach.
It must consider the social, economic and
institutional factors operating within and outside
the watershed.
• It relates to soil and water conservation in the watershed which includes proper land use,
protection of land against all forms of degradation, flood protection, water conservation and
harvesting, proper management of surface and ground water. The requirement of watershed
management has increased in this time of water shortage.

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 • It helps to recharge groundwater. Afforestation of degraded areas is an important aspect of
watershed management.
• Watershed management can preserve water for the existence of a human race and
environmental protection.
6.3. RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE: ITS PROBLEMS AND
CONCERNS
Resettlement and rehabilitation of the people is one of the challenges faced by nations who rush in
the path of development.
What is Resettlement and Rehabilitation?
Resettlement refers to the process of settling again in a new area. Rehabilitation means
restoration to the formal state.
Reasons for Resettlement
When there are natural disasters and the government acquires
and Rehabilitation
land for development purpose, the populations of that place 1.Due to natural disasters
have to be shifted to another place. This arrangement of & manmade disasters.
2.Developmental
providing shelters in other places is known as resettlement.
projects like dam
Though dams, express highways, metros, container terminals construction,
etc. are essential for development, the problems of the irrigation canals,
reservoirs etc.
rehabilitees cannot be neglected. Especially, the state of
3.Infrastructural projects like
marginalised tribal community who are removed due to the bridges, roads, metros etc.
construction of dams and hydroelectric projects. The 4. Energy related
problems faced by the people who are rehabilitated because projects like power
plant, mining
of natural calamity and development programmes are the activities etc.
same everywhere. The adverse social and economic impacts 5. Projects related with
include: people losing their homes, land and livelihood and the conservation of
wild life like national
are often left to face their own and uncertain future in
park, sanctuaries etc.
unfamiliar places.
Problems and Concerns:
According to the statistics of World Bank, around 10 lakh people have been rehabilitated due to
various reasons. The main challenge of the government is to find out a sustainable place to
rehabilitate. There is also emotional and psychological trauma caused by forcibly removing people
from their homeland where their families have lived for centuries. Experience has shown that most
people who are forcefully relocated are unable to regain their losses, and end up worse off than
before. In India the track record of efforts undertaken to resettle displaced people remains quite small.

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 Main problems faced by the
Thus, as a result of development efforts that are intended displaced ones are:

to improve living conditions, millions have become 1. Meagre compensation

2. Lack of facilities in the new place.
worse off, a situation in direct opposition to what 3. Loss of livelihood
4. Stress and health problems
development stands for. 5. Loss of identity
In India, laws specifically to deal with resettlement issues, do 6. Lack of political support

not exist. It is still based on land acquisition law and not intended to address the problems faced due
to acquisition of the land for dams, thermal power stations, SEZs, highways, mining, airports and
other development projects. Protest of people in West Bengal against Tata, Singur-Nandigram issues,
Muthanga and Wyanad incidents in
Kerala are all related to land acquisition. Finally, in 2007, the Government of India notified the
National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy. The main objectives of rehabilitation policy are:
1. Allow the people, especially the tribal, to live their lives in their own patterns.
2. Ensure employment opportunities to the displaced.
3. Resettlement should be in the neighbourhood of their own environment.
4. The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of development.

Case Study 1: Tehri Dam Project, Uttarakhand

The Tehri dam project is located at the confluence of Bhagirathi and Bhilganga rivers in the
Himalayan region of the state of Uttarakhand. The Tehri dam is the highest dam in India and one of
the highest in the world. The construction of the dam in 1972 was one of the giant steps of political
leaders to convert the state into an ‘Urja Pradesh’ (energy state). The dam has come under criticism
for several reasons, such as economic viability, environmental degradation, safety concerns, and
population displacement. Scientists, environmentalists and local people were against the construction
of this dam. Construction of the dam at such a location has resulted in massive population dislocation.
Environmental activist Sundarlal Bahuguna led the Anti-Tehri dam movement for years. This region
was the site of a 6.8 magnitude earthquake in October 1991. If a catastrophe occurs, the potentially
resulting dam-break would submerge numerous towns downstream.

Case Study 2: Narmada BachaoAndolan (NBA)

The Narmada Valley Development Project is the single largest river development scheme in India. It
is one of the largest hydroelectric projects in the world and displaces more than 41,000 families (over
200,000 people) in the three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. Over 56 per cent of
the people affected by the dam are adivasis. Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar
Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The SSP in the Narmada
River Valley is one of the largest and most controversial of the large dams in India.The 30 large, 135
medium and 3000 small dams planned on the river and her tributaries, are collectively called the
Narmada Valley Development Project (NVDP). For the last two decades, the people affected by this

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project have been challenging many issues related to the dam, primarily displacement and
rehabilitation.

6.4. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES & POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Environmental Ethicsis connected with the fundamental rights of man for life and welfare. Its need is
to keep nature’s resource for today’s requirement and also preserving it for the future generation.
Environmental ethics deals with how we utilise and distribute resources.It includes the rights of all
living beings to live and maintain the ecosystem.
• It recognise plant and animal rights.
• It realize the intrinsic worth of nature.
It implies:
• Humanity’s relationship to the environment.
• Its understanding and responsibility towards the nature
• Its obligations to leave some of nature’s resources to future generations
• The preservation of the wilderness and of species diversity
• It asks comprehensive, global questions, develop metaphysical theories and applies its
principles to the daily lives of men and women everywhere on earth.
Therefore, it deals mainly with the following:
1. Resource conservation
2. Equity concerns - (between countries and between urban and rural).
6.4.1. Resource conservation and equitable distribution
It is the inequality of the distribution of nature’s resource that leads to competitions. This inequality is
the reason for the differences between nations, haves and the have nots, rural and urban communities,
the rich and the poor. The acquisition of resources by exploiting the marginalised and tribal
communities is not justified. “The report of ‘Status of India’s Environment’ published by Anil
Agarwal in 1985, throws light on this pathetic situation. The reason for all environmental problems is
the consumption of the rich and the developmental activities by exploiting the poor. He brought forth
the following propositions which are of great relevance to the ethical issues that are related to
environmental concerns.”
Propositions related to the ethical issues:
1. Environmental destruction is largely caused by the consumption of the rich.
2. The worst sufferers of environmental destruction are the poor. Even among the poor, the worst
sufferers are the marginalised communities and women.
3. Even where nature is being ‘recreated’, as in afforestation, it is being transformed away from
the needs of the poor.

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 4. There cannot be proper economic and social development without a holistic understanding of
society and nature.
5. If we care for the poor, we cannot allow the Gross Nature Product to be destroyed any further.
Gross Nature Product will be enhanced only if we can arrest and reverse the growing
alienation between the people and the common property resources.
6. It is totally inadequate to talk only of sustainable rural development, as the World
Conservation Strategy does. We cannot save the rural environment or rural people dependent
on it unless we can bring about sustainable urban development.
Who is really suffering the environmental degradation and who pays for the environmental
degradation? Certainly, they are village folks, tribal people and rural women. Village Community is
already aware about the preservation of our valuable natural resources. So urban people should be
taught the importance of preservation of natural resources than the village folk. The conservation of
common property resources also should be one of our aims.
Equity issues
Daniel D Chirasin “Environmental Science –Creating a sustainable future” explains 3 ethical
principles related to environment. They are:
1. Intergenerational equity: Fairness to future generations. Present generations have anobligation to
meet their needs in ways that do not foreclose on future generations.
2. Intra-generational equity: Present generations also have an obligation to act in waysthat do not
prevent others who are alive today from meeting their needs.
3. Ecological Justice: Human actions should not endanger other species, which also havean inherent
right to resources they need to survive.
It is also concerned with who owns the resources. Today, economically advanced nations
areexploiting the worlds’ resource, along with the developing countries. Divisions such as North-
South, rich and poor aggravate this. Growing urbanisation also intensifies it.
What are the possible solutions?
For the preservation of nature’s resources, equal division is needed. There should be appropriate
efforts from the part of government for this conservation of natural resources. We need an
institutional management policy to preserve the resources of village areas and to provide the
necessary things to the urban society also.
1. The urban population should be made aware of the preservation of natural resources. At the same
time, village folk should be taught about global warming, climate change and the selection of suitable
cropping pattern.
2. A sustainable ecosystem that preserves the resources for the future generation should be framed
and things be executed.

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3. All the living beings also have rights to enjoy the earth as human beings do. As Mahatma Gandhi
stated, “Human beings are the trustees of the lower animal kingdom”. The existence of human
beings in an ecosystem depends onthese living beings also.
4. Plastic that harms the nature must be reduced. Awareness regarding the necessity of energy and
water conservation, waste management and pollution control must be created people and local
government, educational institutions and others must take the leadership and act.

6.5. CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER

DEPLETION, NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST
6.5.1 Climate Change
Climate change is a change in the global or regional climate patterns. It is caused by factors such as
biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by the earth, platonic and volcanic eruptions.
Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of climate change often
referred to as ‘Global Warming’.
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) Fourth Assessment, climate change
will create more stress on the sustainable development capabilities of countries like India. IPCC
studies shows that in near future, the global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4° to 3.8°C.
Warming will be greatest over land areas and at high latitudes. The projected rate of warming is
greater that has occurred in last 10,000 years.
Reasons for Climate Change: During the 1980’s a number of international scientific
• Global concentration of carbon dioxide in research initiatives dealing with nature emerged,
including:
the atmosphere • The World Climate Research Programme
• Unscientific land usage (WCRP) in 1980.
• The International Geosphere and Biosphere
• Pollution Programme (IGBP) in 1986.
• Deforestation • DIVERSITAS (on biodiversity and ecology) in
1990.
The predictions for the Indian subcontinent • The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel
suggest that there would be an increase in on Climate Change (IPCC) by World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
precipitation in the summer monsoons and UNEP in 1988.
decrease in rainfall during the winters. This could • International Human Dimensions to Global
Environmental Change (IHDP) with global
lead to increase in floods in the summer monsoons scientific expertise in 1996.
and droughts in the winter season. India ranks • Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
launched by UN Secretary-General Kofi
second among the world’s countries with the
Annan in 2001.
highest population in the Low Elevation Coastal
Zone (LECZ). Mumbai, Visakhapatnamand Kochi have shown a sea-level rise of slightly less than 1
mm/year, while Chennai showed a rate of decrease. A sea level rise of even 1 mm would pose stress
for the inhabitants of the coastal regions. A rise in temperature is likely to accelerate the hydrological

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cycle, altering rainfall and magnitude. Climate change could have an impact on soil moisture,
groundwater and surface water availability, and occurrences of floods and droughts.
Effects:
1. Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 9 to 88cm by the year
2100.This will seriously affect various Nations especially Nile delta in Effects:
1. Increase of temperature
Egypt, Ganga -Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh, Maldives Island, etc.
2. Rise of sea level & cause
2. It leads to different types of health problems. It may affect the climate change
distribution of vector species (eg: mosquitos) which in turn will increase 3. Cause for Acid Rain
4. Health problems.
the spread of diseases like Malaria and Dengue. Contaminated water, 5. Droughts and Floods
damaged sewage system, etc. are also the reasons for the above illness. 6.Affect agricultural
production
3. Human societies will be severely affected by extreme climatic 7.Destruction of biodiversity
conditions such as droughts and floods. The situation of non-availability and ecosystem
of food, shelter and safe drinkingwater will lead to the disaster of
mankind.
4. It will seriously affect the agricultural production and also cause reduction of food leading to
starvation and malnutrition.
5.It leads to destruction of our biodiversity and ecosystem.
How to control and what are the strategies to be adopted?
1.People should be enlightened. Our misuse of natural resources is main reason for this. We need to
protect it by creating public awareness.
2. Monitoring infectious diseases to detect early changes in incidence of diseases and take proper
measures to prevent it.
3. Take environmental management and institutional measures to reduce risk and to face disaster
preparedness for floods, droughts and health related consequences.
4. Enact proper legislations specially to control pollution and protect environment.
6.5.2 Global Warming
Global warming means increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and the
oceans. Climate change results from the global warming and caused in turn the presence and
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH 4), are released into the air by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas as well
as biomass. The emission of these greenhouse gases is a main reason for global warming. Global
warming is also caused by land use change, for example in the burning of forests that reduces forest
cover and leads to deforestation. The IPCC warned that by the end of the 21stcentury, it is possible
that the earth’s temperature would rise by 2.40 to 6.40C.

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The Conference of the Parties (COP) of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) held in Kyoto in 1997 agreed on a plan to reduce the emission of CO2 and there-by
control greenhouse gas emissions.
6.5.3 Acid Rain
Due to the burning of fossil fuel (coal, oil & natural gas) chemicals such as Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen
dioxide, etc. are formed in the atmosphere, and they mix with atmospheric air and other chemicals
resulting in sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates which are
highly soluble in water. During the rains, these oxides react with large quantities of water vapour of
the atmosphere and becomes acidic resulting in a condition called acid rains. Eventually, the rain hits
earth and the acid pollutants changes into dry particles and become acidic deposits.
Effects:
1. Dissolves and washes away nutrients in the
soil.
2. Dissolves naturally occurring toxic
substances and pollutes water.
3.Destroys our aquatic ecosystems by making
water acidic and this affects plant and animal
life.
4. It affects wildlife, species and the entire
ecosystem.
5. Acid deposition damages buildings,
automobiles, and other structures made of
stone and metal and causes extensive damage
and ruins historic buildings.
6. Adversely affects human life by creating
health issues.

What are the solutions?

Acid rain is a potential threat that affects the existence of mankind. Acid rain can be controlled up to a
certain extent by avoiding or limiting the use of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide that leads to air
pollution and also by reducing the burning of fossil fuels. Using of public transportation instead of
private motor vehicles brings down the atmospheric pollution and also prevent acid rain. If industries
use smoking stacks, atmospheric pollution can be prevented by blocking smoke.

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6.5.4 Ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion is yet another challenge that needs to Causes for Ozone layer depletion
be addressed. It is one of the main reasons for global Natural Causes
Stratospheric winds
warming. Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on Sun-Spots
oxygen and forms a layer 20 to 50 km above the surface of
Man-made causes
the Earth. Ozone is highly poisonous gas with a strong Chlorofluorocarbons
odour. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is vital to all life as it Methyl Chloroform
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet Carbon Tetrachloride
radiation (UVR). UVR are high energy electromagnetic
waves emitted by the Sun which on entering earth’s atmosphere can lead to various environmental
and health issues such as Asthma and Bronchitis. It is this ozone layer in the atmosphere that prevents
ultraviolet rays falling from the sun to the earth.
The studies conducted in 1970 by the scientists confirm that Chlorofluro Carbons (CFC) used as the
refrigerators and aerosol spray propellants, pose a threat to the ozone layer. It is proved in Antarctic
and Austria that ozone layer there becomes thinner.
Ozone depletion causes disease such as skin cancer, cataracts, etc. It also affects our agricultural
practices and food products. It leads to the increase percentage of certain dioxide in the atmosphere.
Reducing the quantity of CFC is the remedy for preventing ozone layer depletion. The world has
come forward for this and has enacted various laws. But apart from CFC, bromine an industrial
component, and halocarbons and nitrous from fertilisers and many such chemical elements are also
responsible for ozone depletion.
6.5.5 Nuclear Accidents and the Holocaust
Nuclear Energy is one of the important inventions of mankind. But the stroke of a nuclear accident
will be more dreadful than all other calamities. Even a slight leak due to an accident will lead to a
terrible terrific disaster that would last for years. It is because nuclear devices have radioactive
elements that emit harmful radiations. It causes thermal pollution and the by-products of radioactive
fatally affects human life.
Long term illness, genetic disorder, cancer and death results because of nuclear accident. Bhopal gas
tragedy (1984), Three Mile Island (American reactor failure 1979), The Mount Pinatubo Volcano
(1991), Chernobyl (1986) etc., are few examples for this dreadful disaster.
Nuclear holocaust refers to the use of nuclear energy in the II World War. The dropping of nuclear
bomb by the U.S. in Nagasaki and Hiroshima of Japan in 1945, destroyed an entire population. Its
aftereffects are still being borne by victims. Six countries – US, China, the Soviet Union, Britain,
France and India have already tested nuclear weapons.

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Case Study 1: Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident, according to United Nations (UN), was ‘the greatest
technological catastrophe in human history’. It occurred on 26thApril 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear
power plant near Pripyat. It was then part of the USSR. There was a sudden and unexpected power
surge. Nearly 7 tons of irradiated reactor fuel was released into the environment. We humans cannot
protect ourselves from such radiation because we are biologically not equipped to do so. Its effects are
silent but deadly. Six years of the accident there has been a hundredfold increase in thyroid cancers in
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Apart from cancers, blood disorders and immune system problems are
also seen,
Chernobyl survivors face a high number of mental disorders. Effects on them are similar to those that
have occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Chernobyl fatalities are disturbing not only because of
their sheer magnitude but also because they exhibit environmental injustice on a global scale. On the
one hand, the Soviet, the French, UN agencies and many proponents of nuclear power claim that
Chernobyl caused only a smaller number of causalities but IAEA (International Atomic Energy
Agency), places the number of Chernobyl fatalities are more than what they claimed. In 1995
UNESCO warned that the radioactivity released by Chernobyl would never disappear completely
from the biosphere.
Case Study 2: Bhopal Disaster
Union Carbide India Limited’s (UCIL’s) Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh plant operated for barely 15 years
(1969-1984), but it has left behind a legacy like no other industrial plant. This plant caused the
world’s worst industrial disaster that killed thousands. Over 5,00,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate gas and other chemicals. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the city
located near the plant. People affected by the gas leak on the fateful nights of December 2-3, 1984 are
still suffering and dying. What most people don’t realize is that the legacy of that plant continues to
spill toxins into the city’s land and water. In 2009 a study by Centre for Science and Environment
pointed towards widespread contamination of soil and groundwater in and around the Union Carbide
plant site.

6.6. CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods. There is little regard for the true
utility of what is bought. The inordinate amount of waste that is generated by consumer-oriented
societies around the world is now a serious environmental issue. Despite the hike in the county’s
income after emerging as a consumer state, the damage it brings to environment is greater than the
income. The over using of disposable items in the urban areas is very high today. The augmentation of
non-degradable item like plastic is a potential threat not just to humans but also to the plants and
animals alike. The rise of motor vehicles leads to various kinds of pollutions and health issues. It
paves way to the harmful phenomenon such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, etc. The

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growth of consumer items without proper waste management brings many kinds of diseases. When
consumption increases, production also increases and natural resources are exploited for this. The
garbage expelled by the industries pollutes water. It is, therefore, essential that the domestic and
industrial effluents are not allowed to be discharged into water courses without adequate treatment. As
a result, the discharges would render the water unsuitable for drinking, marine life and irrigation.
Dumping wastes into oceans and rivers create more damages to the environment. Therefore, reuse of
goods, waste reduction should become part of the production-consumption cycle.
What we can do?
1. Do not use what is not needed. The aim should be a waste-free society.
2. Make durable quality products. Also, make products that can be recycled and re-used.
Campaigns to make people capable to preserve and protect natural resources and stop the over
using of products that harm the nature. Also, the violators of law be punished.
3. Large quantities of liquid waste expelled by the industries, pathological waste and plastic
waste from hospitals, agricultural waste, human and animal waste cause different kinds of
pollution and health problems. So, its environmental impact also should be assessed along
with economic value before giving sanctions.
4. Our waste management principle should be ‘Reduce, reuse and recycle’. What we need now
is a proper recycling method.
5. Avoid the use of non-biodegradable materials.
6. Dematerialisation, i.e., the shift in consumption and production in favour of less material
intensive products, using advanced technology and recycling will boost efficiency in material
use. New Generation Environmental Technologies (NEGTs) support a new approach to
environmental protection.
Resources must be conserved by proper selection, production and recycling and reducing unnecessary
demand for consumption and inventing technologies which would make it possible for reusing the
waste resources so as to reduce over exploiting our existing resources.

6.7. ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT

This is an act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters
connected therewith.
The Act came into force in 1986 and it is intended to remedy the gaps noticed in the earlier laws and
to serve as a single environmental legislation.
It empowers the Central government to take all measures as is deemed necessary for the protection
and improvement of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental
pollution.

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In this Act, the term “environment” includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists
among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-
organism and property. “Environmental pollution” means the presence in the environment of any
environmental pollutant such as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration
as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment.
Some of the important matters in this Act are as follows:
1.Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
2. Laying down standards for the quality of environment.
3.Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents
4.Restriction of areas in which polluting activities shall not be carried out.
5.Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental
pollution.
6. Collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution.
7. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
Whoever fails to comply with or breaks any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules made shall be
punishable with imprisonment.
The National Environmental Tribunal Act has also come into force from 1995 to provide for strict
liability for damages arising out of any accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.
6.7.1. AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
This act was enacted by the Parliament under Article 253 of the constitution of India to implement
decisions of 1972 Stockholm conference on human environment and it came into force in 1981 as Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981.
This is an act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
• To provide for the Prevention, Control and abatement of air pollution. In this Act the term
“air pollutant” means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance [including noise] present in the
atmosphere in such concentration and tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment.
• The establishment of Central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act, and to
confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act.
• Set up of Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) to measure pollution levels in the atmosphere.

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Powers and functions of Central and State boards
Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them.
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards to carry out functions.
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
• Lay down standards for the quality of air.
State Pollution Control Boards:
• To plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution
• To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
• Organising the training and mass-education programmes relating prevention and control of air
pollution.
6.7.2. WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT
The main objectives of the Water Act 1974 are to provide prevention and control of water pollution.
The Central Government and State Governments have set up Pollution Control Boards that monitor
water pollution.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) which forms part of the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MOEF) is a body consisting of experts in water and air pollution abatement drawn by the
Central Government to protect the interest of key sectors like industry, agriculture, fishery, trade etc.
The CPCB has to perform the following functions:
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water
pollution.
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them.
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards to carry out functions.
• Plan and organise the training programs for the prevention, control or abatement of water
pollution.
• Organising comprehensive programme through mass media.
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution.
• Lay down, modify the standards for water quality.

State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) functions are as follows:

• To plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention of pollution in the State.
• To advise the State Government on matters concerning the control and abatement of water
pollution.
• To collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution.

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 • To encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research related to water
pollution.
• Organising the training of persons.
• Lay down and modify standards for water quality.
• To evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of effluents and utilisation of sewage
and suitable trade effluents in agriculture.
• The Board may establish a laboratory to perform its functions including the analysis of
samples of water from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.
The Water Cess Act enacted by the Parliament in 1977 and its amendments in 1988 provides levying
a tax or cess on water consumed by certain industries and by local authorities. The objective of this
tax is to increase the resources of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards for the prevention
and control of water pollution. Penalties are charged for acts that have caused pollution.

6.7.3. WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972

This is an act to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds, and plants and also their habitats.
• It deals with the declaration of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and their notification.
• It establishes the structure of the State’s wildlife management.
• It provides for setting up Wildlife Advisory Boards.
• It prohibits hunting of all animals specified in Schedules I to IV of the Act.
• This act defines animals as “amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, and their young, and
also includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs”.
• Under this Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
• The act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
The Amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act in 2002 and 2013 prevents the commercial use of
resources by local people. It has brought in new concepts such as the creation of Community
Reserves.
The 42nd Constitution Amendment, 1976 provides protection and improvement of the environment
and safeguarding of forest and wildlife in the Directive Principles of State Policy and declares that it
is the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve natural environment including forest
and wildlife.
The State Governments may declare any area to be a sanctuary or national park, if they consider the
area to be of adequate ecological significance for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing
wildlife and its environment.
The wild life protection policy looks into the following matters:
1. Formulation of National Wildlife Action Plan.

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2. Establishment of National parks and Sanctuaries.
3. Eco-development plans for Sanctuaries and National parks.
4. Identification of bio-geographical zones in the country.
5. Full and correct rehabilitation of poor/tribal population displaced due to creation of national
parks/biosphere reserves/tiger reserves.
6. Maintenance of corridors between national parks, sanctuaries, forests and other protected areas.
A person who breaks any of the conditions of any license or permit granted under this Act shall be
guilty of an offence against this Act. The offence is punishable with imprisonment.

6.7.4. FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

India’s first Forest Policy was enunciated in 1952. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the
previous laws regarding forests that were passed before the 1920’s. The Act gave the Government and
Forest Department the power to create Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for
Government use alone. This Act was enacted mainly to control deforestation. It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government.
The Act made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in the
country and specified penalties for offenders.
The Act remained in force till the 1980s and Forest Conservation Act came into force in 1980 and its
amendment in 1988.
The 42ndConstitution Amendment,1976, forests were removed from the State list and included in the
concurrent list (list of rights and duties common to State and Central Government).
The Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006,
is a key piece of forest legislation passed in India in 2006. It has also been called the Forest Rights
Act, the Tribal Rights Act, the Tribal Bill, and the Tribal Land Act. The law concerns the rights of
forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources, denied to them over decades as a result of
the continuance of colonial forest laws in India.
The basic objectives of the forest policy are as follows:
• Maintenance of environmental stability. Preservation and restoration of the ecological
balance.
• Conserving the natural heritage of the country
• Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and
social forestry programmes.
• Encouraging efficient utilization of forest produce and maximizing substitution of wood.
• Creating a massive people’s movement to achieve these objectives and to minimize pressure
on existing forests.
• Preventing the use of forest land for any other purpose.

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 • Setting up of National Wastelands Board to guide the wastelands development programme.
A person who commits any of the offences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark or sets
fire to protected forests shall be punishable with imprisonment.

6.8. ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENT LEGISLATION

Various legislations have been passed in our country to protect the natural resources. For example,
Environment Protection Act, Wildlife Protection Act,
Individual actions count:
Water & Air Pollution Prevention Act, etc. But we
1. Be Frugal-Buy only what you need. Be a
cannot protect the nature with statues alone. It becomes conscientiousconsumer.
meaningful, only if itis implemented effectively. We 2.Be Efficient- Support legislation and non-
profit organisations that promote energy
need people capable of executing it. Today, government
efficiency. Use all resources inyour day to day
organisations and NGO’s are taking leadership for it. We life efficiently.
need the preservation of nature with the 3. Be a Recycler- Support legislation that
participation of the public; the problem is in the effective promote recycling.Recycle all wastes that you
can and buy products madefrom recycled
execution of these laws and rules. materials too.
We can protect the nature by forming the 4. Support Renewable resource use- Promote
development projects suitableto that particular area. and supportrenewable energy. Wherever
possible use renewable energy.
The foremost thing required for that is the assessment of
5.Help to Restore the environment – take an
the environmental impact due to the project. active part in restoring damaged ecosystems.
(Raven & Bero).
Any developmental project both private and government should get the green signal from
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) committee. The EIA must look into physical, biological and
social parameters. The projects that may bring destruction to the nature, should not get the license.
Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) should give permission only if there is assurance from
EIA that the project will not cause harm to the nature. EIA must define what impact it would have on
water, soil and air. It also requires that a list of flora and fauna identified in the region is documented
and to specify if there are endangered species whose habitat or life could be adversely affected.
Already it is listed that 30 industries require a clearance before they set up. ‘Greenfield ‘projects (new
projects where no development has been done) and brown projects (projects that already exist but
require expansion) must also get clearance from MOEF. Now environmental clearance for a project
has become mandatory.
Besides this, the permission of State Pollution Control Board is also necessary,at local level. Public
hearing should be conducted for certain projects especially that need resettlement.
Our problem is not the lack of rules, but the impediment to using the existing rules. Proper
compensation should be fixed if the projects harm the environment. Moreover, resettlement and

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rehabilitation should be done for those who face displacement. Equitable resource distribution, proper
compensation etc. should be observed.
Each citizen should do his duty along with the engagement of his rights. We can protect our
environment by forming a collective action or action group. An individual has the right to bring an
environmental offence to the attention of concerned authorities. Narmada Bachao Andolan, Silent
Valley Project, Protest against Athirappilly hydroelectric project especially Kadar tribe, etc. are the
examples for the public collective action to protect the legal battles.

6.9. PUBLIC AWARENESS

Enlightening the people is also important as making the legislation for protecting the nature. This can
be executed through media, documentaries, educational institutions, campaigns and through local
governments, etc. We celebrate various kinds of environmental days, such as World Wetland day
(February 2), World Health day (April 7), Earth day (April 22), World Environment day (June5),
World Ocean day (June 8), World Ozone day (September16) etc. But we must be get ready to protect
nature by understanding its proper meaning and value, instead of confining it into calendar.
Everybody should know what is happening around them.
We can protect the environment through public participation and education.

QUESTIONS

Part A (2 marks)

1. What individuals can do to preserve energy?

2. Why preservation of water is essential?
3. Define Rainwater harvesting.
4. What is Acid rain?
5. What is Ozone layer depletion?
6. What is global warming?
7. Explain Watershed Management.
8. What do you mean by resettlement?
9. What is Rehabilitation?
10. What are the main problems faced by the displaced?
11. Write reasons for resettlement and rehabilitation.
12. What is Environmental Ethics?
13. What is Intergenerational equity?
14. What is Ozone layer depletion?

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15. State the meaning of environmental protection act.
Part B (5 marks)

16. What are the reasons for the increase of energy consumption in urban areas?
17. Explain the need for Water conservation and its goals.
18. Why Rain water harvesting is important?
19. Write importance of watershed management.
20. Write a short note on objectives of rehabilitation policy.
21. Briefly state the ethical principles related to the environment and what are its solutions?
22. Explain the effects and strategies to control climate change.
23. Describe the need for public awareness to protect our environment.
24. Comment on global warming & its effects.
25. What are the causes and effects of acid rain?
26. Write a note on environmental protection.
27. Explain Wildlife protection Act?
28. State the basic objectives of the forest policy.
29. Briefly explain Air prevention and control of pollution Act?
30. Explain Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act.
31. What are the issues involved in the enforcementof environment legislation?Describe the role
of an individual in conservation of environment.

Part C (10 marks)

32. Discuss various environmental protection act in India related to air and water.
33. Explain forest and wild life environmental protection act.
34. Analyse various environmental issues related to climate change, global warming and acid
rain.
35. Explain the concept of ‘Environmental Ethics’, its issues and possible solutions.
36. What is Resettlement and Rehabilitation? Discuss the reasons and problems related to
Resettlement and Rehabilitation policies in India.

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 CHAPTER 7

HUMAN RIGHTS

7.1. Introduction to human rights -meaning, concept, development

Human right means "the basic rights and freedom to which all humans are entitled".

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Irrespective of his or her race,
nationality, caste or gender, it recognize the dignity inherent in each person as a human being. The
Oxford English Dictionary defines a right as “a justifiable claim, on legal or moral grounds, to have
or obtain something, or act in a certain way”. The notion of human rights in the 20th century extended
the idea of individual rights to include all human beings, regardless of citizenship or state affiliation.

Human rights include civil and political rights, such as:

• The right to life, freedom, and property

• Freedom of expression
• Quest of happiness and equality before the law
• Social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in science and culture,
the right to work, and the right to education etc.

The primary element consistent throughout each of the above definitions is “Universality” - human
rights are unchallengeable.

7.1.1. Development of Human Rights: Natural law to Human Rights

Human rights are considered the offspring of natural rights, which themselves progressed from the
concept of natural law. Natural law is a standard of higher-order morality against which all other laws
are ruled. It provided a basis for curbing excessive power of state over society. Eventually this
concept of natural law evolved into natural rights; this change reflected a shift in emphasis from
society to the individual.

John Locke, a famous Philosopher, in his Second Treatise on Government (1690), states that “prior to
the creation of society each person possessed a set of natural rights including the rights to life, liberty
and property.” Locke’s principles were adopted by the founding fathers of the United States in the
Universal Declaration of Independence (1776). To secure rights such as life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed. These principles were further expounded and enshrined in the U.S. Constitution (1787) and
Bill of Rights (1789).

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A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have
expanded the body of international human rights law. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) was the first legal document protecting universal human rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Agreement on Civil and Political Rights
and the International Agreement on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights were the three instruments
which form the so-called International Bill of Human Rights.

7.1.2. Three Generations of Human Rights (Civil and Political Rights, Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights).

The division of three generations of human rights was introduced by a Czech Jurist, KarelVasakin
1979. The three categories fall in line with the three doctrines of the French Revolution such as:
liberty, equality, and fraternity.

The three generations of human rights divisions are:

• Civil-Political (First-generation )
• Socio-economic (Second-generation)
• Collective-developmental (Third-generation)

Collective-
Civil-Political Socio-economic
developmental

First-generation, “civil-political” rights deal with liberty and participation in political life.
They are strongly individualistic and constructed to protect the individual from the state.
These rights draw from the United States Bill of Rights and the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen in the 18th century.
Second-generation, “socio-economic” human rights guarantee equal conditions and
treatment. They are not rights directly possessed by individuals but constitute positive duties
upon the government to respect and fulfil them. It began to be recognized by governments
after World War II and, like first-generation rights, is embodied in Articles 22 to 27 of the
Universal Declaration. They are also enumerated in the International Agreement on
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
Third-generation, “collective-developmental” rights of peoples aligns with the final principle
of “fraternity.” They constitute a broad class of rights and that have gained acknowledgment
in international agreements and treaties (Twiss, 2004). They have been expressed largely in
documents advancing aspirational “soft law” such as the 1992 Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, and the 1994 Draft Declaration of Indigenous Peoples’
Rights.

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 In short, the first two represent the potential claims of individual persons against the state and
its norms accepted in international treaties and conventions. The third type, which represents
potential claims of peoples and groups against the state and it lacks both legal and political
recognition.

Each of these types includes two further subtypes.

Sub type of Civil-Political human rights:

• Norms relating to physical and civil security (for example, equality before the law, no torture,
slavery, inhumane treatment, uninformed arrest etc)
• Norms relating to civil-political liberties or empowerments (for example, freedom of thought,
conscience, and religion, political participation in one’s society ,freedom of assembly and
voluntary association etc).

Sub type of Socio-economic human rights:

• Norms relating to the provision of goods to meet social needs (for example, shelter, health
care, nutrition, education etc)
• Norms relating to the provision of goods to meet economic needs (for example, minimum
standard of living, work and fair wages, a social security net etc)

Sub type of Collective-developmental human rights:

• The self-determination of people (for example, Political status of people and their economic,
social, and cultural development etc)
• Special rights to certain national and religious minorities (for example, to the enjoyment of
their own cultures, languages, and religions etc).

The framework of three generations covers many of the key debates about the nature of rights. It also
encourages us to take a critical approach in challenging our own assumptions about rights as we begin
to think about some of the real-world problems involved in the application of human rights.

7.2. HUMAN RIGHTS AND UNITED NATIONS

“Human right means rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status”- The
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

7.2.1. Protecting human rights: Role of UN offices

The Charter of the United Nations was signed on 26th June 1945 and came into force on 24th October
1945.The UN Charter expressed a commitment to uphold human rights of citizens and outlined a set
of principles relating to achieving ‘higher standards of living’, addressing ‘economic, social, health,
and related problems,’ and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental

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freedoms for all without any distinction such as race, sex, language, or religion.The Statute of the
International Court of Justice is an integral part of the Charter.

Main Bodies of UN system includes:

• General Assembly
• Security Council
• Economic and Social Council
• Trusteeship Council
UN Organisations:
• International Court of Justice
UNESCO (4th November 1946).It helps in
• Secretariat
advancing cooperation in education, sciences,
In UN System, the Office of the UN High culture, communication and information when
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) has societies across the world face the rising
lead responsibility for the promotion and protection pressures of change and the international
of human rights. The office supports the human community faces new challenges.
rights components of peace keeping missions in UNICEF( 11th December 1946).It provide
several countries, and has many regional offices emergency food and healthcare to children in
and centres in different countries. countries that had been devastated by World
• The Human Rights Council replaced the War II.It believes that “All children have a
UN Commission on Human Rights in right to survive, thrive and fulfill their
2006 and it is a key independent UN potential – to the benefit of a better world”.
intergovernmental body responsible for WHO ( 7th April 1948) .The organisation is
human rights. concerned with international public health.
• The UN Development Group’s Human WHO works worldwide to promote health,
Rights Mainstreaming Mechanism (UNDG- keep the world safe, and to serve the
HRM) also advances human rights vulnerable.
mainstreaming efforts within the UN ILO (1946).It sets international labour
development system. standards and promotes social protection and
• The UN Security Council deals with grave work opportunities for all.
human rights violations, often in conflict areas.
• The General Assembly’s Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural) also examines
a range of issues, including human rights questions. The Committee discusses questions
relating to the advancement of women, the protection of children, indigenous issues, the
treatment of refugees, the promotion of fundamental freedoms through the elimination of
racism and racial discrimination, and the right to self-determination.

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 Various other UN intergovernmental bodies and interdepartmental mechanisms address a range of
human rights issues. Human rights issues are also addressed in the context of the post-conflict UN
peace building support activities.

• The ‘Human Rights Up Front’ is an initiative by the UN Secretary-General to take early and
effective action to prevent /respond to serious and large-scale violations of human rights or
international humanitarian law.
• The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), an advisory body to
the Economic and Social Council, has a mandate to discuss indigenous issues, including
human rights.
• The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) is the principal global intergovernmental
body to ensure the promotion of gender equality and the advancement of women rights. UN
Women, established in 2010, serves as its Secretariat.

7.2.2. Main Human Right Related Organs (UNESCO,UNICEF,WHO,ILO)

I. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

UNESCO is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris and established on
4th November 1946. It helps in advancing cooperation in education, sciences, culture,
communication and information when societies across the world face the rising pressures of
change and the international community faces new challenges. It’s duty remains to reaffirm the
humanist missions of education, science and culture. Its seeks to build peace through international
cooperation in education, sciences and culture. UNESCO's programmes contribute to the
achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals defined in Agenda 2030, adopted by the UN
General Assembly in 2015. UNESCO has a unique role to play in strengthening the foundations
of lasting peace and equitable and sustainable development.

Functions:
1. Develops educational tools to help people.
2. Fosters scientific programmes and policies for development and cooperation.
3. Strengthens bonds among nations, promoting cultural heritage and the equal dignity of all
culture.
4. Works for access to quality education to all citizens.
5. Stands up for freedom of expression, as a fundamental right and a key condition for
democracy and development.
6. Helps countries to adopt international standards and manages programmes that foster the free
flow of ideas and knowledge sharing.

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II. UNICEF (The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund)

UNICEF was created by the United Nations General Assembly on 11thDecember 1946 , to provide
emergency food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated by World War II. In
1950, UNICEF's mandate was extended to address the long-term needs of children and women in
developing countries everywhere. It believes that “All children have a right to survive, thrive and
fulfil their potential – to the benefit of a better world”. UNICEF headquarters in New York. It works
in 190 countries and territories to save children’s lives, to defend their rights, and to help them fulfil
their potential, from early childhood through adolescence. For the past 73 years, UNICEF has worked
to improve the lives of children and their families.

Functions:

1. It fights for the rights of every child seeking safe shelter, nutrition, protection from disaster
and conflicts, and equality.
2. It works with partner countries around the world to promote policies and expand access to
services that protect all children.
3. It helps to reduce child mortality all over the world by working to reach the most vulnerable
children, everywhere.
4. It works around the world to support quality learning for every girl and boy, especially those
in greatest danger of being left behind.
5. It works to reach children and families who need lifesaving aid and long-term assistance.
6. Works all over the world to empower girls and women, and to ensure their full participation
in political, social, and economic systems.
7. Works with partners in every sector to co-create innovative solutions that accelerate progress
for children and young people.
8. It delivers sustainable access to lifesaving supplies where they are most needed, accelerating
results for the most vulnerable children.

III. WHO (The World Health Organization)

WHO is a specialized agency of the United Nations concerned with international public health. It was
established on 7thApril 1948, and its headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland. WHO works worldwide
to promote health, keep the world safe, and to serve the vulnerable. The WHO is a member of the
United Nations Development Group.

The constitution of the WHO was signed by 61 countries on 22nd July 1946.Since its establishment, it
has played a leading role in the eradication of various communicable diseases such as smallpox,
malaria etc. It ensures Universal Health Coverage and tries to protect people from health emergencies
and provides people with better health and well-being.WHO defines health as “a state of complete

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physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” and the
enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human
being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition. In the
Sustainable Development Goals, all countries have committed to achieving Universal Health
Coverage (UHC) by 2030.Governments have a responsibility for the health of their peoples which can
be fulfilled only by the provision of adequate health and social measures.
WHO’s priorities include:
1. Strive to combat communicable diseases, in particular HIV/AIDS, Corona Virus
(Covid 19), Ebola, malaria and tuberculosis; and non-communicable diseases like
cancer and heart disease.
2. Mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases such as sexual and
reproductive health.
3. For Universal Health Coverage, WHO focus is on primary health care to improve
access to quality essential services.
4. WHO helps mothers and children to survive and thrive so that they can look forward to
a healthy old age.
5. It ensures the safety of the air people breathe, the food they eat, the water they drink
and the medicines and vaccines they need.
6. It works towards sustainable financing and financial protection to improve access to
essential medicines and health product.
7. Detects and responds to acute health emergencies. For health emergencies, WHO
identifies, mitigates and manages risks, prevent emergencies and support development
of tools necessary during outbreaks.
8. Supports by delivery of essential health services in fragile settings.
9. Publishes the World Health Report, a worldwide World Health Survey, and celebrates
World Health Day on 7th April.

IV. ILO (The International Labour Organization)

ILO is a United Nations agency that sets international labour standards and promotes social protection
and work opportunities for all. The ILO was established as an agency of the League of Nations
following World War I, in 1919, to pursue a vision-based idea that the universal lasting peace can be
established only if it is based on social justice. The ILO became the first specialized agency of the UN
in 1946 and its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
ILO is the only tripartite U.N. agency, brings together governments, employers and workers to seta
system of international labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes for promoting

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decent work for all women and men.187 member States joined in ILO. The International Labour
Office is the permanent secretariat of the ILO.

In 1969, the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving fraternity and peace among
nations, pursuing decent work and justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other
developing nations. The ILO is devoted to promoting social justice and internationally recognized
human and labour rights.

The main goals of the ILO are:

• Set and promote work standards and fundamental principles.
• To promote rights at work.
• Create greater opportunities for women and men to decent employment and income.
• Enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all and strengthen dialogue on
work-related issues.
• It gives equal voice to workers, employers and governments to ensure that the views of the
social partners are closely reflected in labour standards and in shaping policies and
programmes.
• Promotes social dialogue between trade unions and employers in formulating, implementing
national policy on social, economic, and many other issues.
• To protect the right of labours for fixing minimum wage. ILO has created various minimum
wages act including minimum wage law of 1970.

7.2.3. Declarations for Women and Children

In 1974, UN adopted the Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and
Armed Conflict. It was proposed by the United Nations Economic and Social Council, on the grounds
that women and children are often the victims of wars, civil unrest, and other emergency situations
that cause them to suffer "inhuman acts and consequently suffer serious harm". The Declaration states
that women and children suffer victimization during armed conflict due to "suppression, aggression,
colonialism, racism, alien domination and foreign subjugation".

Main Points in the declaration:

• The Declaration specifically prohibits attacks and bombing of civilian populations (Article 1)
and the use of chemical and biological weapons on civilian populations (Article 2).

• Article 3 of Declaration states to abide by the Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the Geneva
Convention of 1949. The Geneva Conventions proposed some rules that seek to protect
people who are not or are no longer taking part in conflicts.

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 • The Declaration also states that countries take measures to end "persecution, torture, punitive
measures, degrading treatment and violence" especially when they are targeted against
women and children, as well as recognizing "imprisonment, torture, shooting, mass arrests,
collective punishment, destruction of dwellings, and forcible evictions" as criminal acts.

• Certain rights are also protected in the Declaration, such as access to food, shelter, and
medical care, which are to be provided to women and children caught in emergency
situations.

7.2.4. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly on 10thDecember 1948.The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights was the first legal document protecting Universal Human Rights.

It drafted by representatives with

different legal and cultural backgrounds
from all regions of the world with the
objective of protection of fundamental
rights universally. The power of the
Universal Declaration is the power of
ideas to change the world. It ensures all
people freedom, equality and dignity.
The Declaration was the first step in the
process of formulating the International
Bill of Human Rights, which was
completed in 1966, and came into force in
1976. One of the three instruments of
International Bill of Human Rights was
the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human

Rights consists of 30 articles confirming
an individual's rights. They are pointed in
the Box.7.1.

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Box 7.1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 30 Articles:
1. Free and equal in dignity and rights
2. Freedom from discrimination
3. Right to life, liberty and security of person
4. Freedom from slavery
5. Freedom from torture
6. Right to recognition before the law
7. Right to equality before the law
8. Access to justice
9. Freedom from arbitrary detention or exile
10. Right to a fair trial by an independent and impartial tribunal
11. Presumption of innocence -Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be
presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had
all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
12. Right to privacy
13. Freedom of movement-1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence
within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his
own, and to return to his country.
14. Right to asylum -Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.
15. Right to nationality
16. Right to marry- Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or
religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
17. Right to own property
18. Freedom of religion or belief- Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and
religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone
or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in
teaching, practice, worship and observance.
19. Freedom of opinion and expression
20. Freedom of peaceful assembly and association
21. Right to partake in public affairs
22. Right to social security-and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international
co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the
economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of
his personality.
23. Right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to
protection against unemployment.
24. Right to leisure and rest
25. Right to adequate standard of living
26. Right to education -Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages
27. Right to take part in cultural, artistic and scientific life
28. Right to a free and fair world
29. Duty to your community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is
possible.
30. Rights are inalienable- Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any
State, group or person any right to engage146 in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the
destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
7.3. HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA

7.3.1. Fundamental Rights and Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India is the highest law of India. The

document lays down the framework defining fundamental
powers, structure, political code, procedures and duties of Fundamental Rights
government institutions. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Chairman of the
Fundamental rights are provided in
drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect. Part III of the Indian Constitution.
The Constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, The Constitution guarantees six
democratic republic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and
fundamental rights to Indian
citizens.
liberty and endeavours to promote fraternity.
Right to Right to freedom
Rights are claims that are essential for the existence and equality of religion
development of individuals. The rights which are recognized by Right to Cultural and
freedom educational rights
the State(includes the Government and Parliament of India and Right against Right to
the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all exploitation constitutional
local or other authorities within the territory of India or under
remedies

the control of the Government of India) and protected in

the Constitution are called fundamental rights.

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens and applied irrespective
of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed, or gender. These rights are fundamental because of two
reasons:

1) These are mentioned in the Constitution of India which guarantees them.

2) These are justiciable, i.e. enforceable through courts.

The Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties are
sections of the Constitution of India that recommend the fundamental obligations of the states to
its citizens and the duties and the rights of the citizens to the State.

Fundamental rights are provided in Part III of the Indian Constitution. The Constitution
guarantees six fundamental rights to Indian citizens as follows:

i) Right to equality
ii) Right to freedom
iii) Right against exploitation
iv) Right to freedom of religion
v) Cultural and educational rights, and
vi) Right to constitutional remedies.

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Right to equality Right to freedom Right against exploitation:
Equality before law. Protection of certain rights regarding Prohibition of traffic in human
freedom of speech, expression etc. beings and forced labour.
Prohibition of discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex Protection in respect of conviction Prohibition of employment of
or place of birth. for offences. children in factories, etc.
Equality of opportunity in matters of Protection of life and personal
public employment. liberty.

Abolition of Untouchability. Right to education.

Abolition of titles. Protection against arrest and

detention in certain cases.

Right to freedom of religion Right to constitutional remedies

Freedom of conscience and free profession, Remedies for enforcement of rights
practice and propagation of religion. conferred by this Part.
Power of Parliament to modify the
Freedom to manage religious affairs.
rights conferred by this Part in their
Freedom as to payment of taxes for
application to Forces, etc.
promotion of any particular religion.
Restriction on rights conferred by
Freedom as to attendance at religious
this Part while martial law is in force
instruction or religious worship in certain
in any area.
educational institutions.
Legislation to give effect to the
provisions of this Part.

Cultural and Educational

rights
Protection of interests of
minorities.
Right of minorities to establish and
administer educational institutions.

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 Originally, there were 7 Fundamental Rights in the Constitution. There was the Right to Property
also besides above 6 rights. Since 1978, it was removed from the list of Fundamental Rights by
44th constitutional amendment. The right to property is still a Constitutionally recognised right,
but is now considered outside the Part on Fundamental Rights.
India with its Federal structure has National Commission for Protection of Human Rights
(NCPHR) at the Centre and State Commission for Protection of Human Rights (SCPHR) at the
state level. There are also offices at district level to protect the human rights.

7.3.2. Rights for Children and Women

The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to
adopt positive measures in favour of women. The Constitution of India has also taken
care of the children and there are various article in our Constitution to protect the
rights of the children. Each child is having the right to protection from all form of violence. Apart
from the Constitution of India ,the Central and State Government has passed many act to protect
the rights of the women and children. Some of the Constitutional Privileges are as follows:

Constitutional Privileges for Women

• Equality before law for women - Article 14.

• The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them - Article 15 (i).
• The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children -Article 15 (3).
• Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment
to any office under the State -Article 16.
• The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an
adequate means of livelihood. Article 39(a).
• Equal pay for equal work for both men and women -Article 39(d).
• Equal justice and free legal aid -Article 39 A.
• The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for
maternity relief -Article 42.
• It is the duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its
people and to improve public health - Article 47.
• To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India transcending religious, linguistic and regional and to renounce practices derogatory
to the dignity of women -Article 51(A) (e).

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 • Not less than 1/3 (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the SC
and ST) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every
Panchayat/Municipalities to be reserved for women and such seats to be allotted by
rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat- Article 243 D(3), Article 243 T (3)
and not less than 1/3 of the total number of offices of Chairpersons in the Panchayats at
each level to be reserved for women -Article 243 D (4) .

To uphold the Constitutional command, the State has passed various legislative measures to
ensure equal rights, to counter social discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities
and to provide support services especially to working women. 'Crime against Women' is
punishable under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the State has also passed some acts which
have special provisions to safeguard women and their interests such as the Maternity Benefit Act,
1961 (Amended in 1995) , Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961,The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act,
2006, Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 ,Commission of Sati
(Prevention) Act, 1987 ,The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005etc.

7.3.3. Rights for Children:

Human rights of children gives particular attention to the rights of children and protection and
care afforded to minors. On November 20, 1989, the United Nations General Assembly adopted
the Convention on the Rights of the Child, that gives a landmark for human rights of children.

Children's rights includes their right to human identity ,food, equal protection of the child's civil
rights, freedom from discrimination on the basis of the child's race, gender, sexual orientation,
nationality, religion, disability, colour, ethnicity, or other characteristics.

All people under the age of 18 are entitled to the standards and rights guaranteed by the laws that
govern our country and the international legal instruments. The Constitution also provides
provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years. The State
shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete
the age of six years.

The Constitution of India guarantees all children certain rights, which includes:

• Right to free and compulsory elementary education for all children in the 6-14 year age
group -Article 21 A.
• Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years -Article
24.
• Right to be protected from being abused and forced by economic necessity to enter
occupations unsuited to their age or strength -Article 39(e).

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 • Right to equal opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in
conditions of freedom and dignity and guaranteed protection of childhood and youth
against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment -Article 39 (f).
• Right to equality. Rights as equal citizens of India, just as any other adult male or female
- Article 14.
• Right to being protected from being trafficked and forced into bonded labour - Article
23.

Besides the Constitution, there are several laws that specifically apply to children.

• To get proper health services.

• Not to be separated from parents against the will of the child.
• To be cared for by the parents.
• To get basic education in mother tongue.
• To be protected from physical punishment.

7.3.4. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes , Other Backward Castes and Minorities:

The framers of the Constitution found that certain communities in the country were suffering from
social, educational and economic backwardness due to age-old practice of untouchability,
primitive practices, lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation and they need
special consideration for protection their interests and for their socio-economic development.
These communities were notified as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as per provisions
contained in Clause 1 of Articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution respectively.
"Scheduled Castes"(SC) means “such castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within such
castes, races or tribes as are deemed under article 341 of the Constitution”.

The term 'Scheduled Tribes' (ST)first appeared in the Constitution of India. Scheduled Tribe is
defined as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal
communities as are deemed under Article 342 of the constitution".

Other Backward Class (OBC) is a collective term used by the Government of India to classify
castes which are educationally or socially disadvantaged. It is one of several official
classifications of the population of India, along with Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs
and STs). In the Indian Constitution, OBCs are described as "socially and educationally backward
classes".

The deep concern of the framers of the Constitution for the uplift of the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes is reflected in the elaborate constitutional
mechanism set-up for their uplift.

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 Directive Principles of State Policy states the State shall promote with special care the educational
and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation. There shall be a Commission for the Scheduled Castes to be known as the National
Commission for the Scheduled Castes.
Constitutional Privileges:

Scheduled Castes

1. Fundamental Rights : Abolishes Untouchability-Article 17.

2. Directive Principles of State Policy: Directs state to promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of
the SC and STs, and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation -
Article 46.
3. Public Service Commissions: Special provisions relating to certain classes- Article 320,335
provides that the claims of the members of the SCs and STs shall be taken into consideration,
consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of
appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State.
4. Special provisions for SC/STs advancement- Article 15(4). Article 16(4A) speaks of
“reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the
State in favour of SCs/STs, which are not adequately represented in the services under the
State”.
5. Political Safeguards: Constitution provides reservation of seats in favour of the SC and ST in
the House of the People and in the legislative assemblies of the States-Article 330,332.
Under Part IX relating to the Panchayats and Part IXA of the Constitution relating to the
Municipalities, reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in local bodies has
been envisaged and provided.

Scheduled Tribes

1. Reservation in educational institutions has been provided in Article 15(4) while reservation in
posts and services has been provided in Article 16(4), 16(4A) and 16(4B) of the Constitution.
2. Article 23 which prohibits traffic in human beings and other similar forms of forced labour
has a special significance for Scheduled Tribes. In pursuance of this Article, Parliament has
enacted the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976.
3. Article 24 which prohibits employment of Children below the age of 14 years in any factory
or mine or in any other hazards activity is also significant for Scheduled Tribes as a
substantial portion of child labour engaged in these jobs belong to Scheduled Tribes.

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 4. Constitution provides reservation of Seats for Scheduled Tribes in Panchayats- Article 243D
and Article 330,332.

Other Backward Classes and Minorities

1. Constitution safeguards rights relating to Educational & Public Employment.

2. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
3. Not preventing the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the SC/STs.
4. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment – There shall be equality of
opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office
under the State.
5. Article 46 of the Constitution provides that the State shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the society.

Article 338 provides a National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to
investigate and monitor all matters relating to safeguards provided for them, to inquire into
specific complaints and to participate and advise on the planning process of their socio-economic
development etc and it is known as the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes, National
Commission for the Scheduled Tribes and National Commission for the Other backward classes
respectively. The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment is entrusted with the empowerment
of the disadvantaged and marginalized sections of the society. The target groups of the Ministry
are: Scheduled Castes, Other Backward Classes, Senior Citizens, Victims of Substance Abuse,
Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes, Beggars and Transgenders. The Ministry has
been implementing various programmes/schemes for social, educational and economic
development of the target groups.

For the Socio-economic and overall development of the Tribal people, special provisions and
safeguards have been provided in the Constitution of India and some initiative have also been
taken by the Government of India, including Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) strategy. The Tribal Sub Plan
(TSP) strategy was aimed for the rapid socio-economic development of tribal people.

In addition to this various scholarships are provided to the students belonging to the SC,ST and
Other backward classes and minorities to ensure that education is not denied due to the poor
financial condition of their families. Various scheme of assistance also provided to these groups
to finance income generating activities and various acts like the ‘Prohibition of Employment as
Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act, 2015(Amendment 2016),protection of Civil Rights
rule, incentive for inter-caste marriages, awareness generation, setting up of exclusive Special
courts, etc guaranteed by the constitution.

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7.4. ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS

7.4.1. Right to Clean Environment and Public Safety

The right to a clean environment is an important concept and it is necessary for public safety. The
conservation of the environment is necessary for the enjoyment of the rights to health, to food, and to
a dignified life. The right to a clean environment is not just an individual right. It is relevant for the
future generations and indigenous people depend on the environment for their existence.
A clean environment is an essential aspect not only for human beings but also for other animals on
the planet. Environmental deterioration can endanger life of not only the present but also future
generations. Article 21 of the Indian Constitution states: 'No person shall be deprived of his life or
personal liberty except according to procedures established by law.' The Supreme Court expanded this
in two ways. Firstly, any law affecting personal liberty should be reasonable, fair and just. Secondly,
the Court recognised several unarticulated liberties that were implied by article 21. It is by this second
method that the Supreme Court interpreted the right to life and personal liberty to include the right to
a clean environment.

The human conference on human environment held at Stockholm in 1972 stated that the “natural
resources of the Earth including air, water, land, flaura and fauna and especially the representative
sample of natural ecosystem must be safeguarded for the benefit of the present and future generations
through careful planning or management as appropriate.” The report on the World Commission on
Environment and Development suggested several legal principles for environmental protection and
sustainable development. ‘Caring for the Earth 1991’ and the ‘Earth Summit’ of 1992 also declared
that human beings are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

The air we breathe, the water we drink and the place we live in may be polluted with toxic substances.
The tremendous increase in industrial activity during the last few decades and the release of toxic
industrial wastes into the environment, have been of considerable concern in the recent years.

It is now known that the outcome of the human activity in the last 200 years on nature (after the
industrial revolution) is very damaging and disrupts natural phenomena and ecological balance. Many
incidents and issues like the death of thousands of people in Mnamata in Japan after eating fish from
the local Bay (mercury poisoning), ‘Itai-Itai’ disease (due to cadmium pollution), Bhopal gas tragedy
(due to poisonous gas MIC), London smog in 1952, the emergence of new ocean currents like El-
Nino, Global warming, Depletion in Ozone umbrella, the nuclear accidents of Three mile island,
Chernobyl and recently, in Fukushima Japan, have forced mankind to take a second look on the
impact of industries on nature. Thus environmental pollution on one hand and deforestation and
population explosion on the other, are threatening the very existence of life on earth. Hence, to
stimulate awareness of the environment and to enhance political attention and public action United
Nations General Assembly in 1972 established June 5th as World Environment Day.

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Environmental Rights:

The right of individuals to use unspoiled natural resources that enable their survival are called
Environmental Rights. This includes access to land, shelter, food, water and air.

There are many dimensions in the interrelationship between human rights and environmental
protection:

• Human rights obligations of States should include the duty to ensure the level of
environmental protection necessary to allow the full exercise of the rights of the citizens.
• Human rights must be implemented in order to ensure environmental protection.
Some of the basic environmental rights have been listed below:

Substantive Rights ensure the rights to:

• Enjoy a safe, clean and sustainable environment.

• Protection against discrimination and have equal protection of the law, in relation to the
enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment.
• Freedom of expression and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any
media and regardless of frontiers.
Procedural Rights

• To seek, receive, and impart environmental information.

• To be a participant in decisions about environmental matters.

• To effective legal remedies for violations of these rights.

State Obligations

States have an obligation to protect environmental rights. This involves ensuring the provision of the
above rights as well as the obligations:

• To require the prior assessment of the possible environmental and human rights impacts of
policies and projects.
• To ensure that they comply with their obligations to indigenous peoples and members of
traditional communities.
• To ensure the effective enforcement of their environmental standards against public and private
actors.
Private Sector Obligations

Business houses have a responsibility to respect environmental rights. This means that they should
avoid infringing on the human rights of others and should address adverse human rights impacts,
which they may have caused.

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7.4.2. Issues of Industrial Pollution and Prevention

Industrial pollution is the undesirable outcome caused by factories that emit harmful by-products and
waste into the environment. Such emissions could cause air pollution, water pollution, land pollution.

Industries cause pollution in many ways. Some of them are:

• Emission of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere causes air pollution. The toxic chemicals
used by industries in processing and manufacturing are harmful to human health and the
environment. Industrial facilities across the world generate more than 25 million tonnes of
toxic chemicals as production-related wastes and pollutants. These toxic chemical pollutants
are released into the environment resulting in various forms of pollution.
• Industries need a consistent supply of raw materials and so metals, minerals and oils are
extracted from beneath the earth thereby depleting the natural resources. This degrades land
and water resources. Lands are left bare or destroyed owing to deforestation or clearance of
vegetation cover to pave the way for industrial raw material extraction. Raw material
extraction also causes pollution to the soil, air, and water. For instance, oil spills during oil
extraction have led to the widespread death of marine birds, fish, mammals and amphibians.
• Industrial products like electronics, automobiles and their parts, plastics, metals, and chemical
utilities such as petroleum, paints, sprays, and cleaning solvents created for human
consumption are a major cause of pollution. All these industrial products at some point in
their lifetime become obsolete, and are deposited in landfills or water bodies. This causes land
and water pollution. These products sometimes contain poisonous chemical elements that can
have an adverse effect on the environment.
• Carbon dioxide is commonly known as a greenhouse gas due to its ability to absorb thermal
radiation leading to global warming and climate change. Industrial production emits carbon
dioxide gas into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions around the world are caused by energy use
in commercial, production, processing, and power producing industries.
• A number of industries still utilize out dated technologies in their production processes
instead of embracing cleaner and green technologies. This is one of the factors that cause
industrial pollution.
• Anti-pollution Policies are not implemented. In many countries, especially in developing
nations, industrial pollution activities continue due to lax anti-pollution policies. Industries
continue to pollute the environment with impunity affecting the lives and health of many
people. Plants and wildlife have also been badly affected in these regions.
Steps to Prevent Industrial Pollution

1. Control at Source: Suitable alterations in the choice of raw materials will help in controlling
pollution.

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2. Selection of Industry Site: The industrial site should be properly examined considering the
climatic and topographical characteristics.

3. Treatment of Industrial Waste: The industrial wastes should be subjected to proper treatment
before their discharge.

4. Plantation: Intensive planting of trees in the site where the industry is located considerably reduces
the dust, smoke and other pollutants.

5. Government Action: Government should take stringent action against industries which discharge
higher amount of pollutants into the environment than the level prescribed by Pollution Control
Board.

6. Environmental Audit: Environmental impact assessment should be carried out regularly to

identify and evaluate the potential and harmful impacts of the industries on natural eco-system.

7. Strict Implementation of Environmental Protection Act: Environment Protection Act should be

strictly followed and violators should be punished.

7.4.3. Rehabilitation and Safety aspects of use of new technologies such as Chemical and
Nuclear Technologies

Nuclear Technology.

Nuclear technology involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei. It uses the energy that is stored in
the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear reactors, nuclear medicine and nuclear weapons use this technology.
The controlled use of nuclear fission releases energy for work including propulsion, heat, and the
generation of electricity. Nuclear fission is the process that is used in nuclear reactors to produce high
amount of energy using uranium.

Nuclear energy is produced by a controlled nuclear chain reaction, which creates heat this is used to
boil water, produce steam, and drive a steam turbine. The turbine is used to generate electricity and/or
do mechanical work. Nuclear energy is considered to be one of the most environmentally friendly
sources of energy.

Advantages of nuclear power generation:

• Nuclear power generation emits relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2).
• This technology is readily available.
• Nuclear power produces relatively inexpensive electricity. The cost of the uranium, which is
utilized as a fuel in this process, is low. Even though the expense of setting up nuclear power
plants is moderately high, the expense of running them is quite low.

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 • Nuclear energy is a more feasible choice than others. They have high energy density as
compared to fossil fuels. The amount of fuel required by a nuclear power plant is
comparatively less than what is required by other power plants.
• It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.
Disadvantages of nuclear power generation:

• The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.

• Despite high security standards, accidents can still happen. It is technically impossible to
build a plant with 100% security.
• The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource; its supply is
estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.
Chemical Technology

Chemical energy refers to the stored energy inside chemical bonds, and it is released by way of
exothermic reactions. Some of its sources include crude oil, coal, organic material and wood.

Advantages of Chemical Energy

• Almost all sources of chemical energy, such as crude oil, wood, organic materials like wax
and coal, can be found around the world, and humans are very dependent on these energy
sources. This is the reason why worldwide economies are being affected when prices of these
energy sources fluctuate.
• One of the most common chemical energy sources available is crude oil, which is extracted
from underlying sedimentary layers of the earth’s crust. It is produced from the process of
chemical conversion that occurs in the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals under
great pressure that is exerted by the Earth.
• Easy combustibility is a great advantage of chemical energy. As compared to other sources of
energy, chemical energy produces fuels that are capable of giving out instant energy. It only
requires the availability of air to ignite the source with sufficient oxygen content.
Disadvantages of Chemical Energy

• It can be harmful to the environment. Combustion is required to produce energy and this can
produce harmful by-products, which causes pollution.
• It can produce radioactive waste. The radiations emitted by this kind of waste can last upto
hundreds of years.
• It is non-renewable. Most sources of chemical energy cannot be replenished.
• Chemical energy increases pollution. This is seen as the biggest disadvantage of chemical
energy. This is also the main reason why researchers and scientists are searching for
alternative sources of energy that are less or totally not harmful to humans and the

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 environment. Global warming has worsened in recent years because of heavy pollution in the
different parts of the world.
7.4.5. Issues of Waste Disposal

Waste Management

Waste management involves the activities required to manage waste from its inception to its final
disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with
monitoring and regulation of the waste management process. Waste management is intended to
reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment and aesthetics.

Waste can be solid, liquid, or gaseous and each type has different methods of disposal and
management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological and
household wastes.

Waste management practices cannot be uniformly practiced in different areas. Developed and
developing nations, urban and rural areas, residential and industrial sectors have to take different
approaches.

Tips for Waste management*( for more details refer section-5.9)

• Preventing or reducing waste generation: Extensive use of new or unnecessary products is a

major cause of unchecked waste formation.
• Recycling: Recycling serves to transform waste into products of their own genre through
industrial processing. Paper, glass, aluminium, and plastic are commonly recycled.
• Incineration: Incineration features combustion of wastes to transform them into base
components, with the generated heat being trapped for deriving energy.
• Composting: It involves decomposition of organic wastes by microbes by allowing the waste
to stay accumulated in a pit for a long period of time. The nutrient rich compost can be used
as plant manure.
• Sanitary Landfill: This involves the dumping of wastes into a landfill. The base is prepared of
a protective lining, which serves as a barrier between wastes and ground water, and prevents
the separation of toxic chemicals into the water zone. Landfills should be created in places
with low groundwater level that are far removed from sources of flooding.
Protection of Environment

Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment through activities
initiated by individuals, organizations and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural
resources and if possible, to repair damage that has been caused to the eco system.

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Due to the pressures of population growth and increased use of technology, the environment is being
degraded, sometimes permanently. Governments have now begun placing restraints on activities that
cause environmental degradation.

Protection of the environment is needed for sustainable development. Industrial pollution, degradation
of forests, depletion of ozone layer, the green house gases results in global warming and climate
which will have an adverse impact on environment and human health. There is a need for
conservation of Biodiversity, protection of wetlands and prevention of environmental pollution.

Forest Conservation

India defines forest management as one where the needs of indigenous communities are not ignored.
Forests are sustained while at the same time ensuring that the nation's economic needs are satisfied
through scientific forestry.

Protection of Wetlands

Wetlands are complex ecosystems and encompass a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats.
They share the characteristics of both wet and dry environments. They include flood plains, swamps,
marshes, fishponds, tidal marshes natural and man-made wetlands. Among the most productive life
support, wetlands have immense socio-economic and ecological importance for mankind. They
provide suitable habitats for endangered and rare species of birds and animals. India has a wealth of
wetland ecosystems distributed in different geographical regions. These wetlands need to be
preserved.

7.5. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN RIGHTS

7.5.1. Conservation of Biodiversity in India

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is a federal legislation enacted by the Parliament of India for
preservation of biological diversity in India, and provides mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of use of traditional biological resources and knowledge.

Wildlife Conservation

Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting endangered plant and animal species and their
habitats. Among the goals of wildlife conservation are to ensure that nature will be around for future
generations to enjoy and to recognize the importance of wildlife and wilderness lands to humans.
Many nations have government agencies dedicated to wildlife conservation, which help to implement
policies designed to protect wildlife. Numerous independent non profit organizations also promote
various wildlife conservation causes.

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Environmental Impact Assessment

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible impacts that a proposed
project may have on the environment, consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts
when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact
Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying,
predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made."

Protection of the Environment as outlined in the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution guarantees justice, liberty and equality to all citizens of the country. Article
51-A (g) says that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.”

The 42nd amendment act of 1977 obligates the government to protect and improve environment for
the good of society as a whole. It also makes environmental protection an obligation of the state and
individual citizen and reads, "The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environmental and
to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country."

Article 51-A (9) states "It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures."

The Directive Principles under the Indian constitution are meant to lead towards building a welfare
state. Healthy environment is also one of the components of a welfare state. Article 47 provides that
the State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and
the improvement of public health as among its primary duties. The improvement of public health also
includes the protection and improvement of environment without which public health cannot be
assured.

Article 48 deals with organization of agriculture and animal husbandry. It directs the State to take
steps to organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines.

Article 48 -A of the constitution says that “the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country”.

The Constitution of India under part III guarantees Fundamental Rights, which are essential for the
development of citizens. Right to environment is of utmost necessity for the development of an
individual and realisation of his or her full potential. Articles 21, 14 and 19 of this part have been used
for environmental protection. Right to environment, freedom from danger of disease and infection is

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inherent in it. Right to healthy environment is an important attribute of right to live with human
dignity.

Many Acts like Biodiversity Conservation Act, Environment Protection Act, Wildlife Preservation
Act, Water Pollution Prevention Act, Air Pollution Prevention Act etc. are enacted from time to time
for environment preservation.

The National Green Tribunal was established in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010.
This has helped in the effective disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and
conservation of forests and other natural resources. It is a specialized body equipped with the
necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes.

7.5.2. Conservation of the Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is an extensive region spanning over six States. The forests, rivers, and grasslands
in the Western Ghats are home to diverse species, including rare and threatened species. It is
recognised by UNESCO as one of the world’s eight most important biodiversity hotspots. The
Western Ghats acts as a huge water tank supplying water to six states. The ecosystem here is severely
threatened due to the increasing human settlements, mining, pollution and the drop in genetic
diversity. The Western Ghats of India is facing severe threats to its ecosystem.

Madhav Gadgil Committee Report on the Western Ghats:

Gadgil Commission, an environmental research commission is named after its chairman Madhav
Gadgil. The commission is formally known as Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP). The
commission submitted the report to the Government of India on 31 August 2011.

Gadgil Committee Recommendations:

• The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire hill range as an
Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA).
• The panel, in its report, has classified the 142 taluks in the Western Ghats boundary into
Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 2 and 3.
• ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all developmental activities mainly mining and thermal
power plants was restricted in it.
• Gadgil report recommended that “no new dams based on large-scale storage be permitted in
Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1”.
• Gadgil Committee report specifies that the present system of governance of the environment
should be changed. It asked for a bottom to top approach (right from Gram sabhas) rather than
a top to bottom approach.
• It also asked for decentralization and more powers to local authorities.

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Criticisms of Madhav Gadgil Report

The major criticism faced by Gadgil Committee report was that it was not in tune with the ground
realities. The recommendations were cited as impractical to implement.

Gadgil report asked for a complete eco-sensitive cover for the Western Ghats which hamper different
states on energy and development fronts.

7.5.3. Kasturirangan Committee Report

The Kasturirangan committee report has sought to balance the two concerns of development and
environment protection. The Kasturirangan report seeks to bring just 37% of the Western Ghats under
the Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) zones — down from the 64% suggested by the Gadgil report.
Kasturirangan report on the Western Ghats has made several pro-farmer recommendations, including
the exclusion of inhabited regions and plantations from the purview of ecologically sensitive areas
(ESAs). The Kasturirangan report had said 123 villages fall under the ESA purview.

Criticisms of Kasturirangan Committee Report

• The Kasturirangan panel used remote sensing and aerial survey methods for zonal
demarcation of land in the Western Ghats. The usage of such techniques, without examining
the ground reality, has caused many errors in the report.
• The power is vested with the bureaucrats and forest officials and not with gram sabhas.
• Many fear that the farmers would get evicted if the Kasturirangan Committee report is
implemented.
7.6. Overexploitation of ground water resources, marine fisheries, sand mining etc

7.6.1. Natural Resources

It is also called over harvesting and refers to utilizing a renewable resource to the utmost possible
extent. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource. The term applies to
natural resources such as wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests,
and water aquifers.

Ecologists use the term over exploitation to describe resources that are harvested at a rate that is
unsustainable. Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinction of species. In
the context of fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing
in stock management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and
endangered species in species monitoring.

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The overuse of ground water

Groundwater is the largest source of usable, fresh water in the world. In many parts of the world,
especially where surface water supplies are not available, domestic, agricultural, and industrial water
needs can only be met by using the water beneath the ground. Sustained groundwater pumping causes
groundwater depletion.

Some of the negative effects of groundwater depletion are:

• Lowering of the Water Table

Excessive pumping can lower the groundwater table, and cause wells to no longer be able to reach
groundwater.

• Increased Costs
As the water table lowers, the water must be pumped farther to reach the surface, using more energy.

• Reduced Surface Water Supplies

Groundwater and surface water are connected. When groundwater is overused, the lakes, streams, and
rivers connected to groundwater can also have their supply diminished.

• Land Subsidence
Land subsidence occurs when there is a loss of support below ground. Overusing groundwater, leads
to the collapse of soil.

• Water Quality Concerns

Excessive pumping in coastal areas can cause saltwater to move inland and upward, resulting in
saltwater contamination of the water supply.

7.6.2. Marine life

The exponential growth in human population has lead to an overexploitation of marine living
resources to meet growing demand for food. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting,
transport and storage has accelerated this trend. The public need to be sensitised about the
conservation of the marine environment. There are many marine conservation organisations
throughout the world that focus on funding conservation efforts, educating the public and
stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policies.

Over exploitation of mineral resources resulted in many environmental problems like:

1. Conversion of productive land into mining and industrial areas.

2. Mining and extraction process are one of the sources of air, water and land pollution.

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3. Mining involves huge consumption of energy resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas which
are non renewable sources of energy.

4. Surface mining directly degrades the fertile soil surface.

7.6.3. Sand mining

Sand mining is the extraction of sand from sand dunes, beaches. Sometimes it is dredged from river
and ocean beds. The main reason is to provide sand for concrete, which due to the urbanisation and
industrialisation is in high demand. Sand has many uses. It is used to make concrete, paved roads,
ceramics and petroleum fracking. These are only some of the uses. River sand is considered to be the
best: grains of desert sand are often too rounded to serve as industrial binding agents, and marine sand
is corrosive. Today, sand has become so valuable that it is shipped enormous distances.

Illegal sand mining is a perennial problem in India. The mine owners and hoarders try to dig out as
much sand as possible, through illegal means. Excessive sand mining causes the degradation of rivers.
The depletion of sand along coastal areas and in the river beds causes the deepening of rivers and
estuaries, and the enlargement of river mouths. It may also lead to saline-water intrusion from the
nearby seas.

Case Study

Due to the efforts of The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) of the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF), and the Karnataka Forest Department, a 25 km long wildlife corridor disrupted by a
220 KVA power transmission line in Kudremukh National Park has been restored.

Based on the ecological analysis by the experts, FAC proposed a unique ‘conservation swap’ scheme
for the first time in India. They recommended that to compensate for the loss of 8.3 km wildlife
corridor value because of the power line, the Karnataka government must dismantle an existing 25 km
power transmission line passing through Kudremukh National Park, thereby restoring a corridor of
major connectivity value.

This precedent-setting order of the FAC has enabled the restoration of 25 km of lost wildlife corridor,
to compensate for the loss of a corridor one third that length.

Kudremukh National Park is recognized as the largest intact block of tropical evergreen forests in
Western Ghats, which are now known as one of 38 global biodiversity hotspots. It is an astonishing
treasure house of biological resources, and the watershed of Tunga, Bhadra and Nethravathi rivers. A
proposed tiger reserve, Kudremukh is home to many endangered species like the tiger, elephants, lion-
tailed macaques, king cobra and great Indian hornbills.

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The FAC decision not only prioritized the core conservation objective, but also met the development
imperatives as Karnataka faces a severe power crunch, and the fact that over Rs 2,000 crore have
already been invested in the power plant.

QUESTIONS

Part A(2 Marks)

1. What do you mean by Human Rights?

2. What is Collective-developmental generations of human right?
3. Name 4 UN office Systems that protect human rights.
4. Write the role “Human Rights Up Front Initiative”.
5. Write a note on UNICEF.
6. What is UDHR?
7. What you mean by Fundamental Rights?
8. List out 6 fundamental human rights.
9. Explain Right to equality.
10. Why is World Environment day celebrated?
11. What is Industrial Pollution?
12. Define Environmental Rights.
13. What are substantive rights?
14. What are procedural rights?
15. Write any 3 disadvantages of nuclear power generation.

Part B (5 marks)

16. Explain the three generations of human rights .

17. Briefly write functions of UNSECO and UNICEF.
18. What is ILO and write its functions?
19. Write a note on WHO.
20. Write about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
21. Discuss on “Declarations for Women and Children”.
22. Write constitutional privileges for Women and Children.
23. Write constitutional privileges for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes.
24. What are the causes of industrial pollution?
25. How is chemical energy utilized?
26. How is nuclear energy produced?

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27. What are the different steps of waste management?
28. Why is the conservation of wetlands important?
29. What are the provisions in the Indian Constitution to protect the environment?

Part C (15 marks)

30. Discuss the constitutional provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other
marginalised groups.

31. Discuss the Fundamental Rights guaranteed in our Indian Constitution.

32. Briefly write various UN agencies that stand for humanist missions.

33. Outline the causes of industrial pollution and the measures to be taken to control it.

34. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using (i) nuclear energy (ii) chemical energy?

35. Briefly outline the reports of Gadgil and Kasturirangan regarding the conservation of the
Western Ghats.

36. Write explanatory notes on (i) Environment and Human rights (ii) Rights for women and
children in India.

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